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Atmosphere

Atmosphere is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal of scientific studies related to the atmosphere published monthly online by MDPI. The Italian Aerosol Society (IAS) and Working Group of Air Quality in European Citizen Science Association (ECSA) are affiliated with Atmosphere and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, GEOBASE, GeoRef, Inspec, CAPlus / SciFinder, Astrophysics Data System, and other databases.
Journal Rank: CiteScore - Q2 (Environmental Science (miscellaneous))
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 15.8 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.8 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2024).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Testimonials: See what our editors and authors say about the Atmosphere.
Companion journals for Atmosphere include: Meteorology and Aerobiology.

Impact Factor: 2.5 (2023); 5-Year Impact Factor: 2.6 (2023)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2073-4433

Latest Articles

15 pages, 648 KiB

Open AccessReview

Phytotoxicity Testing of Atmospheric Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

by Selenge Tumurbaatar, Nora Kováts and Katalin Hubai

Atmosphere 2024, 15(9), 1143; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15091143 (registering DOI) - 23 Sep 2024

Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have well-known phytotoxicity on higher plants. However, while numerous bioindication studies have been targeted on how different symptoms indicate the deleterious effects of PAHs in the field, laboratory-scale phytotoxicity tests are much rarer. While ecotoxicity tests might rely [...] Read more.

Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have well-known phytotoxicity on higher plants. However, while numerous bioindication studies have been targeted on how different symptoms indicate the deleterious effects of PAHs in the field, laboratory-scale phytotoxicity tests are much rarer. While ecotoxicity tests might rely on the very same end-points as bioindication studies, they have to comply with quality assurance criteria, repeatability being the most important. As such, proper reporting involves the description of the test compound, experimental design and conditions, test organism used, and end-points measured. The recent review intends to give an overview of studies available in the literature complying with these requirements. PAHs occur in the atmosphere both in gaseous form and bound to particles. As plants are exposed to both phases, test protocols available represent different exposure pathways, fumigation chambers vs. direct foliar treatment. Reported studies, therefore, are grouped based on the exposure route they intend to simulate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity of Persistent Organic Pollutants and Microplastics in Air)

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10 pages, 1839 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Emission Characteristics of Nitrous Oxide (N₂O) from Conventional Gasoline and Hybrid Vehicles

by Guobin Miao, Xiaohu Wang, Guangyin Xuan, Jin Liu, Wenhai Ma and Lili Zhang

Atmosphere 2024, 15(9), 1142; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15091142 (registering DOI) - 23 Sep 2024

Considering the potential warming potential and long lifetime of nitrous oxide (N₂O) as a greenhouse gas, exploring its emission characteristics is of great significance for its control and the achievement of sustainable development goals. As vehicles are a significant source of [...] Read more.

Considering the potential warming potential and long lifetime of nitrous oxide (N₂O) as a greenhouse gas, exploring its emission characteristics is of great significance for its control and the achievement of sustainable development goals. As vehicles are a significant source of N₂O emissions, in this study we conducted a detailed investigation of N₂O in the exhaust of light-duty vehicles using a chassis dynamometer. We selected one conventional gasoline vehicle and two hybrid electric vehicles. We found that the N₂O emissions from all the tested vehicles complied with the China 6 emission regulation, with emission factors of 7.7 mg/km, 6.8 mg/km, and 17.1 mg/km, respectively, for the three vehicles. Driving conditions played a crucial role in N₂O emissions, with emissions generated primarily during extra-high-speed conditions, possibly due to the higher driving speed and greater number of acceleration/deceleration events. Furthermore, while hybrid electric vehicles emitted less NOx compared to conventional gasoline vehicles, their N₂O emissions were closely tied to their engine operating conditions. Surprisingly, we discovered that hybrid electric vehicles emitted more N₂O during frequent engine start–stop cycles, which could be related to the mechanisms of N₂O generation. These findings contribute to a better understanding of the N₂O emission characteristics of vehicles and will inform the development of emission control strategies to better promote global sustainable development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Mobile Source Emissions (2nd Edition))

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12 pages, 2273 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pilot Survey of Outdoor Radon and Thoron Levels in Bulgaria Using an Innovative DVD-Based Method

by Dobromir Pressyanov and Dimitar Dimitrov

Atmosphere 2024, 15(9), 1141; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15091141 (registering DOI) - 21 Sep 2024

This study presents the results of a pilot survey utilizing an innovative DVD-based method to measure outdoor radon and thoron levels. Twenty-six discriminative radon/thoron detectors were deployed across four different territorial zones in Bulgaria. Positioned 1 m above the ground, these detectors were [...] Read more.

