Sensors

2771 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Fast Strategy for Determination of Vitamin B₉ in Food and Pharmaceutical Samples Using an Ionic Liquid-Modified Nanostructure Voltammetric Sensor

by Fatemeh Khaleghi, Abolfazl Elyasi Irai, Roya Sadeghi, Vinod Kumar Gupta and Yangping Wen

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 747; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060747 - 24 May 2016

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 6216

Abstract

Vitamin B₉ or folic acid is an important food supplement with wide clinical applications. Due to its importance and its side effects in pregnant women, fast determination of this vitamin is very important. In this study we present a new fast and [...] Read more.

Vitamin B₉ or folic acid is an important food supplement with wide clinical applications. Due to its importance and its side effects in pregnant women, fast determination of this vitamin is very important. In this study we present a new fast and sensitive voltammetric sensor for the analysis of trace levels of vitamin B₉ using a carbon paste electrode (CPE) modified with 1,3-dipropylimidazolium bromide (1,3-DIBr) as a binder and ZnO/CNTs nanocomposite as a mediator. The electro-oxidation signal of vitamin B₉ at the surface of the 1,3-DIBr/ZnO/CNTs/CPE electrode appeared at 800 mV, which was about 95 mV less positive compared to the corresponding unmodified CPE. The oxidation current of vitamin B₉ by square wave voltammetry (SWV) increased linearly with its concentration in the range of 0.08–650 μM. The detection limit for vitamin B₉ was 0.05 μM. Finally, the utility of the new 1,3-DIBr/ZnO/CNTs/CPE electrode was tested in the determination of vitamin B₉ in food and pharmaceutical samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ionic Liquids)

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6171 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimal Magnetic Sensor Vests for Cardiac Source Imaging

by Stephan Lau, Bojana Petković and Jens Haueisen

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 754; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060754 - 24 May 2016

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6936

Abstract

Magnetocardiography (MCG) non-invasively provides functional information about the heart. New room-temperature magnetic field sensors, specifically magnetoresistive and optically pumped magnetometers, have reached sensitivities in the ultra-low range of cardiac fields while allowing for free placement around the human torso. Our aim is to [...] Read more.

Magnetocardiography (MCG) non-invasively provides functional information about the heart. New room-temperature magnetic field sensors, specifically magnetoresistive and optically pumped magnetometers, have reached sensitivities in the ultra-low range of cardiac fields while allowing for free placement around the human torso. Our aim is to optimize positions and orientations of such magnetic sensors in a vest-like arrangement for robust reconstruction of the electric current distributions in the heart. We optimized a set of 32 sensors on the surface of a torso model with respect to a 13-dipole cardiac source model under noise-free conditions. The reconstruction robustness was estimated by the condition of the lead field matrix. Optimization improved the condition of the lead field matrix by approximately two orders of magnitude compared to a regular array at the front of the torso. Optimized setups exhibited distributions of sensors over the whole torso with denser sampling above the heart at the front and back of the torso. Sensors close to the heart were arranged predominantly tangential to the body surface. The optimized sensor setup could facilitate the definition of a standard for sensor placement in MCG and the development of a wearable MCG vest for clinical diagnostics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetoresistive Sensors under Extreme Conditions)

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6636 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Highly Reliable and Cost-Efficient Multi-Sensor System for Land Vehicle Positioning

by Xu Li, Qimin Xu, Bin Li and Xianghui Song

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 755; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060755 - 25 May 2016

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 6050

Abstract

In this paper, we propose a novel positioning solution for land vehicles which is highly reliable and cost-efficient. The proposed positioning system fuses information from the MEMS-based reduced inertial sensor system (RISS) which consists of one vertical gyroscope and two horizontal accelerometers, low-cost [...] Read more.

In this paper, we propose a novel positioning solution for land vehicles which is highly reliable and cost-efficient. The proposed positioning system fuses information from the MEMS-based reduced inertial sensor system (RISS) which consists of one vertical gyroscope and two horizontal accelerometers, low-cost GPS, and supplementary sensors and sources. First, pitch and roll angle are accurately estimated based on a vehicle kinematic model. Meanwhile, the negative effect of the uncertain nonlinear drift of MEMS inertial sensors is eliminated by an H∞ filter. Further, a distributed-dual-H∞ filtering (DDHF) mechanism is adopted to address the uncertain nonlinear drift of the MEMS-RISS and make full use of the supplementary sensors and sources. The DDHF is composed of a main H∞ filter (MHF) and an auxiliary H∞ filter (AHF). Finally, a generalized regression neural network (GRNN) module with good approximation capability is specially designed for the MEMS-RISS. A hybrid methodology which combines the GRNN module and the AHF is utilized to compensate for RISS position errors during GPS outages. To verify the effectiveness of the proposed solution, road-test experiments with various scenarios were performed. The experimental results illustrate that the proposed system can achieve accurate and reliable positioning for land vehicles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Autonomous Road Vehicles)

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5867 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sensitive Adsorptive Voltammetric Method for Determination of Bisphenol A by Gold Nanoparticle/Polyvinylpyrrolidone-Modified Pencil Graphite Electrode

by Yesim Tugce Yaman and Serdar Abaci

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 756; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060756 - 25 May 2016

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 8287

Abstract

A novel electrochemical sensor gold nanoparticle (AuNP)/polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) modified pencil graphite electrode (PGE) was developed for the ultrasensitive determination of Bisphenol A (BPA). The gold nanoparticles were electrodeposited by constant potential electrolysis and PVP was attached by passive adsorption onto the electrode surface. [...] Read more.

A novel electrochemical sensor gold nanoparticle (AuNP)/polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) modified pencil graphite electrode (PGE) was developed for the ultrasensitive determination of Bisphenol A (BPA). The gold nanoparticles were electrodeposited by constant potential electrolysis and PVP was attached by passive adsorption onto the electrode surface. The electrode surfaces were characterized by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The parameters that affected the experimental conditions were researched and optimized. The AuNP/PVP/PGE sensor provided high sensitivity and selectivity for BPA recognition by using square wave adsorptive stripping voltammetry (SWAdSV). Under optimized conditions, the detection limit was found to be 1.0 nM. This new sensor system offered the advantages of simple fabrication which aided the expeditious replication, low cost, fast response, high sensitivity and low background current for BPA. This new sensor system was successfully tested for the detection of the amount of BPA in bottled drinking water with high reliability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Visualized Multiprobe Electrical Impedance Measurements with STM Tips Using Shear Force Feedback Control

by Luis Botaya, Xavier Coromina, Josep Samitier, Manel Puig-Vidal and Jorge Otero

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 757; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060757 - 25 May 2016

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 7838

Abstract

Here we devise a multiprobe electrical measurement system based on quartz tuning forks (QTFs) and metallic tips capable of having full 3D control over the position of the probes. The system is based on the use of bent tungsten tips that are placed [...] Read more.

Here we devise a multiprobe electrical measurement system based on quartz tuning forks (QTFs) and metallic tips capable of having full 3D control over the position of the probes. The system is based on the use of bent tungsten tips that are placed in mechanical contact (glue-free solution) with a QTF sensor. Shear forces acting in the probe are measured to control the tip-sample distance in the Z direction. Moreover, the tilting of the tip allows the visualization of the experiment under the optical microscope, allowing the coordination of the probes in X and Y directions. Meanwhile, the metallic tips are connected to a current–voltage amplifier circuit to measure the currents and thus the impedance of the studied samples. We discuss here the different aspects that must be addressed when conducting these multiprobe experiments, such as the amplitude of oscillation, shear force distance control, and wire tilting. Different results obtained in the measurement of calibration samples and microparticles are presented. They demonstrate the feasibility of the system to measure the impedance of the samples with a full 3D control on the position of the nanotips. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Resonator Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Nonlinear-Based MEMS Sensors and Active Switches for Gas Detection

by Adam Bouchaala, Nizar Jaber, Omar Yassine, Osama Shekhah, Valeriya Chernikova, Mohamed Eddaoudi and Mohammad I. Younis

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 758; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060758 - 25 May 2016

Cited by 49 | Viewed by 8851

Abstract

The objective of this paper is to demonstrate the integration of a MOF thin film on electrostatically actuated microstructures to realize a switch triggered by gas and a sensing algorithm based on amplitude tracking. The devices are based on the nonlinear response of [...] Read more.

The objective of this paper is to demonstrate the integration of a MOF thin film on electrostatically actuated microstructures to realize a switch triggered by gas and a sensing algorithm based on amplitude tracking. The devices are based on the nonlinear response of micromachined clamped-clamped beams. The microbeams are coated with a metal-organic framework (MOF), namely HKUST-1, to achieve high sensitivity. The softening and hardening nonlinear behaviors of the microbeams are exploited to demonstrate the ideas. For gas sensing, an amplitude-based tracking algorithm is developed to quantify the captured quantity of gas. Then, a MEMS switch triggered by gas using the nonlinear response of the microbeam is demonstrated. Noise analysis is conducted, which shows that the switch has high stability against thermal noise. The proposed switch is promising for delivering binary sensing information, and also can be used directly to activate useful functionalities, such as alarming. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering)

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Open AccessArticle

Computer-Aided Sensor Development Focused on Security Issues

by Andrzej Bialas

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 759; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060759 - 26 May 2016

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 7323

Abstract

The paper examines intelligent sensor and sensor system development according to the Common Criteria methodology, which is the basic security assurance methodology for IT products and systems. The paper presents how the development process can be supported by software tools, design patterns and [...] Read more.

The paper examines intelligent sensor and sensor system development according to the Common Criteria methodology, which is the basic security assurance methodology for IT products and systems. The paper presents how the development process can be supported by software tools, design patterns and knowledge engineering. The automation of this process brings cost-, quality-, and time-related advantages, because the most difficult and most laborious activities are software-supported and the design reusability is growing. The paper includes a short introduction to the Common Criteria methodology and its sensor-related applications. In the experimental section the computer-supported and patterns-based IT security development process is presented using the example of an intelligent methane detection sensor. This process is supported by an ontology-based tool for security modeling and analyses. The verified and justified models are transferred straight to the security target specification representing security requirements for the IT product. The novelty of the paper is to provide a patterns-based and computer-aided methodology for the sensors development with a view to achieving their IT security assurance. The paper summarizes the validation experiment focused on this methodology adapted for the sensors system development, and presents directions of future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances on Resources Management for Multi-Platform Infrastructures)

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988 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Appropriateness of the Use of Peltier Cells as Energy Sources

by Radovan Hájovský, Martin Pieš and Lukáš Richtár

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 760; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060760 - 25 May 2016

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5146

Abstract

The article describes the possibilities of using Peltier cells as an energy source to power the telemetry units, which are used in large-scale monitoring systems as central units, ensuring the collection of data from sensors, processing, and sending to the database server. The [...] Read more.

The article describes the possibilities of using Peltier cells as an energy source to power the telemetry units, which are used in large-scale monitoring systems as central units, ensuring the collection of data from sensors, processing, and sending to the database server. The article describes the various experiments that were carried out, their progress and results. Based on experiments evaluated, the paper also discusses the possibilities of using various types depending on the temperature difference of the cold and hot sides. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermo-Electrochemical Sensors)

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1552 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synchronous OEIC Integrating Receiver for Optically Reconfigurable Gate Arrays

by Carlos Sánchez-Azqueta, Bernhard Goll, Santiago Celma and Horst Zimmermann

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 761; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060761 - 25 May 2016

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4834

Abstract

A monolithically integrated optoelectronic receiver with a low-capacitance on-chip pin photodiode is presented. The receiver is fabricated in a 0.35 μm opto-CMOS process fed at 3.3 V and due to the highly effective integrated pin photodiode it operates at μW. A regenerative latch [...] Read more.

A monolithically integrated optoelectronic receiver with a low-capacitance on-chip pin photodiode is presented. The receiver is fabricated in a 0.35 μm opto-CMOS process fed at 3.3 V and due to the highly effective integrated pin photodiode it operates at μW. A regenerative latch acting as a sense amplifier leads in addition to a low electrical power consumption. At 400 Mbit/s, sensitivities of −26.0 dBm and −25.5 dBm are achieved, respectively, for λ = 635 nm and λ = 675 nm (BER = 10⁻⁹ ) with an energy efficiency of 2 pJ/bit. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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1568 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy-Efficient Collaborative Outdoor Localization for Participatory Sensing

by Wendong Wang, Teng Xi, Edith C.-H. Ngai and Zheng Song

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 762; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060762 - 25 May 2016

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4754

Abstract

Location information is a key element of participatory sensing. Many mobile and sensing applications require location information to provide better recommendations, object search and trip planning. However, continuous GPS positioning consumes much energy, which may drain the battery of mobile devices quickly. Although [...] Read more.

Location information is a key element of participatory sensing. Many mobile and sensing applications require location information to provide better recommendations, object search and trip planning. However, continuous GPS positioning consumes much energy, which may drain the battery of mobile devices quickly. Although WiFi and cell tower positioning are alternatives, they provide lower accuracy compared to GPS. This paper solves the above problem by proposing a novel localization scheme through the collaboration of multiple mobile devices to reduce energy consumption and provide accurate positioning. Under our scheme, the mobile devices are divided into three groups, namely the broadcaster group, the location information receiver group and the normal participant group. Only the broadcaster group and the normal participant group use their GPS. The location information receiver group, on the other hand, makes use of the locations broadcast by the broadcaster group to estimate their locations. We formulate the broadcaster set selection problem and propose two novel algorithms to minimize the energy consumption in collaborative localization. Simulations with real traces show that our proposed solution can save up to 68% of the energy of all of the participants and provide more accurate locations than WiFi and cellular network positioning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Algorithms for Mobile Sensing: from Wireless Sensor Networks to Mobile Crowd Sensing)

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Open AccessArticle

GBAS Ionospheric Anomaly Monitoring Based on a Two-Step Approach

by Lin Zhao, Fuxin Yang, Liang Li, Jicheng Ding and Yuxin Zhao

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 763; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060763 - 26 May 2016

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4301

Abstract

As one significant component of space environmental weather, the ionosphere has to be monitored using Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers for the Ground-Based Augmentation System (GBAS). This is because an ionospheric anomaly can pose a potential threat for GBAS to support safety-critical services. [...] Read more.

As one significant component of space environmental weather, the ionosphere has to be monitored using Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers for the Ground-Based Augmentation System (GBAS). This is because an ionospheric anomaly can pose a potential threat for GBAS to support safety-critical services. The traditional code-carrier divergence (CCD) methods, which have been widely used to detect the variants of the ionospheric gradient for GBAS, adopt a linear time-invariant low-pass filter to suppress the effect of high frequency noise on the detection of the ionospheric anomaly. However, there is a counterbalance between response time and estimation accuracy due to the fixed time constants. In order to release the limitation, a two-step approach (TSA) is proposed by integrating the cascaded linear time-invariant low-pass filters with the adaptive Kalman filter to detect the ionospheric gradient anomaly. The performance of the proposed method is tested by using simulated and real-world data, respectively. The simulation results show that the TSA can detect ionospheric gradient anomalies quickly, even when the noise is severer. Compared to the traditional CCD methods, the experiments from real-world GPS data indicate that the average estimation accuracy of the ionospheric gradient improves by more than 31.3%, and the average response time to the ionospheric gradient at a rate of 0.018 m/s improves by more than 59.3%, which demonstrates the ability of TSA to detect a small ionospheric gradient more rapidly. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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7276 KiB

Open AccessArticle

X-ray Photon Counting and Two-Color X-ray Imaging Using Indirect Detection

by Bart Dierickx, Qiang Yao, Nick Witvrouwen, Dirk Uwaerts, Stijn Vandewiele and Peng Gao

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 764; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060764 - 26 May 2016

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 8493

Abstract

In this paper, we report on the design and performance of a 1 cm², 90 × 92-pixel image sensor. It is made X-ray sensitive by the use of a scintillator. Its pixels have a charge packet counting circuit topology with two [...] Read more.

In this paper, we report on the design and performance of a 1 cm², 90 × 92-pixel image sensor. It is made X-ray sensitive by the use of a scintillator. Its pixels have a charge packet counting circuit topology with two channels, each realizing a different charge packet size threshold and analog domain event counting. Here, the sensor’s performance was measured in setups representative of a medical X-ray environment. Further, two-energy-level photon counting performance is demonstrated, and its capabilities and limitations are documented. We then provide an outlook on future improvements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photon-Counting Image Sensors)

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15087 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Instantaneous Observability of Tightly Coupled SINS/GPS during Maneuvers

by Junxiang Jiang, Fei Yu, Haiyu Lan and Qianhui Dong

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 765; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060765 - 27 May 2016

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4524

Abstract

The tightly coupled strapdown inertial navigation system (SINS)/global position system (GPS) has been widely used. The system observability determines whether the system state can be estimated by a filter efficiently or not. In this paper, the observability analysis of a two-channel and a [...] Read more.

The tightly coupled strapdown inertial navigation system (SINS)/global position system (GPS) has been widely used. The system observability determines whether the system state can be estimated by a filter efficiently or not. In this paper, the observability analysis of a two-channel and a three-channel tightly coupled SINS/GPS are performed, respectively, during arbitrary translational maneuvers and angle maneuvers, where the translational maneuver and angle maneuver are modeled. A novel instantaneous observability matrix (IOM) based on a reconstructed psi-angle model is proposed to make the theoretical analysis simpler, which starts from the observability definition directly. Based on the IOM, a series of theoretical analysis are performed. Analysis results show that almost all kinds of translational maneuver and angle maneuver can make a three-channel system instantaneously observable, but there is no one translational maneuver or angle maneuver can make a two-channel system instantaneously observable. The system’s performance is investigated when the system is not instantaneously observable. A series of simulation studies based on EKF are performed to confirm the analytic conclusions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inertial Sensors and Systems 2016)

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5097 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving Kinematic Accuracy of Soft Wearable Data Gloves by Optimizing Sensor Locations

by Dong Hyun Kim, Sang Wook Lee and Hyung-Soon Park

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 766; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060766 - 26 May 2016

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 6917

Abstract

Bending sensors enable compact, wearable designs when used for measuring hand configurations in data gloves. While existing data gloves can accurately measure angular displacement of the finger and distal thumb joints, accurate measurement of thumb carpometacarpal (CMC) joint movements remains challenging due to [...] Read more.

Bending sensors enable compact, wearable designs when used for measuring hand configurations in data gloves. While existing data gloves can accurately measure angular displacement of the finger and distal thumb joints, accurate measurement of thumb carpometacarpal (CMC) joint movements remains challenging due to crosstalk between the multi-sensor outputs required to measure the degrees of freedom (DOF). To properly measure CMC-joint configurations, sensor locations that minimize sensor crosstalk must be identified. This paper presents a novel approach to identifying optimal sensor locations. Three-dimensional hand surface data from ten subjects was collected in multiple thumb postures with varied CMC-joint flexion and abduction angles. For each posture, scanned CMC-joint contours were used to estimate CMC-joint flexion and abduction angles by varying the positions and orientations of two bending sensors. Optimal sensor locations were estimated by the least squares method, which minimized the difference between the true CMC-joint angles and the joint angle estimates. Finally, the resultant optimal sensor locations were experimentally validated. Placing sensors at the optimal locations, CMC-joint angle measurement accuracies improved (flexion, 2.8° ± 1.9°; abduction, 1.9° ± 1.2°). The proposed method for improving the accuracy of the sensing system can be extended to other types of soft wearable measurement devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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2590 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Micro-Platinum Wire Biosensor for Fast and Selective Detection of Alanine Aminotransferase

by Tran Nguyen Thanh Thuy and Tina T.-C. Tseng

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 767; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060767 - 26 May 2016

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 7271

Abstract

In this study, a miniaturized biosensor based on permselective polymer layers (overoxidized polypyrrole (Ppy) and Nafion^®) modified and enzyme (glutamate oxidase (GlutOx)) immobilized micro-platinum wire electrode for the detection of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) was fabricated. The proposed ALT biosensor was measured [...] Read more.

In this study, a miniaturized biosensor based on permselective polymer layers (overoxidized polypyrrole (Ppy) and Nafion^®) modified and enzyme (glutamate oxidase (GlutOx)) immobilized micro-platinum wire electrode for the detection of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) was fabricated. The proposed ALT biosensor was measured electrochemically by constant potential amperometry at +0.7 V vs. Ag/AgCl. The ALT biosensor provides fast response time (~5 s) and superior selectivity towards ALT against both negatively and positively charged species (e.g., ascorbic acid (AA) and dopamine (DA), respectively). The detection range of the ALT biosensor is found to be 10–900 U/L which covers the range of normal ALT levels presented in the serum and the detection limit and sensitivity are found to be 8.48 U/L and 0.059 nA/(U/L·mm²) (N = 10), respectively. We also found that one-day storage of the ALT biosensor at −20 °C right after the sensor being fabricated can enhance the sensor sensitivity (1.74 times higher than that of the sensor stored at 4 °C). The ALT biosensor is stable after eight weeks of storage at −20 °C. The sensor was tested in spiked ALT samples (ALT activities: 20, 200, 400, and 900 U/L) and reasonable recoveries (70%~107%) were obtained. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Amperometric Biosensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Development of a Tonometric Sensor with a Decoupled Circular Array for Precisely Measuring Radial Artery Pulse

by Min-Ho Jun, Young-Min Kim, Jang-Han Bae, Chang Jin Jung, Jung-Hee Cho and Young Ju Jeon

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 768; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060768 - 26 May 2016

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6700

Abstract

The radial artery pulse is one of the major diagnostic indices used clinically in both Eastern and Western medicine. One of the prominent methods for measuring the radial artery pulse is the piezoresistive sensor array. Independence among channels and an appropriate sensor arrangement [...] Read more.

The radial artery pulse is one of the major diagnostic indices used clinically in both Eastern and Western medicine. One of the prominent methods for measuring the radial artery pulse is the piezoresistive sensor array. Independence among channels and an appropriate sensor arrangement are important for effectively assessing the spatial-temporal information of the pulse. This study developed a circular-type seven-channel piezoresistive sensor array using face-down bonding (FDB) as one of the sensor combination methods. The three-layered housing structure that included independent pressure sensor units using the FDB method not only enabled elimination of the crosstalk among channels, but also allowed various array patterns to be created for effective pulse measurement. The sensors were arranged in a circular-type arrangement such that they could estimate the direction of the radial artery and precisely measure the pulse wave. The performance of the fabricated sensor array was validated by evaluating the sensor sensitivity per channel, and the possibility of estimating the blood vessel direction was demonstrated through a radial artery pulse simulator. We expect the proposed sensor to allow accurate extraction of the pulse indices for pulse diagnosis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Defining Requirements and Related Methods for Designing Sensorized Garments

by Giuseppe Andreoni, Carlo Emilio Standoli and Paolo Perego

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 769; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060769 - 26 May 2016

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 11387

Abstract

Designing smart garments has strong interdisciplinary implications, specifically related to user and technical requirements, but also because of the very different applications they have: medicine, sport and fitness, lifestyle monitoring, workplace and job conditions analysis, etc. This paper aims to discuss some user, [...] Read more.

Designing smart garments has strong interdisciplinary implications, specifically related to user and technical requirements, but also because of the very different applications they have: medicine, sport and fitness, lifestyle monitoring, workplace and job conditions analysis, etc. This paper aims to discuss some user, textile, and technical issues to be faced in sensorized clothes development. In relation to the user, the main requirements are anthropometric, gender-related, and aesthetical. In terms of these requirements, the user’s age, the target application, and fashion trends cannot be ignored, because they determine the compliance with the wearable system. Regarding textile requirements, functional factors—also influencing user comfort—are elasticity and washability, while more technical properties are the stability of the chemical agents’ effects for preserving the sensors’ efficacy and reliability, and assuring the proper duration of the product for the complete life cycle. From the technical side, the physiological issues are the most important: skin conductance, tolerance, irritation, and the effect of sweat and perspiration are key factors for reliable sensing. Other technical features such as battery size and duration, and the form factor of the sensor collector, should be considered, as they affect aesthetical requirements, which have proven to be crucial, as well as comfort and wearability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 2nd International Electronic Conference on Sensors and Applications)

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Open AccessArticle

Real-Time Monitoring System for a Utility-Scale Photovoltaic Power Plant

by Isabel M. Moreno-Garcia, Emilio J. Palacios-Garcia, Victor Pallares-Lopez, Isabel Santiago, Miguel J. Gonzalez-Redondo, Marta Varo-Martinez and Rafael J. Real-Calvo

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 770; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060770 - 26 May 2016

Cited by 63 | Viewed by 12795

Abstract

There is, at present, considerable interest in the storage and dispatchability of photovoltaic (PV) energy, together with the need to manage power flows in real-time. This paper presents a new system, PV-on time, which has been developed to supervise the operating mode [...] Read more.

There is, at present, considerable interest in the storage and dispatchability of photovoltaic (PV) energy, together with the need to manage power flows in real-time. This paper presents a new system, PV-on time, which has been developed to supervise the operating mode of a Grid-Connected Utility-Scale PV Power Plant in order to ensure the reliability and continuity of its supply. This system presents an architecture of acquisition devices, including wireless sensors distributed around the plant, which measure the required information. It is also equipped with a high-precision protocol for synchronizing all data acquisition equipment, something that is necessary for correctly establishing relationships among events in the plant. Moreover, a system for monitoring and supervising all of the distributed devices, as well as for the real-time treatment of all the registered information, is presented. Performances were analyzed in a 400 kW transformation center belonging to a 6.1 MW Utility-Scale PV Power Plant. In addition to monitoring the performance of all of the PV plant’s components and detecting any failures or deviations in production, this system enables users to control the power quality of the signal injected and the influence of the installation on the distribution grid. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Real-Time and Cyber-Physical Systems)

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Open AccessArticle

Embedded Implementation of VHR Satellite Image Segmentation

by Chao Li, Souleymane Balla-Arabé, Dominique Ginhac and Fan Yang

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 771; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060771 - 27 May 2016

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4715

Abstract

Processing and analysis of Very High Resolution (VHR) satellite images provide a mass of crucial information, which can be used for urban planning, security issues or environmental monitoring. However, they are computationally expensive and, thus, time consuming, while some of the applications, such [...] Read more.

Processing and analysis of Very High Resolution (VHR) satellite images provide a mass of crucial information, which can be used for urban planning, security issues or environmental monitoring. However, they are computationally expensive and, thus, time consuming, while some of the applications, such as natural disaster monitoring and prevention, require high efficiency performance. Fortunately, parallel computing techniques and embedded systems have made great progress in recent years, and a series of massively parallel image processing devices, such as digital signal processors or Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs), have been made available to engineers at a very convenient price and demonstrate significant advantages in terms of running-cost, embeddability, power consumption flexibility, etc. In this work, we designed a texture region segmentation method for very high resolution satellite images by using the level set algorithm and the multi-kernel theory in a high-abstraction C environment and realize its register-transfer level implementation with the help of a new proposed high-level synthesis-based design flow. The evaluation experiments demonstrate that the proposed design can produce high quality image segmentation with a significant running-cost advantage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of a Wobbling Method Applied to Correcting Defective Pixels of CZT Detectors in SPECT Imaging

by Zhaoheng Xie, Suying Li, Kun Yang, Baixuan Xu and Qiushi Ren

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 772; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060772 - 27 May 2016

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5455

Abstract

In this paper, we propose a wobbling method to correct bad pixels in cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) detectors, using information of related images. We build up an automated device that realizes the wobbling correction for small animal Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) [...] Read more.

In this paper, we propose a wobbling method to correct bad pixels in cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) detectors, using information of related images. We build up an automated device that realizes the wobbling correction for small animal Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) imaging. The wobbling correction method is applied to various constellations of defective pixels. The corrected images are compared with the results of conventional interpolation method, and the correction effectiveness is evaluated quantitatively using the factor of peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR) and structural similarity (SSIM). In summary, the proposed wobbling method, equipped with the automatic mechanical system, provides a better image quality for correcting defective pixels, which could be used for all pixelated detectors for molecular imaging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Imaging: Sensors and Technologies)

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Open AccessArticle

Molecular Spectrum Capture by Tuning the Chemical Potential of Graphene

by Yue Cheng, Jingjing Yang, Qiannan Lu, Hao Tang and Ming Huang

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 773; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060773 - 27 May 2016

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5055

Abstract

Due to its adjustable electronic properties and effective excitation of surface plasmons in the infrared and terahertz frequency range, research on graphene has attracted a great deal of attention. Here, we demonstrate that plasmon modes in graphene-coated dielectric nanowire (GNW) waveguides can be [...] Read more.

Due to its adjustable electronic properties and effective excitation of surface plasmons in the infrared and terahertz frequency range, research on graphene has attracted a great deal of attention. Here, we demonstrate that plasmon modes in graphene-coated dielectric nanowire (GNW) waveguides can be excited by a monolayer graphene ribbon. What is more the transverse resonant frequency spectrum of the GNW can be flexibly tuned by adjusting the chemical potential of graphene, and amplitude of the resonance peak varies linearly with the imaginary part of the analyte permittivity. As a consequence, the GNW works as a probe for capturing the molecular spectrum. Broadband sensing of toluene, ethanol and sulfurous anhydride thin layers is demonstrated by calculating the changes in spectral intensity of the propagating mode and the results show that the intensity spectra correspond exactly to the infrared spectra of these molecules. This may open an effective avenue to design sensors for detecting nanometric-size molecules in the terahertz and infrared regimes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue SPR, WGM & Nano-Sensors: Advantages and Prospects)

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Open AccessArticle

New Quality Control Algorithm Based on GNSS Sensing Data for a Bridge Health Monitoring System

by Jae Kang Lee, Jae One Lee and Jung Ok Kim

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 774; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060774 - 27 May 2016

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5472

Abstract

This research introduces an improvement plan for the reliability of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) positioning solutions. It should be considered the most suitable methodology in terms of the adjustment and positioning of GNSS in order to maximize the utilization of GNSS applications. [...] Read more.

This research introduces an improvement plan for the reliability of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) positioning solutions. It should be considered the most suitable methodology in terms of the adjustment and positioning of GNSS in order to maximize the utilization of GNSS applications. Though various studies have been conducted with regards to Bridge Health Monitoring System (BHMS) based on GNSS, the outliers which depend on the signal reception environment could not be considered until now. Since these outliers may be connected to GNSS data collected from major bridge members, which can reduce the reliability of a whole monitoring system through the delivery of false information, they should be detected and eliminated in the previous adjustment stage. In this investigation, the Detection, Identification, Adaptation (DIA) technique was applied and implemented through an algorithm. Moreover, it can be directly applied to GNSS data collected from long span cable stayed bridges and most of outliers were efficiently detected and eliminated simultaneously. By these effects, the reliability of GNSS should be enormously improved. Improvement on GNSS positioning accuracy is directly linked to the safety of bridges itself, and at the same time, the reliability of monitoring systems in terms of the system operation can also be increased. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

An Automated Comparative Observation System for Sun-Induced Chlorophyll Fluorescence of Vegetation Canopies

by Xijia Zhou, Zhigang Liu, Shan Xu, Weiwei Zhang and Jun Wu

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 775; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060775 - 27 May 2016

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4574

Abstract

Detecting sun-induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF) offers a new approach for remote sensing photosynthesis. However, to analyse the response characteristics of SIF under different stress states, a long-term time-series comparative observation of vegetation under different stress states must be carried out at the canopy [...] Read more.

Detecting sun-induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF) offers a new approach for remote sensing photosynthesis. However, to analyse the response characteristics of SIF under different stress states, a long-term time-series comparative observation of vegetation under different stress states must be carried out at the canopy scale, such that the similarities and differences in SIF change law can be summarized under different time scales. A continuous comparative observation system for vegetation canopy SIF is designed in this study. The system, which is based on a high-resolution spectrometer and an optical multiplexer, can achieve comparative observation of multiple targets. To simultaneously measure the commonly used vegetation index and SIF in the O₂-A and O₂-B atmospheric absorption bands, the following parameters are used: a spectral range of 475.9 to 862.2 nm, a spectral resolution of approximately 0.9 nm, a spectral sampling interval of approximately 0.4 nm, and the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) can be as high as 1000:1. To obtain data for both the upward radiance of the vegetation canopy and downward irradiance data with a high SNR in relatively short time intervals, the single-step integration time optimization algorithm is proposed. To optimize the extraction accuracy of SIF, the FluorMOD model is used to simulate sets of data according to the spectral resolution, spectral sampling interval and SNR of the spectrometer in this continuous observation system. These data sets are used to determine the best parameters of Fraunhofer Line Depth (FLD), Three FLD (3FLD) and the spectral fitting method (SFM), and 3FLD and SFM are confirmed to be suitable for extracting SIF from the spectral measurements. This system has been used to observe the SIF values in O₂-A and O₂-B absorption bands and some commonly used vegetation index from sweet potato and bare land, the result of which shows: (1) the daily variation trend of SIF value of sweet potato leaves is basically same as that of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR); and (2) the bare land is a non-fluorescent emitter, the SIF of which is significantly smaller than that of sweet potato; and (3) analysis result based on the measured data is basically same as that based on simulated data. The above results verified the reliability of the SIF extracted from the measured data and the feasibility of comparatively observing the SIF value and the commonly used vegetation index of multiple vegetation canopy with this continuous observation system. This approach is beneficial for comprehensively analysing the stress response characteristics of vegetation canopies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Reputation and Reward: Two Sides of the Same Bitcoin

by Sergi Delgado-Segura, Cristian Tanas and Jordi Herrera-Joancomartí

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 776; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060776 - 27 May 2016

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 7588

Abstract

In Mobile Crowd Sensing (MCS), the power of the crowd, jointly with the sensing capabilities of the smartphones they wear, provides a new paradigm for data sensing. Scenarios involving user behavior or those that rely on user mobility are examples where standard sensor [...] Read more.

In Mobile Crowd Sensing (MCS), the power of the crowd, jointly with the sensing capabilities of the smartphones they wear, provides a new paradigm for data sensing. Scenarios involving user behavior or those that rely on user mobility are examples where standard sensor networks may not be suitable, and MCS provides an interesting solution. However, including human participation in sensing tasks presents numerous and unique research challenges. In this paper, we analyze three of the most important: user participation, data sensing quality and user anonymity. We tackle the three as a whole, since all of them are strongly correlated. As a result, we present PaySense, a general framework that incentivizes user participation and provides a mechanism to validate the quality of collected data based on the users’ reputation. All such features are performed in a privacy-preserving way by using the Bitcoin cryptocurrency. Rather than a theoretical one, our framework has been implemented, and it is ready to be deployed and complement any existing MCS system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy in Sensor Networks)

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Open AccessArticle

Monitoring Pre-Stressed Composites Using Optical Fibre Sensors

by Sriram Krishnamurthy, Rodney A. Badcock, Venkata R. Machavaram and Gerard F. Fernando

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 777; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060777 - 28 May 2016

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 7063

Abstract

Residual stresses in fibre reinforced composites can give rise to a number of undesired effects such as loss of dimensional stability and premature fracture. Hence, there is significant merit in developing processing techniques to mitigate the development of residual stresses. However, tracking and [...] Read more.

