Forests — Open Access Journal of Forestry

In this study, we assessed the impacts of climate change on the production of pulpwood and biomass for bioenergy, and the profitability of slash pine stands in the Southeastern United States. We employed the 3-PG (Physiological Processes Predicting Growth) model to determine the effects of future climates on forest growth and integrated it with a stand-level economic model to determine their impacts on optimal forest management. We found that the average production of pulpwood increased for all sites by 7.5 m³ ha⁻¹ for all climatic scenarios and productivity conditions. In the case of forest biomass for bioenergy, the average increase was less than 1 Mg ha⁻¹. Considering a payment for forest biomass for bioenergy of $4.2 per green Mg⁻¹, the land expectation values (LEVs), on average, increased by $242.1 ha⁻¹ under extreme climatic conditions and high productivity conditions. However, the increase in LEVs due to payments for biomass for bioenergy was small, accounting for $23 ha⁻¹. We also found that the combined effect of increased site productivity and climate change reduced the optimal harvest age of slash pine. Our results confirm that emerging bioenergy markets coupled with changing climatic conditions can increase the economic returns for landowners. Full article

Advanced Hardwood Biofuels Northwest (AHB), a USDA NIFA-funded consortium of university and industry partners, identified southwestern Washington as a potential location for a regional bioproducts industry using poplar trees (Populus spp.) as the feedstock. In this qualitative case study, we present the results of an exploratory feasibility investigation based on conversations with agricultural and natural resources stakeholders. This research complements a techno-economic modelling of a hypothetical biorefinery near Centralia, WA, USA. Interviews and group discussions explored the feasibility of a poplar-based bioproducts industry in southwestern WA, especially as it relates to converting land to poplar farms and the potential for poplar to provide ecosystem services. Stakeholders revealed challenges to local agriculture, past failures to profit from poplar (for pulp/sawlogs), land-use planning efforts for flood mitigation and salmon conservation, questions about biorefinery operations, and a need for a new economic opportunity that “pencils out”. Overall, if the business model is convincing, participants see chances for win-win situations where landowners could profit growing poplar on otherwise low-value acreage and achieve ecosystem services for wastewater or floodplain management. Full article

This paper investigates the environmental impacts and energy benefits of the cultivation of Miscanthus (Miscanthus × giganteus Greef et Deu.), in order to initiate its use in sustainable household heating in the Republic of Serbia. Based on the analysis of available data regarding the use of agricultural machinery in Serbia, a Miscanthus supply chain is constructed and examined in detail, scrutinizing all relevant operations—from planting of rhizomes to thermal energy production. Results of the life cycle assessment identify the briquetting process as the most environmentally burdensome operation due to high electricity consumption and low productivity. It is concluded that an average yield of 23.5 t dry matter (d.m.) year⁻¹ obtained from 1 ha of chernozem soil would have energy output:energy input (EO:EI) ratio of 51:1, and would release 365.5 gigajoules (GJ) of heat during combustion in a boiler. With this amount of energy, around 383 m² of a free-standing family house in Serbia can be heated annually. The same amount of energy is obtained by the combustion of 22 t of lignite or 23 t of wood logs. The substitution of lignite and wood with Miscanthus briquettes would lead to significant reduction of CO₂ equivalents (eq), SO₂ eq, P eq, N eq, 1,4 dichlorobenzene (1,4-DB) eq, Non-methane volatile organic compound (NMVOC), PM10 eq and U235 eq emissions. This designates Miscanthus as a more sustainable energy solution for household heating. In instances where more modern agricultural machinery is used, emission reduction is higher, except for CO₂ eq due to higher emission factors predicted for more powerful engines. Depending on Miscanthus’ annual yield, the replacement of set-aside land with Miscanthus plantations result in carbon (C) sequestration from 0.08 t C ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ to 0.91 t C ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. In a modern machinery scenario, C sequestration is only attainable when maximal Miscanthus yield is obtained. The combined use of machinery with different engine power is the best option for Miscanthus cultivation in Serbia. Full article