This study presents the results of a pilot survey utilizing an innovative DVD-based method to measure outdoor radon and thoron levels. Twenty-six discriminative radon/thoron detectors were deployed across four different territorial zones in Bulgaria. Positioned 1 m above the ground, these detectors were left in place for several months. Notably, the dataset reveals significant variability in measurements, even over short distances, with thoron exhibiting greater variability than radon. Radon levels ranged from 7 ± 1 to 34 ± 3 Bq m⁻³ (average: 21 Bq m⁻³), while thoron levels ranged from 13 ± 5 to 307 ± 54 Bq m⁻³ (average: 170 Bq m⁻³). A weak but statistically significant correlation (correlation coefficient: 0.559) was observed between radon and thoron levels, which improved significantly when averaged across the four zones. These findings underscore the importance of measuring both radon and thoron in outdoor surveys. High thoron levels can significantly bias radon measurements, particularly when radon concentrations are substantially lower than those of thoron. If further studies confirm the good correlation between area averages, the observed correlation between area-average values could be used to correct average radon levels in large areas (e.g., radon priority areas) for thoron interference when thoron data are missing from the analyzed radon dataset. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Radon Concentration Monitoring and Measurements (2nd Edition))

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27 pages, 13088 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Surface Layer Physics Schemes on the Simulated Intensity and Structure of Typhoon Rai (2021)

by Thi-Huyen Hoang, Ching-Yuang Huang and Thi-Chinh Nguyen

Atmosphere 2024, 15(9), 1140; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15091140 (registering DOI) - 20 Sep 2024

The influences of surface layer (SL) physics schemes on the simulated intensity and structure of Typhoon Rai (2021) are investigated using the WRF model. Numerical experiments using different SL physics schemes—revised MM5 scheme (MM5), Eta similarity scheme (CTL), and Mellor–Yamada–Nakanishi–Niino scheme (MYNN)—are conducted. [...] Read more.

The influences of surface layer (SL) physics schemes on the simulated intensity and structure of Typhoon Rai (2021) are investigated using the WRF model. Numerical experiments using different SL physics schemes—revised MM5 scheme (MM5), Eta similarity scheme (CTL), and Mellor–Yamada–Nakanishi–Niino scheme (MYNN)—are conducted. The results show that the intensity forecast of Typhoon Rai is largely influenced by SL physics schemes, while its track forecast is not significantly affected. All three experiments can successfully capture the movement of Rai, while CTL provides better intensity simulation compared to the other two experiments. The higher ratio of enthalpy exchange coefficient to drag coefficient (C_K/C_D) in CTL than MM5 and MYNN leads to significantly increased surface enthalpy fluxes, which are crucial for the typhoon intensification of the former. To explore the influence of SL physics on the structural evolution of the typhoon, the azimuthal-mean angular momentum (AM) budget is utilized. The results indicate that asymmetric eddy terms may also largely contribute to the AM tendencies, which are relatively more comparable in the weaker TC for MM5, compared to the stronger TC with the dominant symmetric mean terms for CTL. Furthermore, the extended Sawyer–Eliassen (SE) equation is solved to quantify the transverse circulations of the typhoon induced by different forcing sources for CTL and MM5. The SE solution indicates that the transverse circulation above and within the boundary layer is predominantly induced by diabatic heating and turbulent friction, respectively, for both CTL and MM5, while all other physical forcing terms are relatively insignificant for the induced transverse circulation for CTL, except for the large contribution from the eddy forcing in the upper-tropospheric outflow for MM5. With the stronger connective heating in the eyewall and boundary-layer radial inflow, the linear SE analysis agrees much better with the nonlinear simulation for CTL than MM5. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Meteorology)

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23 pages, 6044 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Changes in Magnitude and Shifts in Timing of the Latvian River Annual Flood Peaks

by Elga Apsīte, Didzis Elferts, Jānis Lapinskis, Agrita Briede and Līga Klints

Atmosphere 2024, 15(9), 1139; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15091139 (registering DOI) - 20 Sep 2024

Climate change is expected to significantly impact temperature and precipitation, as well as snow accumulations and melt in mid-latitudes, including in the Baltic region, ultimately affecting the quantity and seasonal distribution of streamflow. This study aims to investigate the changes in the magnitude [...] Read more.