Residual stresses in fibre reinforced composites can give rise to a number of undesired effects such as loss of dimensional stability and premature fracture. Hence, there is significant merit in developing processing techniques to mitigate the development of residual stresses. However, tracking and quantifying the development of these fabrication-induced stresses in real-time using conventional non-destructive techniques is not straightforward. This article reports on the design and evaluation of a technique for manufacturing pre-stressed composite panels from unidirectional E-glass/epoxy prepregs. Here, the magnitude of the applied pre-stress was monitored using an integrated load-cell. The pre-stressing rig was based on a flat-bed design which enabled autoclave-based processing. A method was developed to end-tab the laminated prepregs prior to pre-stressing. The development of process-induced residual strain was monitored in-situ using embedded optical fibre sensors. Surface-mounted electrical resistance strain gauges were used to measure the strain when the composite was unloaded from the pre-stressing rig at room temperature. Four pre-stress levels were applied prior to processing the laminated preforms in an autoclave. The results showed that the application of a pre-stress of 108 MPa to a unidirectional [0]₁₆ E-glass/913 epoxy preform, reduced the residual strain in the composite from −600 µε (conventional processing without pre-stress) to approximately zero. A good correlation was observed between the data obtained from the surface-mounted electrical resistance strain gauge and the embedded optical fibre sensors. In addition to “neutralising” the residual stresses, superior axial orientation of the reinforcement can be obtained from pre-stressed composites. A subsequent publication will highlight the consequences of pres-stressing on fibre alignment, the tensile, flexural, compressive and fatigue performance of unidirectional E-glass composites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Structural Health Monitoring in Polymeric Composites)

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Open AccessArticle

Towards a Multifunctional Electrochemical Sensing and Niosome Generation Lab-on-Chip Platform Based on a Plug-and-Play Concept

by Adnane Kara, Camille Rouillard, Jessy Mathault, Martin Boisvert, Frédéric Tessier, Hamza Landari, Imene Melki, Myriam Laprise-Pelletier, Elodie Boisselier, Marc-André Fortin, Eric Boilard, Jesse Greener and Amine Miled

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 778; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060778 - 28 May 2016

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 7732

Abstract

In this paper, we present a new modular lab on a chip design for multimodal neurotransmitter (NT) sensing and niosome generation based on a plug-and-play concept. This architecture is a first step toward an automated platform for an automated modulation of neurotransmitter concentration [...] Read more.

In this paper, we present a new modular lab on a chip design for multimodal neurotransmitter (NT) sensing and niosome generation based on a plug-and-play concept. This architecture is a first step toward an automated platform for an automated modulation of neurotransmitter concentration to understand and/or treat neurodegenerative diseases. A modular approach has been adopted in order to handle measurement or drug delivery or both measurement and drug delivery simultaneously. The system is composed of three fully independent modules: three-channel peristaltic micropumping system, a three-channel potentiostat and a multi-unit microfluidic system composed of pseudo-Y and cross-shape channels containing a miniature electrode array. The system was wirelessly controlled by a computer interface. The system is compact, with all the microfluidic and sensing components packaged in a 5 cm × 4 cm × 4 cm box. Applied to serotonin, a linear calibration curve down to 0.125 mM, with a limit of detection of 31

μ

M was collected at unfunctionalized electrodes. Added sensitivity and selectivity was achieved by incorporating functionalized electrodes for dopamine sensing. Electrode functionalization was achieved with gold nanoparticles and using DNA and o-phenylene diamine polymer. The as-configured platform is demonstrated as a central component toward an “intelligent” drug delivery system based on a feedback loop to monitor drug delivery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microfluidics-Based Microsystem Integration Research)

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Open AccessArticle

Precise Point Positioning Using Triple GNSS Constellations in Various Modes

by Akram Afifi and Ahmed El-Rabbany

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 779; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060779 - 28 May 2016

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5254

Abstract

This paper introduces a new dual-frequency precise point positioning (PPP) model, which combines the observations from three different global navigation satellite system (GNSS) constellations, namely GPS, Galileo, and BeiDou. Combining measurements from different GNSS systems introduces additional biases, including inter-system bias and hardware [...] Read more.

This paper introduces a new dual-frequency precise point positioning (PPP) model, which combines the observations from three different global navigation satellite system (GNSS) constellations, namely GPS, Galileo, and BeiDou. Combining measurements from different GNSS systems introduces additional biases, including inter-system bias and hardware delays, which require rigorous modelling. Our model is based on the un-differenced and between-satellite single-difference (BSSD) linear combinations. BSSD linear combination cancels out some receiver-related biases, including receiver clock error and non-zero initial phase bias of the receiver oscillator. Forming the BSSD linear combination requires a reference satellite, which can be selected from any of the GPS, Galileo, and BeiDou systems. In this paper three BSSD scenarios are tested; each considers a reference satellite from a different GNSS constellation. Natural Resources Canada’s GPSPace PPP software is modified to enable a combined GPS, Galileo, and BeiDou PPP solution and to handle the newly introduced biases. A total of four data sets collected at four different IGS stations are processed to verify the developed PPP model. Precise satellite orbit and clock products from the International GNSS Service Multi-GNSS Experiment (IGS-MGEX) network are used to correct the GPS, Galileo, and BeiDou measurements in the post-processing PPP mode. A real-time PPP solution is also obtained, which is referred to as RT-PPP in the sequel, through the use of the IGS real-time service (RTS) for satellite orbit and clock corrections. However, only GPS and Galileo observations are used for the RT-PPP solution, as the RTS-IGS satellite products are not presently available for BeiDou system. All post-processed and real-time PPP solutions are compared with the traditional un-differenced GPS-only counterparts. It is shown that combining the GPS, Galileo, and BeiDou observations in the post-processing mode improves the PPP convergence time by 25% compared with the GPS-only counterpart, regardless of the linear combination used. The use of BSSD linear combination improves the precision of the estimated positioning parameters by about 25% in comparison with the GPS-only PPP solution. Additionally, the solution convergence time is reduced to 10 minutes for the BSSD model, which represents about 50% reduction, in comparison with the GPS-only PPP solution. The GNSS RT-PPP solution, on the other hand, shows a similar convergence time and precision to the GPS-only counterpart. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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Open AccessReview

Enzyme Biosensors for Biomedical Applications: Strategies for Safeguarding Analytical Performances in Biological Fluids

by Gaia Rocchitta, Angela Spanu, Sergio Babudieri, Gavinella Latte, Giordano Madeddu, Grazia Galleri, Susanna Nuvoli, Paola Bagella, Maria Ilaria Demartis, Vito Fiore, Roberto Manetti and Pier Andrea Serra

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 780; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060780 - 30 May 2016

Cited by 370 | Viewed by 21514

Abstract

Enzyme-based chemical biosensors are based on biological recognition. In order to operate, the enzymes must be available to catalyze a specific biochemical reaction and be stable under the normal operating conditions of the biosensor. Design of biosensors is based on knowledge about the [...] Read more.

Enzyme-based chemical biosensors are based on biological recognition. In order to operate, the enzymes must be available to catalyze a specific biochemical reaction and be stable under the normal operating conditions of the biosensor. Design of biosensors is based on knowledge about the target analyte, as well as the complexity of the matrix in which the analyte has to be quantified. This article reviews the problems resulting from the interaction of enzyme-based amperometric biosensors with complex biological matrices containing the target analyte(s). One of the most challenging disadvantages of amperometric enzyme-based biosensor detection is signal reduction from fouling agents and interference from chemicals present in the sample matrix. This article, therefore, investigates the principles of functioning of enzymatic biosensors, their analytical performance over time and the strategies used to optimize their performance. Moreover, the composition of biological fluids as a function of their interaction with biosensing will be presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbial and Enzymatic Biosensors)

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Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Abazari, A.M., et al. Modelling the Size Effects on the Mechanical Properties of Micro/Nano Structures. Sensors 2015, 15, 28543–28562

by Amir Musa Abazari, Seyed Mohsen Safavi, Ghader Rezazadeh and Luis Guillermo Villanueva

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 781; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060781 - 27 May 2016

Viewed by 3691

Abstract

The authors wish to make the following correction to this paper [1]: The article type should be changed from “Review” into “Article”.[...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanomechanics for Sensing and Spectrometry)

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Open AccessArticle

A Linked List-Based Algorithm for Blob Detection on Embedded Vision-Based Sensors

by Ricardo Acevedo-Avila, Miguel Gonzalez-Mendoza and Andres Garcia-Garcia

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 782; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060782 - 28 May 2016

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 11451

Abstract

Blob detection is a common task in vision-based applications. Most existing algorithms are aimed at execution on general purpose computers; while very few can be adapted to the computing restrictions present in embedded platforms. This paper focuses on the design of an algorithm [...] Read more.

Blob detection is a common task in vision-based applications. Most existing algorithms are aimed at execution on general purpose computers; while very few can be adapted to the computing restrictions present in embedded platforms. This paper focuses on the design of an algorithm capable of real-time blob detection that minimizes system memory consumption. The proposed algorithm detects objects in one image scan; it is based on a linked-list data structure tree used to label blobs depending on their shape and node information. An example application showing the results of a blob detection co-processor has been built on a low-powered field programmable gate array hardware as a step towards developing a smart video surveillance system. The detection method is intended for general purpose application. As such, several test cases focused on character recognition are also examined. The results obtained present a fair trade-off between accuracy and memory requirements; and prove the validity of the proposed approach for real-time implementation on resource-constrained computing platforms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Artificial Intelligence: Selected Papers from MICAI 2013, 2014 and 2015—12th, 13th and 14th Mexican International Conferences on Artificial Intelligence)

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Open AccessArticle

VLC-Based Positioning System for an Indoor Environment Using an Image Sensor and an Accelerometer Sensor

by Phat Huynh and Myungsik Yoo

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 783; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060783 - 28 May 2016

Cited by 76 | Viewed by 10370

Abstract

Recently, it is believed that lighting and communication technologies are being replaced by high power LEDs, which are core parts of the visible light communication (VLC) system. In this paper, by taking advantages of VLC, we propose a novel design for an indoor [...] Read more.

Recently, it is believed that lighting and communication technologies are being replaced by high power LEDs, which are core parts of the visible light communication (VLC) system. In this paper, by taking advantages of VLC, we propose a novel design for an indoor positioning system using LEDs, an image sensor (IS) and an accelerometer sensor (AS) from mobile devices. The proposed algorithm, which provides a high precision indoor position, consists of four LEDs mounted on the ceiling transmitting their own three-dimensional (3D) world coordinates and an IS at an unknown position receiving and demodulating the signals. Based on the 3D world coordinates and the 2D image coordinate of LEDs, the position of the mobile device is determined. Compared to existing algorithms, the proposed algorithm only requires one IS. In addition, by using an AS, the mobile device is allowed to have arbitrary orientation. Last but not least, a mechanism for reducing the image sensor noise is proposed to further improve the accuracy of the positioning algorithm. A simulation is conducted to verify the performance of the proposed algorithm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Image Sensor Based Optical Wireless Communications– Selected Papers from the 7th International Conference on Ubiquitous and Future Networks and the 3rd International Workshop on Optical-Wireless LED Communication Networks)

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Open AccessArticle

Detuned Plasmonic Bragg Grating Sensor Based on a Defect Metal-Insulator-Metal Waveguide

by Shinian Qu, Ci Song, Xiushan Xia, Xiuye Liang, Baojie Tang, Zheng-Da Hu and Jicheng Wang

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 784; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060784 - 28 May 2016

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 6455

Abstract

A nanoscale Bragg grating reflector based on the defect metal-insulator-metal (MIM) waveguide is developed and numerically simulated by using the finite element method (FEM). The MIM-based structure promises a highly tunable broad stop-band in transmission spectra. The narrow transmission window is shown to [...] Read more.

A nanoscale Bragg grating reflector based on the defect metal-insulator-metal (MIM) waveguide is developed and numerically simulated by using the finite element method (FEM). The MIM-based structure promises a highly tunable broad stop-band in transmission spectra. The narrow transmission window is shown to appear in the previous stop-band by changing the certain geometrical parameters. The central wavelengths can be controlled easily by altering the geographical parameters. The development of surface plasmon polarition (SPP) technology in metallic waveguide structures leads to more possibilities of controlling light at deep sub-wavelengths. Its attractive ability of breaking the diffraction limit contributes to the design of optical sensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Indoor Multi-Sensor Acquisition System for Projects on Energy Renovation of Buildings

by Julia Armesto, Claudio Sánchez-Villanueva, Faustino Patiño-Cambeiro and Faustino Patiño-Barbeito

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 785; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060785 - 28 May 2016

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4859

Abstract

Energy rehabilitation actions in buildings have become a great economic opportunity for the construction sector. They also constitute a strategic goal in the European Union (EU), given the energy dependence and the compromises with climate change of its member states. About 75% of [...] Read more.

Energy rehabilitation actions in buildings have become a great economic opportunity for the construction sector. They also constitute a strategic goal in the European Union (EU), given the energy dependence and the compromises with climate change of its member states. About 75% of existing buildings in the EU were built when energy efficiency codes had not been developed. Approximately 75% to 90% of those standing buildings are expected to remain in use in 2050. Significant advances have been achieved in energy analysis, simulation tools, and computer fluid dynamics for building energy evaluation. However, the gap between predictions and real savings might still be improved. Geomatics and computer science disciplines can really help in modelling, inspection, and diagnosis procedures. This paper presents a multi-sensor acquisition system capable of automatically and simultaneously capturing the three-dimensional geometric information, thermographic, optical, and panoramic images, ambient temperature map, relative humidity map, and light level map. The system integrates a navigation system based on a Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM) approach that allows georeferencing every data to its position in the building. The described equipment optimizes the energy inspection and diagnosis steps and facilitates the energy modelling of the building. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Adaptive Particle Filter for Nonparametric Estimation with Measurement Uncertainty in Wireless Sensor Networks

by Xiaofan Li, Yubin Zhao, Sha Zhang and Xiaopeng Fan

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 786; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060786 - 30 May 2016

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4794

Abstract

Particle filters (PFs) are widely used for nonlinear signal processing in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). However, the measurement uncertainty makes the WSN observations unreliable to the actual case and also degrades the estimation accuracy of the PFs. In addition to the algorithm design, [...] Read more.

Particle filters (PFs) are widely used for nonlinear signal processing in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). However, the measurement uncertainty makes the WSN observations unreliable to the actual case and also degrades the estimation accuracy of the PFs. In addition to the algorithm design, few works focus on improving the likelihood calculation method, since it can be pre-assumed by a given distribution model. In this paper, we propose a novel PF method, which is based on a new likelihood fusion method for WSNs and can further improve the estimation performance. We firstly use a dynamic Gaussian model to describe the nonparametric features of the measurement uncertainty. Then, we propose a likelihood adaptation method that employs the prior information and a belief factor to reduce the measurement noise. The optimal belief factor is attained by deriving the minimum Kullback–Leibler divergence. The likelihood adaptation method can be integrated into any PFs, and we use our method to develop three versions of adaptive PFs for a target tracking system using wireless sensor network. The simulation and experimental results demonstrate that our likelihood adaptation method has greatly improved the estimation performance of PFs in a high noise environment. In addition, the adaptive PFs are highly adaptable to the environment without imposing computational complexity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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Open AccessArticle

Unobtrusive Estimation of Cardiac Contractility and Stroke Volume Changes Using Ballistocardiogram Measurements on a High Bandwidth Force Plate

by Hazar Ashouri, Lara Orlandic and Omer T. Inan

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 787; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060787 - 28 May 2016

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 9333

Abstract

Unobtrusive and inexpensive technologies for monitoring the cardiovascular health of heart failure (HF) patients outside the clinic can potentially improve their continuity of care by enabling therapies to be adjusted dynamically based on the changing needs of the patients. Specifically, cardiac contractility and [...] Read more.

Unobtrusive and inexpensive technologies for monitoring the cardiovascular health of heart failure (HF) patients outside the clinic can potentially improve their continuity of care by enabling therapies to be adjusted dynamically based on the changing needs of the patients. Specifically, cardiac contractility and stroke volume (SV) are two key aspects of cardiovascular health that change significantly for HF patients as their condition worsens, yet these parameters are typically measured only in hospital/clinical settings, or with implantable sensors. In this work, we demonstrate accurate measurement of cardiac contractility (based on pre-ejection period, PEP, timings) and SV changes in subjects using ballistocardiogram (BCG) signals detected via a high bandwidth force plate. The measurement is unobtrusive, as it simply requires the subject to stand still on the force plate while holding electrodes in the hands for simultaneous electrocardiogram (ECG) detection. Specifically, we aimed to assess whether the high bandwidth force plate can provide accuracy beyond what is achieved using modified weighing scales we have developed in prior studies, based on timing intervals, as well as signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) estimates. Our results indicate that the force plate BCG measurement provides more accurate timing information and allows for better estimation of PEP than the scale BCG (r² = 0.85 vs. r² = 0.81) during resting conditions. This correlation is stronger during recovery after exercise due to more significant changes in PEP (r² = 0.92). The improvement in accuracy can be attributed to the wider bandwidth of the force plate. ∆SV (i.e., changes in stroke volume) estimations from the force plate BCG resulted in an average error percentage of 5.3% with a standard deviation of ±4.2% across all subjects. Finally, SNR calculations showed slightly better SNR in the force plate measurements among all subjects but the small difference confirmed that SNR is limited by motion artifacts rather than instrumentation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Noninvasive Biomedical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Blind RSSD-Based Indoor Localization with Confidence Calibration and Energy Control

by Tengyue Zou, Shouying Lin and Shuyuan Li

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 788; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060788 - 31 May 2016

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5191

Abstract

Indoor localization based on wireless sensor networks (WSNs) is an important field of research with numerous applications, such as elderly care, miner security, and smart buildings. In this paper, we present a localization method based on the received signal strength difference (RSSD) to [...] Read more.

Indoor localization based on wireless sensor networks (WSNs) is an important field of research with numerous applications, such as elderly care, miner security, and smart buildings. In this paper, we present a localization method based on the received signal strength difference (RSSD) to determine a target on a map with unknown transmission information. To increase the accuracy of localization, we propose a confidence value for each anchor node to indicate its credibility for participating in the estimation. An automatic calibration device is designed to help acquire the values. The acceleration sensor and unscented Kalman filter (UKF) are also introduced to reduce the influence of measuring noise in the application. Energy control is another key point in WSN systems and may prolong the lifetime of the system. Thus, a quadtree structure is constructed to describe the region correlation between neighboring areas, and the unnecessary anchor nodes can be detected and set to sleep to save energy. The localization system is implemented on real-time Texas Instruments CC2430 and CC2431 embedded platforms, and the experimental results indicate that these mechanisms achieve a high accuracy and low energy cost. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Scalable Localization in Wireless Sensor Networks)

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Open AccessArticle

Two-Dimensional DOA and Polarization Estimation for a Mixture of Uncorrelated and Coherent Sources with Sparsely-Distributed Vector Sensor Array

by Weijian Si, Pinjiao Zhao and Zhiyu Qu

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 789; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060789 - 31 May 2016

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3966

Abstract

This paper presents an L-shaped sparsely-distributed vector sensor (SD-VS) array with four different antenna compositions. With the proposed SD-VS array, a novel two-dimensional (2-D) direction of arrival (DOA) and polarization estimation method is proposed to handle the scenario where uncorrelated and coherent sources [...] Read more.

This paper presents an L-shaped sparsely-distributed vector sensor (SD-VS) array with four different antenna compositions. With the proposed SD-VS array, a novel two-dimensional (2-D) direction of arrival (DOA) and polarization estimation method is proposed to handle the scenario where uncorrelated and coherent sources coexist. The uncorrelated and coherent sources are separated based on the moduli of the eigenvalues. For the uncorrelated sources, coarse estimates are acquired by extracting the DOA information embedded in the steering vectors from estimated array response matrix of the uncorrelated sources, and they serve as coarse references to disambiguate fine estimates with cyclical ambiguity obtained from the spatial phase factors. For the coherent sources, four Hankel matrices are constructed, with which the coherent sources are resolved in a similar way as for the uncorrelated sources. The proposed SD-VS array requires only two collocated antennas for each vector sensor, thus the mutual coupling effects across the collocated antennas are reduced greatly. Moreover, the inter-sensor spacings are allowed beyond a half-wavelength, which results in an extended array aperture. Simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness and favorable performance of the proposed method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Data-Driven Design of Intelligent Wireless Networks: An Overview and Tutorial

by Merima Kulin, Carolina Fortuna, Eli De Poorter, Dirk Deschrijver and Ingrid Moerman

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 790; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060790 - 1 Jun 2016

Cited by 52 | Viewed by 15994

Abstract

Data science or “data-driven research” is a research approach that uses real-life data to gain insight about the behavior of systems. It enables the analysis of small, simple as well as large and more complex systems in order to assess whether they function [...] Read more.

Data science or “data-driven research” is a research approach that uses real-life data to gain insight about the behavior of systems. It enables the analysis of small, simple as well as large and more complex systems in order to assess whether they function according to the intended design and as seen in simulation. Data science approaches have been successfully applied to analyze networked interactions in several research areas such as large-scale social networks, advanced business and healthcare processes. Wireless networks can exhibit unpredictable interactions between algorithms from multiple protocol layers, interactions between multiple devices, and hardware specific influences. These interactions can lead to a difference between real-world functioning and design time functioning. Data science methods can help to detect the actual behavior and possibly help to correct it. Data science is increasingly used in wireless research. To support data-driven research in wireless networks, this paper illustrates the step-by-step methodology that has to be applied to extract knowledge from raw data traces. To this end, the paper (i) clarifies when, why and how to use data science in wireless network research; (ii) provides a generic framework for applying data science in wireless networks; (iii) gives an overview of existing research papers that utilized data science approaches in wireless networks; (iv) illustrates the overall knowledge discovery process through an extensive example in which device types are identified based on their traffic patterns; (v) provides the reader the necessary datasets and scripts to go through the tutorial steps themselves. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Internet of Things (IoT) Networks)

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Open AccessArticle

Power Pattern Sensitivity to Calibration Errors and Mutual Coupling in Linear Arrays through Circular Interval Arithmetics

by Nicola Anselmi, Marco Salucci, Paolo Rocca and Andrea Massa

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 791; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060791 - 31 May 2016

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 5086

Abstract

The sensitivity to both calibration errors and mutual coupling effects of the power pattern radiated by a linear array is addressed. Starting from the knowledge of the nominal excitations of the array elements and the maximum uncertainty on their amplitudes, the bounds of [...] Read more.

The sensitivity to both calibration errors and mutual coupling effects of the power pattern radiated by a linear array is addressed. Starting from the knowledge of the nominal excitations of the array elements and the maximum uncertainty on their amplitudes, the bounds of the pattern deviations from the ideal one are analytically derived by exploiting the Circular Interval Analysis (CIA). A set of representative numerical results is reported and discussed to assess the effectiveness and the reliability of the proposed approach also in comparison with state-of-the-art methods and full-wave simulations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Probabilistic Assessment of High-Throughput Wireless Sensor Networks

by Robin E. Kim, Kirill Mechitov, Sung-Han Sim, Billie F. Spencer and Junho Song

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 792; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060792 - 31 May 2016

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5534

Abstract

Structural health monitoring (SHM) using wireless smart sensors (WSS) has the potential to provide rich information on the state of a structure. However, because of their distributed nature, maintaining highly robust and reliable networks can be challenging. Assessing WSS network communication quality before [...] Read more.

Structural health monitoring (SHM) using wireless smart sensors (WSS) has the potential to provide rich information on the state of a structure. However, because of their distributed nature, maintaining highly robust and reliable networks can be challenging. Assessing WSS network communication quality before and after finalizing a deployment is critical to achieve a successful WSS network for SHM purposes. Early studies on WSS network reliability mostly used temporal signal indicators, composed of a smaller number of packets, to assess the network reliability. However, because the WSS networks for SHM purpose often require high data throughput, i.e., a larger number of packets are delivered within the communication, such an approach is not sufficient. Instead, in this study, a model that can assess, probabilistically, the long-term performance of the network is proposed. The proposed model is based on readily-available measured data sets that represent communication quality during high-throughput data transfer. Then, an empirical limit-state function is determined, which is further used to estimate the probability of network communication failure. Monte Carlo simulation is adopted in this paper and applied to a small and a full-bridge wireless networks. By performing the proposed analysis in complex sensor networks, an optimized sensor topology can be achieved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Scalable Localization in Wireless Sensor Networks)

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Open AccessArticle

Robust Statistical Approaches for RSS-Based Floor Detection in Indoor Localization

by Alireza Razavi, Mikko Valkama and Elena Simona Lohan

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 793; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060793 - 31 May 2016

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4052

Abstract

Floor detection for indoor 3D localization of mobile devices is currently an important challenge in the wireless world. Many approaches currently exist, but usually the robustness of such approaches is not addressed or investigated. The goal of this paper is to show how [...] Read more.

Floor detection for indoor 3D localization of mobile devices is currently an important challenge in the wireless world. Many approaches currently exist, but usually the robustness of such approaches is not addressed or investigated. The goal of this paper is to show how to robustify the floor estimation when probabilistic approaches with a low number of parameters are employed. Indeed, such an approach would allow a building-independent estimation and a lower computing power at the mobile side. Four robustified algorithms are to be presented: a robust weighted centroid localization method, a robust linear trilateration method, a robust nonlinear trilateration method, and a robust deconvolution method. The proposed approaches use the received signal strengths (RSS) measured by the Mobile Station (MS) from various heard WiFi access points (APs) and provide an estimate of the vertical position of the MS, which can be used for floor detection. We will show that robustification can indeed increase the performance of the RSS-based floor detection algorithms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

A Highly Sensitive Fiber-Optic Fabry–Perot Interferometer Based on Internal Reflection Mirrors for Refractive Index Measurement

by Xuefeng Li, Yujiao Shao, Yuan Yu, Yin Zhang and Shaowen Wei

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 794; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060794 - 31 May 2016

Cited by 49 | Viewed by 8032

Abstract

In this study, a new type of highly sensitive fiber-optic Fabry–Perot interferometer (FFPI) is proposed with a high sensitivity on a wide refractive index (RI) measurement range based on internal reflection mirrors of micro-cavity. The sensor head consists of a single-mode fiber (SMF) [...] Read more.

In this study, a new type of highly sensitive fiber-optic Fabry–Perot interferometer (FFPI) is proposed with a high sensitivity on a wide refractive index (RI) measurement range based on internal reflection mirrors of micro-cavity. The sensor head consists of a single-mode fiber (SMF) with an open micro-cavity. Since light reflections of gold thin films are not affected by the RI of different measuring mediums, the sensor is designed to improve the fringe visibility of optical interference through sputtering the gold films of various thicknesses on the inner surfaces of the micro-cavity, as a semi-transparent mirror (STM) and a total-reflection mirror (TRM). Experiments have been carried out to verify the feasibility of the sensor’s design. It is shown that the fabricated sensor has strong interference visibility exceeding 15 dB over a wide measurement range of RI, and the sensor sensitivity is higher than 1160 nm/RIU, and RI resolution is better than 1.0 × 10⁻⁶ RIU. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Tool Condition Monitoring and Remaining Useful Life Prognostic Based on a Wireless Sensor in Dry Milling Operations

by Cunji Zhang, Xifan Yao, Jianming Zhang and Hong Jin

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 795; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060795 - 31 May 2016

Cited by 128 | Viewed by 11789

Abstract

Tool breakage causes losses of surface polishing and dimensional accuracy for machined part, or possible damage to a workpiece or machine. Tool Condition Monitoring (TCM) is considerably vital in the manufacturing industry. In this paper, an indirect TCM approach is introduced with a [...] Read more.

Tool breakage causes losses of surface polishing and dimensional accuracy for machined part, or possible damage to a workpiece or machine. Tool Condition Monitoring (TCM) is considerably vital in the manufacturing industry. In this paper, an indirect TCM approach is introduced with a wireless triaxial accelerometer. The vibrations in the three vertical directions (x, y and z) are acquired during milling operations, and the raw signals are de-noised by wavelet analysis. These features of de-noised signals are extracted in the time, frequency and time–frequency domains. The key features are selected based on Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient (PCC). The Neuro-Fuzzy Network (NFN) is adopted to predict the tool wear and Remaining Useful Life (RUL). In comparison with Back Propagation Neural Network (BPNN) and Radial Basis Function Network (RBFN), the results show that the NFN has the best performance in the prediction of tool wear and RUL. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

A Noise Reduction Method for Dual-Mass Micro-Electromechanical Gyroscopes Based on Sample Entropy Empirical Mode Decomposition and Time-Frequency Peak Filtering

by Chong Shen, Jie Li, Xiaoming Zhang, Yunbo Shi, Jun Tang, Huiliang Cao and Jun Liu

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 796; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060796 - 31 May 2016

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4991

Abstract

The different noise components in a dual-mass micro-electromechanical system (MEMS) gyroscope structure is analyzed in this paper, including mechanical-thermal noise (MTN), electronic-thermal noise (ETN), flicker noise (FN) and Coriolis signal in-phase noise (IPN). The structure equivalent electronic model is established, and an improved [...] Read more.

The different noise components in a dual-mass micro-electromechanical system (MEMS) gyroscope structure is analyzed in this paper, including mechanical-thermal noise (MTN), electronic-thermal noise (ETN), flicker noise (FN) and Coriolis signal in-phase noise (IPN). The structure equivalent electronic model is established, and an improved white Gaussian noise reduction method for dual-mass MEMS gyroscopes is proposed which is based on sample entropy empirical mode decomposition (SEEMD) and time-frequency peak filtering (TFPF). There is a contradiction in TFPS, i.e., selecting a short window length may lead to good preservation of signal amplitude but bad random noise reduction, whereas selecting a long window length may lead to serious attenuation of the signal amplitude but effective random noise reduction. In order to achieve a good tradeoff between valid signal amplitude preservation and random noise reduction, SEEMD is adopted to improve TFPF. Firstly, the original signal is decomposed into intrinsic mode functions (IMFs) by EMD, and the SE of each IMF is calculated in order to classify the numerous IMFs into three different components; then short window TFPF is employed for low frequency component of IMFs, and long window TFPF is employed for high frequency component of IMFs, and the noise component of IMFs is wiped off directly; at last the final signal is obtained after reconstruction. Rotation experimental and temperature experimental are carried out to verify the proposed SEEMD-TFPF algorithm, the verification and comparison results show that the de-noising performance of SEEMD-TFPF is better than that achievable with the traditional wavelet, Kalman filter and fixed window length TFPF methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessReview

Characterisation of Phosphate Accumulating Organisms and Techniques for Polyphosphate Detection: A Review

by Cédric Tarayre, Huu-Thanh Nguyen, Alison Brognaux, Anissa Delepierre, Lies De Clercq, Raphaëlle Charlier, Evi Michels, Erik Meers and Frank Delvigne

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 797; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060797 - 31 May 2016

Cited by 61 | Viewed by 13176

Abstract

Phosphate minerals have long been used for the production of phosphorus-based chemicals used in many economic sectors. However, these resources are not renewable and the natural phosphate stocks are decreasing. In this context, the research of new phosphate sources has become necessary. Many [...] Read more.

Phosphate minerals have long been used for the production of phosphorus-based chemicals used in many economic sectors. However, these resources are not renewable and the natural phosphate stocks are decreasing. In this context, the research of new phosphate sources has become necessary. Many types of wastes contain non-negligible phosphate concentrations, such as wastewater. In wastewater treatment plants, phosphorus is eliminated by physicochemical and/or biological techniques. In this latter case, a specific microbiota, phosphate accumulating organisms (PAOs), accumulates phosphate as polyphosphate. This molecule can be considered as an alternative phosphate source, and is directly extracted from wastewater generated by human activities. This review focuses on the techniques which can be applied to enrich and try to isolate these PAOs, and to detect the presence of polyphosphate in microbial cells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Use of a Force-Torque Sensor for Self-Calibration of a 6-DOF Medical Robot

by Ahmed Joubair, Long Fei Zhao, Pascal Bigras and Ilian A. Bonev

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 798; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060798 - 31 May 2016

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6417

Abstract

The aim of this paper is to improve the position accuracy of a six degree of freedom medical robot. The improvement in accuracy is achieved without the use of any external measurement device. Instead, this work presents a novel calibration approach based on [...] Read more.

The aim of this paper is to improve the position accuracy of a six degree of freedom medical robot. The improvement in accuracy is achieved without the use of any external measurement device. Instead, this work presents a novel calibration approach based on using an embedded force-torque sensor to identify the robot’s kinematic parameters and thereby enhance the positioning accuracy. A simulation study demonstrated that our calibration approach is effective, whether or not any measurement noise is present: the position error is improved, inside the robot target workspace, from 12 mm to 0.320 mm, for the maximum values, and from 9 mm to 0.2771 mm, for the mean errors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

NetCoDer: A Retransmission Mechanism for WSNs Based on Cooperative Relays and Network Coding

by Odilson T. Valle, Carlos Montez, Gustavo Medeiros de Araujo, Francisco Vasques and Ricardo Moraes

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 799; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060799 - 31 May 2016

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4945

Abstract

Some of the most difficult problems to deal with when using Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are related to the unreliable nature of communication channels. In this context, the use of cooperative diversity techniques and the application of network coding concepts may be promising [...] Read more.

Some of the most difficult problems to deal with when using Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are related to the unreliable nature of communication channels. In this context, the use of cooperative diversity techniques and the application of network coding concepts may be promising solutions to improve the communication reliability. In this paper, we propose the NetCoDer scheme to address this problem. Its design is based on merging cooperative diversity techniques and network coding concepts. We evaluate the effectiveness of the NetCoDer scheme through both an experimental setup with real WSN nodes and a simulation assessment, comparing NetCoDer performance against state-of-the-art TDMA-based (Time Division Multiple Access) retransmission techniques: BlockACK, Master/Slave and Redundant TDMA. The obtained results highlight that the proposed NetCoDer scheme clearly improves the network performance when compared with other retransmission techniques. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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Open AccessArticle

How Accurately Can Your Wrist Device Recognize Daily Activities and Detect Falls?

by Martin Gjoreski, Hristijan Gjoreski, Mitja Luštrek and Matjaž Gams

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 800; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060800 - 1 Jun 2016

Cited by 99 | Viewed by 11717

Abstract

Although wearable accelerometers can successfully recognize activities and detect falls, their adoption in real life is low because users do not want to wear additional devices. A possible solution is an accelerometer inside a wrist device/smartwatch. However, wrist placement might perform poorly in [...] Read more.

Although wearable accelerometers can successfully recognize activities and detect falls, their adoption in real life is low because users do not want to wear additional devices. A possible solution is an accelerometer inside a wrist device/smartwatch. However, wrist placement might perform poorly in terms of accuracy due to frequent random movements of the hand. In this paper we perform a thorough, large-scale evaluation of methods for activity recognition and fall detection on four datasets. On the first two we showed that the left wrist performs better compared to the dominant right one, and also better compared to the elbow and the chest, but worse compared to the ankle, knee and belt. On the third (Opportunity) dataset, our method outperformed the related work, indicating that our feature-preprocessing creates better input data. And finally, on a real-life unlabeled dataset the recognized activities captured the subject’s daily rhythm and activities. Our fall-detection method detected all of the fast falls and minimized the false positives, achieving 85% accuracy on the first dataset. Because the other datasets did not contain fall events, only false positives were evaluated, resulting in 9 for the second, 1 for the third and 15 for the real-life dataset (57 days data). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Body Worn Behavior Sensing)

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Open AccessArticle

Guided-Mode-Leaky-Mode-Guided-Mode Fiber Interferometer and Its High Sensitivity Refractive Index Sensing Technology

by Qi Wang, Chunyue Li, Chengwu Zhao and Weizheng Li

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 801; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060801 - 1 Jun 2016

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5049

Abstract

A cascaded symmetrical dual-taper Mach-Zehnder interferometer structure based on guided-mode and leaky-mode interference is proposed in this paper. Firstly, the interference spectrum characteristics of interferometer has been analyzed by the Finite Difference-Beam Propagation Method (FD-BPM). When the diameter of taper waist is 20 [...] Read more.

