Saved Queries

by Panagiotis Stachteas, Athina Nasoufidou, Markella Koiliari, Vasiliki Arampatzi, Chrysa Alexaki, Christos Kofos, Paschalis Karakasis, Efstratios Karagiannidis, Theocharis Koufakis, Nikolaos Fragakis and Dimitrios Patoulias

J. Cardiovasc. Dev. Dis. 2025, 12(11), 432; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcdd12110432 (registering DOI) - 2 Nov 2025

Abstract

Dietary sodium restriction is widely recommended in heart failure (HF) management; however, its benefits and risks remain a subject of ongoing debate. While moderate sodium reduction may improve symptoms and quality of life in selected patients, excessive restriction can trigger maladaptive neurohormonal activation, worsen renal function, and increase the risk of hyponatremia, malnutrition, and cachexia. Patient response is heterogeneous, influenced by clinical risk profile, salt sensitivity, comorbidities, and age, with some high-risk patients experiencing neutral or adverse outcomes. Additional challenges arise from hidden sodium in processed foods, medications, and meals, which complicate monitoring and adherence. Effective sodium management in HF therefore requires a nuanced, individualized approach that integrates risk stratification, dietary counseling, and public health measures targeting the food industry. Future research should refine patient selection criteria and establish optimal sodium targets to balance therapeutic efficacy with safety in real-world practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cardiovascular Disease and Nutrition)

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27 pages, 3147 KB

Open AccessReview

Overcoming Challenges in Avian Influenza Diagnosis: The Role of Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy in Poultry Health Monitoring

by Muhammad Farhan Qadir and Yukun Yang

Vet. Sci. 2025, 12(11), 1052; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12111052 (registering DOI) - 2 Nov 2025

Abstract

Rapid and accurate diagnostics for influenza viruses are essential for preventing future epidemics. Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) presents a promising alternative to conventional techniques, offering a rapid, cost-effective, and highly sensitive platform for influenza virus detection. It is a highly sensitive analytical technique that enables the detection of minute chemical substances through significant signal enhancement. It operates by illuminating a sample with a laser and analyzing the scattered light to generate a unique molecular Raman spectrum. The sensitivity of SERS is derived from its use of metal nanoparticles, which amplify the weak Raman signals, making it particularly effective for detecting low-concentration targets such as viruses. Avian influenza (AI) is a major threat to domestic poultry, leading to large-scale culling during outbreaks. It leads to economic losses globally and can also infect pigs and humans, potentially causing a pandemic. Migratory birds spread various strains, leading to the development of highly pathogenic viruses. Viral monitoring is crucial for prevention strategies and understanding the virus evolution. This review outlines the challenges in detecting AI virus in chickens and critically assesses the established and emerging diagnostic technologies, with a specific focus on the factors influencing detection and recent advances in SERS-based AI detection. Ultimately, this review aims to provide insights that will assist the influenza research community in developing novel strategies for monitoring and preventing AI outbreaks in chickens and mitigating zoonotic transmission. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diagnosis and Evolution Analysis of Virus Infection in Poultry and Wild Birds—2nd Edition)

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22 pages, 11388 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Analysis of Water Quality Conditions in High-Andean Lakes Based on Satellite Indicators Using Sentinel 2 and Landsat 8/9 Images

by Valeria Fernanda Flores Cantos, Patricio X. Lozano Rodríguez, Johanna Elizabeth Ayala Izurieta, Carlos Arturo Jara Santillán, Antonio Ruiz-Verdú, Jochem Verrelst, Peter L. M. Goethals and Jesús Delegido

Water 2025, 17(21), 3145; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17213145 (registering DOI) - 2 Nov 2025