Climate change is expected to significantly impact temperature and precipitation, as well as snow accumulations and melt in mid-latitudes, including in the Baltic region, ultimately affecting the quantity and seasonal distribution of streamflow. This study aims to investigate the changes in the magnitude and timing of annual maximum discharge for 30 hydrological monitoring stations across Latvia from 1950/51 to 2021/22. Circular statistics and linear mixed effects models were applied to identify the strength of seasonality and timing. Trend analysis of the magnitude and timing of flood peaks were performed by using the Theil–Sen method and Mann–Kendall test. We analyzed regional significance of trends across different hydrological regions and country using the Walker test. Results indicate strong seasonality in annual flood peaks in catchments, with a single peak occurring in spring in the study sub-period of 1950/51–1986/87. Flood seasonality has changed over recent decades (i.e., 1987/88–2021/22) and is seen as a decrease in spring maximum discharge and increase in winter flood peaks. Alterations in annual flood occurrence also point towards a shift in flow regime from snowmelt dominated to mixed snow–rainfall dominated, with consistent changes towards the earlier timing of the flood peak, with a more or less pronounced gradation from west to east. Analysis shows that a significant trend of decrease in the magnitude and timing of annual maximum discharge was detected. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Hydrologic Cycle in a Changing Climate)

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16 pages, 7416 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Relationship between Upper-Level Aircraft Turbulence and the East Asian Westerly Jet Stream

by Kenan Li, Xi Chen, Liman A, Kaijun Wu, Haiwen Liu, Fengjing Dai, Tiantian Yang, Jia Yu and Kehua Wang

Atmosphere 2024, 15(9), 1138; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15091138 (registering DOI) - 20 Sep 2024

The jet stream is a primary factor contributing to turbulence, especially for upper-level aircraft. This study utilized pilot reports and ERA5 data from 2023 to investigate the relationship between upper-level turbulence and the East Asian westerly jet (EAJ). The results indicate that approximately [...] Read more.

The jet stream is a primary factor contributing to turbulence, especially for upper-level aircraft. This study utilized pilot reports and ERA5 data from 2023 to investigate the relationship between upper-level turbulence and the East Asian westerly jet (EAJ). The results indicate that approximately 45.9% of upper-level aircraft turbulence occurs within the jet stream, with the lowest proportion in August and the highest in January. Additionally, the strongest vertical wind shear (VMS) is found concentrated in the lower part of the jet stream core, particularly in the South–Down part of the jet stream, where upper-level aircraft turbulence occurs most frequently (27.1%). The most turbulent area is located between 30–40° N and 110–120° E, with the main air routes experiencing turbulence being the Henan sections of G212 and B208. From a seasonal perspective, there is less frequent occurrence of upper-level aircraft turbulence in summer and autumn but more in winter and spring. The EAJ volume increases with the strengthening of the jet core wind speed, with the jet core regions being most distinct at altitudes of 200~300 hPa. Meanwhile, the jet stream intensity index peaks at 70.6 m/s in January and reaches its lowest value of 7.1 m/s in August. The jet stream axis shifts southward in winter and northward in summer, reaching the southernmost position in December at 32.2° N and the northernmost position in August at 43.5° N. Furthermore, the VMS at turbulence points within the jet stream is higher than that at the turbulence points outside the jet stream, and the Richardson number (RI) is lower. Moreover, the temporal distribution of upper-level aircraft turbulence is primarily determined by the location and intensity of the jet stream, of which the jet stream intensity index provides guidance and thus serves as a reliable indicator. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Observations and Analysis of Upper Atmosphere)

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21 pages, 1517 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Global Health Emergencies of Extreme Drought Events: Historical Impacts and Future Preparedness

by Zakaria A. Mani, Amir Khorram-Manesh and Krzysztof Goniewicz

Atmosphere 2024, 15(9), 1137; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15091137 - 20 Sep 2024

This study examines the global health implications of extreme drought events from 2000 to 2023. Utilizing data from the International Disaster Database (EM-DAT), we analyzed the number of people affected and the total deaths attributed to drought. Our findings reveal that over 1.6 [...] Read more.

This study examines the global health implications of extreme drought events from 2000 to 2023. Utilizing data from the International Disaster Database (EM-DAT), we analyzed the number of people affected and the total deaths attributed to drought. Our findings reveal that over 1.6 billion people have been impacted by drought globally, with Southern Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa being the most severely affected regions. India and China account for a significant portion of the affected population, with 688.2 million and 327.35 million impacted people, respectively. Drought-related mortality has also been substantial, with over 24,000 deaths recorded globally, including more than 20,000 in Somalia alone. The study highlights the uneven distribution of drought impacts, underscoring the need for targeted interventions and comprehensive drought preparedness strategies. Our analysis also reveals the critical role of socio-economic factors in exacerbating the health impacts of drought, particularly in regions with inadequate healthcare infrastructure and limited access to resources. This study provides novel insights into the specific health impacts of drought, including the correlation between drought frequency and mortality rates, and offers actionable recommendations for improving future emergency responses and health system preparedness. These recommendations are tailored to address the unique challenges faced by the most vulnerable regions, emphasizing the importance of context-specific strategies to enhance resilience against the growing threat of climate-induced droughts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Change and Extreme Weather Disaster Risks)

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23 pages, 5658 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating Hydrological Drought Characteristics in Northeastern Thailand in CMIP5 Climate Change Scenarios

by Sornsawan Chatklang, Piyapong Tongdeenok and Naruemol Kaewjampa

Atmosphere 2024, 15(9), 1136; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15091136 - 19 Sep 2024

In this study, we analyzed the predictions of hydrological droughts in the Lam Chiang Kri Watershed (LCKW) by using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) and streamflow data for 2010–2021. The objective was to assess the streamflow drought index (SDI) for 5-, [...] Read more.