A cascaded symmetrical dual-taper Mach-Zehnder interferometer structure based on guided-mode and leaky-mode interference is proposed in this paper. Firstly, the interference spectrum characteristics of interferometer has been analyzed by the Finite Difference-Beam Propagation Method (FD-BPM). When the diameter of taper waist is 20 μm–30 μm, dual-taper length is 1 mm and taper distance is 4 cm–6 cm, the spectral contrast is higher, which is suitable for sensing. Secondly, experimental research on refractive index sensitivity is carried out. A refractive index sensitivity of 62.78 nm/RIU (refractive index unit) can achieved in the RI range of 1.3333–1.3792 (0%~25% NaCl solution), when the sensor structure parameters meet the following conditions: diameter of taper waist is 24 μm, dual-taper length is 837 μm and taper distance is 5.5 cm. The spectrum contrast is 0.8 and measurement resolution is 1.6 × 10⁻⁵ RIU. The simulation analysis is highly consistent with experimental results. Research shows that the sensor has promising application in low RI fields where high-precision measurement is required due to its high sensitivity and stability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Reference Device-Assisted Adaptive Location Fingerprinting

by Dongjin Wu and Linyuan Xia

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 802; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060802 - 1 Jun 2016

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3950

Abstract

Location fingerprinting suffers in dynamic environments and needs recalibration from time to time to maintain system performance. This paper proposes an adaptive approach for location fingerprinting. Based on real-time received signal strength indicator (RSSI) samples measured by a group of reference devices, the [...] Read more.

Location fingerprinting suffers in dynamic environments and needs recalibration from time to time to maintain system performance. This paper proposes an adaptive approach for location fingerprinting. Based on real-time received signal strength indicator (RSSI) samples measured by a group of reference devices, the approach applies a modified Universal Kriging (UK) interpolant to estimate adaptive temporal and environmental radio maps. The modified UK can take the spatial distribution characteristics of RSSI into account. In addition, the issue of device heterogeneity caused by multiple reference devices is further addressed. To compensate the measuring differences of heterogeneous reference devices, differential RSSI metric is employed. Extensive experiments were conducted in an indoor field and the results demonstrate that the proposed approach not only adapts to dynamic environments and the situation of changing APs’ positions, but it is also robust toward measuring differences of heterogeneous reference devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

TripSense: A Trust-Based Vehicular Platoon Crowdsensing Scheme with Privacy Preservation in VANETs

by Hao Hu, Rongxing Lu, Cheng Huang and Zonghua Zhang

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 803; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060803 - 1 Jun 2016

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 6381

Abstract

In this paper, we propose a trust-based vehicular platoon crowdsensing scheme, named TripSense, in VANET. The proposed TripSense scheme introduces a trust-based system to evaluate vehicles’ sensing abilities and then selects the more capable vehicles in order to improve sensing results accuracy. In [...] Read more.

In this paper, we propose a trust-based vehicular platoon crowdsensing scheme, named TripSense, in VANET. The proposed TripSense scheme introduces a trust-based system to evaluate vehicles’ sensing abilities and then selects the more capable vehicles in order to improve sensing results accuracy. In addition, the sensing tasks are accomplished by platoon member vehicles and preprocessed by platoon head vehicles before the data are uploaded to server. Hence, it is less time-consuming and more efficient compared with the way where the data are submitted by individual platoon member vehicles. Hence it is more suitable in ephemeral networks like VANET. Moreover, our proposed TripSense scheme integrates unlinkable pseudo-ID techniques to achieve PM vehicle identity privacy, and employs a privacy-preserving sensing vehicle selection scheme without involving the PM vehicle’s trust score to keep its location privacy. Detailed security analysis shows that our proposed TripSense scheme not only achieves desirable privacy requirements but also resists against attacks launched by adversaries. In addition, extensive simulations are conducted to show the correctness and effectiveness of our proposed scheme. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy in Sensor Networks)

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Open AccessArticle

Integrated Toolset for WSN Application Planning, Development, Commissioning and Maintenance: The WSN-DPCM ARTEMIS-JU Project

by Christos Antonopoulos, Katerina Asimogloy, Sarah Chiti, Luca D’Onofrio, Simone Gianfranceschi, Danping He, Antonio Iodice, Stavros Koubias, Christos Koulamas, Luciano Lavagno, Mihai T. Lazarescu, Gabriel Mujica, George Papadopoulos, Jorge Portilla, Luis Redondo, Daniele Riccio, Teresa Riesgo, Daniel Rodriguez, Giuseppe Ruello, Vasilis Samoladas, Tsenka Stoyanova, Gerasimos Touliatos, Angela Valvo and Georgia Vlahoy Show full author list Hide full author list

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 804; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060804 - 2 Jun 2016

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 8323

Abstract

In this article we present the main results obtained in the ARTEMIS-JU WSN-DPCM project between October 2011 and September 2015. The first objective of the project was the development of an integrated toolset for Wireless sensor networks (WSN) application planning, development, commissioning and [...] Read more.

In this article we present the main results obtained in the ARTEMIS-JU WSN-DPCM project between October 2011 and September 2015. The first objective of the project was the development of an integrated toolset for Wireless sensor networks (WSN) application planning, development, commissioning and maintenance, which aims to support application domain experts, with limited WSN expertise, to efficiently develop WSN applications from planning to lifetime maintenance. The toolset is made of three main tools: one for planning, one for application development and simulation (which can include hardware nodes), and one for network commissioning and lifetime maintenance. The tools are integrated in a single platform which promotes software reuse by automatically selecting suitable library components for application synthesis and the abstraction of the underlying architecture through the use of a middleware layer. The second objective of the project was to test the effectiveness of the toolset for the development of two case studies in different domains, one for detecting the occupancy state of parking lots and one for monitoring air concentration of harmful gasses near an industrial site. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Data in the IoT: from Sensing to Meaning)

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Open AccessArticle

An Improved Interacting Multiple Model Filtering Algorithm Based on the Cubature Kalman Filter for Maneuvering Target Tracking

by Wei Zhu, Wei Wang and Gannan Yuan

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 805; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060805 - 1 Jun 2016

Cited by 71 | Viewed by 6990

Abstract

In order to improve the tracking accuracy, model estimation accuracy and quick response of multiple model maneuvering target tracking, the interacting multiple models five degree cubature Kalman filter (IMM5CKF) is proposed in this paper. In the proposed algorithm, the interacting multiple models (IMM) [...] Read more.

In order to improve the tracking accuracy, model estimation accuracy and quick response of multiple model maneuvering target tracking, the interacting multiple models five degree cubature Kalman filter (IMM5CKF) is proposed in this paper. In the proposed algorithm, the interacting multiple models (IMM) algorithm processes all the models through a Markov Chain to simultaneously enhance the model tracking accuracy of target tracking. Then a five degree cubature Kalman filter (5CKF) evaluates the surface integral by a higher but deterministic odd ordered spherical cubature rule to improve the tracking accuracy and the model switch sensitivity of the IMM algorithm. Finally, the simulation results demonstrate that the proposed algorithm exhibits quick and smooth switching when disposing different maneuver models, and it also performs better than the interacting multiple models cubature Kalman filter (IMMCKF), interacting multiple models unscented Kalman filter (IMMUKF), 5CKF and the optimal mode transition matrix IMM (OMTM-IMM). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Multi-Sensor Information Fusion: Theory and Applications)

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Open AccessArticle

Overhauser Geomagnetic Sensor Based on the Dynamic Nuclear Polarization Effect for Magnetic Prospecting

by Jian Ge, Haobin Dong, Huan Liu, Zhiwen Yuan, He Dong, Zhizhuo Zhao, Yonghua Liu, Jun Zhu and Haiyang Zhang

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 806; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060806 - 1 Jun 2016

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 9153

Abstract

Based on the dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) effect, an alternative design of an Overhauser geomagnetic sensor is presented that enhances the proton polarization and increases the amplitude of the free induction decay (FID) signal. The short-pulse method is adopted to rotate the enhanced [...] Read more.

Based on the dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) effect, an alternative design of an Overhauser geomagnetic sensor is presented that enhances the proton polarization and increases the amplitude of the free induction decay (FID) signal. The short-pulse method is adopted to rotate the enhanced proton magnetization into the plane of precession to create an FID signal. To reduce the negative effect of the powerful electromagnetic interference, the design of the anti-interference of the pick-up coil is studied. Furthermore, the radio frequency polarization method based on the capacitive-loaded coaxial cavity is proposed to improve the quality factor of the resonant circuit. In addition, a special test instrument is designed that enables the simultaneous testing of the classical proton precession and the Overhauser sensor. Overall, comparison experiments with and without the free radical of the Overhauser sensors show that the DNP effect does effectively improve the amplitude and quality of the FID signal, and the magnetic sensitivity, resolution and range reach to 10 pT/Hz

^{1 / 2}

@1 Hz, 0.0023 nT and 20–100

μ

T, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

An Exact Formula for Calculating Inverse Radial Lens Distortions

by Pierre Drap and Julien Lefèvre

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 807; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060807 - 1 Jun 2016

Cited by 41 | Viewed by 8730

Abstract

This article presents a new approach to calculating the inverse of radial distortions. The method presented here provides a model of reverse radial distortion, currently modeled by a polynomial expression, that proposes another polynomial expression where the new coefficients are a function of [...] Read more.

This article presents a new approach to calculating the inverse of radial distortions. The method presented here provides a model of reverse radial distortion, currently modeled by a polynomial expression, that proposes another polynomial expression where the new coefficients are a function of the original ones. After describing the state of the art, the proposed method is developed. It is based on a formal calculus involving a power series used to deduce a recursive formula for the new coefficients. We present several implementations of this method and describe the experiments conducted to assess the validity of the new approach. Such an approach, non-iterative, using another polynomial expression, able to be deduced from the first one, can actually be interesting in terms of performance, reuse of existing software, or bridging between different existing software tools that do not consider distortion from the same point of view. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

An Optical Fiber Lateral Displacement Measurement Method and Experiments Based on Reflective Grating Panel

by Yuhe Li, Kaisen Guan, Zhaohui Hu and Yanxiang Chen

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 808; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060808 - 2 Jun 2016

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 7214

Abstract

An optical fiber sensing method based on a reflective grating panel is demonstrated for lateral displacement measurement. The reflective panel is a homemade grating with a periodic variation of its refractive index, which is used to modulate the reflected light intensity. The system [...] Read more.

An optical fiber sensing method based on a reflective grating panel is demonstrated for lateral displacement measurement. The reflective panel is a homemade grating with a periodic variation of its refractive index, which is used to modulate the reflected light intensity. The system structure and operation principle are illustrated in detail. The intensity calculation and simulation of the optical path are carried out to theoretically analyze the measurement performance. A distinctive fiber optic grating ruler with a special fiber optic measuring probe and reflective grating panel is set up. Experiments with different grating pitches are conducted, and long-distance measurements are executed to accomplish the functions of counting optical signals, subdivision, and discerning direction. Experimental results show that the proposed measurement method can be used to detect lateral displacement, especially for applications in working environments with high temperatures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Fiber Sensors 2016)

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Open AccessArticle

A Wireless Pressure Sensor Integrated with a Biodegradable Polymer Stent for Biomedical Applications

by Jongsung Park, Ji-Kwan Kim, Swati J. Patil, Jun-Kyu Park, SuA Park and Dong-Weon Lee

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 809; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060809 - 2 Jun 2016

Cited by 76 | Viewed by 13062

Abstract

This paper describes the fabrication and characterization of a wireless pressure sensor for smart stent applications. The micromachined pressure sensor has an area of 3.13 × 3.16 mm² and is fabricated with a photosensitive SU-8 polymer. The wireless pressure sensor comprises a [...] Read more.

This paper describes the fabrication and characterization of a wireless pressure sensor for smart stent applications. The micromachined pressure sensor has an area of 3.13 × 3.16 mm² and is fabricated with a photosensitive SU-8 polymer. The wireless pressure sensor comprises a resonant circuit and can be used without the use of an internal power source. The capacitance variations caused by changes in the intravascular pressure shift the resonance frequency of the sensor. This change can be detected using an external antenna, thus enabling the measurement of the pressure changes inside a tube with a simple external circuit. The wireless pressure sensor is capable of measuring pressure from 0 mmHg to 230 mmHg, with a sensitivity of 0.043 MHz/mmHg. The biocompatibility of the pressure sensor was evaluated using cardiac cells isolated from neonatal rat ventricular myocytes. After inserting a metal stent integrated with the pressure sensor into a cardiovascular vessel of an animal, medical systems such as X-ray were employed to consistently monitor the condition of the blood vessel. No abnormality was found in the animal blood vessel for approximately one month. Furthermore, a biodegradable polymer (polycaprolactone) stent was fabricated with a 3D printer. The polymer stent exhibits better sensitivity degradation of the pressure sensor compared to the metal stent. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Sensors for Globalized Healthy Living and Wellbeing)

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Open AccessArticle

A Novel Location-Centric IoT-Cloud Based On-Street Car Parking Violation Management System in Smart Cities

by Thanh Dinh and Younghan Kim

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 810; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060810 - 2 Jun 2016

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 8514

Abstract

Nowadays, in big cities, parking management is a critical issue from both the driver’s side and the city government’s side. From the driver’s side, how to find an available parking lot in a city is a considerable concern. As a result, smart parking [...] Read more.

Nowadays, in big cities, parking management is a critical issue from both the driver’s side and the city government’s side. From the driver’s side, how to find an available parking lot in a city is a considerable concern. As a result, smart parking systems recently have received great interest, both in academia and industry. From the city government’s side, how to manage and distribute such a limited public parking resource efficiently to give every visitor a fair chance of finding an on-street parking lot is also a considerable concern. However, existing studies of smart parking management focus only on assisting the driver’s side to find available parking spaces. This study aims to raise a new perspective on such smart parking management and to propose a novel location-centric IoT-cloud-based parking violation management system. The system is designed to assist authoritative officers in finding parking violations easily and recommends the least cost path for officers so that officers can achieve their highest productivity in finding parking violations and issuing parking tickets. Experimental results show that the system not only improves the productivity of officers in finding parking violations and issuing tickets, but also helps reduce the traveling cost of officers and to reduce the average violation period of violating cars considerably. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart City: Vision and Reality)

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Open AccessArticle

A Synergy-Based Optimally Designed Sensing Glove for Functional Grasp Recognition

by Simone Ciotti, Edoardo Battaglia, Nicola Carbonaro, Antonio Bicchi, Alessandro Tognetti and Matteo Bianchi

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 811; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060811 - 2 Jun 2016

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 10758

Abstract

Achieving accurate and reliable kinematic hand pose reconstructions represents a challenging task. The main reason for this is the complexity of hand biomechanics, where several degrees of freedom are distributed along a continuous deformable structure. Wearable sensing can represent a viable solution to [...] Read more.

Achieving accurate and reliable kinematic hand pose reconstructions represents a challenging task. The main reason for this is the complexity of hand biomechanics, where several degrees of freedom are distributed along a continuous deformable structure. Wearable sensing can represent a viable solution to tackle this issue, since it enables a more natural kinematic monitoring. However, the intrinsic accuracy (as well as the number of sensing elements) of wearable hand pose reconstruction (HPR) systems can be severely limited by ergonomics and cost considerations. In this paper, we combined the theoretical foundations of the optimal design of HPR devices based on hand synergy information, i.e., the inter-joint covariation patterns, with textile goniometers based on knitted piezoresistive fabrics (KPF) technology, to develop, for the first time, an optimally-designed under-sensed glove for measuring hand kinematics. We used only five sensors optimally placed on the hand and completed hand pose reconstruction (described according to a kinematic model with 19 degrees of freedom) leveraging upon synergistic information. The reconstructions we obtained from five different subjects were used to implement an unsupervised method for the recognition of eight functional grasps, showing a high degree of accuracy and robustness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Investigating the Impact of Possession-Way of a Smartphone on Action Recognition

by Zae Myung Kim, Young-Seob Jeong, Hyung Rai Oh, Kyo-Joong Oh, Chae-Gyun Lim, Youssef Iraqi and Ho-Jin Choi

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 812; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060812 - 2 Jun 2016

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5013

Abstract

For the past few decades, action recognition has been attracting many researchers due to its wide use in a variety of applications. Especially with the increasing number of smartphone users, many studies have been conducted using sensors within a smartphone. However, a lot [...] Read more.

For the past few decades, action recognition has been attracting many researchers due to its wide use in a variety of applications. Especially with the increasing number of smartphone users, many studies have been conducted using sensors within a smartphone. However, a lot of these studies assume that the users carry the device in specific ways such as by hand, in a pocket, in a bag, etc. This paper investigates the impact of providing an action recognition system with the information of the possession-way of a smartphone, and vice versa. The experimental dataset consists of five possession-ways (hand, backpack, upper-pocket, lower-pocket, and shoulder-bag) and two actions (walking and running) gathered by seven users separately. Various machine learning models including recurrent neural network architectures are employed to explore the relationship between the action recognition and the possession-way recognition. The experimental results show that the assumption of possession-ways of smartphones do affect the performance of action recognition, and vice versa. The results also reveal that a good performance is achieved when both actions and possession-ways are recognized simultaneously. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers From the 16th International Symposium on Advanced Intelligent Systems (ISIS))

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Open AccessArticle

Street Viewer: An Autonomous Vision Based Traffic Tracking System

by Andrea Bottino, Alessandro Garbo, Carmelo Loiacono and Stefano Quer

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 813; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060813 - 3 Jun 2016

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6337

Abstract

The development of intelligent transportation systems requires the availability of both accurate traffic information in real time and a cost-effective solution. In this paper, we describe Street Viewer, a system capable of analyzing the traffic behavior in different scenarios from images taken with [...] Read more.

The development of intelligent transportation systems requires the availability of both accurate traffic information in real time and a cost-effective solution. In this paper, we describe Street Viewer, a system capable of analyzing the traffic behavior in different scenarios from images taken with an off-the-shelf optical camera. Street Viewer operates in real time on embedded hardware architectures with limited computational resources. The system features a pipelined architecture that, on one side, allows one to exploit multi-threading intensively and, on the other side, allows one to improve the overall accuracy and robustness of the system, since each layer is aimed at refining for the following layers the information it receives as input. Another relevant feature of our approach is that it is self-adaptive. During an initial setup, the application runs in learning mode to build a model of the flow patterns in the observed area. Once the model is stable, the system switches to the on-line mode where the flow model is used to count vehicles traveling on each lane and to produce a traffic information summary. If changes in the flow model are detected, the system switches back autonomously to the learning mode. The accuracy and the robustness of the system are analyzed in the paper through experimental results obtained on several different scenarios and running the system for long periods of time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart City: Vision and Reality)

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Open AccessArticle

Two Capacitive Micro-Machined Ultrasonic Transducers for Wind Speed Measurement

by Gia Thinh Bui, Yu-Tsung Jiang and Da-Chen Pang

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 814; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060814 - 2 Jun 2016

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 7473

Abstract

This paper presents a new wind speed measurement method using a single capacitive micro-machined ultrasonic transducer (CMUT). The CMUT was arranged perpendicular to the direction of the wind flow, and a reflector was set up a short distance away, facing the CMUT. To [...] Read more.

This paper presents a new wind speed measurement method using a single capacitive micro-machined ultrasonic transducer (CMUT). The CMUT was arranged perpendicular to the direction of the wind flow, and a reflector was set up a short distance away, facing the CMUT. To reduce the size, weight, cost, and power consumption of conventional ultrasonic anemometers this study proposes two CMUT designs for the measurement of wind speed using either the amplitude of the signal or the time of flight (TOF). Each CMUT with a double array element design can transmit and receive signals in five different operation modes. Experiments showed that the two CMUT designs utilizing the TOF were better than those utilizing the amplitude of the signal for wind speed measurements ranging from 1 m/s to 10 m/s, providing a measurement error of less than 0.2 m/s. These results indicate that the sensitivity of the TOF is independent of the five operation modes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Segmentized Clear Channel Assessment for IEEE 802.15.4 Networks

by Kyou Jung Son, Sung Hyeuck Hong, Seong-Pil Moon, Tae Gyu Chang and Hanjin Cho

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 815; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060815 - 3 Jun 2016

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 6274

Abstract

This paper proposed segmentized clear channel assessment (CCA) which increases the performance of IEEE 802.15.4 networks by improving carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA). Improving CSMA/CA is important because the low-power consumption feature and throughput performance of IEEE 802.15.4 are greatly [...] Read more.

This paper proposed segmentized clear channel assessment (CCA) which increases the performance of IEEE 802.15.4 networks by improving carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA). Improving CSMA/CA is important because the low-power consumption feature and throughput performance of IEEE 802.15.4 are greatly affected by CSMA/CA behavior. To improve the performance of CSMA/CA, this paper focused on increasing the chance to transmit a packet by assessing precise channel status. The previous method used in CCA, which is employed by CSMA/CA, assesses the channel by measuring the energy level of the channel. However, this method shows limited channel assessing behavior, which comes from simple threshold dependent channel busy evaluation. The proposed method solves this limited channel decision problem by dividing CCA into two groups. Two groups of CCA compare their energy levels to get precise channel status. To evaluate the performance of the segmentized CCA method, a Markov chain model has been developed. The validation of analytic results is confirmed by comparing them with simulation results. Additionally, simulation results show the proposed method is improving a maximum 8.76% of throughput and decreasing a maximum 3.9% of the average number of CCAs per packet transmission than the IEEE 802.15.4 CCA method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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Open AccessArticle

Power Performance Verification of a Wind Farm Using the Friedman’s Test

by Wilmar Hernandez, José Luis López-Presa and Jorge L. Maldonado-Correa

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 816; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060816 - 3 Jun 2016

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5583

Abstract

In this paper, a method of verification of the power performance of a wind farm is presented. This method is based on the Friedman’s test, which is a nonparametric statistical inference technique, and it uses the information that is collected by the SCADA [...] Read more.

In this paper, a method of verification of the power performance of a wind farm is presented. This method is based on the Friedman’s test, which is a nonparametric statistical inference technique, and it uses the information that is collected by the SCADA system from the sensors embedded in the wind turbines in order to carry out the power performance verification of a wind farm. Here, the guaranteed power curve of the wind turbines is used as one more wind turbine of the wind farm under assessment, and a multiple comparison method is used to investigate differences between pairs of wind turbines with respect to their power performance. The proposed method says whether the power performance of the specific wind farm under assessment differs significantly from what would be expected, and it also allows wind farm owners to know whether their wind farm has either a perfect power performance or an acceptable power performance. Finally, the power performance verification of an actual wind farm is carried out. The results of the application of the proposed method showed that the power performance of the specific wind farm under assessment was acceptable. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

A Novel Monopulse Angle Estimation Method for Wideband LFM Radars

by Yi-Xiong Zhang, Qi-Fan Liu, Ru-Jia Hong, Ping-Ping Pan and Zhen-Miao Deng

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 817; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060817 - 3 Jun 2016

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 9006

Abstract

Traditional monopulse angle estimations are mainly based on phase comparison and amplitude comparison methods, which are commonly adopted in narrowband radars. In modern radar systems, wideband radars are becoming more and more important, while the angle estimation for wideband signals is little studied [...] Read more.

Traditional monopulse angle estimations are mainly based on phase comparison and amplitude comparison methods, which are commonly adopted in narrowband radars. In modern radar systems, wideband radars are becoming more and more important, while the angle estimation for wideband signals is little studied in previous works. As noise in wideband radars has larger bandwidth than narrowband radars, the challenge lies in the accumulation of energy from the high resolution range profile (HRRP) of monopulse. In wideband radars, linear frequency modulated (LFM) signals are frequently utilized. In this paper, we investigate the monopulse angle estimation problem for wideband LFM signals. To accumulate the energy of the received echo signals from different scatterers of a target, we propose utilizing a cross-correlation operation, which can achieve a good performance in low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) conditions. In the proposed algorithm, the problem of angle estimation is converted to estimating the frequency of the cross-correlation function (CCF). Experimental results demonstrate the similar performance of the proposed algorithm compared with the traditional amplitude comparison method. It means that the proposed method for angle estimation can be adopted. When adopting the proposed method, future radars may only need wideband signals for both tracking and imaging, which can greatly increase the data rate and strengthen the capability of anti-jamming. More importantly, the estimated angle will not become ambiguous under an arbitrary angle, which can significantly extend the estimated angle range in wideband radars. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Experimental Identification of Smartphones Using Fingerprints of Built-In Micro-Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS)

by Gianmarco Baldini, Gary Steri, Franc Dimc, Raimondo Giuliani and Roman Kamnik

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 818; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060818 - 3 Jun 2016

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 6448

Abstract

The correct identification of smartphones has various applications in the field of security or the fight against counterfeiting. As the level of sophistication in counterfeit electronics increases, detection procedures must become more accurate but also not destructive for the smartphone under testing. Some [...] Read more.

The correct identification of smartphones has various applications in the field of security or the fight against counterfeiting. As the level of sophistication in counterfeit electronics increases, detection procedures must become more accurate but also not destructive for the smartphone under testing. Some components of the smartphone are more likely to reveal their authenticity even without a physical inspection, since they are characterized by hardware fingerprints detectable by simply examining the data they provide. This is the case of MEMS (Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems) components like accelerometers and gyroscopes, where tiny differences and imprecisions in the manufacturing process determine unique patterns in the data output. In this paper, we present the experimental evaluation of the identification of smartphones through their built-in MEMS components. In our study, three different phones of the same model are subject to repeatable movements (composing a repeatable scenario) using an high precision robotic arm. The measurements from MEMS for each repeatable scenario are collected and analyzed. The identification algorithm is based on the extraction of the statistical features of the collected data for each scenario. The features are used in a support vector machine (SVM) classifier to identify the smartphone. The results of the evaluation are presented for different combinations of features and Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) outputs, which show that detection accuracy of higher than 90% is achievable. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering)

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Open AccessArticle

Flexible Piezoelectric Tactile Sensor Array for Dynamic Three-Axis Force Measurement

by Ping Yu, Weiting Liu, Chunxin Gu, Xiaoying Cheng and Xin Fu

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 819; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060819 - 3 Jun 2016

Cited by 152 | Viewed by 15399

Abstract

A new flexible piezoelectric tactile sensor array based on polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) film is proposed for measuring three-axis dynamic contact force distribution. The array consists of six tactile units arranged as a 3 × 2 matrix with spacing 8 mm between neighbor units. [...] Read more.

A new flexible piezoelectric tactile sensor array based on polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) film is proposed for measuring three-axis dynamic contact force distribution. The array consists of six tactile units arranged as a 3 × 2 matrix with spacing 8 mm between neighbor units. In each unit, a PVDF film is sandwiched between four square-shaped upper electrodes and one square-shaped lower electrode, forming four piezoelectric capacitors. A truncated pyramid bump is located above the four piezoelectric capacitors to improve force transmission. A three-axis contact force transmitted from the top of the bump will lead to the four piezoelectric capacitors underneath undergoing different charge changes, from which the normal and shear components of the force can be calculated. A series of dynamic tests have been carried out by exerting sinusoidal forces with amplitudes ranging from 0 to 0.5 N in the x-axis, 0 to 0.5 N in the y-axis, and 0 to 1.5 N in the z-axis, separately. The tactile units show good sensitivities with 14.93, 14.92, and 6.62 pC/N in the x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively. They can work with good linearity, relatively low coupling effect, high repeatability, and acceptable frequency response in the range of 5–400 Hz to both normal and shear load. In addition, dynamic three-axis force measurement has been conducted for all of the tactile units. The average errors between the applied and calculated forces are 10.68% ± 6.84%. Furthermore, the sensor array can be easily integrated onto a curved surface, such as robotic and prosthetic hands, due to its excellent flexibility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Pedestrian Detection at Day/Night Time with Visible and FIR Cameras: A Comparison

by Alejandro González, Zhijie Fang, Yainuvis Socarras, Joan Serrat, David Vázquez, Jiaolong Xu and Antonio M. López

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 820; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060820 - 4 Jun 2016

Cited by 239 | Viewed by 14051

Abstract

Despite all the significant advances in pedestrian detection brought by computer vision for driving assistance, it is still a challenging problem. One reason is the extremely varying lighting conditions under which such a detector should operate, namely day and nighttime. Recent research has [...] Read more.

Despite all the significant advances in pedestrian detection brought by computer vision for driving assistance, it is still a challenging problem. One reason is the extremely varying lighting conditions under which such a detector should operate, namely day and nighttime. Recent research has shown that the combination of visible and non-visible imaging modalities may increase detection accuracy, where the infrared spectrum plays a critical role. The goal of this paper is to assess the accuracy gain of different pedestrian models (holistic, part-based, patch-based) when training with images in the far infrared spectrum. Specifically, we want to compare detection accuracy on test images recorded at day and nighttime if trained (and tested) using (a) plain color images; (b) just infrared images; and (c) both of them. In order to obtain results for the last item, we propose an early fusion approach to combine features from both modalities. We base the evaluation on a new dataset that we have built for this purpose as well as on the publicly available KAIST multispectral dataset. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vision-Based Sensors in Field Robotics)

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A New Cellular Architecture for Information Retrieval from Sensor Networks through Embedded Service and Security Protocols

by Aamir Shahzad, René Landry, Malrey Lee, Naixue Xiong, Jongho Lee and Changhoon Lee

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 821; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060821 - 14 Jun 2016

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 7150

Abstract

Substantial changes have occurred in the Information Technology (IT) sectors and with these changes, the demand for remote access to field sensor information has increased. This allows visualization, monitoring, and control through various electronic devices, such as laptops, tablets, i-Pads, PCs, and cellular [...] Read more.

Substantial changes have occurred in the Information Technology (IT) sectors and with these changes, the demand for remote access to field sensor information has increased. This allows visualization, monitoring, and control through various electronic devices, such as laptops, tablets, i-Pads, PCs, and cellular phones. The smart phone is considered as a more reliable, faster and efficient device to access and monitor industrial systems and their corresponding information interfaces anywhere and anytime. This study describes the deployment of a protocol whereby industrial system information can be securely accessed by cellular phones via a Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) server. To achieve the study goals, proprietary protocol interconnectivity with non-proprietary protocols and the usage of interconnectivity services are considered in detail. They support the visualization of the SCADA system information, and the related operations through smart phones. The intelligent sensors are configured and designated to process real information via cellular phones by employing information exchange services between the proprietary protocol and non-proprietary protocols. SCADA cellular access raises the issue of security flaws. For these challenges, a cryptography-based security method is considered and deployed, and it could be considered as a part of a proprietary protocol. Subsequently, transmission flows from the smart phones through a cellular network. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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Open AccessArticle

Abnormal Activity Detection Using Pyroelectric Infrared Sensors

by Xiaomu Luo, Huoyuan Tan, Qiuju Guan, Tong Liu, Hankz Hankui Zhuo and Baihua Shen

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 822; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060822 - 3 Jun 2016

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 8415

Abstract

Healthy aging is one of the most important social issues. In this paper, we propose a method for abnormal activity detection without any manual labeling of the training samples. By leveraging the Field of View (FOV) modulation, the spatio-temporal characteristic of human activity [...] Read more.

Healthy aging is one of the most important social issues. In this paper, we propose a method for abnormal activity detection without any manual labeling of the training samples. By leveraging the Field of View (FOV) modulation, the spatio-temporal characteristic of human activity is encoded into low-dimension data stream generated by the ceiling-mounted Pyroelectric Infrared (PIR) sensors. The similarity between normal training samples are measured based on Kullback-Leibler (KL) divergence of each pair of them. The natural clustering of normal activities is discovered through a self-tuning spectral clustering algorithm with unsupervised model selection on the eigenvectors of a modified similarity matrix. Hidden Markov Models (HMMs) are employed to model each cluster of normal activities and form feature vectors. One-Class Support Vector Machines (OSVMs) are used to profile the normal activities and detect abnormal activities. To validate the efficacy of our method, we conducted experiments in real indoor environments. The encouraging results show that our method is able to detect abnormal activities given only the normal training samples, which aims to avoid the laborious and inconsistent data labeling process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technology for Healthcare System)

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Open AccessArticle

Stride Counting in Human Walking and Walking Distance Estimation Using Insole Sensors

by Phuc Huu Truong, Jinwook Lee, Ae-Ran Kwon and Gu-Min Jeong

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 823; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060823 - 4 Jun 2016

Cited by 54 | Viewed by 11087

Abstract

This paper proposes a novel method of estimating walking distance based on a precise counting of walking strides using insole sensors. We use an inertial triaxial accelerometer and eight pressure sensors installed in the insole of a shoe to record walkers’ movement data. [...] Read more.

This paper proposes a novel method of estimating walking distance based on a precise counting of walking strides using insole sensors. We use an inertial triaxial accelerometer and eight pressure sensors installed in the insole of a shoe to record walkers’ movement data. The data is then transmitted to a smartphone to filter out noise and determine stance and swing phases. Based on phase information, we count the number of strides traveled and estimate the movement distance. To evaluate the accuracy of the proposed method, we created two walking databases on seven healthy participants and tested the proposed method. The first database, which is called the short distance database, consists of collected data from all seven healthy subjects walking on a 16 m distance. The second one, named the long distance database, is constructed from walking data of three healthy subjects who have participated in the short database for an 89 m distance. The experimental results show that the proposed method performs walking distance estimation accurately with the mean error rates of 4.8% and 3.1% for the short and long distance databases, respectively. Moreover, the maximum difference of the swing phase determination with respect to time is 0.08 s and 0.06 s for starting and stopping points of swing phases, respectively. Therefore, the stride counting method provides a highly precise result when subjects walk. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inertial Sensors and Systems 2016)

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Open AccessArticle

Point Cloud Based Relative Pose Estimation of a Satellite in Close Range

by Lujiang Liu, Gaopeng Zhao and Yuming Bo

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 824; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060824 - 4 Jun 2016

Cited by 63 | Viewed by 6402

Abstract

Determination of the relative pose of satellites is essential in space rendezvous operations and on-orbit servicing missions. The key problems are the adoption of suitable sensor on board of a chaser and efficient techniques for pose estimation. This paper aims to estimate the [...] Read more.