Abstract

High-Andean lakes are strategic freshwater ecosystems whose monitoring is essential for effective water resource management. However, their optical complexity limits the applicability of conventional methods. In this study, the water quality conditions of the Ozogoche lakes, located in Sangay National Park (PNS), were assessed using Sentinel-2 (S2), Landsat-8 OLI (L8), and Landsat-9 (L9) imagery processed with automated water products from the Case 2 Regional Coast Colour (C2RCC) processor, including the C2RCC, C2X-COMPLEX, and C2X versions. Comparisons between in situ chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) measurements and satellite-derived products confirmed that C2RCC achieved the lowest error (RMSE = 0.68 mg/m³). The multitemporal analysis (2016–2024) of Chl-a, total suspended solids (TSSs), and the diffuse attenuation coefficient (kd_z90max) revealed interannual variations. The results consistently classified the lakes as ultra-oligotrophic, providing an integrated perspective of their environmental quality. This study demonstrates the reliability of C2RCC products for monitoring high-Andean aquatic ecosystems and underscores the potential of remote sensing to overcome accessibility and cloud cover constraints, delivering valuable insights for the sustainable management of water resources in protected areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Hydrology)

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22 pages, 5842 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Fucalean Forests of the Island of Lampedusa (Pelagie Islands Marine Protected Area, Central Mediterranean): Past and Present Diversity and Distribution

by Giuliana Marletta, Andrea Lombardo, Donatella Serio and Anna Maria Mannino

Coasts 2025, 5(4), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/coasts5040043 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2025

Abstract

This study explored the occurrence, density, and distribution of Fucales along the island of Lampedusa, almost 30 years after the latest studies conducted on the marine vegetation of this island. To carry out this study, we conducted a monitoring activity in 18 sites through both scuba dives and snorkeling. During this study, a total of 13 species (three belonging to Cystoseira sensu strictu (s.s.), five to Ericaria, two to Gongolaria, and finally three to Sargassum) were observed. Nine species were previously reported, four taxa (E. brachycarpa, E. funkii, E. giacconei, and S. cf furcatum) were reported here for the first time in Lampedusa, and six species have not been found anymore. Ericaria giacconei may have always been present on Lampedusa Island, but it might have been misidentified in the past. The record on the island of Lampedusa extends the known distribution range of this species. The presence of S. cf furcatum, a non-indigenous species that is recently expanding in the Mediterranean Sea, could be considered further proof of ongoing seawater warming. In conclusion, we found that the predominant species’ association described in the past for the island of Lampedusa has remained unchanged in terms of species and biodiversity found in the studied sites. Nevertheless, we observed some changes in the Fucalean species, in particular a reduction in the canopy density values of some deep species. Therefore, we believe that the zonation pattern of the MPA should be revised, paying more attention to the conservation of fucalean species. Moreover, it will be important to manage and control the populations of the rabbitfishes, mitigating their impacts on the fucalean stands of the island. Full article

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21 pages, 3930 KB

Open AccessReview

Bariatric–Metabolic Surgery: The State of the Art and the Management of Complications

by Silvia Tedesco, Nadia Campelli, Stefano Lunetti, Giulia Nicolai, Cristina Marmorale, Albano Nicolai and Marina Taus

Dietetics 2025, 4(4), 49; https://doi.org/10.3390/dietetics4040049 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2025

Abstract

Bariatric surgery is a highly effective therapeutic strategy in the treatment of severe obesity, but it carries significant risks, both in the short and long terms. However, many of these complications can be avoided by appropriate patient selection, comprehensive assessment of clinical conditions, and structured follow-up including clinical, nutritional, and psychological monitoring. Achieving these objectives requires a meticulous program involving the entire multidisciplinary team and lays the foundations for proper patient compliance. Furthermore, recent studies have begun to explore the systemic effects of bariatric–metabolic surgery, with benefits extending far beyond simple weight loss and effects on both morbidity and mortality. Research has documented improvements in cardiovascular risk factors, insulin sensitivity, and hormonal balance, with substantial effects on the three main comorbidities of obesity: cardiovascular risk and hypertension, T2DM, and OSAS. In conclusion, bariatric surgery, while highly effective in treating severe obesity and its comorbidities, involves significant anatomical and physiological changes that alter nutrient absorption and digestion. These changes can lead to a number of short-, medium-, and long-term nutritional complications that require close monitoring and targeted dietary interventions. Full article

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17 pages, 306 KB

Open AccessArticle

Negotiating Human–AI Complementarity in Geriatric and Palliative Care: A Qualitative Study of Healthcare Practitioners’ Perspectives in Northeast China

by Chenyang Guo, Chao Fang, Wenbo Zhang and John Troyer

Informatics 2025, 12(4), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/informatics12040120 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2025