In this study, we analyzed the predictions of hydrological droughts in the Lam Chiang Kri Watershed (LCKW) by using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) and streamflow data for 2010–2021. The objective was to assess the streamflow drought index (SDI) for 5-, 10-, 25-, and 50-year return periods (RPs) in 2029 and 2039 in two representative concentration pathway (RCP) scenarios: the moderate climate change scenario (RCP 4.5) and the high-emission scenario (RCP 8.5). The SWAT model showed high accuracy (R² = 0.82, NSE = 0.78). In RCP4.5, streamflow is projected to increase by 34.74% for 2029 and 18.74% for 2039, while in RCP8.5, a 37.06% decrease is expected for 2029 and 55.84% for 2039. A historical analysis indicated that there were frequent short-term droughts according to SDI-3 (3-month-period index), particularly from 2014 to 2015 and 2020 to 2021, and severe droughts according to SDI-6 (6-month-period index) in 2015 and 2020. The RCP8.5 projections indicate worsening drought conditions, with critical periods from April to June. A wavelet analysis showed that there is a significant risk of severe hydrological drought in the LCKW. Drought characteristic analysis indicated that high-intensity events occur with low frequency in the 50-year RP. Conversely, high-frequency droughts with lower intensity are observed in RPs of less than 50 years. The results of this study highlight an increase in severe drought risk in high emission scenarios, emphasizing the need for water management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drought Monitoring, Prediction and Impacts)

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14 pages, 3010 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Memory of Notable Hurricane Tracks and Their Geophysical Hazards

by Kimberly Brothers and Jason C. Senkbeil

Atmosphere 2024, 15(9), 1135; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15091135 - 19 Sep 2024

Previous research has shown that people use a benchmark hurricane as part of their preparation and evacuation decision-making process. While hurricanes are a common occurrence along the Gulf Coast, research on personal memories of past storms is lacking. Particularly, how well do people [...] Read more.

Previous research has shown that people use a benchmark hurricane as part of their preparation and evacuation decision-making process. While hurricanes are a common occurrence along the Gulf Coast, research on personal memories of past storms is lacking. Particularly, how well do people remember the track and geophysical hazards (wind speed, storm surge, and total rainfall) of past storms? The accurate or inaccurate recollection and perception of previous storm details can influence personal responses to future storms, such as the decision to evacuate or take other life-saving actions. Survey responses of residents in Alabama and Mississippi were studied to determine if people were accurately able to recall a notable storm’s name when seeing an image of the storm’s track. Those who were able to identify the storm by its track were also asked if they could remember the storm’s maximum reported rainfall, maximum sustained winds, and storm surge at landfall. Results showed that there were statistically significant differences between the levels of accurate recall for different storms, with Hurricanes Katrina and Michael having the most correct responses. Regardless of the storm, most people struggled to remember geophysical hazards. The results of this study are important as they can inform broadcast meteorologists and emergency managers on forecast elements of the storm to better emphasize in future communication in comparison to the actual values from historical benchmark storms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Meteorology)

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12 pages, 3994 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Possible Identification of Precursor ELF Signals on Recent EQs That Occurred Close to the Recording Station

by Ioannis Contopoulos, Janusz Mlynarczyk, Jerzy Kubisz and Vasilis Tritakis

Atmosphere 2024, 15(9), 1134; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15091134 - 19 Sep 2024

The Lithospheric–Atmospheric–Ionospheric Coupling (LAIC) mechanism stands as the leading model for the prediction of seismic activities. It consists of a cascade of physical processes that are initiated days before a major earthquake. The onset is marked by the discharge of ionized gases, such [...] Read more.