Determination of the relative pose of satellites is essential in space rendezvous operations and on-orbit servicing missions. The key problems are the adoption of suitable sensor on board of a chaser and efficient techniques for pose estimation. This paper aims to estimate the pose of a target satellite in close range on the basis of its known model by using point cloud data generated by a flash LIDAR sensor. A novel model based pose estimation method is proposed; it includes a fast and reliable pose initial acquisition method based on global optimal searching by processing the dense point cloud data directly, and a pose tracking method based on Iterative Closest Point algorithm. Also, a simulation system is presented in this paper in order to evaluate the performance of the sensor and generate simulated sensor point cloud data. It also provides truth pose of the test target so that the pose estimation error can be quantified. To investigate the effectiveness of the proposed approach and achievable pose accuracy, numerical simulation experiments are performed; results demonstrate algorithm capability of operating with point cloud directly and large pose variations. Also, a field testing experiment is conducted and results show that the proposed method is effective. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Accurate Vehicle Location System Using RFID, an Internet of Things Approach

by Jaco Prinsloo and Reza Malekian

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 825; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060825 - 4 Jun 2016

Cited by 71 | Viewed by 9372

Abstract

Modern infrastructure, such as dense urban areas and underground tunnels, can effectively block all GPS signals, which implies that effective position triangulation will not be achieved. The main problem that is addressed in this project is the design and implementation of an accurate [...] Read more.

Modern infrastructure, such as dense urban areas and underground tunnels, can effectively block all GPS signals, which implies that effective position triangulation will not be achieved. The main problem that is addressed in this project is the design and implementation of an accurate vehicle location system using radio-frequency identification (RFID) technology in combination with GPS and the Global system for Mobile communication (GSM) technology, in order to provide a solution to the limitation discussed above. In essence, autonomous vehicle tracking will be facilitated with the use of RFID technology where GPS signals are non-existent. The design of the system and the results are reflected in this paper. An extensive literature study was done on the field known as the Internet of Things, as well as various topics that covered the integration of independent technology in order to address a specific challenge. The proposed system is then designed and implemented. An RFID transponder was successfully designed and a read range of approximately 31 cm was obtained in the low frequency communication range (125 kHz to 134 kHz). The proposed system was designed, implemented, and field tested and it was found that a vehicle could be accurately located and tracked. It is also found that the antenna size of both the RFID reader unit and RFID transponder plays a critical role in the maximum communication range that can be achieved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Autonomous Road Vehicles)

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Open AccessArticle

Determination of Specific Losses in the Limbs of an Epstein Frame Using a Three Epstein Frame Methodology Applied to Grain Oriented Electrical Steels

by Guillaume Parent, Rémi Penin, Jean-Philippe Lecointe, Jean-François Brudny and Thierry Belgrand

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 826; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060826 - 4 Jun 2016

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5949

Abstract

An experimental method to characterize the magnetic properties of Grain Oriented Electrical Steel in the rolling direction is proposed in this paper. It relies on the use of three 25 cm Epstein frames combined to generate three test-frames of different lengths. This enables [...] Read more.

An experimental method to characterize the magnetic properties of Grain Oriented Electrical Steel in the rolling direction is proposed in this paper. It relies on the use of three 25 cm Epstein frames combined to generate three test-frames of different lengths. This enables the identification of the effective specific losses of the electrical steel when magnetization is applied along the rolling direction. As a consequence, it evidences the deviation of the loss figures obtained using the standardised Epstein test. The difference in losses is explained by the fact that the described method gives “only” the losses attached to the straight parts. The concept of the magnetic path length as defined by the standard is discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Components of Mechatronics and Micro-Electro-Mechanical-Systems (MEMS) – Modeling and Design)

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Open AccessArticle

Local Strategy Combined with a Wavelength Selection Method for Multivariate Calibration

by Haitao Chang, Lianqing Zhu, Xiaoping Lou, Xiaochen Meng, Yangkuan Guo and Zhongyu Wang

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 827; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060827 - 4 Jun 2016

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4622

Abstract

One of the essential factors influencing the prediction accuracy of multivariate calibration models is the quality of the calibration data. A local regression strategy, together with a wavelength selection approach, is proposed to build the multivariate calibration models based on partial least squares [...] Read more.

One of the essential factors influencing the prediction accuracy of multivariate calibration models is the quality of the calibration data. A local regression strategy, together with a wavelength selection approach, is proposed to build the multivariate calibration models based on partial least squares regression. The local algorithm is applied to create a calibration set of spectra similar to the spectrum of an unknown sample; the synthetic degree of grey relation coefficient is used to evaluate the similarity. A wavelength selection method based on simple-to-use interactive self-modeling mixture analysis minimizes the influence of noisy variables, and the most informative variables of the most similar samples are selected to build the multivariate calibration model based on partial least squares regression. To validate the performance of the proposed method, ultraviolet-visible absorbance spectra of mixed solutions of food coloring analytes in a concentration range of 20–200 µg/mL is measured. Experimental results show that the proposed method can not only enhance the prediction accuracy of the calibration model, but also greatly reduce its complexity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessReview

Homogeneous Biosensing Based on Magnetic Particle Labels

by Stefan Schrittwieser, Beatriz Pelaz, Wolfgang J. Parak, Sergio Lentijo-Mozo, Katerina Soulantica, Jan Dieckhoff, Frank Ludwig, Annegret Guenther, Andreas Tschöpe and Joerg Schotter

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 828; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060828 - 6 Jun 2016

Cited by 79 | Viewed by 14068

Abstract

The growing availability of biomarker panels for molecular diagnostics is leading to an increasing need for fast and sensitive biosensing technologies that are applicable to point-of-care testing. In that regard, homogeneous measurement principles are especially relevant as they usually do not require extensive [...] Read more.

The growing availability of biomarker panels for molecular diagnostics is leading to an increasing need for fast and sensitive biosensing technologies that are applicable to point-of-care testing. In that regard, homogeneous measurement principles are especially relevant as they usually do not require extensive sample preparation procedures, thus reducing the total analysis time and maximizing ease-of-use. In this review, we focus on homogeneous biosensors for the in vitro detection of biomarkers. Within this broad range of biosensors, we concentrate on methods that apply magnetic particle labels. The advantage of such methods lies in the added possibility to manipulate the particle labels by applied magnetic fields, which can be exploited, for example, to decrease incubation times or to enhance the signal-to-noise-ratio of the measurement signal by applying frequency-selective detection. In our review, we discriminate the corresponding methods based on the nature of the acquired measurement signal, which can either be based on magnetic or optical detection. The underlying measurement principles of the different techniques are discussed, and biosensing examples for all techniques are reported, thereby demonstrating the broad applicability of homogeneous in vitro biosensing based on magnetic particle label actuation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Sensor Device-Part 1)

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Open AccessArticle

Fire Source Localization Based on Distributed Temperature Sensing by a Dual-Line Optical Fiber System

by Miao Sun, Yuquan Tang, Shuang Yang, Jun Li, Markus W. Sigrist and Fengzhong Dong

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 829; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060829 - 6 Jun 2016

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 6917

Abstract

We propose a method for localizing a fire source using an optical fiber distributed temperature sensor system. A section of two parallel optical fibers employed as the sensing element is installed near the ceiling of a closed room in which the fire source [...] Read more.

We propose a method for localizing a fire source using an optical fiber distributed temperature sensor system. A section of two parallel optical fibers employed as the sensing element is installed near the ceiling of a closed room in which the fire source is located. By measuring the temperature of hot air flows, the problem of three-dimensional fire source localization is transformed to two dimensions. The method of the source location is verified with experiments using burning alcohol as fire source, and it is demonstrated that the method represents a robust and reliable technique for localizing a fire source also for long sensing ranges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Fire Detection)

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Open AccessArticle

A MEMS Resonant Sensor to Measure Fluid Density and Viscosity under Flexural and Torsional Vibrating Modes

by Libo Zhao, Yingjie Hu, Tongdong Wang, Jianjun Ding, Xixiang Liu, Yulong Zhao and Zhuangde Jiang

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 830; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060830 - 6 Jun 2016

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 8203

Abstract

Methods to calculate fluid density and viscosity using a micro-cantilever and based on the resonance principle were put forward. Their measuring mechanisms were analyzed and the theoretical equations to calculate the density and viscosity were deduced. The fluid-solid coupling simulations were completed for [...] Read more.

Methods to calculate fluid density and viscosity using a micro-cantilever and based on the resonance principle were put forward. Their measuring mechanisms were analyzed and the theoretical equations to calculate the density and viscosity were deduced. The fluid-solid coupling simulations were completed for the micro-cantilevers with different shapes. The sensing chips with micro-cantilevers were designed based on the simulation results and fabricated using the micro electromechanical systems (MEMS) technology. Finally, the MEMS resonant sensor was packaged with the sensing chip to measure the densities and viscosities of eight different fluids under the flexural and torsional vibrating modes separately. The relative errors of the measured densities from 600 kg/m³ to 900 kg/m³ and viscosities from 200 μPa·s to 1000 μPa·s were calculated and analyzed with different microcantilevers under various vibrating modes. The experimental results showed that the effects of the shape and vibrating mode of micro-cantilever on the measurement accuracies of fluid density and viscosity were analyzed in detail. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Resonator Sensors)

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Open AccessReview

A Survey on Wireless Body Area Networks for eHealthcare Systems in Residential Environments

by Mohammad Ghamari, Balazs Janko, R. Simon Sherratt, William Harwin, Robert Piechockic and Cinna Soltanpur

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 831; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060831 - 7 Jun 2016

Cited by 247 | Viewed by 31900

Abstract

Current progress in wearable and implanted health monitoring technologies has strong potential to alter the future of healthcare services by enabling ubiquitous monitoring of patients. A typical health monitoring system consists of a network of wearable or implanted sensors that constantly monitor physiological [...] Read more.

Current progress in wearable and implanted health monitoring technologies has strong potential to alter the future of healthcare services by enabling ubiquitous monitoring of patients. A typical health monitoring system consists of a network of wearable or implanted sensors that constantly monitor physiological parameters. Collected data are relayed using existing wireless communication protocols to a base station for additional processing. This article provides researchers with information to compare the existing low-power communication technologies that can potentially support the rapid development and deployment of WBAN systems, and mainly focuses on remote monitoring of elderly or chronically ill patients in residential environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Sensors for Globalized Healthy Living and Wellbeing)

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Open AccessArticle

Realistic Image Rendition Using a Variable Exponent Functional Model for Retinex

by Zeyang Dou, Kun Gao, Bin Zhang, Xinyan Yu, Lu Han and Zhenyu Zhu

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 832; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060832 - 7 Jun 2016

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5044

Abstract

The goal of realistic image rendition is to recover the acquired image under imperfect illuminant conditions, where non–uniform illumination may degrade image quality with high contrast and low SNR. In this paper, the assumption regarding illumination is modified and a variable exponent functional [...] Read more.

The goal of realistic image rendition is to recover the acquired image under imperfect illuminant conditions, where non–uniform illumination may degrade image quality with high contrast and low SNR. In this paper, the assumption regarding illumination is modified and a variable exponent functional model for Retinex is proposed to remove non–uniform illumination and reduce halo artifacts. The theoretical derivation is provided and experimental results are presented to illustrate the effectiveness of the proposed model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Piezoelectric Active Humidity Sensors Based on Lead-Free NaNbO₃ Piezoelectric Nanofibers

by Li Gu, Di Zhou and Jun Cheng Cao

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 833; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060833 - 7 Jun 2016

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 6141

Abstract

The development of micro-/nano-scaled energy harvesters and the self-powered sensor system has attracted great attention due to the miniaturization and integration of the micro-device. In this work, lead-free NaNbO₃ piezoelectric nanofibers with a monoclinic perovskite structure were synthesized by the far-field electrospinning [...] Read more.

The development of micro-/nano-scaled energy harvesters and the self-powered sensor system has attracted great attention due to the miniaturization and integration of the micro-device. In this work, lead-free NaNbO₃ piezoelectric nanofibers with a monoclinic perovskite structure were synthesized by the far-field electrospinning method. The flexible active humidity sensors were fabricated by transferring the nanofibers from silicon to a soft polymer substrate. The sensors exhibited outstanding piezoelectric energy-harvesting performance with output voltage up to 2 V during the vibration process. The output voltage generated by the NaNbO₃ sensors exhibited a negative correlation with the environmental humidity varying from 5% to 80%, where the peak-to-peak value of the output voltage generated by the sensors decreased from 0.40 to 0.07 V. The sensor also exhibited a short response time, good selectively against ethanol steam, and great temperature stability. The piezoelectric active humidity sensing property could be attributed to the increased leakage current in the NaNbO₃ nanofibers, which was generated due to proton hopping among the H₃O⁺ groups in the absorbed H₂O layers under the driving force of the piezoelectric potential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Estimating Forest Aboveground Biomass by Combining Optical and SAR Data: A Case Study in Genhe, Inner Mongolia, China

by Zhenfeng Shao and Linjing Zhang

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 834; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060834 - 7 Jun 2016

Cited by 85 | Viewed by 8124

Abstract

Estimation of forest aboveground biomass is critical for regional carbon policies and sustainable forest management. Passive optical remote sensing and active microwave remote sensing both play an important role in the monitoring of forest biomass. However, optical spectral reflectance is saturated in relatively [...] Read more.

Estimation of forest aboveground biomass is critical for regional carbon policies and sustainable forest management. Passive optical remote sensing and active microwave remote sensing both play an important role in the monitoring of forest biomass. However, optical spectral reflectance is saturated in relatively dense vegetation areas, and microwave backscattering is significantly influenced by the underlying soil when the vegetation coverage is low. Both of these conditions decrease the estimation accuracy of forest biomass. A new optical and microwave integrated vegetation index (VI) was proposed based on observations from both field experiments and satellite (Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) and RADARSAT-2) data. According to the difference in interaction between the multispectral reflectance and microwave backscattering signatures with biomass, the combined VI (COVI) was designed using the weighted optical optimized soil-adjusted vegetation index (OSAVI) and microwave horizontally transmitted and vertically received signal (HV) to overcome the disadvantages of both data types. The performance of the COVI was evaluated by comparison with those of the sole optical data, Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data, and the simple combination of independent optical and SAR variables. The most accurate performance was obtained by the models based on the COVI and optical and microwave optimal variables excluding OSAVI and HV, in combination with a random forest algorithm and the largest number of reference samples. The results also revealed that the predictive accuracy depended highly on the statistical method and the number of sample units. The validation indicated that this integrated method of determining the new VI is a good synergistic way to combine both optical and microwave information for the accurate estimation of forest biomass. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthetic Aperture Radars: Models, Algorithms, Techniques and Tools for Data Exploitation)

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Open AccessArticle

A Power-Efficient Clustering Protocol for Coal Mine Face Monitoring with Wireless Sensor Networks Under Channel Fading Conditions

by Peng Ren and Jiansheng Qian

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 835; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060835 - 7 Jun 2016

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4842

Abstract

This study proposes a novel power-efficient and anti-fading clustering based on a cross-layer that is specific to the time-varying fading characteristics of channels in the monitoring of coal mine faces with wireless sensor networks. The number of active sensor nodes and a sliding [...] Read more.

This study proposes a novel power-efficient and anti-fading clustering based on a cross-layer that is specific to the time-varying fading characteristics of channels in the monitoring of coal mine faces with wireless sensor networks. The number of active sensor nodes and a sliding window are set up such that the optimal number of cluster heads (CHs) is selected in each round. Based on a stable expected number of CHs, we explore the channel efficiency between nodes and the base station by using a probe frame and the joint surplus energy in assessing the CH selection. Moreover, the sending power of a node in different periods is regulated by the signal fade margin method. The simulation results demonstrate that compared with several common algorithms, the power-efficient and fading-aware clustering with a cross-layer (PEAFC-CL) protocol features a stable network topology and adaptability under signal time-varying fading, which effectively prolongs the lifetime of the network and reduces network packet loss, thus making it more applicable to the complex and variable environment characteristic of a coal mine face. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Internet of Things (IoT) Networks)

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Open AccessArticle

Energy Efficient IoT Data Collection in Smart Cities Exploiting D2D Communications

by Antonino Orsino, Giuseppe Araniti, Leonardo Militano, Jesus Alonso-Zarate, Antonella Molinaro and Antonio Iera

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 836; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060836 - 8 Jun 2016

Cited by 80 | Viewed by 9948

Abstract

Fifth Generation (5G) wireless systems are expected to connect an avalanche of “smart” objects disseminated from the largest “Smart City” to the smallest “Smart Home”. In this vision, Long Term Evolution-Advanced (LTE-A) is deemed to play a fundamental role in the Internet of [...] Read more.

Fifth Generation (5G) wireless systems are expected to connect an avalanche of “smart” objects disseminated from the largest “Smart City” to the smallest “Smart Home”. In this vision, Long Term Evolution-Advanced (LTE-A) is deemed to play a fundamental role in the Internet of Things (IoT) arena providing a large coherent infrastructure and a wide wireless connectivity to the devices. However, since LTE-A was originally designed to support high data rates and large data size, novel solutions are required to enable an efficient use of radio resources to convey small data packets typically exchanged by IoT applications in “smart” environments. On the other hand, the typically high energy consumption required by cellular communications is a serious obstacle to large scale IoT deployments under cellular connectivity as in the case of Smart City scenarios. Network-assisted Device-to-Device (D2D) communications are considered as a viable solution to reduce the energy consumption for the devices. The particular approach presented in this paper consists in appointing one of the IoT smart devices as a collector of all data from a cluster of objects using D2D links, thus acting as an aggregator toward the eNodeB. By smartly adapting the Modulation and Coding Scheme (MCS) on the communication links, we will show it is possible to maximize the radio resource utilization as a function of the total amount of data to be sent. A further benefit that we will highlight is the possibility to reduce the transmission power when a more robust MCS is adopted. A comprehensive performance evaluation in a wide set of scenarios will testify the achievable gains in terms of energy efficiency and resource utilization in the envisaged D2D-based IoT data collection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart City: Vision and Reality)

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Open AccessArticle

An Energy Efficient Mutual Authentication and Key Agreement Scheme Preserving Anonymity for Wireless Sensor Networks

by Yanrong Lu, Lixiang Li, Haipeng Peng and Yixian Yang

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 837; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060837 - 8 Jun 2016

Cited by 50 | Viewed by 5791

Abstract

WSNs (Wireless sensor networks) are nowadays viewed as a vital portion of the IoTs (Internet of Things). Security is a significant issue in WSNs, especially in resource-constrained environments. AKA (Authentication and key agreement) enhances the security of WSNs against adversaries attempting to get [...] Read more.

WSNs (Wireless sensor networks) are nowadays viewed as a vital portion of the IoTs (Internet of Things). Security is a significant issue in WSNs, especially in resource-constrained environments. AKA (Authentication and key agreement) enhances the security of WSNs against adversaries attempting to get sensitive sensor data. Various AKA schemes have been developed for verifying the legitimate users of a WSN. Firstly, we scrutinize Amin-Biswas’s currently scheme and demonstrate the major security loopholes in their works. Next, we propose a lightweight AKA scheme, using symmetric key cryptography based on smart card, which is resilient against all well known security attacks. Furthermore, we prove the scheme accomplishes mutual handshake and session key agreement property securely between the participates involved under BAN (Burrows, Abadi and Needham) logic. Moreover, formal security analysis and simulations are also conducted using AVISPA(Automated Validation of Internet Security Protocols and Applications) to show that our scheme is secure against active and passive attacks. Additionally, performance analysis shows that our proposed scheme is secure and efficient to apply for resource-constrained WSNs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy in Sensor Networks)

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Open AccessArticle

A Global Calibration Method for Widely Distributed Cameras Based on Vanishing Features

by Xiaolong Wu, Sentang Wu, Zhihui Xing and Xiang Jia

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 838; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060838 - 8 Jun 2016

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4316

Abstract

This paper presents a global calibration method for widely distributed vision sensors in ring-topologies. Planar target with two mutually orthogonal groups of parallel lines is needed for each camera. Firstly, the relative pose of each camera and its corresponding target is found from [...] Read more.

This paper presents a global calibration method for widely distributed vision sensors in ring-topologies. Planar target with two mutually orthogonal groups of parallel lines is needed for each camera. Firstly, the relative pose of each camera and its corresponding target is found from the vanishing points and lines. Next, an auxiliary camera is used to find the relative poses between neighboring pairs of calibration targets. Then the relative pose from each target to the reference target is initialized by the chain of transformations, followed by nonlinear optimization based on the constraint of ring-topologies. Lastly, the relative poses between the cameras are found from the relative poses of calibration targets. Synthetic data, simulation images and real experiments all demonstrate that the proposed method is reliable and accurate. The accumulated error due to multiple coordinate transformations can be adjusted effectively by the proposed method. In real experiment, eight targets are located in an area about 1200 mm × 1200 mm. The accuracy of the proposed method is about 0.465 mm when the times of coordinate transformations reach a maximum. The proposed method is simple and can be applied to different camera configurations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

High Sensitivity pH Sensor Based on Porous Silicon (PSi) Extended Gate Field-Effect Transistor

by Naif H. Al-Hardan, Muhammad Azmi Abdul Hamid, Naser M. Ahmed, Azman Jalar, Roslinda Shamsudin, Norinsan Kamil Othman, Lim Kar Keng, Weesiong Chiu and Hamzah N. Al-Rawi

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 839; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060839 - 7 Jun 2016

Cited by 69 | Viewed by 9816

Abstract

In this study, porous silicon (PSi) was prepared and tested as an extended gate field-effect transistor (EGFET) for pH sensing. The prepared PSi has pore sizes in the range of 500 to 750 nm with a depth of approximately 42 µm. The results [...] Read more.

In this study, porous silicon (PSi) was prepared and tested as an extended gate field-effect transistor (EGFET) for pH sensing. The prepared PSi has pore sizes in the range of 500 to 750 nm with a depth of approximately 42 µm. The results of testing PSi for hydrogen ion sensing in different pH buffer solutions reveal that the PSi has a sensitivity value of 66 mV/pH that is considered a super Nernstian value. The sensor considers stability to be in the pH range of 2 to 12. The hysteresis values of the prepared PSi sensor were approximately 8.2 and 10.5 mV in the low and high pH loop, respectively. The result of this study reveals a promising application of PSi in the field for detecting hydrogen ions in different solutions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Use of New and/or Improved Materials for Sensing Applications)

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Open AccessArticle

The Development of a Dual-Warhead Impact System for Dynamic Linearity Measurement of a High-g Micro-Electro-Mechanical-Systems (MEMS) Accelerometer

by Yunbo Shi, Zhicai Yang, Zongmin Ma, Huiliang Cao, Zhiwei Kou, Dan Zhi, Yanxiang Chen, Hengzhen Feng and Jun Liu

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 840; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060840 - 8 Jun 2016

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6064

Abstract

Despite its extreme significance, dynamic linearity measurement for high-g accelerometers has not been discussed experimentally in previous research. In this study, we developed a novel method using a dual-warhead Hopkinson bar to measure the dynamic linearity of a high-g acceleration sensor [...] Read more.

Despite its extreme significance, dynamic linearity measurement for high-g accelerometers has not been discussed experimentally in previous research. In this study, we developed a novel method using a dual-warhead Hopkinson bar to measure the dynamic linearity of a high-g acceleration sensor with a laser interference impact experiment. First, we theoretically determined that dynamic linearity is a performance indicator that can be used to assess the quality merits of high-g accelerometers and is the basis of the frequency response. We also found that the dynamic linearity of the dual-warhead Hopkinson bar without an accelerometer is 2.5% experimentally. Further, we verify that dynamic linearity of the accelerometer is 3.88% after calibrating the Hopkinson bar with the accelerometer. The results confirm the reliability and feasibility of measuring dynamic linearity for high-g accelerometers using this method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering)

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Open AccessArticle

Rotation Matrix Method Based on Ambiguity Function for GNSS Attitude Determination

by Yingdong Yang, Xuchu Mao and Weifeng Tian

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 841; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060841 - 8 Jun 2016

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4476

Abstract

Global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) are well suited for attitude determination. In this study, we use the rotation matrix method to resolve the attitude angle. This method achieves better performance in reducing computational complexity and selecting satellites. The condition of the baseline length [...] Read more.

Global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) are well suited for attitude determination. In this study, we use the rotation matrix method to resolve the attitude angle. This method achieves better performance in reducing computational complexity and selecting satellites. The condition of the baseline length is combined with the ambiguity function method (AFM) to search for integer ambiguity, and it is validated in reducing the span of candidates. The noise error is always the key factor to the success rate. It is closely related to the satellite geometry model. In contrast to the AFM, the LAMBDA (Least-squares AMBiguity Decorrelation Adjustment) method gets better results in solving the relationship of the geometric model and the noise error. Although the AFM is more flexible, it is lack of analysis on this aspect. In this study, the influence of the satellite geometry model on the success rate is analyzed in detail. The computation error and the noise error are effectively treated. Not only is the flexibility of the AFM inherited, but the success rate is also increased. An experiment is conducted in a selected campus, and the performance is proved to be effective. Our results are based on simulated and real-time GNSS data and are applied on single-frequency processing, which is known as one of the challenging case of GNSS attitude determination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

A Self-Organizing Interaction and Synchronization Method between a Wearable Device and Mobile Robot

by Min Su Kim, Jae Geun Lee and Soon Ju Kang

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 842; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060842 - 8 Jun 2016

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5657

Abstract

In the near future, we can expect to see robots naturally following or going ahead of humans, similar to pet behavior. We call this type of robots “Pet-Bot”. To implement this function in a robot, in this paper we introduce a self-organizing interaction [...] Read more.

In the near future, we can expect to see robots naturally following or going ahead of humans, similar to pet behavior. We call this type of robots “Pet-Bot”. To implement this function in a robot, in this paper we introduce a self-organizing interaction and synchronization method between wearable devices and Pet-Bots. First, the Pet-Bot opportunistically identifies its owner without any human intervention, which means that the robot self-identifies the owner’s approach on its own. Second, Pet-Bot’s activity is synchronized with the owner’s behavior. Lastly, the robot frequently encounters uncertain situations (e.g., when the robot goes ahead of the owner but meets a situation where it cannot make a decision, or the owner wants to stop the Pet-Bot synchronization mode to relax). In this case, we have adopted a gesture recognition function that uses a 3-D accelerometer in the wearable device. In order to achieve the interaction and synchronization in real-time, we use two wireless communication protocols: 125 kHz low-frequency (LF) and 2.4 GHz Bluetooth low energy (BLE). We conducted experiments using a prototype Pet-Bot and wearable devices to verify their motion recognition of and synchronization with humans in real-time. The results showed a guaranteed level of accuracy of at least 94%. A trajectory test was also performed to demonstrate the robot’s control performance when following or leading a human in real-time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Sensor Technologies and Applications in the Web of Things (WoT))

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Open AccessArticle

Eddy Current Pulsed Thermography with Different Excitation Configurations for Metallic Material and Defect Characterization

by Gui Yun Tian, Yunlai Gao, Kongjing Li, Yizhe Wang, Bin Gao and Yunze He

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 843; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060843 - 8 Jun 2016

Cited by 72 | Viewed by 8236

Abstract

This paper reviews recent developments of eddy current pulsed thermography (ECPT) for material characterization and nondestructive evaluation (NDE). Due to the fact that line-coil-based ECPT, with the limitation of non-uniform heating and a restricted view, is not suitable for complex geometry structures evaluation, [...] Read more.

This paper reviews recent developments of eddy current pulsed thermography (ECPT) for material characterization and nondestructive evaluation (NDE). Due to the fact that line-coil-based ECPT, with the limitation of non-uniform heating and a restricted view, is not suitable for complex geometry structures evaluation, Helmholtz coils and ferrite-yoke-based excitation configurations of ECPT are proposed and compared. Simulations and experiments of new ECPT configurations considering the multi-physical-phenomenon of hysteresis losses, stray losses, and eddy current heating in conjunction with uniform induction magnetic field have been conducted and implemented for ferromagnetic and non-ferromagnetic materials. These configurations of ECPT for metallic material and defect characterization are discussed and compared with conventional line-coil configuration. The results indicate that the proposed ECPT excitation configurations can be applied for different shapes of samples such as turbine blade edges and rail tracks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

RF Spectrum Sensing Based on an Overdamped Nonlinear Oscillator Ring for Cognitive Radios

by Zhi-Ling Tang, Si-Min Li and Li-Juan Yu

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 844; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060844 - 9 Jun 2016

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4513

Abstract

Existing spectrum-sensing techniques for cognitive radios require an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) to work at high dynamic range and a high sampling rate, resulting in high cost. Therefore, in this paper, a spectrum-sensing method based on a unidirectionally coupled, overdamped nonlinear oscillator ring is [...] Read more.

Existing spectrum-sensing techniques for cognitive radios require an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) to work at high dynamic range and a high sampling rate, resulting in high cost. Therefore, in this paper, a spectrum-sensing method based on a unidirectionally coupled, overdamped nonlinear oscillator ring is proposed. First, the numerical model of such a system is established based on the circuit of the nonlinear oscillator. Through numerical analysis of the model, the critical condition of the system’s starting oscillation is determined, and the simulation results of the system’s response to Gaussian white noise and periodic signal are presented. The results show that once the radio signal is input into the system, it starts oscillating when in the critical region, and the oscillating frequency of each element is f_o/N, where f_o is the frequency of the radio signal and N is the number of elements in the ring. The oscillation indicates that the spectrum resources at f_o are occupied. At the same time, the sampling rate required for an ADC is reduced to the original value, 1/N. A prototypical circuit to verify the functionality of the system is designed, and the sensing bandwidth of the system is measured. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Robust Image Restoration for Motion Blur of Image Sensors

by Fasheng Yang, Yongmei Huang, Yihan Luo, Lixing Li and Hongwei Li

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 845; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060845 - 9 Jun 2016

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6546

Abstract

Blind image restoration algorithms for motion blur have been deeply researched in the past years. Although great progress has been made, blurred images containing large blur and rich, small details still cannot be restored perfectly. To deal with these problems, we present a [...] Read more.

Blind image restoration algorithms for motion blur have been deeply researched in the past years. Although great progress has been made, blurred images containing large blur and rich, small details still cannot be restored perfectly. To deal with these problems, we present a robust image restoration algorithm for motion blur of general image sensors in this paper. Firstly, we propose a self-adaptive structure extraction method based on the total variation (TV) to separate the reliable structures from textures and small details of a blurred image which may damage the kernel estimation and interim latent image restoration. Secondly, we combine the reliable structures with priors of the blur kernel, such as sparsity and continuity, by a two-step method with which noise can be removed during iterations of the estimation to improve the precision of the estimated blur kernel. Finally, we use a MR-based Wiener filter as the non-blind deconvolution algorithm to restore the final latent image. Experimental results demonstrate that our algorithm can restore large blur images with rich, small details effectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Physical Layer Security Using Two-Path Successive Relaying

by Qian Yu Liau, Chee Yen Leow and Zhiguo Ding

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 846; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060846 - 9 Jun 2016

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4698

Abstract

Relaying is one of the useful techniques to enhance wireless physical-layer security. Existing literature shows that employing full-duplex relay instead of conventional half-duplex relay improves secrecy capacity and secrecy outage probability, but this is at the price of sophisticated implementation. As an alternative, [...] Read more.

Relaying is one of the useful techniques to enhance wireless physical-layer security. Existing literature shows that employing full-duplex relay instead of conventional half-duplex relay improves secrecy capacity and secrecy outage probability, but this is at the price of sophisticated implementation. As an alternative, two-path successive relaying has been proposed to emulate operation of full-duplex relay by scheduling a pair of half-duplex relays to assist the source transmission alternately. However, the performance of two-path successive relaying in secrecy communication remains unexplored. This paper proposes a secrecy two-path successive relaying protocol for a scenario with one source, one destination and two half-duplex relays. The relays operate alternately in a time division mode to forward messages continuously from source to destination in the presence of an eavesdropper. Analytical results reveal that the use of two half-duplex relays in the proposed scheme contributes towards a quadratically lower probability of interception compared to full-duplex relaying. Numerical simulations show that the proposed protocol achieves the ergodic achievable secrecy rate of full-duplex relaying while delivering the lowest probability of interception and secrecy outage probability compared to the existing half duplex relaying, full duplex relaying and full duplex jamming schemes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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Open AccessArticle

Networked Fusion Filtering from Outputs with Stochastic Uncertainties and Correlated Random Transmission Delays

by Raquel Caballero-Águila, Aurora Hermoso-Carazo and Josefa Linares-Pérez

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 847; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060847 - 8 Jun 2016

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4018

Abstract

This paper is concerned with the distributed and centralized fusion filtering problems in sensor networked systems with random one-step delays in transmissions. The delays are described by Bernoulli variables correlated at consecutive sampling times, with different characteristics at each sensor. The measured outputs [...] Read more.

This paper is concerned with the distributed and centralized fusion filtering problems in sensor networked systems with random one-step delays in transmissions. The delays are described by Bernoulli variables correlated at consecutive sampling times, with different characteristics at each sensor. The measured outputs are subject to uncertainties modeled by random parameter matrices, thus providing a unified framework to describe a wide variety of network-induced phenomena; moreover, the additive noises are assumed to be one-step autocorrelated and cross-correlated. Under these conditions, without requiring the knowledge of the signal evolution model, but using only the first and second order moments of the processes involved in the observation model, recursive algorithms for the optimal linear distributed and centralized filters under the least-squares criterion are derived by an innovation approach. Firstly, local estimators based on the measurements received from each sensor are obtained and, after that, the distributed fusion filter is generated as the least-squares matrix-weighted linear combination of the local estimators. Also, a recursive algorithm for the optimal linear centralized filter is proposed. In order to compare the estimators performance, recursive formulas for the error covariance matrices are derived in all the algorithms. The effects of the delays in the filters accuracy are analyzed in a numerical example which also illustrates how some usual network-induced uncertainties can be dealt with using the current observation model described by random matrices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Multi-Sensor Information Fusion: Theory and Applications)

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Open AccessArticle

A Novel Multi-Sensor Environmental Perception Method Using Low-Rank Representation and a Particle Filter for Vehicle Reversing Safety

by Zutao Zhang, Yanjun Li, Fubing Wang, Guanjun Meng, Waleed Salman, Layth Saleem, Xiaoliang Zhang, Chunbai Wang, Guangdi Hu and Yugang Liu

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 848; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060848 - 9 Jun 2016

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 8099

Abstract

Environmental perception and information processing are two key steps of active safety for vehicle reversing. Single-sensor environmental perception cannot meet the need for vehicle reversing safety due to its low reliability. In this paper, we present a novel multi-sensor environmental perception method using [...] Read more.

Environmental perception and information processing are two key steps of active safety for vehicle reversing. Single-sensor environmental perception cannot meet the need for vehicle reversing safety due to its low reliability. In this paper, we present a novel multi-sensor environmental perception method using low-rank representation and a particle filter for vehicle reversing safety. The proposed system consists of four main steps, namely multi-sensor environmental perception, information fusion, target recognition and tracking using low-rank representation and a particle filter, and vehicle reversing speed control modules. First of all, the multi-sensor environmental perception module, based on a binocular-camera system and ultrasonic range finders, obtains the distance data for obstacles behind the vehicle when the vehicle is reversing. Secondly, the information fusion algorithm using an adaptive Kalman filter is used to process the data obtained with the multi-sensor environmental perception module, which greatly improves the robustness of the sensors. Then the framework of a particle filter and low-rank representation is used to track the main obstacles. The low-rank representation is used to optimize an objective particle template that has the smallest L-1 norm. Finally, the electronic throttle opening and automatic braking is under control of the proposed vehicle reversing control strategy prior to any potential collisions, making the reversing control safer and more reliable. The final system simulation and practical testing results demonstrate the validity of the proposed multi-sensor environmental perception method using low-rank representation and a particle filter for vehicle reversing safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Autonomous Road Vehicles)

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Open AccessArticle

Novel Wearable Device for Blood Leakage Detection during Hemodialysis Using an Array Sensing Patch

by Yi-Chun Du, Bee-Yen Lim, Wei-Siang Ciou and Ming-Jui Wu

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 849; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060849 - 9 Jun 2016

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 10472

Abstract

Hemodialysis (HD) is a clinical treatment that requires the puncturing of the body surface. However, needle dislodgement can cause a high risk of blood leakage and can be fatal to patients. Previous studies proposed several devices for blood leakage detection using optical or [...] Read more.