Abstract

Artificial intelligence (AI) is becoming increasingly significant in healthcare around the world, especially in China, where rapid population ageing coincides with rising expectations for quality of life and a shrinking care workforce. This study explores Chinese health practitioners’ perspectives on using AI assistants in integrated geriatric and palliative care. Drawing on Actor–Network Theory, care is viewed as a network of interconnected human and non-human actors, including practitioners, technologies, patients and policies. Based in Northeast China, a region with structurally marginalised healthcare infrastructure, this article analyses qualitative interviews with 14 practitioners. Our findings reveal three key themes: (1) tensions between AI’s rule-based logic and practitioners’ human-centred approach; (2) ethical discomfort with AI performing intimate or emotionally sensitive care, especially in end-of-life contexts; (3) structural inequalities, with weak policy and infrastructure limiting effective AI integration. The study highlights that AI offers clearer benefits for routine geriatric care, such as monitoring and basic symptom management, but its utility is far more limited in the complex, relational and ethically sensitive domain of palliative care. Proposing a model of human–AI complementarity, the article argues that technology should support rather than replace the emotional and relational aspects of care and identifies policy considerations for ethically grounded integration in resource-limited contexts. Full article

19 pages, 1738 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Implementation of a Smart Parking System with Real-Time Slot Detection and Automated Gate Access

by Mohammad Ali Sahraei

Technologies 2025, 13(11), 503; https://doi.org/10.3390/technologies13110503 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2025

Abstract

By increasing the number of vehicles, an intelligent parking system can help drivers in finding parking slots by providing real-time information. To address this issue, this study developed an Arduino-based automated parking system integrating sensors to assist drivers in quickly discovering available parking slots with real-time space detection and dynamic access control. This system consists of ultrasonic sensors, NodeMCU, an LCD screen, a servo motor, and an Arduino Uno. Each ultrasonic sensor is assigned a specific number corresponding to its slot number, which helps to identify the locations. These sensors were connected to the NodeMCU to collect, process, and transfer data to the Arduino board. If the ultrasonic sensor cannot detect the vehicle in the parking space, the LCD screen will show the number of specific slots. The Arduino will use the servo motor to open the entrance gate if a vehicle is detected by another ultrasonic sensor next to it. Otherwise, the system prevents any vehicle from entering the parking area when all of the available spaces are occupied. The system prototype is constructed and empirically evaluated to verify its performance and efficiency. The results indicate that the system successfully monitors parking spot occupancy and validates its capacity for real-time information updates. Full article

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11 pages, 962 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Universal Method for the Evaluation of In Situ Process Monitoring Systems in the Laser Powder Bed Fusion Process

by Peter Nils Johannes Lindecke, Juan Miguel Diaz del Castillo and Hussein Tarhini

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(11), 359; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9110359 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2025

Abstract

In situ process monitoring systems (IPMSs) are rapidly gaining importance in quality assurance of laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) parts, yet standardized methods for their objective evaluation are lacking. This study introduces a novel, system-independent assessment method for IPMSs based on a specially designed Energy Step Cube (ESC) test specimen. The ESC enables systematic variation in volumetric energy density (VED) by adjusting laser scan speed, without disclosing complete process parameters. Two industrially relevant IPMSs—PrintRite3D by Divergent and Trumpf’s integrated system—were evaluated using the ESC approach with AlSi10Mg as the test material. System performance was assessed based on sensitivity to VED changes and correlation with actual porosity, determined by metallographic analysis. Results revealed significant differences in sensitivity and effective observation windows between the systems. PrintRite3D demonstrated higher sensitivity to small VED changes, while the Trumpf system showed a broader stable observation range. The study highlights the challenges in establishing relationships between IPMS signals and resulting part properties, currently restricting their standalone use for quality assurance. This work establishes a foundation for standardized IPMS evaluation in additive manufacturing, offering valuable insights for technology advancement and enabling objective comparisons between various IPMSs, thereby promoting innovation in this field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies: Materials, Processes, and Applications)