The Lithospheric–Atmospheric–Ionospheric Coupling (LAIC) mechanism stands as the leading model for the prediction of seismic activities. It consists of a cascade of physical processes that are initiated days before a major earthquake. The onset is marked by the discharge of ionized gases, such as radon, through subterranean fissures that develop in the lead-up to the quake. This discharge augments the ionization at the lower atmospheric layers, instigating disturbances that extend from the Earth’s surface to the lower ionosphere. A critical component of the LAIC sequence involves the distinctive perturbations of Extremely Low Electromagnetic Frequencies (ELF) within the Schumann Resonances (SR) spectrum of 2 to 50 Hz, detectable days ahead of the seismic event. Our study examines 10 earthquakes that transpired over a span of 3.5 months—averaging nearly three quakes monthly—which concurrently generated 45 discernible potential precursor seismic signals. Notably, each earthquake originated in Southern Greece, within a radius of 30 to 250 km from the observatory on Mount Parnon. Our research seeks to resolve two important issues. The first concerns the association between specific ELF signals and individual earthquakes—a question of significant importance in seismogenic regions like Greece, where earthquakes occur frequently. The second inquiry concerns the parameters that determine the detectability of an earthquake by a given station, including the requisite proximity and magnitude. Initial findings suggest that SR signals can be reliably linked to a particular earthquake if the observatory is situated within the earthquake’s preparatory zone. Conversely, outside this zone, the correlation becomes indeterminate. Additionally, we observe a differentiation in SR signals based on whether the earthquake took place over land or offshore. The latter category exhibits unique signal behaviors, potentially attributable to the water layers above the epicenter acting as a barrier to the ascending gases, thereby affecting the atmospheric–ionospheric ionization process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Upper Atmosphere)

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10 pages, 5352 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating Radon Concentrations in the Cango Cave, South Africa

by Jacques Bezuidenhout and Rikus le Roux

Atmosphere 2024, 15(9), 1133; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15091133 - 18 Sep 2024

Radon concentrations in the tourist part of the Cango cave were measured using 25 strategically placed electret ion chambers. Airflow rates were also measured and found to be less than 1 m/s throughout the cave. An IDW interpolated radon concentration overlay was constructed [...] Read more.

Radon concentrations in the tourist part of the Cango cave were measured using 25 strategically placed electret ion chambers. Airflow rates were also measured and found to be less than 1 m/s throughout the cave. An IDW interpolated radon concentration overlay was constructed using QGIS and overlayed on maps of the cave. The maximum radon concentration of 2625 Bq/m³ was measured in the Grand Hall, located in the central part of the cave following a narrow passage. The initial part of the cave near the entrance exhibited normal cave breathing characteristics, with radon concentrations of less than 300 Bq/m³. The deepest section of the cave, however, demonstrated an unexpected decrease in radon levels, temperature, and humidity. The average radon concentration in the Cango cave, measured at 1265 Bq/m³, is relatively low compared to other caves worldwide that need mitigation measures according to the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Radon Concentration Monitoring and Measurements (2nd Edition))

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18 pages, 15073 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Risk Assessment of Community-Scale High-Temperature and Rainstorm Waterlogging Disasters: A Case Study of the Dongsi Community in Beijing

by Pei Xing, Ruozi Yang, Wupeng Du, Ya Gao, Chunyi Xuan, Jiayi Zhang, Jun Wang, Mengxin Bai, Bing Dang and Feilin Xiong

Atmosphere 2024, 15(9), 1132; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15091132 - 18 Sep 2024

With the advancement of urbanization and acceleration of global warming, extreme weather and climate events are becoming increasingly frequent and severe, and climate risk continues to rise. Each community is irreplaceable and important in coping with extreme climate risk and improving urban resilience. [...] Read more.

With the advancement of urbanization and acceleration of global warming, extreme weather and climate events are becoming increasingly frequent and severe, and climate risk continues to rise. Each community is irreplaceable and important in coping with extreme climate risk and improving urban resilience. In this study, the Dongsi Community in the functional core area of Beijing was explored, and the risk assessment of high temperatures and rainstorm waterlogging was implemented at the community scale. Local navigation observations were integrated into a theoretical framework for traditional disaster risk assessment. The risk assessment indicator system for community-scale high-temperature and rainstorm waterlogging disasters was established and improved from a microscopic perspective (a total of 22 indicators were selected from the three dimensions of hazard, exposure, and vulnerability). Geographic Information Systems (GIS) technology was used to integrate geographic information, meteorological, planning, municipal, socioeconomic and other multisource information layers, thus enabling more detailed spatial distribution characteristics of the hazard, exposure, vulnerability, and risk levels of community-scale high temperatures and rainstorm waterlogging to be obtained. The results revealed that the high-risk area and slightly high-risk area of high-temperature disasters accounted for 13.5% and 15.1%, respectively. The high-risk area and slightly high-risk area of rainstorm waterlogging disasters accounted for 9.8% and 31.6%, respectively. The high-risk areas common to high temperatures and waterlogging accounted for 3.9%. In general, the risk of high-temperature and rainstorm waterlogging disasters at the community scale showed obvious spatial imbalances; that is, the risk in the area around the middle section of Dongsi Santiao was the lowest, while a degree of high temperatures or rainstorm waterlogging was found in other areas. In particular, the risk of high-temperature and rainstorm waterlogging disasters along Dongsi North Street, the surrounding areas of Dongsi Liutiao, and some areas along the Dongsi Jiutiao route was relatively high. These spatial differences were affected to a greater extent by land cover (buildings, vegetation, etc.) and population density within the community. This study is a useful exploration of climate risk research for resilient community construction, and provides scientific support for the planning of climate-adaptive communities, as well as the proposal of overall adaptation goals, action frameworks, and specific planning strategies at the community level. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Change and Extreme Weather Disaster Risks)