Hemodialysis (HD) is a clinical treatment that requires the puncturing of the body surface. However, needle dislodgement can cause a high risk of blood leakage and can be fatal to patients. Previous studies proposed several devices for blood leakage detection using optical or electrical techniques. Nonetheless, these methods used single-point detection and the design was not suitable for multi-bed monitoring. This study proposed a novel wearable device for blood leakage monitoring during HD using an array sensing patch. The array sensing patch combined with a mapping circuit and a wireless module could measure and transmit risk levels. The different risk levels could improve the working process of healthcare workers, and enhance their work efficiency and reduce inconvenience due to false alarms. Experimental results showed that each point of the sensing array could detect up to 0.1 mL of blood leakage and the array sensing patch supports a risk level monitoring system up to 8 h to alert healthcare personnel of pertinent danger to the patients. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Advanced Materials on Microelectronic and Optical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

A Multidisciplinary Approach to High Throughput Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

by Hossein Pourmodheji, Ebrahim Ghafar-Zadeh and Sebastian Magierowski

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 850; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060850 - 9 Jun 2016

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 11490

Abstract

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) is a non-contact, powerful structure-elucidation technique for biochemical analysis. NMR spectroscopy is used extensively in a variety of life science applications including drug discovery. However, existing NMR technology is limited in that it cannot run a large number of [...] Read more.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) is a non-contact, powerful structure-elucidation technique for biochemical analysis. NMR spectroscopy is used extensively in a variety of life science applications including drug discovery. However, existing NMR technology is limited in that it cannot run a large number of experiments simultaneously in one unit. Recent advances in micro-fabrication technologies have attracted the attention of researchers to overcome these limitations and significantly accelerate the drug discovery process by developing the next generation of high-throughput NMR spectrometers using Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS). In this paper, we examine this paradigm shift and explore new design strategies for the development of the next generation of high-throughput NMR spectrometers using CMOS technology. A CMOS NMR system consists of an array of high sensitivity micro-coils integrated with interfacing radio-frequency circuits on the same chip. Herein, we first discuss the key challenges and recent advances in the field of CMOS NMR technology, and then a new design strategy is put forward for the design and implementation of highly sensitive and high-throughput CMOS NMR spectrometers. We thereafter discuss the functionality and applicability of the proposed techniques by demonstrating the results. For microelectronic researchers starting to work in the field of CMOS NMR technology, this paper serves as a tutorial with comprehensive review of state-of-the-art technologies and their performance levels. Based on these levels, the CMOS NMR approach offers unique advantages for high resolution, time-sensitive and high-throughput bimolecular analysis required in a variety of life science applications including drug discovery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Non-Contact Sensing)

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Open AccessArticle

Backward Secondary-Wave Coherence Errors in Photonic Bandgap Fiber Optic Gyroscopes

by Xiaobin Xu, Ningfang Song, Zuchen Zhang and Jing Jin

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 851; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060851 - 8 Jun 2016

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4777

Abstract

Photonic bandgap fiber optic gyroscope (PBFOG) is a novel fiber optic gyroscope (FOG) with excellent environment adaptability performance compared to a conventional FOG. In this work we find and investigate the backward secondary-wave coherence (BSC) error, which is a bias error unique to [...] Read more.

Photonic bandgap fiber optic gyroscope (PBFOG) is a novel fiber optic gyroscope (FOG) with excellent environment adaptability performance compared to a conventional FOG. In this work we find and investigate the backward secondary-wave coherence (BSC) error, which is a bias error unique to the PBFOG and caused by the interference between back-reflection-induced and backscatter-induced secondary waves. Our theoretical and experimental results show a maximum BSC error of ~4.7°/h for a 300-m PBF coil with a diameter of 10 cm. The BSC error is an important error source contributing to bias instability in the PBFOG and has to be addressed before practical applications of the PBFOG can be implemented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inertial Sensors and Systems 2016)

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Open AccessArticle

Quality Detection of Litchi Stored in Different Environments Using an Electronic Nose

by Sai Xu, Enli Lü, Huazhong Lu, Zhiyan Zhou, Yu Wang, Jing Yang and Yajuan Wang

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 852; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060852 - 8 Jun 2016

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 5718

Abstract

The purpose of this paper was to explore the utility of an electronic nose to detect the quality of litchi fruit stored in different environments. In this study, a PEN3 electronic nose was adopted to test the storage time and hardness of litchi [...] Read more.

The purpose of this paper was to explore the utility of an electronic nose to detect the quality of litchi fruit stored in different environments. In this study, a PEN3 electronic nose was adopted to test the storage time and hardness of litchi that were stored in three different types of environment (room temperature, refrigerator and controlled-atmosphere). After acquiring data about the hardness of the sample and from the electronic nose, linear discriminant analysis (LDA), canonical correlation analysis (CCA), BP neural network (BPNN) and BP neural network-partial least squares regression (BPNN-PLSR), were employed for data processing. The experimental results showed that the hardness of litchi fruits stored in all three environments decreased during storage. The litchi stored at room temperature had the fastest rate of decrease in hardness, followed by those stored in a refrigerator environment and under a controlled-atmosphere. LDA has a poor ability to classify the storage time of the three environments in which litchi was stored. BPNN can effectively recognize the storage time of litchi stored in a refrigerator and a controlled-atmosphere environment. However, the BPNN classification of the effect of room temperature storage on litchi was poor. CCA results show a significant correlation between electronic nose data and hardness data under the room temperature, and the correlation is more obvious for those under the refrigerator environment and controlled-atmosphere environment. The BPNN-PLSR can effectively predict the hardness of litchi under refrigerator storage conditions and a controlled-atmosphere environment. However, the BPNN-PLSR prediction of the effect of room temperature storage on litchi and global environment storage on litchi were poor. Thus, this experiment proved that an electronic nose can detect the quality of litchi under refrigeratored storage and a controlled-atmosphere environment. These results provide a useful reference for future studies on nondestructive and intelligent monitoring of fruit quality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Dispersion of Heat Flux Sensors Manufactured in Silicon Technology

by Katir Ziouche, Pascale Lejeune, Zahia Bougrioua and Didier Leclercq

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 853; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060853 - 9 Jun 2016

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5545

Abstract

In this paper, we focus on the dispersion performances related to the manufacturing process of heat flux sensors realized in CMOS (Complementary metal oxide semi-conductor) compatible 3-in technology. In particular, we have studied the performance dispersion of our sensors and linked these to [...] Read more.

In this paper, we focus on the dispersion performances related to the manufacturing process of heat flux sensors realized in CMOS (Complementary metal oxide semi-conductor) compatible 3-in technology. In particular, we have studied the performance dispersion of our sensors and linked these to the physical characteristics of dispersion of the materials used. This information is mandatory to ensure low-cost manufacturing and especially to reduce production rejects during the fabrication process. The results obtained show that the measured sensitivity of the sensors is in the range 3.15 to 6.56 μV/(W/m²), associated with measured resistances ranging from 485 to 675 kΩ. The dispersions correspond to a Gaussian-type distribution with more than 90% determined around average sensitivity

\bar{S_{e}}

= 4.5 µV/(W/m²) and electrical resistance

\bar{R}

= 573.5 kΩ within the interval between the average and, more or less, twice the relative standard deviation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering)

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Open AccessArticle

An IMU Evaluation Method Using a Signal Grafting Scheme

by Xiaoji Niu, Qiang Wang, You Li, Quan Zhang and Peng Jiang

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 854; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060854 - 10 Jun 2016

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 6724

Abstract

As various inertial measurement units (IMUs) from different manufacturers appear every year, it is not affordable to evaluate every IMU through tests. Therefore, this paper presents an IMU evaluation method by grafting data from the tested IMU to the reference data from a [...] Read more.

As various inertial measurement units (IMUs) from different manufacturers appear every year, it is not affordable to evaluate every IMU through tests. Therefore, this paper presents an IMU evaluation method by grafting data from the tested IMU to the reference data from a higher-grade IMU. The signal grafting (SG) method has several benefits: (a) only one set of field tests with a higher-grade IMU is needed, and can be used to evaluate numerous IMUs. Thus, SG is effective and economic because all data from the tested IMU is collected in the lab; (b) it is a general approach to compare navigation performances of various IMUs by using the same reference data; and, finally, (c) through SG, one can first evaluate an IMU in the lab, and then decide whether to further test it. Moreover, this paper verified the validity of SG to both medium- and low-grade IMUs, and presents and compared two SG strategies, i.e., the basic-error strategy and the full-error strategy. SG provided results similar to field tests, with a difference of under 5% and 19.4%–26.7% for tested tactical-grade and MEMS IMUs. Meanwhile, it was found that dynamic IMU errors were essential to guarantee the effect of the SG method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inertial Sensors and Systems 2016)

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Open AccessArticle

Reliability Evaluation for Clustered WSNs under Malware Propagation

by Shigen Shen, Longjun Huang, Jianhua Liu, Adam C. Champion, Shui Yu and Qiying Cao

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 855; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060855 - 10 Jun 2016

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 5655

Abstract

We consider a clustered wireless sensor network (WSN) under epidemic-malware propagation conditions and solve the problem of how to evaluate its reliability so as to ensure efficient, continuous, and dependable transmission of sensed data from sensor nodes to the sink. Facing the contradiction [...] Read more.

We consider a clustered wireless sensor network (WSN) under epidemic-malware propagation conditions and solve the problem of how to evaluate its reliability so as to ensure efficient, continuous, and dependable transmission of sensed data from sensor nodes to the sink. Facing the contradiction between malware intention and continuous-time Markov chain (CTMC) randomness, we introduce a strategic game that can predict malware infection in order to model a successful infection as a CTMC state transition. Next, we devise a novel measure to compute the Mean Time to Failure (MTTF) of a sensor node, which represents the reliability of a sensor node continuously performing tasks such as sensing, transmitting, and fusing data. Since clustered WSNs can be regarded as parallel-serial-parallel systems, the reliability of a clustered WSN can be evaluated via classical reliability theory. Numerical results show the influence of parameters such as the true positive rate and the false positive rate on a sensor node’s MTTF. Furthermore, we validate the method of reliability evaluation for a clustered WSN according to the number of sensor nodes in a cluster, the number of clusters in a route, and the number of routes in the WSN. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy in Sensor Networks)

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Open AccessArticle

A Core-Offset Mach Zehnder Interferometer Based on A Non-Zero Dispersion-Shifted Fiber and Its Torsion Sensing Application

by Eduardo Huerta-Mascotte, Juan M. Sierra-Hernandez, Ruth I. Mata-Chavez, Daniel Jauregui-Vazquez, Arturo Castillo-Guzman, Julian M. Estudillo-Ayala, Ana D. Guzman-Chavez and Roberto Rojas-Laguna

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 856; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060856 - 10 Jun 2016

Cited by 49 | Viewed by 7444

Abstract

In this paper, an all-fiber Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI) based on a non-zero dispersion-shifted fiber (NZ-DSF) is presented. The MZI was implemented by core-offset fusion splicing one section of a NZ-DSF fiber between two pieces of single mode fibers (SMFs). Here, the NZ-DSF core [...] Read more.

In this paper, an all-fiber Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI) based on a non-zero dispersion-shifted fiber (NZ-DSF) is presented. The MZI was implemented by core-offset fusion splicing one section of a NZ-DSF fiber between two pieces of single mode fibers (SMFs). Here, the NZ-DSF core and cladding were used as the arms of the MZI, while the core-offset sections acted as optical fiber couplers. Thus, a MZI interference spectrum with a fringe contrast (FC) of about 20 dB was observed. Moreover, its response spectrum was experimentally characterized to the torsion parameter and a sensitivity of 0.070 nm/° was achieved. Finally, these MZIs can be implemented in a compact size and low cost. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Fiber Sensors 2016)

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Open AccessArticle

Field Measurements and Numerical Simulations of Temperature and Moisture in Highway Engineering Using a Frequency Domain Reflectometry Sensor

by Yong-Sheng Yao, Jian-Long Zheng, Zeng-Shun Chen, Jun-Hui Zhang and Yong Li

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 857; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060857 - 10 Jun 2016

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 6456

Abstract

This paper presents a systematic pioneering study on the use of agricultural-purpose frequency domain reflectometry (FDR) sensors to monitor temperature and moisture of a subgrade in highway extension and reconstruction engineering. The principle of agricultural-purpose FDR sensors and the process for embedding this [...] Read more.

This paper presents a systematic pioneering study on the use of agricultural-purpose frequency domain reflectometry (FDR) sensors to monitor temperature and moisture of a subgrade in highway extension and reconstruction engineering. The principle of agricultural-purpose FDR sensors and the process for embedding this kind of sensors for subgrade engineering purposes are introduced. Based on field measured weather data, a numerical analysis model for temperature and moisture content in the subgrade’s soil is built. Comparisons of the temperature and moisture data obtained from numerical simulation and FDR-based measurements are conducted. The results show that: (1) the embedding method and process, data acquisition, and remote transmission presented are reasonable; (2) the temperature and moisture changes are coordinated with the atmospheric environment and they are also in close agreement with numerical calculations; (3) the change laws of both are consistent at positions where the subgrade is compacted uniformly. These results suggest that the data measured by the agricultural-purpose FDR sensors are reliable. The findings of this paper enable a new and effective real-time monitoring method for a subgrade’s temperature and moisture changes, and thus broaden the application of agricultural-purpose FDR sensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Agriculture)

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Open AccessArticle

Improving the Accuracy of Laplacian Estimation with Novel Variable Inter-Ring Distances Concentric Ring Electrodes

by Oleksandr Makeyev and Walter G. Besio

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 858; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060858 - 10 Jun 2016

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5025

Abstract

Noninvasive concentric ring electrodes are a promising alternative to conventional disc electrodes. Currently, the superiority of tripolar concentric ring electrodes over disc electrodes, in particular, in accuracy of Laplacian estimation, has been demonstrated in a range of applications. In our recent work, we [...] Read more.

Noninvasive concentric ring electrodes are a promising alternative to conventional disc electrodes. Currently, the superiority of tripolar concentric ring electrodes over disc electrodes, in particular, in accuracy of Laplacian estimation, has been demonstrated in a range of applications. In our recent work, we have shown that accuracy of Laplacian estimation can be improved with multipolar concentric ring electrodes using a general approach to estimation of the Laplacian for an (n + 1)-polar electrode with n rings using the (4n + 1)-point method for n ≥ 2. This paper takes the next step toward further improving the Laplacian estimate by proposing novel variable inter-ring distances concentric ring electrodes. Derived using a modified (4n + 1)-point method, linearly increasing and decreasing inter-ring distances tripolar (n = 2) and quadripolar (n = 3) electrode configurations are compared to their constant inter-ring distances counterparts. Finite element method modeling and analytic results are consistent and suggest that increasing inter-ring distances electrode configurations may decrease the truncation error resulting in more accurate Laplacian estimates compared to respective constant inter-ring distances configurations. For currently used tripolar electrode configuration, the truncation error may be decreased more than two-fold, while for the quadripolar configuration more than a six-fold decrease is expected. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Noninvasive Biomedical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Influence and Correction from the Human Body on the Measurement of a Power-Frequency Electric Field Sensor

by Dongping Xiao, Huaitong Liu, Qiang Zhou, Yutong Xie and Qichao Ma

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 859; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060859 - 10 Jun 2016

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4878

Abstract

According to the operating specifications of existing electric field measuring instruments, measuring technicians must be located far from the instruments to eliminate the influence of the human body occupancy on a spatial electric field. Nevertheless, in order to develop a portable safety protection [...] Read more.

According to the operating specifications of existing electric field measuring instruments, measuring technicians must be located far from the instruments to eliminate the influence of the human body occupancy on a spatial electric field. Nevertheless, in order to develop a portable safety protection instrument with an effective electric field warning function for working staff in a high-voltage environment, it is necessary to study the influence of an approaching human body on the measurement of an electric field and to correct the measurement results. A single-shaft electric field measuring instrument called the Type LP-2000, which was developed by our research team, is used as the research object in this study. First, we explain the principle of electric field measurement and describe the capacitance effect produced by the human body. Through a theoretical analysis, we show that the measured electric field value decreases as a human body approaches. Their relationship is linearly proportional. Then, the ratio is identified as a correction coefficient to correct for the influence of human body proximity. The conclusion drawn from the theoretical analysis is proved via simulation. The correction coefficient k_b = 1.8010 is obtained on the basis of the linear fitting of simulated data. Finally, a physical experiment is performed. When no human is present, we compare the results from the Type LP-2000 measured with Narda EFA-300 and the simulated value to verify the accuracy of the Type LP-2000. For the case of an approaching human body, the correction coefficient k_b* = 1.9094 is obtained by comparing the data measured with the Type LP-2000 to the simulated value. The correction coefficient obtained from the experiment (i.e., k_b*) is highly consistent with that obtained from the simulation (i.e., k_b). Two experimental programs are set; under these programs, the excitation voltages and distance measuring points are regulated to produce different electric field intensities. Using k_b = 1.9094, the corrected measurement of electric field intensity can accurately reflect the original environmental electric field intensity, and the maximal error is less than 6% in all the data comparisons. These results verify the effectiveness of our proposed method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Acoustic Sensor Design for Dark Matter Bubble Chamber Detectors

by Ivan Felis, Juan Antonio Martínez-Mora and Miguel Ardid

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 860; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060860 - 10 Jun 2016

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 6739

Abstract

Dark matter bubble chamber detectors use piezoelectric sensors in order to detect and discriminate the acoustic signals emitted by the bubbles grown within the superheated fluid from a nuclear recoil produced by a particle interaction. These sensors are attached to the outside walls [...] Read more.

Dark matter bubble chamber detectors use piezoelectric sensors in order to detect and discriminate the acoustic signals emitted by the bubbles grown within the superheated fluid from a nuclear recoil produced by a particle interaction. These sensors are attached to the outside walls of the vessel containing the fluid. The acoustic discrimination depends strongly on the properties of the sensor attached to the outer wall of the vessel that has to meet the requirements of radiopurity and size. With the aim of optimizing the sensor system, a test bench for the characterization of the sensors has been developed. The sensor response for different piezoelectric materials, geometries, matching layers, and backing layers have been measured and contrasted with FEM simulations and analytical models. The results of these studies lead us to have a design criterion for the construction of specific sensors for the next generation of dark matter bubble chamber detectors (250 L). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 2nd International Electronic Conference on Sensors and Applications)

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Open AccessArticle

Wavelet-Based Visible and Infrared Image Fusion: A Comparative Study

by Angel D. Sappa, Juan A. Carvajal, Cristhian A. Aguilera, Miguel Oliveira, Dennis Romero and Boris X. Vintimilla

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 861; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060861 - 10 Jun 2016

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 7442

Abstract

This paper evaluates different wavelet-based cross-spectral image fusion strategies adopted to merge visible and infrared images. The objective is to find the best setup independently of the evaluation metric used to measure the performance. Quantitative performance results are obtained with state of the [...] Read more.

This paper evaluates different wavelet-based cross-spectral image fusion strategies adopted to merge visible and infrared images. The objective is to find the best setup independently of the evaluation metric used to measure the performance. Quantitative performance results are obtained with state of the art approaches together with adaptations proposed in the current work. The options evaluated in the current work result from the combination of different setups in the wavelet image decomposition stage together with different fusion strategies for the final merging stage that generates the resulting representation. Most of the approaches evaluate results according to the application for which they are intended for. Sometimes a human observer is selected to judge the quality of the obtained results. In the current work, quantitative values are considered in order to find correlations between setups and performance of obtained results; these correlations can be used to define a criteria for selecting the best fusion strategy for a given pair of cross-spectral images. The whole procedure is evaluated with a large set of correctly registered visible and infrared image pairs, including both Near InfraRed (NIR) and Long Wave InfraRed (LWIR). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infrared and THz Sensing and Imaging)

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Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Mode Decomposition of Fast Pressure Sensitive Paint Data

by Mohd Y. Ali, Anshuman Pandey and James W. Gregory

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 862; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060862 - 11 Jun 2016

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 8031

Abstract

Fast-response pressure sensitive paint (PSP) is used in this work to measure and analyze the acoustic pressure field in a rectangular cavity. The high spatial resolution and fast frequency response of PSP effectively captures the spatial and temporal detail of surface pressure resulting [...] Read more.

Fast-response pressure sensitive paint (PSP) is used in this work to measure and analyze the acoustic pressure field in a rectangular cavity. The high spatial resolution and fast frequency response of PSP effectively captures the spatial and temporal detail of surface pressure resulting in the acoustic pressure field. In this work, a high-speed camera is used to generate a continuous time record of the acoustic pressure fluctuations with PSP. Since the level of the acoustic pressure is near the resolution limit of the sensor system, advanced analysis techniques are used to extract the spatial modes of the pressure field. Both dynamic mode decomposition (DMD) and proper orthogonal decomposition (POD) are compared with phase averaging for data analysis. While all three techniques effectively extract the pressure field and reduce the impact of sensor noise, DMD and POD are more robust techniques that can be applied to aperiodic or multi-frequency signals. Furthermore, DMD is better than POD at suppressing noise in particular regions of the spectrum and at effectively separating spectral energy when multiple acoustic excitation frequencies are present. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Recognition of Banknote Fitness Based on a Fuzzy System Using Visible Light Reflection and Near-infrared Light Transmission Images

by Seung Yong Kwon, Tuyen Danh Pham, Kang Ryoung Park, Dae Sik Jeong and Sungsoo Yoon

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 863; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060863 - 11 Jun 2016

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 6499

Abstract

Fitness classification is a technique to assess the quality of banknotes in order to determine whether they are usable. Banknote classification techniques are useful in preventing problems that arise from the circulation of substandard banknotes (such as recognition failures, or bill jams in [...] Read more.

Fitness classification is a technique to assess the quality of banknotes in order to determine whether they are usable. Banknote classification techniques are useful in preventing problems that arise from the circulation of substandard banknotes (such as recognition failures, or bill jams in automated teller machines (ATMs) or bank counting machines). By and large, fitness classification continues to be carried out by humans, and this can cause the problem of varying fitness classifications for the same bill by different evaluators, and requires a lot of time. To address these problems, this study proposes a fuzzy system-based method that can reduce the processing time needed for fitness classification, and can determine the fitness of banknotes through an objective, systematic method rather than subjective judgment. Our algorithm was an implementation to actual banknote counting machine. Based on the results of tests on 3856 banknotes in United States currency (USD), 3956 in Korean currency (KRW), and 2300 banknotes in Indian currency (INR) using visible light reflection (VR) and near-infrared light transmission (NIRT) imaging, the proposed method was found to yield higher accuracy than prevalent banknote fitness classification methods. Moreover, it was confirmed that the proposed algorithm can operate in real time, not only in a normal PC environment, but also in an embedded system environment of a banknote counting machine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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695 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gyro Drift Correction for An Indirect Kalman Filter Based Sensor Fusion Driver

by Chan-Gun Lee, Nhu-Ngoc Dao, Seonmin Jang, Deokhwan Kim, Yonghun Kim and Sungrae Cho

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 864; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060864 - 11 Jun 2016

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 8300

Abstract

Sensor fusion techniques have made a significant contribution to the success of the recently emerging mobile applications era because a variety of mobile applications operate based on multi-sensing information from the surrounding environment, such as navigation systems, fitness trackers, interactive virtual reality games, [...] Read more.

Sensor fusion techniques have made a significant contribution to the success of the recently emerging mobile applications era because a variety of mobile applications operate based on multi-sensing information from the surrounding environment, such as navigation systems, fitness trackers, interactive virtual reality games, etc. For these applications, the accuracy of sensing information plays an important role to improve the user experience (UX) quality, especially with gyroscopes and accelerometers. Therefore, in this paper, we proposed a novel mechanism to resolve the gyro drift problem, which negatively affects the accuracy of orientation computations in the indirect Kalman filter based sensor fusion. Our mechanism focuses on addressing the issues of external feedback loops and non-gyro error elements contained in the state vectors of an indirect Kalman filter. Moreover, the mechanism is implemented in the device-driver layer, providing lower process latency and transparency capabilities for the upper applications. These advances are relevant to millions of legacy applications since utilizing our mechanism does not require the existing applications to be re-programmed. The experimental results show that the root mean square errors (RMSE) before and after applying our mechanism are significantly reduced from 6.3 × 10⁻¹ to 5.3 × 10⁻⁷, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Multi-Sensor Information Fusion: Theory and Applications)

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Open AccessArticle

Label-Free Fluorescence Assay of S1 Nuclease and Hydroxyl Radicals Based on Water-Soluble Conjugated Polymers and WS₂ Nanosheets

by Junting Li, Qi Zhao and Yanli Tang

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 865; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060865 - 13 Jun 2016

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 6380

Abstract

We developed a new method for detecting S1 nuclease and hydroxyl radicals based on the use of water-soluble conjugated poly[9,9-bis(6,6-(N,N,N-trimethylammonium)-fluorene)-2,7-ylenevinylene-co-alt-2,5-dicyano-1,4-phenylene)] (PFVCN) and tungsten disulfide (WS₂) nanosheets_. Cationic PFVCN is used as a signal reporter, and single-layer WS₂ [...] Read more.

We developed a new method for detecting S1 nuclease and hydroxyl radicals based on the use of water-soluble conjugated poly[9,9-bis(6,6-(N,N,N-trimethylammonium)-fluorene)-2,7-ylenevinylene-co-alt-2,5-dicyano-1,4-phenylene)] (PFVCN) and tungsten disulfide (WS₂) nanosheets_. Cationic PFVCN is used as a signal reporter, and single-layer WS₂ is used as a quencher with a negatively charged surface. The ssDNA forms complexes with PFVCN due to much stronger electrostatic interactions between cationic PFVCN and anionic ssDNA, whereas PFVCN emits yellow fluorescence. When ssDNA is hydrolyzed by S1 nuclease or hydroxyl radicals into small fragments, the interactions between the fragmented DNA and PFVCN become weaker, resulting in PFVCN being adsorbed on the surface of WS₂ and the fluorescence being quenched through fluorescence resonance energy transfer. The new method based on PFVCN and WS₂ can sense S1 nuclease with a low detection limit of 5 × 10⁻⁶ U/mL. Additionally, this method is cost-effective by using affordable WS₂ as an energy acceptor without the need for dye-labeled ssDNA. Furthermore, the method provides a new platform for the nuclease assay and reactive oxygen species, and provides promising applications for drug screening. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Label-Free Optical Biosensors)

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Open AccessArticle

RTM Production Monitoring of the A380 Hinge Arm Droop Nose Mechanism: A Multi-Sensor Approach

by Gabriele Chiesura, Alfredo Lamberti, Yang Yang, Geert Luyckx, Wim Van Paepegem, Steve Vanlanduit, Jan Vanfleteren and Joris Degrieck

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 866; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060866 - 14 Jun 2016

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 8365

Abstract

This research presents a case study of production monitoring on an aerospace composite component: the hinge arm of the droop nose mechanism on the Airbus A380 wing leading edge. A sensor network composed of Fibre Bragg Gratings, capacitive sensors for cure monitoring and [...] Read more.

This research presents a case study of production monitoring on an aerospace composite component: the hinge arm of the droop nose mechanism on the Airbus A380 wing leading edge. A sensor network composed of Fibre Bragg Gratings, capacitive sensors for cure monitoring and thermocouples was embedded in its fibre reinforced lay-up and measurements were acquired throughout its Resin Transfer Moulding production process. Two main challenges had to be overcome: first, the integration of the sensor lines in the existing Resin Transfer Moulding mould without modifying it; second, the demoulding of the component without damaging the sensor lines. The proposed embedding solution has proved successful. The wavelength shifts of the Fibre Bragg Gratings were observed from the initial production stages, over the resin injection, the complete curing of the resin and the cooling-down prior to demoulding. The sensors proved to be sensitive to detecting the resin flow front, vacuum and pressure increase into the mould and the temperature increase caused by the resin curing. Measurements were also acquired during the post-curing cycle. Residual strains during all steps of the process were derived from the sensors’ wavelength shift, showing values up to 0.2% in compression. Moreover, the capacitive sensors were able to follow-up the curing degree during the production process. The sensors proved able to detect the resin flow front, whereas thermocouples could not measure an appreciable increase of temperature due to the fact that the resin had the same temperature as the mould. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Structural Health Monitoring in Polymeric Composites)

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Open AccessArticle

Design and Performance Analysis of an Intrinsically Safe Ultrasonic Ranging Sensor

by Hongjuan Zhang, Yu Wang, Xu Zhang, Dong Wang and Baoquan Jin

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 867; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060867 - 13 Jun 2016

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 10975

Abstract

In flammable or explosive environments, an ultrasonic sensor for distance measurement poses an important engineering safety challenge, because the driving circuit uses an intermediate frequency transformer as an impedance transformation element, in which the produced heat or spark is available for ignition. In [...] Read more.

In flammable or explosive environments, an ultrasonic sensor for distance measurement poses an important engineering safety challenge, because the driving circuit uses an intermediate frequency transformer as an impedance transformation element, in which the produced heat or spark is available for ignition. In this paper, an intrinsically safe ultrasonic ranging sensor is designed and implemented. The waterproof piezoelectric transducer with integrated transceiver is chosen as an energy transducing element. Then a novel transducer driving circuit is designed based on an impedance matching method considering safety spark parameters to replace an intermediate frequency transformer. Then, an energy limiting circuit is developed to achieve dual levels of over-voltage and over-current protection. The detail calculation and evaluation are executed and the electrical characteristics are analyzed to verify the intrinsic safety of the driving circuit. Finally, an experimental platform of the ultrasonic ranging sensor system is constructed, which involves short-circuit protection. Experimental results show that the proposed ultrasonic ranging sensor is excellent in both ranging performance and intrinsic safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

A Comparative Study of Anomaly Detection Techniques for Smart City Wireless Sensor Networks

by Victor Garcia-Font, Carles Garrigues and Helena Rifà-Pous

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 868; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060868 - 13 Jun 2016

Cited by 101 | Viewed by 9600

Abstract

In many countries around the world, smart cities are becoming a reality. These cities contribute to improving citizens’ quality of life by providing services that are normally based on data extracted from wireless sensor networks (WSN) and other elements of the Internet of [...] Read more.

In many countries around the world, smart cities are becoming a reality. These cities contribute to improving citizens’ quality of life by providing services that are normally based on data extracted from wireless sensor networks (WSN) and other elements of the Internet of Things. Additionally, public administration uses these smart city data to increase its efficiency, to reduce costs and to provide additional services. However, the information received at smart city data centers is not always accurate, because WSNs are sometimes prone to error and are exposed to physical and computer attacks. In this article, we use real data from the smart city of Barcelona to simulate WSNs and implement typical attacks. Then, we compare frequently used anomaly detection techniques to disclose these attacks. We evaluate the algorithms under different requirements on the available network status information. As a result of this study, we conclude that one-class Support Vector Machines is the most appropriate technique. We achieve a true positive rate at least 56% higher than the rates achieved with the other compared techniques in a scenario with a maximum false positive rate of 5% and a 26% higher in a scenario with a false positive rate of 15%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy in Sensor Networks)

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Open AccessArticle

A Novel Azimuth Super-Resolution Method by Synthesizing Azimuth Bandwidth of Multiple Tracks of Airborne Stripmap SAR Data

by Yan Wang, Jingwen Li, Bing Sun and Jian Yang

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 869; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060869 - 13 Jun 2016

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 6418

Abstract

Azimuth resolution of airborne stripmap synthetic aperture radar (SAR) is restricted by the azimuth antenna size. Conventionally, a higher azimuth resolution should be achieved by employing alternate modes that steer the beam in azimuth to enlarge the synthetic antenna aperture. However, if a [...] Read more.

Azimuth resolution of airborne stripmap synthetic aperture radar (SAR) is restricted by the azimuth antenna size. Conventionally, a higher azimuth resolution should be achieved by employing alternate modes that steer the beam in azimuth to enlarge the synthetic antenna aperture. However, if a data set of a certain region, consisting of multiple tracks of airborne stripmap SAR data, is available, the azimuth resolution of specific small region of interest (ROI) can be conveniently improved by a novel azimuth super-resolution method as introduced by this paper. The proposed azimuth super-resolution method synthesize the azimuth bandwidth of the data selected from multiple discontinuous tracks and contributes to a magnifier-like function with which the ROI can be further zoomed in with a higher azimuth resolution than that of the original stripmap images. Detailed derivation of the azimuth super-resolution method, including the steps of two-dimensional dechirping, residual video phase (RVP) removal, data stitching and data correction, is provided. The restrictions of the proposed method are also discussed. Lastly, the presented approach is evaluated via both the single- and multi-target computer simulations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthetic Aperture Radars: Models, Algorithms, Techniques and Tools for Data Exploitation)

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Open AccessReview

SPR and SPR Imaging: Recent Trends in Developing Nanodevices for Detection and Real-Time Monitoring of Biomolecular Events

by Mihaela Puiu and Camelia Bala

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 870; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060870 - 14 Jun 2016

Cited by 139 | Viewed by 13838

Abstract

In this paper we review the underlying principles of the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) technique, particularly emphasizing its advantages along with its limitations regarding the ability to discriminate between the specific binding response and the interfering effects from biological samples. While SPR sensors [...] Read more.

In this paper we review the underlying principles of the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) technique, particularly emphasizing its advantages along with its limitations regarding the ability to discriminate between the specific binding response and the interfering effects from biological samples. While SPR sensors were developed almost three decades, SPR detection is not yet able to reduce the time-consuming steps of the analysis, and is hardly amenable for miniaturized, portable platforms required in point-of-care (POC) testing. Recent advances in near-field optics have emerged, resulting in the development of SPR imaging (SPRi) as a powerful optical, label-free monitoring tool for multiplexed detection and monitoring of biomolecular events. The microarrays design of the SPRi chips incorporating various metallic nanostructures make these optofluidic devices more suitable for diagnosis and near-patient testing than the traditional SPR sensors. The latest developments indicate SPRi detection as being the most promising surface plasmon-based technique fulfilling the demands for implementation in lab-on-a-chip (LOC) technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue SPR, WGM & Nano-Sensors: Advantages and Prospects)

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Open AccessArticle

Feature Selection Method Based on Neighborhood Relationships: Applications in EEG Signal Identification and Chinese Character Recognition

by Yu-Xiang Zhao and Chien-Hsing Chou

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 871; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060871 - 14 Jun 2016

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5118

Abstract

In this study, a new feature selection algorithm, the neighborhood-relationship feature selection (NRFS) algorithm, is proposed for identifying rat electroencephalogram signals and recognizing Chinese characters. In these two applications, dependent relationships exist among the feature vectors and their neighboring feature vectors. Therefore, the [...] Read more.