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17 pages, 448 KB

Open AccessArticle

Migration, Corruption, and Economic Drivers: Institutional Insights from the Balkan Route

by Bojan Baškot, Ognjen Erić, Dalibor Tomaš and Bogdan Ubiparipović

World 2025, 6(4), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/world6040147 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2025

Abstract

This study investigates factors influencing migrants’ decisions to enter Europe via Bulgaria or Greece along the Balkan route, using logistic regression and machine learning models on data from the International Organization for Migration (IOM) Flow Monitoring Survey (August 2022–June 2025,

n = 5536

[...] Read more.

n = 5536

). We examine demographic variables (age), push factors (economic reasons, war/conflict, personal violence, limited access to services, and avoiding military service), and governance clusters derived from the World Bank’s Worldwide Governance Indicators (WGIs). An adapted migration gravity model incorporates corruption control as a key push–pull factor. Key findings indicate that younger migrants are significantly more likely to choose Bulgaria (

β \approx - 0.021

p < 0.001

), and governance clusters show that migrants from high-corruption origins (e.g., Syria and Afghanistan) prefer Bulgaria, likely due to governance similarities and facilitation costs. The Cluster Model achieves a slight improvement in fit (McFadden’s

R^{2} = 0.008

, AIC = 7367) compared to the Base (AIC = 7374) and Interaction (AIC = 7391) models. Machine learning extensions using LASSO and Random Forests on a subset of data (

n = 4429

) yield similar moderate performance (AUC: LASSO = 0.524, RF = 0.515). These insights highlight corruption’s role in route selection, offering policy recommendations for origin, transit, and destination phases. Full article

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16 pages, 3041 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rigor & Reproducibility: pH Adjustments of Papain with L-Cysteine Dissociation Solutions and Cell Media Using Phenol Red Spectrophotometry

by Joshua M. Hilner, Allison Turner, Calissa Vollmar-Zygarlenski and Larry J. Millet

Biosensors 2025, 15(11), 727; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15110727 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2025

Abstract

Phenol red is a widely used, low-cost, label-free colorimetric pH indicator that bridges traditional colorimetric assays with modern quantitative imaging and cell-based screening platforms. Its protonation-dependent absorbance shift (430–560 nm) allows for the real-time monitoring of extracellular acidification, which indirectly reflects cellular metabolism, growth, and respiration. Although phenol red lacks the molecular specificity of genetically encoded or fluorogenic biosensors, it remains useful in systems where pH changes are effective proxies for physiological processes. Existing tissue digestion protocols often overlook key parameters, especially pH control and enzyme cofactor use. This study presents a straightforward, spectrophotometric method to monitor and adjust the pH of low-volume (1 mL) buffered enzymatic dissociation media using phenol red and a plate reader. We titrated dissociation solutions to physiological pH (~7.4) using spectrophotometric pH measurements validated against conventional glass pH probe readings, confirming method reliability. Accurate pH assessment is critical for isolating viable primary cells for downstream applications such as tissue engineering, single-cell omics, and neurophysiological assays. We highlight that papain-based dissociation media supplemented with L-cysteine can be acidic (pH 6.6) if unadjusted, compromising cell viability. This accessible approach enhances reproducibility by promoting pH documentation concerning dissociation conditions that contribute to advancing consistency in biomedical, cellular, neuronal, and tissue engineering research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nano-Biosensors and Their Applications for In Vivo/Vitro Diagnosis—3rd Edition)

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32 pages, 1289 KB

Open AccessReview

Soil Pollution Mapping Across Africa: Potential Tool for Soil Health Monitoring

by Georges K. Kome, Caroline A. Kundu, Michael A. Okon, Roger K. Enang, Samuel A. Mesele, Julius Opio, Eric Asamoah and Chrow Khurshid

Pollutants 2025, 5(4), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/pollutants5040038 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2025