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11 pages, 900 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Radon Equilibrium Factor and the Assessment of the Annual Effective Dose at Underground Workplaces

by Agata Grygier and Krystian Skubacz

Atmosphere 2024, 15(9), 1131; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15091131 - 18 Sep 2024

The equilibrium factor F is one of the parameters that should be considered when assessing the effective dose based on radon activity concentration. Since the equilibrium factor in various environments ranges theoretically from a value close to 0 to 1, it is expected [...] Read more.

The equilibrium factor F is one of the parameters that should be considered when assessing the effective dose based on radon activity concentration. Since the equilibrium factor in various environments ranges theoretically from a value close to 0 to 1, it is expected that dose assessment based on one recommended coefficient value may lead to an underestimation or overestimation of the dose. That is why it is essential to measure this quantity if the basis for dose assessment is the radon concentration and not the concentration of radon decay products. The equilibrium factors were determined based on measurements of radon activity concentration and potential alpha energy concentration and varied from 0.15 to 0.94, with an arithmetic mean of 0.55. The average effective dose calculated for the employee taking into account these values was 31 mSv, assuming an annual working time of 1800 h. In turn, the average effective dose calculated for the equilibrium factor of 0.2 as recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) was equal to 13 mSv. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Radon Concentration Monitoring and Measurements (2nd Edition))

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16 pages, 2217 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In-Vehicle Air Pollutant Exposures from Daily Commute in the San Francisco Bay Area, California

by Reshmasri Deevi and Mingming Lu

Atmosphere 2024, 15(9), 1130; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15091130 - 18 Sep 2024

With urbanization and increased vehicle usage, understanding the exposure to air pollutants inside the vehicles is vital for developing strategies to mitigate associated health risks. In-vehicle air quality influences the comfort of the driver during long commutes and has gained significant interest. This [...] Read more.

With urbanization and increased vehicle usage, understanding the exposure to air pollutants inside the vehicles is vital for developing strategies to mitigate associated health risks. In-vehicle air quality influences the comfort of the driver during long commutes and has gained significant interest. This study focuses on studying in-vehicle air quality in the San Francisco Bay Area in California, an urban setting with significant traffic congestion and varied emission sources and road conditions. Each trip is about 80.5 km (50 miles) in length, with commute times of approximately one hour. Two low-cost portable sensors were employed to simultaneously measure in-vehicle pollutants (PM_2.5, PM₁₀, and CO₂) during morning and evening rush hours from May 2023 to December 2023. Seasonally averaged PM_2.5 varied from 5.07 µg/m³ to 6.55 µg/m³ during morning rush hours and from 4.38 µg/m³ to 4.47 µg/m³ during evening rush hours. In addition, the impacts of local PM_2.5, vehicle ventilation settings, and speed of the vehicle on in-vehicle PM concentrations were also analyzed. CO₂ buildup in vehicles was studied for two scenarios: one with inside recirculation enabled (RC on) and the other with circulation from outside (RC off). With RC off, CO₂ concentrations are largely within the 1100 ppm range recommended by many organizations, while the average CO₂ concentrations can be three times high under recirculation mode. This research suggests that low-cost sensors can provide valuable insights into the dynamics of air pollution in the in-vehicle microenvironment, which can better help commuters reduce health risks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Mobile Source Emissions (2nd Edition))

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26 pages, 357 KiB

Open AccessReview

Agricultural Drought Monitoring: A Comparative Review of Conventional and Satellite-Based Indices

by Ali Gholinia and Peyman Abbaszadeh

Atmosphere 2024, 15(9), 1129; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15091129 - 17 Sep 2024

Drought is a natural hazard that causes significant economic and human losses by creating a persistent lack of precipitation that impacts agriculture and hydrology. It has various characteristics, such as delayed effects and variability across dimensions like severity, spatial extent, and duration, making [...] Read more.