In this study, a new feature selection algorithm, the neighborhood-relationship feature selection (NRFS) algorithm, is proposed for identifying rat electroencephalogram signals and recognizing Chinese characters. In these two applications, dependent relationships exist among the feature vectors and their neighboring feature vectors. Therefore, the proposed NRFS algorithm was designed for solving this problem. By applying the NRFS algorithm, unselected feature vectors have a high priority of being added into the feature subset if the neighboring feature vectors have been selected. In addition, selected feature vectors have a high priority of being eliminated if the neighboring feature vectors are not selected. In the experiments conducted in this study, the NRFS algorithm was compared with two feature algorithms. The experimental results indicated that the NRFS algorithm can extract the crucial frequency bands for identifying rat vigilance states and identifying crucial character regions for recognizing Chinese characters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Noninvasive Biomedical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Calibration of the Hall Measurement System for a 6-DOF Precision Stage Using Self-Adaptive Hybrid TLBO

by Zhenyu Chen, Yang Liu, Zhenxian Fu, Shenmin Song and Jiubin Tan

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 872; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060872 - 14 Jun 2016

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5017

Abstract

To determine the planar motion of a 6-DOF precision stage, a measurement system based on three Hall sensors is adopted to obtain the X, Y, Rz motions of the stage. The machining and assembly errors in the actual mechanical system, which are difficult [...] Read more.

To determine the planar motion of a 6-DOF precision stage, a measurement system based on three Hall sensors is adopted to obtain the X, Y, Rz motions of the stage. The machining and assembly errors in the actual mechanical system, which are difficult to measure directly, cause the parameters in the model of the Hall measurement system to deviate from their designed values. Additionally, the vertical movement of the stage will render the measurement model nonlinear. To guarantee the accuracy of the measurement, the parameters in the measurement model should be estimated and the nonlinearity compensated. In this paper, a novel approach based on self-adaptive hybrid TLBO (teaching-learning-based-optimization) is proposed to estimate the parameters in the Hall measurement model. The influences of zero deviations and vertical movements on the measurement accuracy are analyzed and compensated. The effectiveness of the proposed method is validated by experimental results obtained on a 6-DOF precision stage. Thanks to parameter estimation and calibration, the measurement error of the Hall sensor array is reduced to 6 micrometers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

GMTI for Squint Looking XTI-SAR with Rotatable Forward-Looking Array

by Kai Jing, Jia Xu, Zuzhen Huang, Di Yao and Teng Long

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 873; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060873 - 14 Jun 2016

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 6526

Abstract

To realize ground moving target indication (GMTI) for a forward-looking array, we propose a novel synthetic aperture radar (SAR) system, called rotatable cross-track interferometry SAR (Ro-XTI-SAR), for squint-looking application in this paper. By changing the angle of the cross-track baseline, the interferometry phase [...] Read more.

To realize ground moving target indication (GMTI) for a forward-looking array, we propose a novel synthetic aperture radar (SAR) system, called rotatable cross-track interferometry SAR (Ro-XTI-SAR), for squint-looking application in this paper. By changing the angle of the cross-track baseline, the interferometry phase component of squint-looking Ro-XTI-SAR caused by the terrain height can be approximately adjusted to zero, and then the interferometry phase of Ro-XTI-SAR is only sensitive to targets’ motion and can be equivalent to the along track interferometry SAR (ATI-SAR). Furthermore, the conventional displaced phase center array (DPCA) method and constant false alarm (CFAR) processing can be used to accomplish the successive clutter suppression, moving targets detection and relocation. Furthermore, the clutter suppressing performance is discussed with respect to different system parameters. Finally, some results of numerical experiments are provided to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthetic Aperture Radars: Models, Algorithms, Techniques and Tools for Data Exploitation)

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Open AccessArticle

Estimating 3D Leaf and Stem Shape of Nursery Paprika Plants by a Novel Multi-Camera Photography System

by Yu Zhang, Poching Teng, Yo Shimizu, Fumiki Hosoi and Kenji Omasa

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 874; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060874 - 14 Jun 2016

Cited by 48 | Viewed by 9258

Abstract

For plant breeding and growth monitoring, accurate measurements of plant structure parameters are very crucial. We have, therefore, developed a high efficiency Multi-Camera Photography (MCP) system combining Multi-View Stereovision (MVS) with the Structure from Motion (SfM) algorithm. In this paper, we measured six [...] Read more.

For plant breeding and growth monitoring, accurate measurements of plant structure parameters are very crucial. We have, therefore, developed a high efficiency Multi-Camera Photography (MCP) system combining Multi-View Stereovision (MVS) with the Structure from Motion (SfM) algorithm. In this paper, we measured six variables of nursery paprika plants and investigated the accuracy of 3D models reconstructed from photos taken by four lens types at four different positions. The results demonstrated that error between the estimated and measured values was small, and the root-mean-square errors (RMSE) for leaf width/length and stem height/diameter were 1.65 mm (R² = 0.98) and 0.57 mm (R² = 0.99), respectively. The accuracies of the 3D model reconstruction of leaf and stem by a 28-mm lens at the first and third camera positions were the highest, and the number of reconstructed fine-scale 3D model shape surfaces of leaf and stem is the most. The results confirmed the practicability of our new method for the reconstruction of fine-scale plant model and accurate estimation of the plant parameters. They also displayed that our system is a good system for capturing high-resolution 3D images of nursery plants with high efficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Non-Contact Sensing)

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Open AccessArticle

Nondestructive Evaluation of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites Using Reflective Terahertz Imaging

by Jin Zhang, Wei Li, Hong-Liang Cui, Changcheng Shi, Xiaohui Han, Yuting Ma, Jiandong Chen, Tianying Chang, Dongshan Wei, Yumin Zhang and Yufeng Zhou

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 875; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060875 - 14 Jun 2016

Cited by 41 | Viewed by 7512

Abstract

Terahertz (THz) time-domain spectroscopy (TDS) imaging is considered a nondestructive evaluation method for composite materials used for examining various defects of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites and fire-retardant coatings in the reflective imaging modality. We demonstrate that hidden defects simulated by Teflon [...] Read more.

Terahertz (THz) time-domain spectroscopy (TDS) imaging is considered a nondestructive evaluation method for composite materials used for examining various defects of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites and fire-retardant coatings in the reflective imaging modality. We demonstrate that hidden defects simulated by Teflon artificial inserts are imaged clearly in the perpendicular polarization mode. The THz TDS technique is also used to measure the thickness of thin fire-retardant coatings on CFRP composites with a typical accuracy of about 10 micrometers. In addition, coating debonding is successfully imaged based on the time-delay difference of the time-domain waveforms between closely adhered and debonded sample locations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infrared and THz Sensing and Imaging)

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Open AccessArticle

Using the Fingerprinting Method to Customize RTLS Based on the AoA Ranging Technique

by Bartosz Jachimczyk, Damian Dziak and Wlodek J. Kulesza

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 876; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060876 - 14 Jun 2016

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6153

Abstract

Real-time Locating Systems (RTLSs) have the ability to precisely locate the position of things and people in real time. They are needed for security and emergency applications, but also for healthcare and home care appliances. The research aims for developing an analytical method [...] Read more.

Real-time Locating Systems (RTLSs) have the ability to precisely locate the position of things and people in real time. They are needed for security and emergency applications, but also for healthcare and home care appliances. The research aims for developing an analytical method to customize RTLSs, in order to improve localization performance in terms of precision. The proposed method is based on Angle of Arrival (AoA), a ranging technique and fingerprinting method along with an analytically defined uncertainty of AoA, and a localization uncertainty map. The presented solution includes three main concerns: geometry of indoor space, RTLS arrangement, and a statistical approach to localization precision of a pair of location sensors using an AoA signal. An evaluation of the implementation of the customized RTLS validates the analytical model of the fingerprinting map. The results of simulations and physical experiments verify the proposed method. The research confirms that the analytically established fingerprint map is the valid representation of RTLS’ performance in terms of precision. Furthermore, the research demonstrates an impact of workspace geometry and workspace layout onto the RTLS’ performance. Moreover, the studies show how the size and shape of a workspace and the placement of the calibration point affect the fingerprint map. Withal, the performance investigation defines the most effective arrangement of location sensors and its influence on localization precision. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies and Techniques for Microwave and Wireless Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Activity Recognition Using Community Data to Complement Small Amounts of Labeled Instances

by Enrique Garcia-Ceja and Ramon F. Brena

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 877; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060877 - 14 Jun 2016

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5706

Abstract

Human Activity Recognition (HAR) is an important part of ambient intelligence systems since it can provide user-context information, thus allowing a greater personalization of services. One of the problems with HAR systems is that the labeling process for the training data is costly, [...] Read more.

Human Activity Recognition (HAR) is an important part of ambient intelligence systems since it can provide user-context information, thus allowing a greater personalization of services. One of the problems with HAR systems is that the labeling process for the training data is costly, which has hindered its practical application. A common approach is to train a general model with the aggregated data from all users. The problem is that for a new target user, this model can perform poorly because it is biased towards the majority type of users and does not take into account the particular characteristics of the target user. To overcome this limitation, a user-dependent model can be trained with data only from the target user that will be optimal for this particular user; however, this requires a considerable amount of labeled data, which is cumbersome to obtain. In this work, we propose a method to build a personalized model for a given target user that does not require large amounts of labeled data. Our method uses data already labeled by a community of users to complement the scarce labeled data of the target user. Our results showed that the personalized model outperformed the general and the user-dependent models when labeled data is scarce. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from UCAmI, IWAAL and AmIHEALTH 2015)

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Open AccessArticle

Distance-Based Opportunistic Mobile Data Offloading

by Xiaofeng Lu, Pietro Lio and Pan Hui

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 878; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060878 - 15 Jun 2016

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5204

Abstract

Cellular network data traffic can be offload onto opportunistic networks. This paper proposes a Distance-based Opportunistic Publish/Subscribe (DOPS) content dissemination model, which is composed of three layers: application layer, decision-making layer and network layer. When a user wants new content, he/she subscribes on [...] Read more.

Cellular network data traffic can be offload onto opportunistic networks. This paper proposes a Distance-based Opportunistic Publish/Subscribe (DOPS) content dissemination model, which is composed of three layers: application layer, decision-making layer and network layer. When a user wants new content, he/she subscribes on a subscribing server. Users having the contents decide whether to deliver the contents to the subscriber based on the distance information. If in the meantime a content owner has traveled further in the immediate past time than the distance between the owner and the subscriber, the content owner will send the content to the subscriber through opportunistic routing. Simulations provide an evaluation of the data traffic offloading efficiency of DOPS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Identification, Information & Knowledge in the Internet of Things)

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Open AccessArticle

Security in Intelligent Transport Systems for Smart Cities: From Theory to Practice

by Muhammad Awais Javed, Elyes Ben Hamida and Wassim Znaidi

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 879; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060879 - 15 Jun 2016

Cited by 61 | Viewed by 18186

Abstract

Connecting vehicles securely and reliably is pivotal to the implementation of next generation ITS applications of smart cities. With continuously growing security threats, vehicles could be exposed to a number of service attacks that could put their safety at stake. To address this [...] Read more.

Connecting vehicles securely and reliably is pivotal to the implementation of next generation ITS applications of smart cities. With continuously growing security threats, vehicles could be exposed to a number of service attacks that could put their safety at stake. To address this concern, both US and European ITS standards have selected Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) algorithms to secure vehicular communications. However, there is still a lack of benchmarking studies on existing security standards in real-world settings. In this paper, we first analyze the security architecture of the ETSI ITS standard. We then implement the ECC based digital signature and encryption procedures using an experimental test-bed and conduct an extensive benchmark study to assess their performance which depends on factors such as payload size, processor speed and security levels. Using network simulation models, we further evaluate the impact of standard compliant security procedures in dense and realistic smart cities scenarios. Obtained results suggest that existing security solutions directly impact the achieved quality of service (QoS) and safety awareness of vehicular applications, in terms of increased packet inter-arrival delays, packet and cryptographic losses, and reduced safety awareness in safety applications. Finally, we summarize the insights gained from the simulation results and discuss open research challenges for efficient working of security in ITS applications of smart cities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy in Sensor Networks)

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Open AccessArticle

Design, Fabrication, Simulation and Characterization of a Novel Dual-Sided Microelectrode Array for Deep Brain Recording and Stimulation

by Zongya Zhao, Ruxue Gong, Hongen Huang and Jue Wang

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 880; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060880 - 15 Jun 2016

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 8845

Abstract

In this paper, a novel dual-sided microelectrode array is specially designed and fabricated for a rat Parkinson’s disease (PD) model to study the mechanisms of deep brain stimulation (DBS). The fabricated microelectrode array can stimulate the subthalamic nucleus and simultaneously record electrophysiological information [...] Read more.

In this paper, a novel dual-sided microelectrode array is specially designed and fabricated for a rat Parkinson’s disease (PD) model to study the mechanisms of deep brain stimulation (DBS). The fabricated microelectrode array can stimulate the subthalamic nucleus and simultaneously record electrophysiological information from multiple nuclei of the basal ganglia system. The fabricated microelectrode array has a long shaft of 9 mm and each planar surface is equipped with three stimulating sites (diameter of 100 μm), seven electrophysiological recording sites (diameter of 20 μm) and four sites with diameter of 50 μm used for neurotransmitter measurements in future work. The performances of the fabricated microelectrode array were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and cyclic voltammetry. In addition, the stimulating effects of the fabricated microelectrode were evaluated by finite element modeling (FEM). Preliminary animal experiments demonstrated that the designed microelectrode arrays can record spontaneous discharge signals from the striatum, the subthalamic nucleus and the globus pallidus interna. The designed and fabricated microelectrode arrays provide a powerful research tool for studying the mechanisms of DBS in rat PD models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Micro/Nano Fluidic Devices and Bio-MEMS)

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Open AccessArticle

Application of Structured Light System Technique for Authentication of Wooden Panel Paintings

by Fernando Buchón-Moragues, José María Bravo, Marcelino Ferri, Javier Redondo and Juan Vicente Sánchez-Pérez

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 881; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060881 - 14 Jun 2016

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4905

Abstract

This paper presents a new application of photogrammetric techniques for protecting cultural heritage. The accuracy of the method and the fact that it can be used to carry out different tests without contact between the sample and the instruments can make this technique [...] Read more.

This paper presents a new application of photogrammetric techniques for protecting cultural heritage. The accuracy of the method and the fact that it can be used to carry out different tests without contact between the sample and the instruments can make this technique very useful for authenticating and cataloging artworks. The application focuses on the field of pictorial artworks, and wooden panel paintings in particular. In these works, the orography formed by the brushstrokes can be easily digitalized using a photogrammetric technique, called Structured Light System, with submillimeter accuracy. Thus, some of the physical characteristics of the brushstrokes, like minimum and maximum heights or slopes become a fingerprint of the painting. We explain in detail the general principles of the Structured Light System Technique and the specific characteristics of the commercial set-up used in this work. Some experiments are carried out on a sample painted by us to check the accuracy limits of the technique and to propose some tests that can help to stablish a methodology for authentication purposes. Finally, some preliminary results obtained on a real pictorial artwork are presented, providing geometrical information of its metric features as an example of the possibilities of this application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Mechatronic Prototype of Parabolic Solar Tracker

by Carlos Morón, Jorge Pablo Díaz, Daniel Ferrández and Mari Paz Ramos

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 882; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060882 - 15 Jun 2016

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 7226

Abstract

In the last 30 years numerous attempts have been made to improve the efficiency of the parabolic collectors in the electric power production, although most of the studies have focused on the industrial production of thermoelectric power. This research focuses on the application [...] Read more.

In the last 30 years numerous attempts have been made to improve the efficiency of the parabolic collectors in the electric power production, although most of the studies have focused on the industrial production of thermoelectric power. This research focuses on the application of this concentrating solar thermal power in the unexplored field of building construction. To that end, a mechatronic prototype of a hybrid paraboloidal and cylindrical-parabolic tracker based on the Arduido technology has been designed. The prototype is able to measure meteorological data autonomously in order to quantify the energy potential of any location. In this way, it is possible to reliably model real commercial equipment behavior before its deployment in buildings and single family houses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2015)

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Open AccessArticle

A Wireless Monitoring System for Cracks on the Surface of Reactor Containment Buildings

by Jianguo Zhou, Yaming Xu and Tao Zhang

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 883; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060883 - 14 Jun 2016

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5615

Abstract

Structural health monitoring with wireless sensor networks has been increasingly popular in recent years because of the convenience. In this paper, a real-time monitoring system for cracks on the surface of reactor containment buildings is presented. Customized wireless sensor networks platforms are designed [...] Read more.

Structural health monitoring with wireless sensor networks has been increasingly popular in recent years because of the convenience. In this paper, a real-time monitoring system for cracks on the surface of reactor containment buildings is presented. Customized wireless sensor networks platforms are designed and implemented with sensors especially for crack monitoring, which include crackmeters and temperature detectors. Software protocols like route discovery, time synchronization and data transfer are developed to satisfy the requirements of the monitoring system and stay simple at the same time. Simulation tests have been made to evaluate the performance of the system before full scale deployment. The real-life deployment of the crack monitoring system is carried out on the surface of reactor containment building in Daya Bay Nuclear Power Station during the in-service pressure test with 30 wireless sensor nodes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Bias Correction Method for Satellite-Based Rainfall Data

by Haris Akram Bhatti, Tom Rientjes, Alemseged Tamiru Haile, Emad Habib and Wouter Verhoef

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 884; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060884 - 15 Jun 2016

Cited by 54 | Viewed by 8325

Abstract

With the advances in remote sensing technology, satellite-based rainfall estimates are gaining attraction in the field of hydrology, particularly in rainfall-runoff modeling. Since estimates are affected by errors correction is required. In this study, we tested the high resolution National Oceanic and Atmospheric [...] Read more.

With the advances in remote sensing technology, satellite-based rainfall estimates are gaining attraction in the field of hydrology, particularly in rainfall-runoff modeling. Since estimates are affected by errors correction is required. In this study, we tested the high resolution National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Climate Prediction Centre (CPC) morphing technique (CMORPH) satellite rainfall product (CMORPH) in the Gilgel Abbey catchment, Ethiopia. CMORPH data at 8 km-30 min resolution is aggregated to daily to match in-situ observations for the period 2003–2010. Study objectives are to assess bias of the satellite estimates, to identify optimum window size for application of bias correction and to test effectiveness of bias correction. Bias correction factors are calculated for moving window (MW) sizes and for sequential windows (SW’s) of 3, 5, 7, 9, …, 31 days with the aim to assess error distribution between the in-situ observations and CMORPH estimates. We tested forward, central and backward window (FW, CW and BW) schemes to assess the effect of time integration on accumulated rainfall. Accuracy of cumulative rainfall depth is assessed by Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE). To systematically correct all CMORPH estimates, station based bias factors are spatially interpolated to yield a bias factor map. Reliability of interpolation is assessed by cross validation. The uncorrected CMORPH rainfall images are multiplied by the interpolated bias map to result in bias corrected CMORPH estimates. Findings are evaluated by RMSE, correlation coefficient (r) and standard deviation (SD). Results showed existence of bias in the CMORPH rainfall. It is found that the 7 days SW approach performs best for bias correction of CMORPH rainfall. The outcome of this study showed the efficiency of our bias correction approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Detection and Classification of Finer-Grained Human Activities Based on Stepped-Frequency Continuous-Wave Through-Wall Radar

by Fugui Qi, Fulai Liang, Hao Lv, Chuantao Li, Fuming Chen and Jianqi Wang

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 885; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060885 - 15 Jun 2016

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 6859

Abstract

The through-wall detection and classification of human activities are critical for anti-terrorism, security, and disaster rescue operations. An effective through-wall detection and classification technology is proposed for finer-grained human activities such as piaffe, picking up an object, waving, jumping, standing with random micro-shakes, [...] Read more.

The through-wall detection and classification of human activities are critical for anti-terrorism, security, and disaster rescue operations. An effective through-wall detection and classification technology is proposed for finer-grained human activities such as piaffe, picking up an object, waving, jumping, standing with random micro-shakes, and breathing while sitting. A stepped-frequency continuous wave (SFCW) bio-radar sensor is first used to conduct through-wall detection of finer-grained human activities; Then, a comprehensive range accumulation time-frequency transform (CRATFR) based on inverse weight coefficients is proposed, which aims to strengthen the micro-Doppler features of finer activity signals. Finally, in combination with the effective eigenvalues extracted from the CRATFR spectrum, an optimal self-adaption support vector machine (OS-SVM) based on prior human position information is introduced to classify different finer-grained activities. At a fixed position (3 m) behind a wall, the classification accuracies of six activities performed by eight individuals were 98.78% and 93.23%, respectively, for the two scenarios defined in this paper. In the position-changing experiment, an average classification accuracy of 86.67% was obtained for five finer-grained activities (excluding breathing) of eight individuals within 6 m behind the wall for the most practical scenario, a significant improvement over the 79% accuracy of the current method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Evaluating Soil Moisture Status Using an e-Nose

by Andrzej Bieganowski, Katarzyna Jaromin-Glen, Łukasz Guz, Grzegorz Łagód, Grzegorz Jozefaciuk, Wojciech Franus, Zbigniew Suchorab and Henryk Sobczuk

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 886; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060886 - 22 Jun 2016

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 6419

Abstract

The possibility of distinguishing different soil moisture levels by electronic nose (e-nose) was studied. Ten arable soils of various types were investigated. The measurements were performed for air-dry (AD) soils stored for one year, then moistened to field water capacity and finally dried [...] Read more.

The possibility of distinguishing different soil moisture levels by electronic nose (e-nose) was studied. Ten arable soils of various types were investigated. The measurements were performed for air-dry (AD) soils stored for one year, then moistened to field water capacity and finally dried within a period of 180 days. The volatile fingerprints changed during the course of drying. At the end of the drying cycle, the fingerprints were similar to those of the initial AD soils. Principal component analysis (PCA) and artificial neural network (ANN) analysis showed that e-nose results can be used to distinguish soil moisture. It was also shown that different soils can give different e-nose signals at the same moistures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue E-noses: Sensors and Applications)

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Open AccessArticle

Design and Application of Wuhan Ionospheric Oblique Backscattering Sounding System with the Addition of an Antenna Array (WIOBSS-AA)

by Xiao Cui, Gang Chen, Jin Wang, Huan Song and Wanlin Gong

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 887; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060887 - 15 Jun 2016

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5327

Abstract

The Wuhan Ionospheric Oblique Backscattering Sounding System with the addition of an antenna array (WIOBSS-AA) is the newest member of the WIOBSS family. It is a multi-channel radio system using phased-array antenna technology. The transmitting part of this radio system applies an array [...] Read more.

The Wuhan Ionospheric Oblique Backscattering Sounding System with the addition of an antenna array (WIOBSS-AA) is the newest member of the WIOBSS family. It is a multi-channel radio system using phased-array antenna technology. The transmitting part of this radio system applies an array composed of five log-periodic antennas to form five beams that span an area to the northwest of the radar site. The hardware and the antenna array of the first multi-channel ionosonde in the WIOBSS family are introduced in detail in this paper. An ionospheric detection experiment was carried out in Chongyang, Hubei province, China on 16 March 2015 to examine the performance of WIOBSS-AA. The radio system demonstrated its ability to obtain ionospheric electron density information over a wide area. The observations indicate that during the experiment, the monitored large-area ionospheric F2-layer was calm and electron density increased with decreasing latitude. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Weighted Global Artificial Bee Colony Algorithm Makes Gas Sensor Deployment Efficient

by Ye Jiang, Ziqing He, Yanhai Li, Zhengyi Xu and Jianming Wei

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 888; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060888 - 16 Jun 2016

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5011

Abstract

This paper proposes an improved artificial bee colony algorithm named Weighted Global ABC (WGABC) algorithm, which is designed to improve the convergence speed in the search stage of solution search equation. The new method not only considers the effect of global factors on [...] Read more.

This paper proposes an improved artificial bee colony algorithm named Weighted Global ABC (WGABC) algorithm, which is designed to improve the convergence speed in the search stage of solution search equation. The new method not only considers the effect of global factors on the convergence speed in the search phase, but also provides the expression of global factor weights. Experiment on benchmark functions proved that the algorithm can improve the convergence speed greatly. We arrive at the gas diffusion concentration based on the theory of CFD and then simulate the gas diffusion model with the influence of buildings based on the algorithm. Simulation verified the effectiveness of the WGABC algorithm in improving the convergence speed in optimal deployment scheme of gas sensors. Finally, it is verified that the optimal deployment method based on WGABC algorithm can improve the monitoring efficiency of sensors greatly as compared with the conventional deployment methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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Open AccessArticle

Radar Constant-Modulus Waveform Design with Prior Information of the Extended Target and Clutter

by Wenzhen Yue, Yan Zhang, Yimin Liu and Jingwen Xie

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 889; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060889 - 17 Jun 2016

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 4734

Abstract

Radar waveform design is of great importance for radar system performances and has drawn considerable attention recently. Constant modulus is an important waveform design consideration, both from the point of view of hardware realization and to allow for full utilization of the transmitter’s [...] Read more.

Radar waveform design is of great importance for radar system performances and has drawn considerable attention recently. Constant modulus is an important waveform design consideration, both from the point of view of hardware realization and to allow for full utilization of the transmitter’s power. In this paper, we consider the problem of constant-modulus waveform design for extended target detection with prior information about the extended target and clutter. At first, we propose an arbitrary-phase unimodular waveform design method via joint transmitter-receiver optimization. We exploit a semi-definite relaxation technique to transform an intractable non-convex problem into a convex problem, which can then be efficiently solved. Furthermore, quadrature phase shift keying waveform is designed, which is easier to implement than arbitrary-phase waveforms. Numerical results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

RF Path and Absorption Loss Estimation for Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks in Different Water Environments

by Umair Mujtaba Qureshi, Faisal Karim Shaikh, Zuneera Aziz, Syed M. Zafi S. Shah, Adil A. Sheikh, Emad Felemban and Saad Bin Qaisar

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 890; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060890 - 16 Jun 2016

Cited by 95 | Viewed by 11950

Abstract

Underwater Wireless Sensor Network (UWSN) communication at high frequencies is extremely challenging. The intricacies presented by the underwater environment are far more compared to the terrestrial environment. The prime reason for such intricacies are the physical characteristics of the underwater environment that have [...] Read more.

Underwater Wireless Sensor Network (UWSN) communication at high frequencies is extremely challenging. The intricacies presented by the underwater environment are far more compared to the terrestrial environment. The prime reason for such intricacies are the physical characteristics of the underwater environment that have a big impact on electromagnetic (EM) signals. Acoustics signals are by far the most preferred choice for underwater wireless communication. Because high frequency signals have the luxury of large bandwidth (BW) at shorter distances, high frequency EM signals cannot penetrate and propagate deep in underwater environments. The EM properties of water tend to resist their propagation and cause severe attenuation. Accordingly, there are two questions that need to be addressed for underwater environment, first what happens when high frequency EM signals operating at 2.4 GHz are used for communication, and second which factors affect the most to high frequency EM signals. To answer these questions, we present real-time experiments conducted at 2.4 GHz in terrestrial and underwater (fresh water) environments. The obtained results helped in studying the physical characteristics (i.e., EM properties, propagation and absorption loss) of underwater environments. It is observed that high frequency EM signals can propagate in fresh water at a shallow depth only and can be considered for a specific class of applications such as water sports. Furthermore, path loss, velocity of propagation, absorption loss and the rate of signal loss in different underwater environments are also calculated and presented in order to understand why EM signals cannot propagate in sea water and oceanic water environments. An optimal solk6ution for underwater communication in terms of coverage distance, bandwidth and nature of communication is presented, along with possible underwater applications of UWSNs at 2.4 GHz. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Underwater Sensor Nodes and Underwater Sensor Networks 2016)

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Open AccessArticle

Joint Maximum Likelihood Time Delay Estimation of Unknown Event-Related Potential Signals for EEG Sensor Signal Quality Enhancement

by Kyungsoo Kim, Sung-Ho Lim, Jaeseok Lee, Won-Seok Kang, Cheil Moon and Ji-Woong Choi

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 891; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060891 - 16 Jun 2016

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5653

Abstract

Electroencephalograms (EEGs) measure a brain signal that contains abundant information about the human brain function and health. For this reason, recent clinical brain research and brain computer interface (BCI) studies use EEG signals in many applications. Due to the significant noise in EEG [...] Read more.

Electroencephalograms (EEGs) measure a brain signal that contains abundant information about the human brain function and health. For this reason, recent clinical brain research and brain computer interface (BCI) studies use EEG signals in many applications. Due to the significant noise in EEG traces, signal processing to enhance the signal to noise power ratio (SNR) is necessary for EEG analysis, especially for non-invasive EEG. A typical method to improve the SNR is averaging many trials of event related potential (ERP) signal that represents a brain’s response to a particular stimulus or a task. The averaging, however, is very sensitive to variable delays. In this study, we propose two time delay estimation (TDE) schemes based on a joint maximum likelihood (ML) criterion to compensate the uncertain delays which may be different in each trial. We evaluate the performance for different types of signals such as random, deterministic, and real EEG signals. The results show that the proposed schemes provide better performance than other conventional schemes employing averaged signal as a reference, e.g., up to 4 dB gain at the expected delay error of 10°. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Millimetre-Wave Backhaul for 5G Networks: Challenges and Solutions

by Wei Feng, Yong Li, Depeng Jin, Li Su and Sheng Chen

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 892; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060892 - 16 Jun 2016

Cited by 88 | Viewed by 13898

Abstract

The trend for dense deployment in future 5G mobile communication networks makes current wired backhaul infeasible owing to the high cost. Millimetre-wave (mm-wave) communication, a promising technique with the capability of providing a multi-gigabit transmission rate, offers a flexible and cost-effective candidate for [...] Read more.

The trend for dense deployment in future 5G mobile communication networks makes current wired backhaul infeasible owing to the high cost. Millimetre-wave (mm-wave) communication, a promising technique with the capability of providing a multi-gigabit transmission rate, offers a flexible and cost-effective candidate for 5G backhauling. By exploiting highly directional antennas, it becomes practical to cope with explosive traffic demands and to deal with interference problems. Several advancements in physical layer technology, such as hybrid beamforming and full duplexing, bring new challenges and opportunities for mm-wave backhaul. This article introduces a design framework for 5G mm-wave backhaul, including routing, spatial reuse scheduling and physical layer techniques. The associated optimization model, open problems and potential solutions are discussed to fully exploit the throughput gain of the backhaul network. Extensive simulations are conducted to verify the potential benefits of the proposed method for the 5G mm-wave backhaul design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Millimeter Wave Wireless Communications and Networks)

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Open AccessArticle

Efficient Forest Fire Detection Index for Application in Unmanned Aerial Systems (UASs)

by Henry Cruz, Martina Eckert, Juan Meneses and José-Fernán Martínez

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 893; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060893 - 16 Jun 2016

Cited by 128 | Viewed by 26765

Abstract

This article proposes a novel method for detecting forest fires, through the use of a new color index, called the Forest Fire Detection Index (FFDI), developed by the authors. The index is based on methods for vegetation classification and has been adapted to [...] Read more.

This article proposes a novel method for detecting forest fires, through the use of a new color index, called the Forest Fire Detection Index (FFDI), developed by the authors. The index is based on methods for vegetation classification and has been adapted to detect the tonalities of flames and smoke; the latter could be included adaptively into the Regions of Interest (RoIs) with the help of a variable factor. Multiple tests have been performed upon database imagery and present promising results: a detection precision of 96.82% has been achieved for image sizes of 960 × 540 pixels at a processing time of 0.0447 seconds. This achievement would lead to a performance of 22 f/s, for smaller images, while up to 54 f/s could be reached by maintaining a similar detection precision. Additional tests have been performed on fires in their early stages, achieving a precision rate of p = 96.62%. The method could be used in real-time in Unmanned Aerial Systems (UASs), with the aim of monitoring a wider area than through fixed surveillance systems. Thus, it would result in more cost-effective outcomes than conventional systems implemented in helicopters or satellites. UASs could also reach inaccessible locations without jeopardizing people’s safety. On-going work includes implementation into a commercially available drone. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Fire Detection)

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Open AccessArticle

A High-Spin Rate Measurement Method for Projectiles Using a Magnetoresistive Sensor Based on Time-Frequency Domain Analysis

by Jianyu Shang, Zhihong Deng, Mengyin Fu and Shunting Wang

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 894; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060894 - 16 Jun 2016

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 6352

Abstract

Traditional artillery guidance can significantly improve the attack accuracy and overall combat efficiency of projectiles, which makes it more adaptable to the information warfare of the future. Obviously, the accurate measurement of artillery spin rate, which has long been regarded as a daunting [...] Read more.

Traditional artillery guidance can significantly improve the attack accuracy and overall combat efficiency of projectiles, which makes it more adaptable to the information warfare of the future. Obviously, the accurate measurement of artillery spin rate, which has long been regarded as a daunting task, is the basis of precise guidance and control. Magnetoresistive (MR) sensors can be applied to spin rate measurement, especially in the high-spin and high-g projectile launch environment. In this paper, based on the theory of a MR sensor measuring spin rate, the mathematical relationship model between the frequency of MR sensor output and projectile spin rate was established through a fundamental derivation. By analyzing the characteristics of MR sensor output whose frequency varies with time, this paper proposed the Chirp z-Transform (CZT) time-frequency (TF) domain analysis method based on the rolling window of a Blackman window function (BCZT) which can accurately extract the projectile spin rate. To put it into practice, BCZT was applied to measure the spin rate of 155 mm artillery projectile. After extracting the spin rate, the impact that launch rotational angular velocity and aspect angle have on the extraction accuracy of the spin rate was analyzed. Simulation results show that the BCZT TF domain analysis method can effectively and accurately measure the projectile spin rate, especially in a high-spin and high-g projectile launch environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Giant Magnetoresistive Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Fault Diagnosis for Rotating Machinery Using Vibration Measurement Deep Statistical Feature Learning

by Chuan Li, René-Vinicio Sánchez, Grover Zurita, Mariela Cerrada and Diego Cabrera

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 895; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060895 - 17 Jun 2016

Cited by 219 | Viewed by 15982

Abstract

Fault diagnosis is important for the maintenance of rotating machinery. The detection of faults and fault patterns is a challenging part of machinery fault diagnosis. To tackle this problem, a model for deep statistical feature learning from vibration measurements of rotating machinery is [...] Read more.

