Atmosphere

As Akasofu noted, no two geomagnetic storms are identical, yet the storm that occurred between 12 and 14 November 2025 stands out as an exceptional phenomenon. Its impact was evident across multiple layers of the ionosphere and numerous parameters, making it essential to conduct a comprehensive multi-parameter analysis of this event. Such an analysis relied upon data from the four LAERT topside sounders mounted aboard the recently launched Ionosfera-M satellites. Global ionospheric dynamics were thoroughlyexamined during the storm period, particularly focusing on the polar and auroral zones, along with the equatorial anomaly region. Notable features included sharp electron density gradients, widespread F-layer disturbances, and the formation of giant plasma bubbles. These elements collectively contributed to the dynamic picture of the ionospheric storm captured through multi-parameter measurements by the LAERT sounders.

High-resolution air-temperature fields are essential for climate, hydrologic, and ecological applications in complex terrain, yet operational products often lack the spatial detail to resolve topographic effects. We develop an observation-driven reconstruction of daily air temperature fields for South Korea (2024) using ordinary kriging with lapse-rate correction (OKLR), integrating a dense network of over 500 stations from the Automatic Mountain Meteorology Observation System (AMOS) and the Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS). The OKLR framework systematically removes elevation-driven trends using a physically based fixed lapse rate (–6.5 °C km⁻¹), performs kriging on detrended residuals, and reapplies Digital Elevation Model (DEM)-based corrections to generate high-fidelity daily fields at a 270 m grid spacing. Unlike numerical weather prediction (NWP) models that simulate atmospheric processes, this approach reconstructs spatially continuous fields directly from dense in situ observations, ensuring empirical grounding. Extensive daily spatial cross-validation (n = 37,813) demonstrates that OKLR (MAE = 0.656 °C) significantly outperforms elevation-unadjusted ordinary kriging by ≈37% and the operational 1.5 km LDAPS product (MAE = 0.895 °C) by 27%. This performance gain is particularly pronounced in high-elevation zones (>700 m) and natural surfaces (≈73% of the study area), where topographic complexity is greatest. The final observation-constrained reconstruction attains a robust MAE of 0.462 °C with near-zero bias over 188,318 station–days. As the first nationwide daily temperature dataset for South Korea at 270 m resolution, this study provides a critical foundation for precision agriculture, ecosystem monitoring, and climate change adaptation in topographically diverse environments.

This systematic review synthesizes current scientific knowledge on the drivers of climate variability and change across the South Pacific, with a particular focus on mechanisms influencing tropical cyclone behavior and regional hydroclimatic extremes. The review begins by contextualizing the unique vulnerabilities of Pacific Island nations, which arise from geographic isolation, socio-economic constraints, and extensive coastal exposures. It examines the foundational role of the South Pacific Convergence Zone in organizing regional convection and precipitation and explores the multi-scale climate oscillations that modulate environmental conditions across interannual, decadal, and intraseasonal timescales. The compounding effects of anthropogenic climate change—including rising temperatures, sea-level increase, shifting rainfall regimes, and changing storm characteristics—are critically assessed. Special attention is given to the complex interplay between natural variability and human-induced trends in altering tropical cyclone genesis, tracks, and intensity. The review identifies persistent knowledge gaps, such as data inhomogeneity, limited long-term records, and uncertainties in downscaled projections, and concludes with prioritized research directions aimed at enhancing predictive capacity and supporting climate-resilient adaptation across this highly vulnerable region.