Drought is a natural hazard that causes significant economic and human losses by creating a persistent lack of precipitation that impacts agriculture and hydrology. It has various characteristics, such as delayed effects and variability across dimensions like severity, spatial extent, and duration, making it difficult to characterize. The agricultural sector is especially susceptible to drought, which is a primary cause of crop failures and poses a significant threat to global food security. To address these risks, it is crucial to develop effective methods for identifying, classifying, and monitoring agricultural drought, thereby aiding in planning and mitigation efforts. Researchers have developed various tools, including agricultural drought indices, to quantify severity levels and determine the onset and evolution of droughts. These tools help in early-stage forecasting and ongoing monitoring of drought conditions. The field has been significantly advanced by remote sensing technology, which now offers high-resolution spatial and temporal data, improving our capacity to monitor and assess agricultural drought. Despite these technological advancements, the unpredictable nature of environmental conditions continues to pose challenges in drought assessment. It remains essential to provide an overview of agricultural drought indices, incorporating both conventional methods and modern remote sensing-based indices used in drought monitoring and assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drought Impacts on Agriculture and Mitigation Measures)

20 pages, 5128 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrocarbon Traps for the Air Intake System: Component Test Rig and SHED Test Procedure for Determining Their Efficiencies

by Matthias Brunnermeier

Atmosphere 2024, 15(9), 1128; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15091128 - 17 Sep 2024

Hydrocarbon traps in the air intake system (AIS) are a common method for controlling evaporative emissions from the air intake path. Several different systems are available, but there is no standard method for determining their efficiencies. Therefore, a component test rig for hydrocarbon [...] Read more.

Hydrocarbon traps in the air intake system (AIS) are a common method for controlling evaporative emissions from the air intake path. Several different systems are available, but there is no standard method for determining their efficiencies. Therefore, a component test rig for hydrocarbon traps was developed. Some optimizations were necessary to achieve emission characteristics observed in engine measurements. Using this setup, several measurements were performed on four different hydrocarbon traps. The results were in reasonable agreement with those from engine measurements. Two different hydrocarbon (HC) traps were selected for further studies. In these studies, the repeatability and the dependency of the emission mass level were investigated. Furthermore, the hydrocarbon concentration in the air filter box was determined using point source flame ionization detector (FID) sampling and a metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) sensor. The data showed a correlation with the emission mass determined in a sealed housing emission determination (SHED) test. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Technologies for Observation of Air Pollution)

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13 pages, 1748 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Emissions of Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxins/Dibenzofurans during Coffee Roasting: Exploring the Influence of Roasting Methods and Formulations

by Li-Man Lin, I-Jen Chen, Bo-Wun Huang, Nicholas Kiprotich Cheruiyot and Guo-Ping Chang-Chien

Atmosphere 2024, 15(9), 1127; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15091127 - 17 Sep 2024

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin/dibenzofuran (PCDD/F) emissions during the roasting of green Arabica coffee and coffee formulations containing alcohol, sugar, and honey were investigated in this study. Fast and slow roasting methods, which took 5.62 and 9.65 min to achieve a light roast, respectively, [...] Read more.

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin/dibenzofuran (PCDD/F) emissions during the roasting of green Arabica coffee and coffee formulations containing alcohol, sugar, and honey were investigated in this study. Fast and slow roasting methods, which took 5.62 and 9.65 min to achieve a light roast, respectively, were used to evaluate the emissions. The concentrations in the flue gas during the fast roasting of green coffee (0.0296 ng Nm⁻³ and 0.00364 ng WHO-TEQ Nm⁻³) were 13.9% and 70.5% higher than during slow roasting, respectively. However, this was only the trend for some formulations, and no significant differences in concentrations were found between the methods at p = 0.05. Thus, the slow roasting method might not necessarily reduce formation when additives are included. The emission factors were 2.86 ng kg⁻¹ and 0.352 ng WHO-TEQ kg⁻¹, and 4.17 ng kg⁻¹ and 0.176 ng WHO-TEQ kg⁻¹ for the fast and slow roasting of green coffee, respectively. Further investigations are warranted to understand the formation mechanism, assess potential health risks, and explore mitigation strategies. These findings have implications for both coffee processing industries and regulatory bodies, as understanding the impact of roasting methods and additives could inform the development of cleaner production practices and targeted emission reduction policies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity of Persistent Organic Pollutants and Microplastics in Air)

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12 pages, 1873 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A New Method Proposed for the Estimation of Exposure to Atmospheric Pollution through the Analysis of Black Pigments on the Lung Surface

by Dunia Waked, Mariana Matera Veras, Paulo Hilário Nascimento Saldiva and Ana Paula Cremasco Takano

Atmosphere 2024, 15(9), 1126; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15091126 - 17 Sep 2024

Megacities can be considered excellent laboratories for studying the effects of the urban environment on human health. Typically, exposure to pollution is estimated according to daily or annual averages of pollutant concentrations, collected at monitoring stations, using satellite data for remote sensing of [...] Read more.