Fault diagnosis is important for the maintenance of rotating machinery. The detection of faults and fault patterns is a challenging part of machinery fault diagnosis. To tackle this problem, a model for deep statistical feature learning from vibration measurements of rotating machinery is presented in this paper. Vibration sensor signals collected from rotating mechanical systems are represented in the time, frequency, and time-frequency domains, each of which is then used to produce a statistical feature set. For learning statistical features, real-value Gaussian-Bernoulli restricted Boltzmann machines (GRBMs) are stacked to develop a Gaussian-Bernoulli deep Boltzmann machine (GDBM). The suggested approach is applied as a deep statistical feature learning tool for both gearbox and bearing systems. The fault classification performances in experiments using this approach are 95.17% for the gearbox, and 91.75% for the bearing system. The proposed approach is compared to such standard methods as a support vector machine, GRBM and a combination model. In experiments, the best fault classification rate was detected using the proposed model. The results show that deep learning with statistical feature extraction has an essential improvement potential for diagnosing rotating machinery faults. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Measurement Sensitivity Improvement of All-Optical Atomic Spin Magnetometer by Suppressing Noises

by Xiyuan Chen, Hong Zhang and Sheng Zou

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 896; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060896 - 17 Jun 2016

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 6599

Abstract

Quantum manipulation technology and photoelectric detection technology have jointly facilitated the rapid development of ultra-sensitive atomic spin magnetometers. To improve the output signal and sensitivity of the spin-exchange-relaxation-free (SERF) atomic spin magnetometer, the noises influencing on the output signal and the sensitivity were [...] Read more.

Quantum manipulation technology and photoelectric detection technology have jointly facilitated the rapid development of ultra-sensitive atomic spin magnetometers. To improve the output signal and sensitivity of the spin-exchange-relaxation-free (SERF) atomic spin magnetometer, the noises influencing on the output signal and the sensitivity were analyzed, and the corresponding noise suppression methods were presented. The magnetic field noises, including the residual magnetic field noise and the light shift noise, were reduced to approximately zero by employing the magnetic field compensation method and by adjusting the frequency of the pump beam, respectively. With respect to the operation temperature, the simulation results showed that the temperature of the potassium atomic spin magnetometer realizing the spin-exchange relaxation-free regime was 180 °C. Moreover, the fluctuation noises of the frequency and the power were suppressed by using the frequency and the power stable systems. The experimental power stability results showed that the light intensity stability was enhanced 10%. Contrast experiments on the sensitivity were carried out to demonstrate the validity of the suppression methods. Finally, a sensitivity of 13 fT/Hz^1/2 was successfully achieved by suppressing noises and optimizing parameters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Underdetermined Blind Source Separation with Variational Mode Decomposition for Compound Roller Bearing Fault Signals

by Gang Tang, Ganggang Luo, Weihua Zhang, Caijin Yang and Huaqing Wang

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 897; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060897 - 16 Jun 2016

Cited by 79 | Viewed by 6840

Abstract

In the condition monitoring of roller bearings, the measured signals are often compounded due to the unknown multi-vibration sources and complex transfer paths. Moreover, the sensors are limited in particular locations and numbers. Thus, this is a problem of underdetermined blind source separation [...] Read more.

In the condition monitoring of roller bearings, the measured signals are often compounded due to the unknown multi-vibration sources and complex transfer paths. Moreover, the sensors are limited in particular locations and numbers. Thus, this is a problem of underdetermined blind source separation for the vibration sources estimation, which makes it difficult to extract fault features exactly by ordinary methods in running tests. To improve the effectiveness of compound fault diagnosis in roller bearings, the present paper proposes a new method to solve the underdetermined problem and to extract fault features based on variational mode decomposition. In order to surmount the shortcomings of inadequate signals collected through limited sensors, a vibration signal is firstly decomposed into a number of band-limited intrinsic mode functions by variational mode decomposition. Then, the demodulated signal with the Hilbert transform of these multi-channel functions is used as the input matrix for independent component analysis. Finally, the compound faults are separated effectively by carrying out independent component analysis, which enables the fault features to be extracted more easily and identified more clearly. Experimental results validate the effectiveness of the proposed method in compound fault separation, and a comparison experiment shows that the proposed method has higher adaptability and practicability in separating strong noise signals than the commonly-used ensemble empirical mode decomposition method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessConcept Paper

Advanced Unsupervised Classification Methods to Detect Anomalies on Earthen Levees Using Polarimetric SAR Imagery

by Ramakalavathi Marapareddy, James V. Aanstoos and Nicolas H. Younan

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 898; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060898 - 16 Jun 2016

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 6167

Abstract

Fully polarimetric Synthetic Aperture Radar (polSAR) data analysis has wide applications for terrain and ground cover classification. The dynamics of surface and subsurface water events can lead to slope instability resulting in slough slides on earthen levees. Early detection of these anomalies by [...] Read more.

Fully polarimetric Synthetic Aperture Radar (polSAR) data analysis has wide applications for terrain and ground cover classification. The dynamics of surface and subsurface water events can lead to slope instability resulting in slough slides on earthen levees. Early detection of these anomalies by a remote sensing approach could save time versus direct assessment. We used L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) to screen levees for anomalies. SAR technology, due to its high spatial resolution and soil penetration capability, is a good choice for identifying problematic areas on earthen levees. Using the parameters entropy (H), anisotropy (A), alpha (α), and eigenvalues (λ, λ₁, λ₂, and λ₃), we implemented several unsupervised classification algorithms for the identification of anomalies on the levee. The classification techniques applied are H/α, H/A, A/α, Wishart H/α, Wishart H/A/α, and H/α/λ classification algorithms. In this work, the effectiveness of the algorithms was demonstrated using quad-polarimetric L-band SAR imagery from the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory’s (JPL’s) Uninhabited Aerial Vehicle Synthetic Aperture Radar (UAVSAR). The study area is a section of the lower Mississippi River valley in the Southern USA, where earthen flood control levees are maintained by the US Army Corps of Engineers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthetic Aperture Radars: Models, Algorithms, Techniques and Tools for Data Exploitation)

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Open AccessArticle

Conformal Graphene-Decorated Nanofluidic Sensors Based on Surface Plasmons at Infrared Frequencies

by Wei Wei, Jinpeng Nong, Linlong Tang, Guiwen Zhang, Jun Yang and Wei Luo

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 899; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060899 - 16 Jun 2016

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 7025

Abstract

An all-in-one prism-free infrared sensor based on graphene surface plasmons is proposed for nanofluidic analysis. A conformal graphene-decorated nanofluidic sensor is employed to mimic the functions of a prism, sensing plate, and fluidic channel in the tradition setup. Simulation results show that the [...] Read more.

An all-in-one prism-free infrared sensor based on graphene surface plasmons is proposed for nanofluidic analysis. A conformal graphene-decorated nanofluidic sensor is employed to mimic the functions of a prism, sensing plate, and fluidic channel in the tradition setup. Simulation results show that the redshift of the resonant wavelength results in the improvement of sensitivity up to 4525 nm/RIU. To reshape the broadened spectral lines induced by the redshift of the resonant wavelength to be narrower and deeper, a reflection-type configuration is further introduced. By tuning the distance between the graphene and reflective layers, the figure of merit (FOM) of the device can be significantly improved and reaches a maximum value of 37.69 RIU⁻¹, which is 2.6 times that of the former transmission-type configuration. Furthermore, the optimized sensor exhibits superior angle-insensitive property. Such a conformal graphene-decorated nanofluidic sensor offers a novel approach for graphene-based on-chip fluidic biosensing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomicrofluidics)

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Open AccessArticle

A Thermal Performance Analysis and Comparison of Fiber Coils with the D-CYL Winding and QAD Winding Methods

by Xuyou Li, Weiwei Ling, Kunpeng He, Zhenlong Xu and Shitong Du

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 900; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060900 - 16 Jun 2016

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5669

Abstract

The thermal performance under variable temperature conditions of fiber coils with double-cylinder (D-CYL) and quadrupolar (QAD) winding methods is comparatively analyzed. Simulation by the finite element method (FEM) is done to calculate the temperature distribution and the thermal-induced phase shift errors in the [...] Read more.

The thermal performance under variable temperature conditions of fiber coils with double-cylinder (D-CYL) and quadrupolar (QAD) winding methods is comparatively analyzed. Simulation by the finite element method (FEM) is done to calculate the temperature distribution and the thermal-induced phase shift errors in the fiber coils. Simulation results reveal that D-CYL fiber coil itself has fragile performance when it experiences an axially asymmetrical temperature gradient. However, the axial fragility performance could be improved when the D-CYL coil meshes with a heat-off spool. Through further simulations we find that once the D-CYL coil is provided with an axially symmetrical temperature environment, the thermal performance of fiber coils with the D-CYL winding method is better than that with the QAD winding method under the same variable temperature conditions. This valuable discovery is verified by two experiments. The D-CYL winding method is thus promising to overcome the temperature fragility of interferometric fiber optic gyroscopes (IFOGs). Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Multi-Target State Extraction for the SMC-PHD Filter

by Weijian Si, Liwei Wang and Zhiyu Qu

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 901; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060901 - 17 Jun 2016

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4186

Abstract

The sequential Monte Carlo probability hypothesis density (SMC-PHD) filter has been demonstrated to be a favorable method for multi-target tracking. However, the time-varying target states need to be extracted from the particle approximation of the posterior PHD, which is difficult to implement due [...] Read more.

The sequential Monte Carlo probability hypothesis density (SMC-PHD) filter has been demonstrated to be a favorable method for multi-target tracking. However, the time-varying target states need to be extracted from the particle approximation of the posterior PHD, which is difficult to implement due to the unknown relations between the large amount of particles and the PHD peaks representing potential target locations. To address this problem, a novel multi-target state extraction algorithm is proposed in this paper. By exploiting the information of measurements and particle likelihoods in the filtering stage, we propose a validation mechanism which aims at selecting effective measurements and particles corresponding to detected targets. Subsequently, the state estimates of the detected and undetected targets are performed separately: the former are obtained from the particle clusters directed by effective measurements, while the latter are obtained from the particles corresponding to undetected targets via clustering method. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed method yields better estimation accuracy and reliability compared to existing methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Strength and Broadband Transparency Improvement of Glass Wafers via Surface Nanostructures

by Amarendra Kumar, Kunal Kashyap, Max T. Hou and J. Andrew Yeh

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 902; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060902 - 17 Jun 2016

Viewed by 5781

Abstract

In this study, we mechanically strengthened a borosilicate glass wafer by doubling its bending strength and simultaneously enhancing its transparency using surface nanostructures for different applications including sensors, displays and panels. A fabrication method that combines dry and wet etching is used for [...] Read more.

In this study, we mechanically strengthened a borosilicate glass wafer by doubling its bending strength and simultaneously enhancing its transparency using surface nanostructures for different applications including sensors, displays and panels. A fabrication method that combines dry and wet etching is used for surface nanostructure fabrication. Specifically, we improved the bending strength of plain borosilicate glass by 96% using these surface nanostructures on both sides. Besides bending strength improvement, a limited optical transmittance enhancement of 3% was also observed in the visible light wavelength region (400–800 nm). Both strength and transparency were improved by using surface nanostructures of 500 nm depth on both sides of the borosilicate glass without affecting its bulk properties or the glass manufacturing process. Moreover, we observed comparatively smaller fragments during the breaking of the nanostructured glass, which is indicative of strengthening. The range for the nanostructure depth is defined for different applications with which improvements of the strength and transparency of borosilicate glass substrate are obtained. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Advanced Materials on Microelectronic and Optical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Scan Line Based Road Marking Extraction from Mobile LiDAR Point Clouds

by Li Yan, Hua Liu, Junxiang Tan, Zan Li, Hong Xie and Changjun Chen

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 903; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060903 - 17 Jun 2016

Cited by 89 | Viewed by 10108

Abstract

Mobile Mapping Technology (MMT) is one of the most important 3D spatial data acquisition technologies. The state-of-the-art mobile mapping systems, equipped with laser scanners and named Mobile LiDAR Scanning (MLS) systems, have been widely used in a variety of areas, especially in road [...] Read more.

Mobile Mapping Technology (MMT) is one of the most important 3D spatial data acquisition technologies. The state-of-the-art mobile mapping systems, equipped with laser scanners and named Mobile LiDAR Scanning (MLS) systems, have been widely used in a variety of areas, especially in road mapping and road inventory. With the commercialization of Advanced Driving Assistance Systems (ADASs) and self-driving technology, there will be a great demand for lane-level detailed 3D maps, and MLS is the most promising technology to generate such lane-level detailed 3D maps. Road markings and road edges are necessary information in creating such lane-level detailed 3D maps. This paper proposes a scan line based method to extract road markings from mobile LiDAR point clouds in three steps: (1) preprocessing; (2) road points extraction; (3) road markings extraction and refinement. In preprocessing step, the isolated LiDAR points in the air are removed from the LiDAR point clouds and the point clouds are organized into scan lines. In the road points extraction step, seed road points are first extracted by Height Difference (HD) between trajectory data and road surface, then full road points are extracted from the point clouds by moving least squares line fitting. In the road markings extraction and refinement step, the intensity values of road points in a scan line are first smoothed by a dynamic window median filter to suppress intensity noises, then road markings are extracted by Edge Detection and Edge Constraint (EDEC) method, and the Fake Road Marking Points (FRMPs) are eliminated from the detected road markings by segment and dimensionality feature-based refinement. The performance of the proposed method is evaluated by three data samples and the experiment results indicate that road points are well extracted from MLS data and road markings are well extracted from road points by the applied method. A quantitative study shows that the proposed method achieves an average completeness, correctness, and F-measure of 0.96, 0.93, and 0.94, respectively. The time complexity analysis shows that the scan line based road markings extraction method proposed in this paper provides a promising alternative for offline road markings extraction from MLS data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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Open AccessReview

Giant Magnetoresistance: Basic Concepts, Microstructure, Magnetic Interactions and Applications

by Inga Ennen, Daniel Kappe, Thomas Rempel, Claudia Glenske and Andreas Hütten

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 904; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060904 - 17 Jun 2016

Cited by 132 | Viewed by 18704

Abstract

The giant magnetoresistance (GMR) effect is a very basic phenomenon that occurs in magnetic materials ranging from nanoparticles over multilayered thin films to permanent magnets. In this contribution, we first focus on the links between effect characteristic and underlying microstructure. Thereafter, we discuss [...] Read more.

The giant magnetoresistance (GMR) effect is a very basic phenomenon that occurs in magnetic materials ranging from nanoparticles over multilayered thin films to permanent magnets. In this contribution, we first focus on the links between effect characteristic and underlying microstructure. Thereafter, we discuss design criteria for GMR-sensor applications covering automotive, biosensors as well as nanoparticular sensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Giant Magnetoresistive Sensors)

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Open AccessReview

Biosensing by WGM Microspherical Resonators

by Giancarlo C. Righini and Silvia Soria

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 905; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060905 - 17 Jun 2016

Cited by 107 | Viewed by 13583

Abstract

Whispering gallery mode (WGM) microresonators, thanks to their unique properties, have allowed researchers to achieve important results in both fundamental research and engineering applications. Among the various geometries, microspheres are the simplest 3D WGM resonators; the total optical loss in such resonators can [...] Read more.

Whispering gallery mode (WGM) microresonators, thanks to their unique properties, have allowed researchers to achieve important results in both fundamental research and engineering applications. Among the various geometries, microspheres are the simplest 3D WGM resonators; the total optical loss in such resonators can be extremely low, and the resulting extraordinarily high Q values of 10⁸–10⁹ lead to high energy density, narrow resonant-wavelength lines and a lengthy cavity ringdown. They can also be coated in order to better control their properties or to increase their functionality. Their very high sensitivity to changes in the surrounding medium has been exploited for several sensing applications: protein adsorption, trace gas detection, impurity detection in liquids, structural health monitoring of composite materials, detection of electric fields, pressure sensing, and so on. In the present paper, after a general introduction to WGM resonators, attention is focused on spherical microresonators, either in bulk or in bubble format, to their fabrication, characterization and functionalization. The state of the art in the area of biosensing is presented, and the perspectives of further developments are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue SPR, WGM & Nano-Sensors: Advantages and Prospects)

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Open AccessArticle

Microwave Radiometers for Fire Detection in Trains: Theory and Feasibility Study

by Federico Alimenti, Luca Roselli and Stefania Bonafoni

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 906; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060906 - 17 Jun 2016

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 7410

Abstract

This paper introduces the theory of fire detection in moving vehicles by microwave radiometers. The system analysis is discussed and a feasibility study is illustrated on the basis of two implementation hypotheses. The basic idea is to have a fixed radiometer and to [...] Read more.

This paper introduces the theory of fire detection in moving vehicles by microwave radiometers. The system analysis is discussed and a feasibility study is illustrated on the basis of two implementation hypotheses. The basic idea is to have a fixed radiometer and to look inside the glass windows of the wagon when it passes in front of the instrument antenna. The proposed sensor uses a three-pixel multi-beam configuration that allows an image to be formed by the movement of the train itself. Each pixel is constituted by a direct amplification microwave receiver operating at 31.4 GHz. At this frequency, the antenna can be a 34 cm offset parabolic dish, whereas a 1 K brightness temperature resolution is achievable with an overall system noise figure of 6 dB, an observation bandwidth of 2 GHz and an integration time of 1 ms. The effect of the detector noise is also investigated and several implementation hypotheses are discussed. The presented study is important since it could be applied to the automatic fire alarm in trains and moving vehicles with dielectric wall/windows. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Fire Detection)

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Open AccessArticle

Towards Stochastic Optimization-Based Electric Vehicle Penetration in a Novel Archipelago Microgrid

by Qingyu Yang, Dou An, Wei Yu, Zhengan Tan and Xinyu Yang

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 907; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060907 - 17 Jun 2016

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 5286

Abstract

Due to the advantage of avoiding upstream disturbance and voltage fluctuation from a power transmission system, Islanded Micro-Grids (IMG) have attracted much attention. In this paper, we first propose a novel self-sufficient Cyber-Physical System (CPS) supported by Internet of Things (IoT) techniques, namely [...] Read more.

Due to the advantage of avoiding upstream disturbance and voltage fluctuation from a power transmission system, Islanded Micro-Grids (IMG) have attracted much attention. In this paper, we first propose a novel self-sufficient Cyber-Physical System (CPS) supported by Internet of Things (IoT) techniques, namely “archipelago micro-grid (MG)”, which integrates the power grid and sensor networks to make the grid operation effective and is comprised of multiple MGs while disconnected with the utility grid. The Electric Vehicles (EVs) are used to replace a portion of Conventional Vehicles (CVs) to reduce CO

_{2}

emission and operation cost. Nonetheless, the intermittent nature and uncertainty of Renewable Energy Sources (RESs) remain a challenging issue in managing energy resources in the system. To address these issues, we formalize the optimal EV penetration problem as a two-stage Stochastic Optimal Penetration (SOP) model, which aims to minimize the emission and operation cost in the system. Uncertainties coming from RESs (e.g., wind, solar, and load demand) are considered in the stochastic model and random parameters to represent those uncertainties are captured by the Monte Carlo-based method. To enable the reasonable deployment of EVs in each MGs, we develop two scheduling schemes, namely Unlimited Coordinated Scheme (UCS) and Limited Coordinated Scheme (LCS), respectively. An extensive simulation study based on a modified 9 bus system with three MGs has been carried out to show the effectiveness of our proposed schemes. The evaluation data indicates that our proposed strategy can reduce both the environmental pollution created by CO

_{2}

emissions and operation costs in UCS and LCS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enabling the Move from Wireless Sensor Networks to Internet of Things and Cyber-Physical Systems)

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Open AccessArticle

Fabrication of a Micro-Needle Array Electrode by Thermal Drawing for Bio-Signals Monitoring

by Lei Ren, Qing Jiang, Keyun Chen, Zhipeng Chen, Chengfeng Pan and Lelun Jiang

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 908; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060908 - 17 Jun 2016

Cited by 48 | Viewed by 9079

Abstract

A novel micro-needle array electrode (MAE) fabricated by thermal drawing and coated with Ti/Au film was proposed for bio-signals monitoring. A simple and effective setup was employed to form glassy-state poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) into a micro-needle array (MA) by the thermal drawing [...] Read more.

A novel micro-needle array electrode (MAE) fabricated by thermal drawing and coated with Ti/Au film was proposed for bio-signals monitoring. A simple and effective setup was employed to form glassy-state poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) into a micro-needle array (MA) by the thermal drawing method. The MA was composed of 6 × 6 micro-needles with an average height of about 500 μm. Electrode-skin interface impedance (EII) was recorded as the insertion force was applied on the MAE. The insertion process of the MAE was also simulated by the finite element method. Results showed that MAE could insert into skin with a relatively low compression force and maintain stable contact impedance between the MAE and skin. Bio-signals, including electromyography (EMG), electrocardiography (ECG), and electroencephalograph (EEG) were also collected. Test results showed that the MAE could record EMG, ECG, and EEG signals with good fidelity in shape and amplitude in comparison with the commercial Ag/AgCl electrodes, which proves that MAE is an alternative electrode for bio-signals monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Mitigating BeiDou Satellite-Induced Code Bias: Taking into Account the Stochastic Model of Corrections

by Fei Guo, Xin Li and Wanke Liu

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 909; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060909 - 18 Jun 2016

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 4641

Abstract

The BeiDou satellite-induced code biases have been confirmed to be orbit type-, frequency-, and elevation-dependent. Such code-phase divergences (code bias variations) severely affect absolute precise applications which use code measurements. To reduce their adverse effects, an improved correction model is proposed in this [...] Read more.

The BeiDou satellite-induced code biases have been confirmed to be orbit type-, frequency-, and elevation-dependent. Such code-phase divergences (code bias variations) severely affect absolute precise applications which use code measurements. To reduce their adverse effects, an improved correction model is proposed in this paper. Different from the model proposed by Wanninger and Beer (2015), more datasets (a time span of almost two years) were used to produce the correction values. More importantly, the stochastic information, i.e., the precision indexes, were given together with correction values in the improved model. However, only correction values were given while the precision indexes were completely missing in the traditional model. With the improved correction model, users may have a better understanding of their corrections, especially the uncertainty of corrections. Thus, it is helpful for refining the stochastic model of code observations. Validation tests in precise point positioning (PPP) reveal that a proper stochastic model is critical. The actual precision of the corrected code observations can be reflected in a more objective manner if the stochastic model of the corrections is taken into account. As a consequence, PPP solutions with the improved model outperforms the traditional one in terms of positioning accuracy, as well as convergence speed. In addition, the Melbourne-Wübbena (MW) combination which serves for ambiguity fixing were verified as well. The uncorrected MW values show strong systematic variations with an amplitude of half a wide-lane cycle, which prevents precise ambiguity determination and successful ambiguity resolution. After application of the code bias correction models, the systematic variations can be greatly removed, and the resulting wide lane ambiguities are more likely to be fixed. Moreover, the code residuals show more reasonable distributions after code bias corrections with either the traditional or the improved model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Position Accuracy Improvement by Implementing the DGNSS-CP Algorithm in Smartphones

by Donghwan Yoon, Changdon Kee, Jiwon Seo and Byungwoon Park

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 910; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060910 - 18 Jun 2016

Cited by 75 | Viewed by 9836

Abstract

The position accuracy of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) modules is one of the most significant factors in determining the feasibility of new location-based services for smartphones. Considering the structure of current smartphones, it is impossible to apply the ordinary range-domain Differential GNSS [...] Read more.

The position accuracy of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) modules is one of the most significant factors in determining the feasibility of new location-based services for smartphones. Considering the structure of current smartphones, it is impossible to apply the ordinary range-domain Differential GNSS (DGNSS) method. Therefore, this paper describes and applies a DGNSS-correction projection method to a commercial smartphone. First, the local line-of-sight unit vector is calculated using the elevation and azimuth angle provided in the position-related output of Android’s LocationManager, and this is transformed to Earth-centered, Earth-fixed coordinates for use. To achieve position-domain correction for satellite systems other than GPS, such as GLONASS and BeiDou, the relevant line-of-sight unit vectors are used to construct an observation matrix suitable for multiple constellations. The results of static and dynamic tests show that the standalone GNSS accuracy is improved by about 30%–60%, thereby reducing the existing error of 3–4 m to just 1 m. The proposed algorithm enables the position error to be directly corrected via software, without the need to alter the hardware and infrastructure of the smartphone. This method of implementation and the subsequent improvement in performance are expected to be highly effective to portability and cost saving. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Scalable Localization in Wireless Sensor Networks)

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Open AccessArticle

Bioimpedance Vector Analysis in Diagnosing Severe and Non-Severe Dengue Patients

by Sami F. Khalil, Mas S. Mohktar and Fatimah Ibrahim

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 911; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060911 - 18 Jun 2016

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5689

Abstract

Real-time monitoring and precise diagnosis of the severity of Dengue infection is needed for better decisions in disease management. The aim of this study is to use the Bioimpedance Vector Analysis (BIVA) method to differentiate between healthy subjects and severe and non-severe Dengue-infected [...] Read more.

Real-time monitoring and precise diagnosis of the severity of Dengue infection is needed for better decisions in disease management. The aim of this study is to use the Bioimpedance Vector Analysis (BIVA) method to differentiate between healthy subjects and severe and non-severe Dengue-infected patients. Bioimpedance was measured using a 50 KHz single-frequency bioimpedance analyzer. Data from 299 healthy subjects (124 males and 175 females) and 205 serologically confirmed Dengue patients (123 males and 82 females) were analyzed in this study. The obtained results show that the BIVA method was able to assess and classify the body fluid and cell mass condition between the healthy subjects and the Dengue-infected patients. The bioimpedance mean vectors (95% confidence ellipse) for healthy subjects, severe and non-severe Dengue-infected patients were illustrated. The vector is significantly shortened from healthy subjects to Dengue patients; for both genders the p-value is less than 0.0001. The mean vector of severe Dengue patients is significantly shortened compare to non-severe patients with a p-value of 0.0037 and 0.0023 for males and females, respectively. This study confirms that the BIVA method is a valid method in differentiating the healthy, severe and non-severe Dengue-infected subjects. All tests performed had a significance level with a p-value less than 0.05. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technology for Healthcare System)

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Open AccessCommunication

Accuracy of WAAS-Enabled GPS-RF Warning Signals When Crossing a Terrestrial Geofence

by Lindsay M. Grayson, Robert F. Keefe, Wade T. Tinkham, Jan U. H. Eitel, Jarred D. Saralecos, Alistair M. S. Smith and Eloise G. Zimbelman

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 912; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060912 - 18 Jun 2016

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5856

Abstract

Geofences are virtual boundaries based on geographic coordinates. When combined with global position system (GPS), or more generally global navigation satellite system (GNSS) transmitters, geofences provide a powerful tool for monitoring the location and movements of objects of interest through proximity alarms. However, [...] Read more.

Geofences are virtual boundaries based on geographic coordinates. When combined with global position system (GPS), or more generally global navigation satellite system (GNSS) transmitters, geofences provide a powerful tool for monitoring the location and movements of objects of interest through proximity alarms. However, the accuracy of geofence alarms in GNSS-radio frequency (GNSS-RF) transmitter receiver systems has not been tested. To achieve these goals, a cart with a GNSS-RF locator was run on a straight path in a balanced factorial experiment with three levels of cart speed, three angles of geofence intersection, three receiver distances from the track, and three replicates. Locator speed, receiver distance and geofence intersection angle all affected geofence alarm accuracy in an analysis of variance (p = 0.013, p = 2.58 × 10⁻⁸, and p = 0.0006, respectively), as did all treatment interactions (p < 0.0001). Slower locator speed, acute geofence intersection angle, and closest receiver distance were associated with reduced accuracy of geofence alerts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

A High-Temperature Piezoresistive Pressure Sensor with an Integrated Signal-Conditioning Circuit

by Zong Yao, Ting Liang, Pinggang Jia, Yingping Hong, Lei Qi, Cheng Lei, Bin Zhang and Jijun Xiong

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 913; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060913 - 18 Jun 2016

Cited by 56 | Viewed by 11899

Abstract

This paper focuses on the design and fabrication of a high-temperature piezoresistive pressure sensor with an integrated signal-conditioning circuit, which consists of an encapsulated pressure-sensitive chip, a temperature compensation circuit and a signal-conditioning circuit. A silicon on insulation (SOI) material and a standard [...] Read more.

This paper focuses on the design and fabrication of a high-temperature piezoresistive pressure sensor with an integrated signal-conditioning circuit, which consists of an encapsulated pressure-sensitive chip, a temperature compensation circuit and a signal-conditioning circuit. A silicon on insulation (SOI) material and a standard MEMS process are used in the pressure-sensitive chip fabrication, and high-temperature electronic components are adopted in the temperature-compensation and signal-conditioning circuits. The entire pressure sensor achieves a hermetic seal and can be operated long-term in the range of −50 °C to 220 °C. Unlike traditional pressure sensor output voltage ranges (in the dozens to hundreds of millivolts), the output voltage of this sensor is from 0 V to 5 V, which can significantly improve the signal-to-noise ratio and measurement accuracy in practical applications of long-term transmission based on experimental verification. Furthermore, because this flexible sensor’s output voltage is adjustable, general follow-up pressure transmitter devices for voltage converters need not be used, which greatly reduces the cost of the test system. Thus, the proposed high-temperature piezoresistive pressure sensor with an integrated signal-conditioning circuit is expected to be highly applicable to pressure measurements in harsh environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Characterization of a Functional Hydrogel Layer on a Silicon-Based Grating Waveguide for a Biochemical Sensor

by Yoo-Seung Hong, Jongseong Kim and Hyuk-Kee Sung

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 914; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060914 - 18 Jun 2016

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5042

Abstract

We numerically demonstrated the characteristics of a functional hydrogel layer on a silicon-based grating waveguide for a simple, cost-effective refractive index (RI) biochemical sensor. The RI of the functional hydrogel layer changes when a specific biochemical interaction occurs between the hydrogel-linked receptors and [...] Read more.

We numerically demonstrated the characteristics of a functional hydrogel layer on a silicon-based grating waveguide for a simple, cost-effective refractive index (RI) biochemical sensor. The RI of the functional hydrogel layer changes when a specific biochemical interaction occurs between the hydrogel-linked receptors and injected ligand molecules. The transmission spectral profile of the grating waveguide shifts depends on the amount of RI change caused by the functional layer. Our characterization includes the effective RI change caused by the thickness, functional volume ratio, and functional strength of the hydrogel layer. The results confirm the feasibility of, and set design rules for, hydrogel-assisted silicon-based grating waveguides. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Label-Free Optical Biosensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Love Acoustic Wave-Based Devices and Molecularly-Imprinted Polymers as Versatile Sensors for Electronic Nose or Tongue for Cancer Monitoring

by Corinne Dejous, Hamida Hallil, Vincent Raimbault, Jean-Luc Lachaud, Bernard Plano, Raphaël Delépée, Patrick Favetta, Luigi Agrofoglio and Dominique Rebière

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 915; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060915 - 20 Jun 2016

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 7908

Abstract

Cancer is a leading cause of death worldwide and actual analytical techniques are restrictive in detecting it. Thus, there is still a challenge, as well as a need, for the development of quantitative non-invasive tools for the diagnosis of cancers and the follow-up [...] Read more.

Cancer is a leading cause of death worldwide and actual analytical techniques are restrictive in detecting it. Thus, there is still a challenge, as well as a need, for the development of quantitative non-invasive tools for the diagnosis of cancers and the follow-up care of patients. We introduce first the overall interest of electronic nose or tongue for such application of microsensors arrays with data processing in complex media, either gas (e.g., Volatile Organic Compounds or VOCs as biomarkers in breath) or liquid (e.g., modified nucleosides as urinary biomarkers). Then this is illustrated with a versatile acoustic wave transducer, functionalized with molecularly-imprinted polymers (MIP) synthesized for adenosine-5′-monophosphate (AMP) as a model for nucleosides. The device including the thin film coating is described, then static measurements with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and electrical characterization after each step of the sensitive MIP process (deposit, removal of AMP template, capture of AMP target) demonstrate the thin film functionality. Dynamic measurements with a microfluidic setup and four targets are presented afterwards. They show a sensitivity of 5 Hz·ppm⁻¹ of the non-optimized microsensor for AMP detection, with a specificity of three times compared to PMPA, and almost nil sensitivity to 3′AMP and CMP, in accordance with previously published results on bulk MIP. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue E-noses: Sensors and Applications)

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Open AccessArticle

An Assessment of the Influence of the Industry Distribution Chain on the Oxygen Levels in Commercial Modified Atmosphere Packaged Cheddar Cheese Using Non-Destructive Oxygen Sensor Technology

by Karen A.M. O’ Callaghan, Dmitri B. Papkovsky and Joseph P. Kerry

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 916; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060916 - 20 Jun 2016

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5104

Abstract

The establishment and control of oxygen levels in packs of oxygen-sensitive food products such as cheese is imperative in order to maintain product quality over a determined shelf life. Oxygen sensors quantify oxygen concentrations within packaging using a reversible optical measurement process, and [...] Read more.

The establishment and control of oxygen levels in packs of oxygen-sensitive food products such as cheese is imperative in order to maintain product quality over a determined shelf life. Oxygen sensors quantify oxygen concentrations within packaging using a reversible optical measurement process, and this non-destructive nature ensures the entire supply chain can be monitored and can assist in pinpointing negative issues pertaining to product packaging. This study was carried out in a commercial cheese packaging plant and involved the insertion of 768 sensors into 384 flow-wrapped cheese packs (two sensors per pack) that were flushed with 100% carbon dioxide prior to sealing. The cheese blocks were randomly assigned to two different storage groups to assess the effects of package quality, packaging process efficiency, and handling and distribution on package containment. Results demonstrated that oxygen levels increased in both experimental groups examined over the 30-day assessment period. The group subjected to a simulated industrial distribution route and handling procedures of commercial retailed cheese exhibited the highest level of oxygen detected on every day examined and experienced the highest rate of package failure. The study concluded that fluctuating storage conditions, product movement associated with distribution activities, and the possible presence of cheese-derived contaminants such as calcium lactate crystals were chief contributors to package failure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

A Single Nanobelt Transistor for Gas Identification: Using a Gas-Dielectric Strategy

by Bin Cai, Zhiqi Song, Yanhong Tong, Qingxin Tang, Talgar Shaymurat and Yichun Liu

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 917; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060917 - 21 Jun 2016

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5497

Abstract

Despite tremendous potential and urgent demand in high-response low-cost gas identification, the development of gas identification based on a metal oxide semiconductor nanowire/nanobelt remains limited by fabrication complexity and redundant signals. Researchers have shown a multisensor-array strategy with “one key to one lock” [...] Read more.

Despite tremendous potential and urgent demand in high-response low-cost gas identification, the development of gas identification based on a metal oxide semiconductor nanowire/nanobelt remains limited by fabrication complexity and redundant signals. Researchers have shown a multisensor-array strategy with “one key to one lock” configuration. Here, we describe a new strategy to create high-response room-temperature gas identification by employing gas as dielectric. This enables gas discrimination down to the part per billion (ppb) level only based on one pristine single nanobelt transistor, with the excellent average Mahalanobis distance (MD) as high as 35 at the linear discriminant analysis (LDA) space. The single device realizes the selective recognition function of electronic nose. The effect of the gas dielectric on the response of the multiple field-effect parameters is discussed by the comparative investigation of gas and solid-dielectric devices and the studies on trap density changes in the conductive channel. The current work opens up exciting opportunities for room-temperature gas recognition based on the pristine single device. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gas Nanosensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Angle-of-Arrival Assisted GNSS Collaborative Positioning

by Bin Huang, Zheng Yao, Xiaowei Cui and Mingquan Lu

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 918; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060918 - 20 Jun 2016

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 7917

Abstract

For outdoor and global navigation satellite system (GNSS) challenged scenarios, collaborative positioning algorithms are proposed to fuse information from GNSS satellites and terrestrial wireless systems. This paper derives the Cramer-Rao lower bound (CRLB) and algorithms for the angle-of-arrival (AOA)-assisted GNSS collaborative positioning. Based [...] Read more.