Abstract

There is an urgent need for an updated and relevant soil information system (SIS) to sustainably use and manage the land across Africa. Accurate data on soil pollution is essential for effective decision-making in soil health monitoring and management. Unfortunately, the data and information are not usually presented in formats that can easily guide decision-making. The objectives of this work were to (i) assess the availability of soil pollution maps, (ii) evaluate the methodologies used in creating these maps, (iii) explore the role of soil pollution maps in soil health monitoring, and (iv) identify gaps and challenges in soil pollution mapping in Africa. Soil pollution maps across Africa are created on a local scale, with highly variable sampling size and low sampling density. The most used mapping techniques include spatial interpolation (kriging and inverse distance weighting). Among the types of soil pollutants mapped, heavy metals have received priority, while pesticides and persistent organic pollutants have received less attention. Soil pollution mapping is not incorporated within the SIS framework due to lack of reliable spatially comprehensive data and technological and institutional barriers. Current efforts remain fragmented, site-specific, and methodologically inconsistent, resulting in significant data gaps that hinder reliable monitoring and limit progress in soil pollution mapping. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Effects of Global Anthropogenic Trends on Ecosystems, 2025)

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18 pages, 1715 KB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of Carbapenem-Resistant and ESBL-Producing Enterobacterales in Wastewater and Sludge Environments from Northern Spain

by Mario Sergio Pino-Hurtado, Rosa Fernández-Fernández, Laura Rubio-Tomás, Irene Marañón-Clemente, Tamara Álvarez-Gómez, Diego José García-Mora, Carmen Lozano, Carmen Torres and Myriam Zarazaga

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(21), 11703; https://doi.org/10.3390/app152111703 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2025

Abstract

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are recognized hotspots for the convergence and dissemination of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria (ARB) and antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) into the environment. Among ARB, carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales (CR-E) and extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae (ESBL-Ec/Kp) are of particular concern due to their clinical relevance. We characterized 30 CR-E and 176 ESBL-Ec/Kp isolates (two of them were both ESBL-producing and carbapenem-resistant) recovered from influent, intermediate, effluent, sludge, and downstream river samples collected from two WWTPs in northern Spain. Isolates were evaluated for resistance phenotypes against 12 antimicrobials, and β-lactamase-encoding genes were assessed by PCR and sequencing. Notably, among CR-E isolates, bla_KPC-2 was the most prevalent (93%), followed by bla_OXA-48-like, detected in two isolates from non-treated and pasteurized sludge; both isolates also carried bla_CTX-M-15, a finding not previously reported specifically in sludge samples. Among ESBL-Ec/Kp, a broad diversity of ESBL genes was identified, including bla_{CTX-M group 1} (variants 1, 3, 15, 32, 55), bla_{CTX-M group 9} (variants 14, 27, 65, 97), bla_SHV-12 and bla_TEM-169. The most prevalent ESBL gene was bla_CTX-M-15 (48.3%), followed by bla_CTX-M-14, bla_CTX-M-32, and bla_SHV-12, detected in 10.8%, 8.5%, and 6.8% of isolates, respectively. CR-E and ESBL-Ec/Kp were found in all sample types and were still detectable at terminal stages, indicating persistence throughout treatment. These findings support the need to improve and optimize current wastewater treatment methods and underscore the importance of integrating culture-based and molecular methods into routine WWTP monitoring for early detection of microbiological hazards, although further research is still needed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Applied Microbiology)

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12 pages, 977 KB

Open AccessArticle

Molecular Surveillance of Pyrethroid Resistance Kdr Alleles T917I and L920F in Head and Body Lice from Nigeria

by Joshua Kamani, Shimon Harrus, Bukar Laminu, Yaarit Nachum-Biala, Mike Shand, Gonzalo Roca-Acevedo and Ariel Ceferino Toloza

Parasitologia 2025, 5(4), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/parasitologia5040057 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2025