Megacities can be considered excellent laboratories for studying the effects of the urban environment on human health. Typically, exposure to pollution is estimated according to daily or annual averages of pollutant concentrations, collected at monitoring stations, using satellite data for remote sensing of pollutant levels, considering proximity to major roads, or through personal exposure monitoring with portable sensors. However, these approaches fall short in identifying individual exposure values over a lifetime. It is well established that individuals living in large urban areas inhale atmospheric particles containing carbonaceous components, resulting in the deposition of black pigments in lung tissue, known as black carbon or anthracosis. This study aims to detail the procedures for assessing the deposition of such pigments, which serve as an estimate of an individual’s exposure to atmospheric pollution particles. Data collection involves administering detailed questionnaires and capturing lung images in the autopsy room. The analysis is based on macroscopic quantification of black pigments, supplemented by an evaluation of personal habits and the clinical histories of the individuals. This method of estimating lifetime exposure to inhaled particles provides a valuable tool for understanding the correlation between urban living and its potential health effects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Air Pollution and Human Exposures)

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27 pages, 18384 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Calibration of Typhoon Track Forecasts Based on Deep Learning Methods

by Chengchen Tao, Zhizu Wang, Yilun Tian, Yaoyao Han, Keke Wang, Qiang Li and Juncheng Zuo

Atmosphere 2024, 15(9), 1125; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15091125 - 17 Sep 2024

An accurate forecast of typhoon tracks is crucial for disaster warning and mitigation. However, existing numerical weather prediction models, such as the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model, still exhibit significant errors in track forecasts. This study aims to improve forecast accuracy by [...] Read more.

An accurate forecast of typhoon tracks is crucial for disaster warning and mitigation. However, existing numerical weather prediction models, such as the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model, still exhibit significant errors in track forecasts. This study aims to improve forecast accuracy by correcting WRF-forecasted tracks using deep learning models, including Bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory (BiLSTM) + Convolutional Long Short-Term Memory (ConvLSTM) + Wide and Deep Learning (WDL), BiLSTM + Convolutional Gated Recurrent Unit (ConvGRU) + WDL, and BiLSTM + ConvLSTM + Extreme Deep Factorization Machine (xDeepFM), with a comparison to the Kalman Filter. The results demonstrate that the BiLSTM + ConvLSTM + WDL model reduces the 72 h track prediction error (TPE) from 255.18 km to 159.23 km, representing a 37.6% improvement over the original WRF model, and exhibits significant advantages across all evaluation metrics, particularly in key indicators such as Bias², Mean Squared Error (MSE), and Sequence. The decomposition of MSE further validates the importance of the BiLSTM, ConvLSTM, WDL, and Temporal Normalization (TN) layers in enhancing the model’s spatio-temporal feature-capturing ability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Artificial Intelligence in Atmospheric Sciences)

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18 pages, 2158 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of an Empirical Model to Improve Maximum Value Predictions in CFD-RANS: Insights from Four Scientific Domains

by George Efthimiou

Atmosphere 2024, 15(9), 1124; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15091124 - 16 Sep 2024

This study introduces an empirical model designed to predict the maximum values of time-dependent data across four turbulence-related fields: hydrogen combustion in renewable energy systems, urban microclimate effects on cultural heritage, shipping emissions, and road vehicle emissions. The model, which is based on [...] Read more.

This study introduces an empirical model designed to predict the maximum values of time-dependent data across four turbulence-related fields: hydrogen combustion in renewable energy systems, urban microclimate effects on cultural heritage, shipping emissions, and road vehicle emissions. The model, which is based on the mean, standard deviation, and integral time scale, employs two parameters: a fixed exponent ‘ν’ (0.3) reflecting time scale sensitivity, and a variable parameter ‘b’ that accounts for application-specific uncertainties. Integrated into the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) framework, specifically the Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) methodology, the model addresses the RANS approach’s limitation in predicting extreme values due to its inherent averaging process. By incorporating the empirical model, this study enhances RANS simulations’ ability to predict critical values, such as peak hydrogen concentrations and maximum urban wind speeds, which is essential for safety and reliability assessments. Validation against experimental and numerical data across the four fields demonstrates strong agreement, highlighting the model’s potential to improve CFD-RANS predictions of extreme events. This advancement offers significant implications for future CFD-RANS applications, particularly in scenarios demanding fast and reliable maximum value predictions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Atmospheric Techniques, Instruments, and Modeling)

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