For outdoor and global navigation satellite system (GNSS) challenged scenarios, collaborative positioning algorithms are proposed to fuse information from GNSS satellites and terrestrial wireless systems. This paper derives the Cramer-Rao lower bound (CRLB) and algorithms for the angle-of-arrival (AOA)-assisted GNSS collaborative positioning. Based on the CRLB model and collaborative positioning algorithms, theoretical analysis are performed to specify the effects of various factors on the accuracy of collaborative positioning, including the number of users, their distribution and AOA measurements accuracy. Besides, the influences of the relative location of the collaborative users are also discussed in order to choose appropriate neighboring users, which is in favor of reducing computational complexity. Simulations and actual experiment are carried out with several GNSS receivers in different scenarios, and the results are consistent with theoretical analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessTechnical Note

Development and Performance Characteristics of Personal Gamma Spectrometer for Radiation Monitoring Applications

by Hye Min Park and Koan Sik Joo

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 919; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060919 - 21 Jun 2016

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6867

Abstract

In this study, a personal gamma (γ) spectrometer was developed for use in applications in various fields, such as homeland security and environmental radiation monitoring systems. The prototype consisted of a 3 × 3 × 20 mm³ Ce-doped Gd–Al–Ga–garnet (Ce:GAGG) crystal that [...] Read more.

In this study, a personal gamma (γ) spectrometer was developed for use in applications in various fields, such as homeland security and environmental radiation monitoring systems. The prototype consisted of a 3 × 3 × 20 mm³ Ce-doped Gd–Al–Ga–garnet (Ce:GAGG) crystal that was coupled to a Si photomultiplier (SiPM) to measure γ radiation. The γ spectrometer could be accessed remotely via a mobile device. At room temperature, the implemented Ce:GAGG-SiPM spectrometer achieved energy resolutions of 13.5%, 6.9%, 5.8%, and 2.3% for ¹³³Ba at 0.356 MeV, ²²Na at 0.511 MeV, ¹³⁷Cs at 0.662 MeV, and ⁶⁰Co at 1.33 MeV, respectively. It consumed only about 2.7 W of power, had a mass of just 340 g (including the battery), and measured only 5.0 × 7.0 cm². Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

The Traffic Adaptive Data Dissemination (TrAD) Protocol for both Urban and Highway Scenarios

by Bin Tian, Kun Mean Hou and Haiying Zhou

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 920; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060920 - 21 Jun 2016

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5867

Abstract

The worldwide economic cost of road crashes and injuries is estimated to be US$518 billion per year and the annual congestion cost in France is estimated to be €5.9 billion. Vehicular Ad hoc Networks (VANETs) are one solution to improve transport features such [...] Read more.

The worldwide economic cost of road crashes and injuries is estimated to be US$518 billion per year and the annual congestion cost in France is estimated to be €5.9 billion. Vehicular Ad hoc Networks (VANETs) are one solution to improve transport features such as traffic safety, traffic jam and infotainment on wheels, where a great number of event-driven messages need to be disseminated in a timely way in a region of interest. In comparison with traditional wireless networks, VANETs have to consider the highly dynamic network topology and lossy links due to node mobility. Inter-Vehicle Communication (IVC) protocols are the keystone of VANETs. According to our survey, most of the proposed IVC protocols focus on either highway or urban scenarios, but not on both. Furthermore, too few protocols, considering both scenarios, can achieve high performance. In this paper, an infrastructure-less Traffic Adaptive data Dissemination (TrAD) protocol which takes into account road traffic and network traffic status for both highway and urban scenarios will be presented. TrAD has double broadcast suppression techniques and is designed to adapt efficiently to the irregular road topology. The performance of the TrAD protocol was evaluated quantitatively by means of realistic simulations taking into account different real road maps, traffic routes and vehicular densities. The obtained simulation results show that TrAD is more efficient in terms of packet delivery ratio, number of transmissions and delay in comparison with the performance of three well-known reference protocols. Moreover, TrAD can also tolerate a reasonable degree of GPS drift and still achieve efficient data dissemination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart City: Vision and Reality)

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Open AccessArticle

A 3D Model of the Thermoelectric Microwave Power Sensor by MEMS Technology

by Zhenxiang Yi and Xiaoping Liao

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 921; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060921 - 21 Jun 2016

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5722

Abstract

In this paper, a novel 3D model is proposed to describe the temperature distribution of the thermoelectric microwave power sensor. In this 3D model, the heat flux density decreases from the upper surface to the lower surface of the GaAs substrate while it [...] Read more.

In this paper, a novel 3D model is proposed to describe the temperature distribution of the thermoelectric microwave power sensor. In this 3D model, the heat flux density decreases from the upper surface to the lower surface of the GaAs substrate while it was supposed to be a constant in the 2D model. The power sensor is fabricated by a GaAs monolithic microwave integrated circuit (MMIC) process and micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) technology. The microwave performance experiment shows that the S₁₁ is less than −26 dB over the frequency band of 1–10 GHz. The power response experiment demonstrates that the output voltage increases from 0 mV to 27 mV, while the incident power varies from 1 mW to 100 mW. The measured sensitivity is about 0.27 mV/mW, and the calculated result from the 3D model is 0.28 mV/mW. The relative error has been reduced from 7.5% of the 2D model to 3.7% of the 3D model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies and Techniques for Microwave and Wireless Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

The Reusable Load Cell with Protection Applied for Online Monitoring of Overhead Transmission Lines Based on Fiber Bragg Grating

by Guoming Ma, Naiqiang Mao, Yabo Li, Jun Jiang, Hongyang Zhou and Chengrong Li

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 922; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060922 - 21 Jun 2016

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 6781

Abstract

Heavy ice coating of high–voltage overhead transmission lines may lead to conductor breakage and tower collapse causing the unexpected interrupt of power supply. The optical load cell applied in ice monitoring systems is immune to electromagnetic interference and has no need of a [...] Read more.

Heavy ice coating of high–voltage overhead transmission lines may lead to conductor breakage and tower collapse causing the unexpected interrupt of power supply. The optical load cell applied in ice monitoring systems is immune to electromagnetic interference and has no need of a power supply on site. Therefore, it has become a hot research topic in China and other countries. In this paper, to solve the problem of eccentric load in measurement, we adopt the shearing structure with additional grooves to improve the strain distribution and acquire good repeatability. Then, the fiber Bragg grating (FBG) with a permanent weldable package are mounted onto the front/rear groove of the elastic element by spot welding, the direction deviation of FBGs is 90° from each other to achieve temperature compensation without an extra FBG. After that, protection parts are designed to guarantee high sensitivity for a light load condition and industrial safety under a heavy load up to 65 kN. The results of tension experiments indicate that the sensitivity and resolution of the load cell is 0.1285 pm/N and 7.782 N in the conventional measuring range (0–10 kN). Heavy load tension experiments prove that the protection structure works and the sensitivity and resolution are not changed after several high load (65 kN) cycles. In addition, the experiment shows that the resolution of the sensor is 87.79 N in the large load range, allowing the parameter to be used in heavy icing monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Fiber Bragg Grating Sensing)

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Open AccessArticle

A Type of Low-Latency Data Gathering Method with Multi-Sink for Sensor Networks

by Chao Sha, Jian-mei Qiu, Shu-yan Li, Meng-ye Qiang and Ru-chuan Wang

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 923; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060923 - 21 Jun 2016

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6664

Abstract

To balance energy consumption and reduce latency on data transmission in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), a type of low-latency data gathering method with multi-Sink (LDGM for short) is proposed in this paper. The network is divided into several virtual regions consisting of three [...] Read more.

To balance energy consumption and reduce latency on data transmission in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), a type of low-latency data gathering method with multi-Sink (LDGM for short) is proposed in this paper. The network is divided into several virtual regions consisting of three or less data gathering units and the leader of each region is selected according to its residual energy as well as distance to all of the other nodes. Only the leaders in each region need to communicate with the mobile Sinks which have effectively reduced energy consumption and the end-to-end delay. Moreover, with the help of the sleep scheduling and the sensing radius adjustment strategies, redundancy in network coverage could also be effectively reduced. Simulation results show that LDGM is energy efficient in comparison with MST as well as MWST and its time efficiency on data collection is higher than one Sink based data gathering methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Data in the IoT: from Sensing to Meaning)

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Open AccessArticle

A Compact Forearm Crutch Based on Force Sensors for Aided Gait: Reliability and Validity

by Gema Chamorro-Moriana, José Luis Sevillano and Carmen Ridao-Fernández

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 925; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060925 - 21 Jun 2016

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 10334

Abstract

Frequently, patients who suffer injuries in some lower member require forearm crutches in order to partially unload weight-bearing. These lesions cause pain in lower limb unloading and their progression should be controlled objectively to avoid significant errors in accuracy and, consequently, complications and [...] Read more.

Frequently, patients who suffer injuries in some lower member require forearm crutches in order to partially unload weight-bearing. These lesions cause pain in lower limb unloading and their progression should be controlled objectively to avoid significant errors in accuracy and, consequently, complications and after effects in lesions. The design of a new and feasible tool that allows us to control and improve the accuracy of loads exerted on crutches during aided gait is necessary, so as to unburden the lower limbs. In this paper, we describe such a system based on a force sensor, which we have named the GCH System 2.0. Furthermore, we determine the validity and reliability of measurements obtained using this tool via a comparison with the validated AMTI (Advanced Mechanical Technology, Inc., Watertown, MA, USA) OR6-7-2000 Platform. An intra-class correlation coefficient demonstrated excellent agreement between the AMTI Platform and the GCH System. A regression line to determine the predictive ability of the GCH system towards the AMTI Platform was found, which obtained a precision of 99.3%. A detailed statistical analysis is presented for all the measurements and also segregated for several requested loads on the crutches (10%, 25% and 50% of body weight). Our results show that our system, designed for assessing loads exerted by patients on forearm crutches during assisted gait, provides valid and reliable measurements of loads. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2015)

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Open AccessArticle

Spatially Multiplexed Micro-Spectrophotometry in Bright Field Mode for Thin Film Characterization

by Valerio Pini, Priscila M. Kosaka, Jose J. Ruz, Oscar Malvar, Mario Encinar, Javier Tamayo and Montserrat Calleja

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 926; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060926 - 21 Jun 2016

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 5787

Abstract

Thickness characterization of thin films is of primary importance in a variety of nanotechnology applications, either in the semiconductor industry, quality control in nanofabrication processes or engineering of nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) because small thickness variability can strongly compromise the device performance. Here, we [...] Read more.

Thickness characterization of thin films is of primary importance in a variety of nanotechnology applications, either in the semiconductor industry, quality control in nanofabrication processes or engineering of nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) because small thickness variability can strongly compromise the device performance. Here, we present an alternative optical method in bright field mode called Spatially Multiplexed Micro-Spectrophotometry that allows rapid and non-destructive characterization of thin films over areas of mm² and with 1 μm of lateral resolution. We demonstrate an accuracy of 0.1% in the thickness characterization through measurements performed on four microcantilevers that expand an area of 1.8 mm² in one minute of analysis time. The measured thickness variation in the range of few tens of nm translates into a mechanical variability that produces an error of up to 2% in the response of the studied devices when they are used to measure surface stress variations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanomechanics for Sensing and Spectrometry)

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Open AccessReview

Single Photon Counting UV Solar-Blind Detectors Using Silicon and III-Nitride Materials

by Shouleh Nikzad, Michael Hoenk, April D. Jewell, John J. Hennessy, Alexander G. Carver, Todd J. Jones, Timothy M. Goodsall, Erika T. Hamden, Puneet Suvarna, J. Bulmer, F. Shahedipour-Sandvik, Edoardo Charbon, Preethi Padmanabhan, Bruce Hancock and L. Douglas Bell

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 927; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060927 - 21 Jun 2016

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 11506

Abstract

Ultraviolet (UV) studies in astronomy, cosmology, planetary studies, biological and medical applications often require precision detection of faint objects and in many cases require photon-counting detection. We present an overview of two approaches for achieving photon counting in the UV. The first approach [...] Read more.

Ultraviolet (UV) studies in astronomy, cosmology, planetary studies, biological and medical applications often require precision detection of faint objects and in many cases require photon-counting detection. We present an overview of two approaches for achieving photon counting in the UV. The first approach involves UV enhancement of photon-counting silicon detectors, including electron multiplying charge-coupled devices and avalanche photodiodes. The approach used here employs molecular beam epitaxy for delta doping and superlattice doping for surface passivation and high UV quantum efficiency. Additional UV enhancements include antireflection (AR) and solar-blind UV bandpass coatings prepared by atomic layer deposition. Quantum efficiency (QE) measurements show QE > 50% in the 100–300 nm range for detectors with simple AR coatings, and QE ≅ 80% at ~206 nm has been shown when more complex AR coatings are used. The second approach is based on avalanche photodiodes in III-nitride materials with high QE and intrinsic solar blindness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photon-Counting Image Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

A Fiber-Coupled Self-Mixing Laser Diode for the Measurement of Young’s Modulus

by Ke Lin, Yanguang Yu, Jiangtao Xi, Huijun Li, Qinghua Guo, Jun Tong and Lihong Su

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 928; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060928 - 22 Jun 2016

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 6940

Abstract

This paper presents the design of a fiber-coupled self-mixing laser diode (SMLD) for non-contact and non-destructive measurement of Young’s modulus. By the presented measuring system, the Young’s modulus of aluminum 6061 and brass are measured as 70.0 GPa and 116.7 GPa, respectively, showing [...] Read more.

This paper presents the design of a fiber-coupled self-mixing laser diode (SMLD) for non-contact and non-destructive measurement of Young’s modulus. By the presented measuring system, the Young’s modulus of aluminum 6061 and brass are measured as 70.0 GPa and 116.7 GPa, respectively, showing a good agreement within the standards in the literature and yielding a much smaller deviation and a higher repeatability compared with traditional tensile testing. Its fiber-coupled characteristics make the system quite easy to be installed in many application cases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Fiber Sensors 2016)

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Open AccessArticle

Flexible Bond Wire Capacitive Strain Sensor for Vehicle Tyres

by Siyang Cao, Simon Pyatt, Carl J. Anthony, Ammar I. Kubba, Ali E. Kubba and Oluremi Olatunbosun

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 929; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060929 - 21 Jun 2016

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 7974

Abstract

The safety of the driving experience and manoeuvrability of a vehicle can be improved by detecting the strain in tyres. To measure strain accurately in rubber, the strain sensor needs to be flexible so that it does not deform the medium that it [...] Read more.

The safety of the driving experience and manoeuvrability of a vehicle can be improved by detecting the strain in tyres. To measure strain accurately in rubber, the strain sensor needs to be flexible so that it does not deform the medium that it is measuring. In this work, a novel flexible bond wire capacitive strain sensor for measuring the strain in tyres is developed, fabricated and calibrated. An array of 25 micron diameter wire bonds in an approximately 8 mm × 8 mm area is built to create an interdigitated structure, which consists of 50 wire loops resulting in 49 capacitor pairs in parallel. Laser machining was used to pattern copper on a flexible printed circuit board PCB to make the bond pads for the wire attachment. The wire array was finally packaged and embedded in polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), which acts as the structural material that is strained. The capacitance of the device is in a linear like relationship with respect to the strain, which can measure the strain up to at least ±60,000 micro-strain (±6%) with a resolution of ~132 micro-strain (0.013%). In-tyre testing under static loading has shown the ability of the sensor to measure large tyre strains. The technology used for sensor fabrication lends itself to mass production and so the design is considered to be consistent with low cost commercialisable strain sensing technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering)

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Open AccessArticle

Analysis and Visualization of 3D Motion Data for UPDRS Rating of Patients with Parkinson’s Disease

by Neltje E. Piro, Lennart K. Piro, Jan Kassubek and Ronald A. Blechschmidt-Trapp

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 930; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060930 - 21 Jun 2016

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 9806

Abstract

Remote monitoring of Parkinson’s Disease (PD) patients with inertia sensors is a relevant method for a better assessment of symptoms. We present a new approach for symptom quantification based on motion data: the automatic Unified Parkinson Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS) classification in combination [...] Read more.

Remote monitoring of Parkinson’s Disease (PD) patients with inertia sensors is a relevant method for a better assessment of symptoms. We present a new approach for symptom quantification based on motion data: the automatic Unified Parkinson Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS) classification in combination with an animated 3D avatar giving the neurologist the impression of having the patient live in front of him. In this study we compared the UPDRS ratings of the pronation-supination task derived from: (a) an examination based on video recordings as a clinical reference; (b) an automatically classified UPDRS; and (c) a UPDRS rating from the assessment of the animated 3D avatar. Data were recorded using Magnetic, Angular Rate, Gravity (MARG) sensors with 15 subjects performing a pronation-supination movement of the hand. After preprocessing, the data were classified with a J48 classifier and animated as a 3D avatar. Video recording of the movements, as well as the 3D avatar, were examined by movement disorder specialists and rated by UPDRS. The mean agreement between the ratings based on video and (b) the automatically classified UPDRS is 0.48 and with (c) the 3D avatar it is 0.47. The 3D avatar is similarly suitable for assessing the UPDRS as video recordings for the examined task and will be further developed by the research team. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Sensors for Globalized Healthy Living and Wellbeing)

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Open AccessArticle

An Intelligent Parking Management System for Urban Areas

by Juan A. Vera-Gómez, Alexis Quesada-Arencibia, Carmelo R. García, Raúl Suárez Moreno and Fernando Guerra Hernández

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 931; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060931 - 21 Jun 2016

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 14998

Abstract

In this article we describe a low-cost, minimally-intrusive system for the efficient management of parking spaces on both public roads and controlled zones. This system is based on wireless networks of photoelectric sensors that are deployed on the access roads into and out [...] Read more.

In this article we describe a low-cost, minimally-intrusive system for the efficient management of parking spaces on both public roads and controlled zones. This system is based on wireless networks of photoelectric sensors that are deployed on the access roads into and out of these areas. The sensors detect the passage of vehicles on these roads and communicate this information to a data centre, thus making it possible to know the number of vehicles in the controlled zone and the occupancy levels in real-time. This information may be communicated to drivers to facilitate their search for a parking space and to authorities so that they may take steps to control traffic when congestion is detected. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from UCAmI, IWAAL and AmIHEALTH 2015)

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Open AccessArticle

Matching Aerial Images to 3D Building Models Using Context-Based Geometric Hashing

by Jaewook Jung, Gunho Sohn, Kiin Bang, Andreas Wichmann, Costas Armenakis and Martin Kada

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 932; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060932 - 22 Jun 2016

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5848

Abstract

A city is a dynamic entity, which environment is continuously changing over time. Accordingly, its virtual city models also need to be regularly updated to support accurate model-based decisions for various applications, including urban planning, emergency response and autonomous navigation. A concept of [...] Read more.

A city is a dynamic entity, which environment is continuously changing over time. Accordingly, its virtual city models also need to be regularly updated to support accurate model-based decisions for various applications, including urban planning, emergency response and autonomous navigation. A concept of continuous city modeling is to progressively reconstruct city models by accommodating their changes recognized in spatio-temporal domain, while preserving unchanged structures. A first critical step for continuous city modeling is to coherently register remotely sensed data taken at different epochs with existing building models. This paper presents a new model-to-image registration method using a context-based geometric hashing (CGH) method to align a single image with existing 3D building models. This model-to-image registration process consists of three steps: (1) feature extraction; (2) similarity measure; and matching, and (3) estimating exterior orientation parameters (EOPs) of a single image. For feature extraction, we propose two types of matching cues: edged corner features representing the saliency of building corner points with associated edges, and contextual relations among the edged corner features within an individual roof. A set of matched corners are found with given proximity measure through geometric hashing, and optimal matches are then finally determined by maximizing the matching cost encoding contextual similarity between matching candidates. Final matched corners are used for adjusting EOPs of the single airborne image by the least square method based on collinearity equations. The result shows that acceptable accuracy of EOPs of a single image can be achievable using the proposed registration approach as an alternative to a labor-intensive manual registration process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Indirect Correspondence-Based Robust Extrinsic Calibration of LiDAR and Camera

by Sungdae Sim, Juil Sock and Kiho Kwak

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 933; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060933 - 22 Jun 2016

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 10838

Abstract

LiDAR and cameras have been broadly utilized in computer vision and autonomous vehicle applications. However, in order to convert data between the local coordinate systems, we must estimate the rigid body transformation between the sensors. In this paper, we propose a robust extrinsic [...] Read more.

LiDAR and cameras have been broadly utilized in computer vision and autonomous vehicle applications. However, in order to convert data between the local coordinate systems, we must estimate the rigid body transformation between the sensors. In this paper, we propose a robust extrinsic calibration algorithm that can be implemented easily and has small calibration error. The extrinsic calibration parameters are estimated by minimizing the distance between corresponding features projected onto the image plane. The features are edge and centerline features on a v-shaped calibration target. The proposed algorithm contributes two ways to improve the calibration accuracy. First, we use different weights to distance between a point and a line feature according to the correspondence accuracy of the features. Second, we apply a penalizing function to exclude the influence of outliers in the calibration datasets. Additionally, based on our robust calibration approach for a single LiDAR-camera pair, we introduce a joint calibration that estimates the extrinsic parameters of multiple sensors at once by minimizing one objective function with loop closing constraints. We conduct several experiments to evaluate the performance of our extrinsic calibration algorithm. The experimental results show that our calibration method has better performance than the other approaches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Optimization of the Coverage and Accuracy of an Indoor Positioning System with a Variable Number of Sensors

by Francisco Domingo-Perez, Jose Luis Lazaro-Galilea, Ignacio Bravo, Alfredo Gardel and David Rodriguez

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 934; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060934 - 22 Jun 2016

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 6181

Abstract

This paper focuses on optimal sensor deployment for indoor localization with a multi-objective evolutionary algorithm. Our goal is to obtain an algorithm to deploy sensors taking the number of sensors, accuracy and coverage into account. Contrary to most works in the literature, we [...] Read more.

This paper focuses on optimal sensor deployment for indoor localization with a multi-objective evolutionary algorithm. Our goal is to obtain an algorithm to deploy sensors taking the number of sensors, accuracy and coverage into account. Contrary to most works in the literature, we consider the presence of obstacles in the region of interest (ROI) that can cause occlusions between the target and some sensors. In addition, we aim to obtain all of the Pareto optimal solutions regarding the number of sensors, coverage and accuracy. To deal with a variable number of sensors, we add speciation and structural mutations to the well-known non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm (NSGA-II). Speciation allows one to keep the evolution of sensor sets under control and to apply genetic operators to them so that they compete with other sets of the same size. We show some case studies of the sensor placement of an infrared range-difference indoor positioning system with a fairly complex model of the error of the measurements. The results obtained by our algorithm are compared to sensor placement patterns obtained with random deployment to highlight the relevance of using such a deployment algorithm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Trusted and Secure Wireless Sensor Network Designs and Deployments)

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Open AccessArticle

Electrochemical Sensing toward Trace As(III) Based on Mesoporous MnFe₂O₄/Au Hybrid Nanospheres Modified Glass Carbon Electrode

by Shaofeng Zhou, Xiaojuan Han, Honglei Fan and Yaqing Liu

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 935; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060935 - 22 Jun 2016

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 6386

Abstract

Au nanoparticles decorated mesoporous MnFe₂O₄ nanocrystal clusters (MnFe₂O₄/Au hybrid nanospheres) were used for the electrochemical sensing of As(III) by square wave anodic stripping voltammetry (SWASV). Modified on a cheap glass carbon electrode, these MnFe₂O [...] Read more.

Au nanoparticles decorated mesoporous MnFe₂O₄ nanocrystal clusters (MnFe₂O₄/Au hybrid nanospheres) were used for the electrochemical sensing of As(III) by square wave anodic stripping voltammetry (SWASV). Modified on a cheap glass carbon electrode, these MnFe₂O₄/Au hybrid nanospheres show favorable sensitivity (0.315 μA/ppb) and limit of detection (LOD) (3.37 ppb) toward As(III) under the optimized conditions in 0.1 M NaAc-HAc (pH 5.0) by depositing for 150 s at the deposition potential of −0.9 V. No obvious interference from Cd(II) and Hg(II) was recognized during the detection of As(III). Additionally, the developed electrode displayed good reproducibility, stability, and repeatability, and offered potential practical applicability for electrochemical detection of As(III) in real water samples. The present work provides a potential method for the design of new and cheap sensors in the application of electrochemical determination toward trace As(III) and other toxic metal ions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Use of New and/or Improved Materials for Sensing Applications)

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Open AccessArticle

Contrast Enhancement Algorithm Based on Gap Adjustment for Histogram Equalization

by Chung-Cheng Chiu and Chih-Chung Ting

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 936; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060936 - 22 Jun 2016

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 8241

Abstract

Image enhancement methods have been widely used to improve the visual effects of images. Owing to its simplicity and effectiveness histogram equalization (HE) is one of the methods used for enhancing image contrast. However, HE may result in over-enhancement and feature loss problems [...] Read more.

Image enhancement methods have been widely used to improve the visual effects of images. Owing to its simplicity and effectiveness histogram equalization (HE) is one of the methods used for enhancing image contrast. However, HE may result in over-enhancement and feature loss problems that lead to unnatural look and loss of details in the processed images. Researchers have proposed various HE-based methods to solve the over-enhancement problem; however, they have largely ignored the feature loss problem. Therefore, a contrast enhancement algorithm based on gap adjustment for histogram equalization (CegaHE) is proposed. It refers to a visual contrast enhancement algorithm based on histogram equalization (VCEA), which generates visually pleasing enhanced images, and improves the enhancement effects of VCEA. CegaHE adjusts the gaps between two gray values based on the adjustment equation, which takes the properties of human visual perception into consideration, to solve the over-enhancement problem. Besides, it also alleviates the feature loss problem and further enhances the textures in the dark regions of the images to improve the quality of the processed images for human visual perception. Experimental results demonstrate that CegaHE is a reliable method for contrast enhancement and that it significantly outperforms VCEA and other methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Distributed Information Compression for Target Tracking in Cluster-Based Wireless Sensor Networks

by Shi-Kuan Liao, Kai-Jay Lai, Hsiao-Ping Tsai and Chih-Yu Wen

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 937; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060937 - 22 Jun 2016

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5634

Abstract

Target tracking is a critical wireless sensor application, which involves signal and information processing technologies. In conventional target position estimation methods, an estimate is usually demonstrated by an average target position. In contrast, this work proposes a distributed information compression method to describe [...] Read more.

Target tracking is a critical wireless sensor application, which involves signal and information processing technologies. In conventional target position estimation methods, an estimate is usually demonstrated by an average target position. In contrast, this work proposes a distributed information compression method to describe the measurement uncertainty of tracking problems in cluster-based wireless sensor networks. The leader-based information processing scheme is applied to perform target positioning and energy conservation. A two-level hierarchical network topology is adopted for energy-efficient target tracking with information compression. A Level 1 network architecture is a cluster-based network topology for managing network operations. A Level 2 network architecture is an event-based and leader-based topology, utilizing the concept of information compression to process the estimates of sensor nodes. The simulation results show that compared to conventional schemes, the proposed data processing scheme has a balanced system performance in terms of tracking accuracy, data size for transmission and energy consumption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Scalable Localization in Wireless Sensor Networks)

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Open AccessArticle

Smart Coat with a Fully-Embedded Textile Antenna for IoT Applications

by Caroline Loss, Ricardo Gonçalves, Catarina Lopes, Pedro Pinho and Rita Salvado

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 938; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060938 - 22 Jun 2016

Cited by 64 | Viewed by 11896

Abstract

The Internet of Things (IoT) scenario is strongly related with the advance of the development of wireless sensor networks (WSN) and radio frequency identification (RFID) systems. Additionally, in the WSN context, for a continuous feed, the integration of textile antennas for energy harvesting [...] Read more.

The Internet of Things (IoT) scenario is strongly related with the advance of the development of wireless sensor networks (WSN) and radio frequency identification (RFID) systems. Additionally, in the WSN context, for a continuous feed, the integration of textile antennas for energy harvesting into smart clothing is a particularly interesting solution when the replacement of batteries is not easy to practice, such as in wearable devices. This paper presents the E-Caption: Smart and Sustainable Coat. It has an embedded dual-band textile antenna for electromagnetic energy harvesting, operating at global system for mobile communication (GSM) 900 and digital cellular system (DCS) 1800 bands. This printed antenna is fully integrated, as its dielectric is the textile material composing the coat itself. The E-Caption illustrates the innovative concept of textile antennas that can be manipulated as simple emblems. Seven prototypes of these “emblem” antennas, manufactured by lamination and embroidering techniques are also presented. It is shown that the orientation of the conductive fabric does not influence the performance of the antenna. It is also shown that the direction and number of the stitches in the embroidery may influence the performance of the antenna. Moreover, the comparison of results obtained before and after the integration of the antenna into cloth shows the integration does not affect the behavior of the antenna. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 2nd International Electronic Conference on Sensors and Applications)

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3577 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integration of GMR Sensors with Different Technologies

by María-Dolores Cubells-Beltrán, Càndid Reig, Jordi Madrenas, Andrea De Marcellis, Joana Santos, Susana Cardoso and Paulo P. Freitas

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 939; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060939 - 22 Jun 2016

Cited by 81 | Viewed by 12227

Abstract

Less than thirty years after the giant magnetoresistance (GMR) effect was described, GMR sensors are the preferred choice in many applications demanding the measurement of low magnetic fields in small volumes. This rapid deployment from theoretical basis to market and state-of-the-art applications can [...] Read more.

Less than thirty years after the giant magnetoresistance (GMR) effect was described, GMR sensors are the preferred choice in many applications demanding the measurement of low magnetic fields in small volumes. This rapid deployment from theoretical basis to market and state-of-the-art applications can be explained by the combination of excellent inherent properties with the feasibility of fabrication, allowing the real integration with many other standard technologies. In this paper, we present a review focusing on how this capability of integration has allowed the improvement of the inherent capabilities and, therefore, the range of application of GMR sensors. After briefly describing the phenomenological basis, we deal on the benefits of low temperature deposition techniques regarding the integration of GMR sensors with flexible (plastic) substrates and pre-processed CMOS chips. In this way, the limit of detection can be improved by means of bettering the sensitivity or reducing the noise. We also report on novel fields of application of GMR sensors by the recapitulation of a number of cases of success of their integration with different heterogeneous complementary elements. We finally describe three fully functional systems, two of them in the bio-technology world, as the proof of how the integrability has been instrumental in the meteoric development of GMR sensors and their applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Giant Magnetoresistive Sensors)

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3413 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Systematic Calibration for Ultra-High Accuracy Inertial Measurement Units

by Qingzhong Cai, Gongliu Yang, Ningfang Song and Yiliang Liu

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 940; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060940 - 22 Jun 2016

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 7137

Abstract

An inertial navigation system (INS) has been widely used in challenging GPS environments. With the rapid development of modern physics, an atomic gyroscope will come into use in the near future with a predicted accuracy of 5 × 10⁻⁶°/h or better. [...] Read more.

An inertial navigation system (INS) has been widely used in challenging GPS environments. With the rapid development of modern physics, an atomic gyroscope will come into use in the near future with a predicted accuracy of 5 × 10⁻⁶°/h or better. However, existing calibration methods and devices can not satisfy the accuracy requirements of future ultra-high accuracy inertial sensors. In this paper, an improved calibration model is established by introducing gyro g-sensitivity errors, accelerometer cross-coupling errors and lever arm errors. A systematic calibration method is proposed based on a 51-state Kalman filter and smoother. Simulation results show that the proposed calibration method can realize the estimation of all the parameters using a common dual-axis turntable. Laboratory and sailing tests prove that the position accuracy in a five-day inertial navigation can be improved about 8% by the proposed calibration method. The accuracy can be improved at least 20% when the position accuracy of the atomic gyro INS can reach a level of 0.1 nautical miles/5 d. Compared with the existing calibration methods, the proposed method, with more error sources and high order small error parameters calibrated for ultra-high accuracy inertial measurement units (IMUs) using common turntables, has a great application potential in future atomic gyro INSs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inertial Sensors and Systems 2016)

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4830 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Ultrahigh Frequency Partial Discharge Signal De-Noising Method Based on a Generalized S-Transform and Module Time-Frequency Matrix

by Yushun Liu, Wenjun Zhou, Pengfei Li, Shuai Yang and Yan Tian

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 941; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060941 - 22 Jun 2016

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 6914

Abstract

Due to electromagnetic interference in power substations, the partial discharge (PD) signals detected by ultrahigh frequency (UHF) antenna sensors often contain various background noises, which may hamper high voltage apparatus fault diagnosis and localization. This paper proposes a novel de-noising method based on [...] Read more.

Due to electromagnetic interference in power substations, the partial discharge (PD) signals detected by ultrahigh frequency (UHF) antenna sensors often contain various background noises, which may hamper high voltage apparatus fault diagnosis and localization. This paper proposes a novel de-noising method based on the generalized S-transform and module time-frequency matrix to suppress noise in UHF PD signals. The sub-matrix maximum module value method is employed to calculate the frequencies and amplitudes of periodic narrowband noise, and suppress noise through the reverse phase cancellation technique. In addition, a singular value decomposition de-noising method is employed to suppress Gaussian white noise in UHF PD signals. Effective singular values are selected by employing the fuzzy c-means clustering method to recover the PD signals. De-noising results of simulated and field detected UHF PD signals prove the feasibility of the proposed method. Compared with four conventional de-noising methods, the results show that the proposed method can suppress background noise in the UHF PD signal effectively, with higher signal-to-noise ratio and less waveform distortion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Non-Contact Sensing)

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5173 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Low Cost/Low Power Open Source Sensor System for Automated Tuberculosis Drug Susceptibility Testing

by Kyukwang Kim, Hyeong Keun Kim, Hwijoon Lim and Hyun Myung

Sensors 2016, 16(6), 942; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16060942 - 22 Jun 2016

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 8299

Abstract

In this research an open source, low power sensor node was developed to check the growth of mycobacteria in a culture bottle with a nitrate reductase assay method for a drug susceptibility test. The sensor system reports the temperature and color sensor output [...] Read more.

In this research an open source, low power sensor node was developed to check the growth of mycobacteria in a culture bottle with a nitrate reductase assay method for a drug susceptibility test. The sensor system reports the temperature and color sensor output frequency change of the culture bottle when the device is triggered. After the culture process is finished, a nitrite ion detecting solution based on a commercial nitrite ion detection kit is injected into the culture bottle by a syringe pump to check bacterial growth by the formation of a pigment by the reaction between the solution and the color sensor. Sensor status and NRA results are broadcasted via a Bluetooth low energy beacon. An Android application was developed to collect the broadcasted data, classify the status of cultured samples from multiple devices, and visualize the data for the end users, circumventing the need to examine each culture bottle manually during a long culture period. The authors expect that usage of the developed sensor will decrease the cost and required labor for handling large amounts of patient samples in local health centers in developing countries. All 3D-printerable hardware parts, a circuit diagram, and software are available online. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technology for Healthcare System)

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