Abstract

Pediculosis produced by the presence of the human head louse (Pediculus humanus capitis DeGeer, 1767) and the body louse (Pediculus humanus humanus L., 1758) remains a neglected tropical disease in Nigeria, where permethrin-based pediculicides are widely used. However, the resistance status of lice populations has not been previously assessed. Knockdown resistance (kdr) to pyrethroids is primarily driven by two mutations—T917I and L920F—in the voltage-sensitive sodium channel (VSSC) gene. This study investigated the presence of these mutations in 85 head and body lice collected from school-age children in two settlements in Nigeria. The T917I mutation was detected in head lice at frequencies ranging from 21% to 76%, and in body lice from 10% to 95%, with significant variation between sites and louse types. Remarkably, all lice examined carried the L920F mutation, regardless of T917I genotype, a pattern not previously reported in body lice. These findings suggest that pyrethroid resistance is well established or under active selection in the study populations. This is the first report of kdr mutations in human lice from Nigeria and highlights the urgent need for resistance monitoring programs. Early genetic surveillance of these mutations can inform treatment strategies and help prevent widespread resistance in lice populations, preserving the efficacy of available pediculicides. Full article

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15 pages, 9060 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Cost-Effective Reference-Less Semiconductor Ion Sensor with Anodic Aluminum Oxide Film

by Yiming Zhong, Peng Sun, Zhidong Hou, Mingyang Yu and Dongping Wu

Sensors 2025, 25(21), 6690; https://doi.org/10.3390/s25216690 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2025

Abstract

The detection and monitoring of ions are essential for a broad range of applications, including industrial process control and biomedical diagnostics. Traditional ion-sensitive field-effect transistors require bulky and expensive reference electrodes, which face several limitations, including device miniaturization, high fabrication costs, and incompatibility with semiconductor manufacturing processes. Here, we introduce a reference-less semiconductor ion sensor (RELESIS) that utilizes anodic aluminum oxide film as both the sensitive and dielectric layer. The RELESIS is composed of a metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor and an interdigital electrode, which fundamentally eliminates the need for a reference electrode, thereby enabling device miniaturization. During fabrication, the anodic oxidation process is employed in place of the expensive atomic layer deposition method, significantly reducing manufacturing costs while maintaining high surface quality. In practical measurements, the RELESIS device demonstrated an excellent pH sensitivity of 57.8 mV/pH with a low hysteresis of 7 mV. As a proof-of-concept application, the RELESIS device was employed for real-time, non-destructive monitoring of milk freshness, accurately detecting pH changes from fresh to spoiled in milk samples. The combination of reference-less structure, low-cost fabrication, and superior sensing performance positions this technology as a promising platform for next-generation portable ion sensing systems in food safety, environmental monitoring, and point-of-care diagnostics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)

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26 pages, 15315 KB

Open AccessArticle

Machine and Deep Learning Framework for Sargassum Detection and Fractional Cover Estimation Using Multi-Sensor Satellite Imagery

by José Manuel Echevarría-Rubio, Guillermo Martínez-Flores and Rubén Antelmo Morales-Pérez

Data 2025, 10(11), 177; https://doi.org/10.3390/data10110177 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2025

Abstract

Over the past decade, recurring influxes of pelagic Sargassum have posed significant environmental and economic challenges in the Caribbean Sea. Effective monitoring is crucial for understanding bloom dynamics and mitigating their impacts. This study presents a comprehensive machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) framework for detecting Sargassum and estimating its fractional cover using imagery from key satellite sensors: the Operational Land Imager (OLI) on Landsat-8 and the Multispectral Instrument (MSI) on Sentinel-2. A spectral library was constructed from five core spectral bands (Blue, Green, Red, Near-Infrared, and Short-Wave Infrared). It was used to train an ensemble of five diverse classifiers: Random Forest (RF), K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN), XGBoost (XGB), a Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP), and a 1D Convolutional Neural Network (1D-CNN). All models achieved high classification performance on a held-out test set, with weighted F1-scores exceeding 0.976. The probabilistic outputs from these classifiers were then leveraged as a direct proxy for the sub-pixel fractional cover of Sargassum. Critically, an inter-algorithm agreement analysis revealed that detections on real-world imagery are typically either of very high (unanimous) or very low (contentious) confidence, highlighting the diagnostic power of the ensemble approach. The resulting framework provides a robust and quantitative pathway for generating confidence-aware estimates of Sargassum distribution. This work supports efforts to manage these harmful algal blooms by providing vital information on detection certainty, while underscoring the critical need to empirically validate fractional cover proxies against in situ or UAV measurements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Spatial Data Science and Digital Earth)

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