Carbohydrate reserves provide advantages for mature trees experiencing frequent disturbances; however, it is unclear if selective pressures operate on this characteristic at the seedling or mature life history stage. We hypothesized that natural selection has favored carbohydrate reserves in species that have an evolutionary history of frequent disturbance and tested this using three southern pine species that have evolved across a continuum of fire frequencies. Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) roots exhibited higher maximum starch concentrations than slash (P.elliottii) and loblolly (P. taeda), which were similar. Longleaf also relied on starch reserves in roots more than slash or loblolly, depleting 64, 41, and 23 mg g⁻¹ of starch, respectively, between seasonal maximum and minimum, which represented 52%, 45%, and 26% of reserves, respectively. Starch reserves in stems did not differ among species or exhibit temporal dynamics. Our results suggest that an evolutionary history of disturbance partly explains patterns of carbohydrate reserves observed in southern pines. However, similarities between slash and loblolly indicate that carbohydrate reserves do not strictly follow the continuum of disturbance frequencies among southern pine, but rather reflect the different seedling strategies exhibited by longleaf compared to those shared by slash and loblolly. We propose that the increased carbohydrate reserves in mature longleaf may simply be a relic of selective pressures imposed at the juvenile stage that are maintained through development, thus allowing mature trees to be more resilient and to recover from chronic disturbances such as frequent fire. Full article

Surface mining is a major driver of land use land cover (LULC) change in many mountainous areas such as the Appalachian region. Typical reclamation practices often result in land cover dominated by grass and shrubs. Assessing ecosystem services that can be obtained from a forest landscape may help policy-makers and other stakeholders fully understand the benefits of forestry-based reclamation (FRA). The objectives of this study are to (1) identify how surface mining and reclamation changed the LULC of a watershed encompassing the north fork of the Kentucky River, (2) assess the biophysical value of four major ecosystem services under the contemporary LULC condition, and (3) assess the benefits of the FRA scenario in the provision of ecosystem services. Geographic Information System (GIS) was used to study the LULC change and InVEST software models for ecosystem services assessment. The results indicate that watershed’s forest area has decreased by 7751 hectares from 2001 to 2011 and mining/reclamation activities may have contributed 65% of the overall changes in LULC. Barren and grassland land covers provide less carbon storage, yield more water, and export more sediments and nutrients than forests. At the watershed level, the FRA scenario increased carbon storage (13%) and reduced water yield (5%), sediment export (40%), and nutrient export (7%). The provision of these ecosystem services varies at the subwatershed level, and such spatial heterogeneity is primarily driven by land cover composition, precipitation, and topography. This study provides critical information regarding the ecological benefits of restoring mined land to assist policy and decision making at landscape scales. Full article

Forest densification, wildfires, and disease can reduce the growth and survival of hardwood trees that are important for biological and cultural diversity within the Pacific Northwest of USA. Large, full-crowned hardwoods that produce fruit and that form large cavities used by wildlife were sustained by frequent, low-severity fires prior to Euro-American colonization. Shifts in fire regimes and other threats could be causing declines in, large hardwood trees. To better understand whether and where such declines might be occurring, we evaluated recent trends in Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) data from 1991–2016 in California and southern Oregon. We included plots that lay within areas of frequent fire regimes during pre-colonial times and potential forest habitats for fisher, a rare mammal that depends on large live hardwoods. We analyzed changes in basal area for eight hardwood species, both overall and within size classes, over three time periods within ecoregions, and in public and private land ownerships. We found the basal area to generally be stable or increasing for these species. However, data for California black oak suggested a slight decline in basal area overall, and among both very large trees and understory trees; that decline was associated with fire mortality on national forest lands. In addition, mature trees with full crowns appeared to sharply decline across all species. Many trends were not statistically significant due to high variation, especially since more precise data from remeasured trees were only available for the two most recent time periods. Continued analysis of these indicators using remeasured trees will help to evaluate whether conservation efforts are sustaining large, full-crowned trees and their associated benefits. Full article

In the Southern U.S., timber is transported from harvest sites to mills by many small trucking companies. Few studies have examined the structure and challenges facing these businesses. This study involved interviews with 18 log truck owners operating in the state of Georgia, USA. Participants operated in all forested regions of Georgia and included wood dealers, contract haulers, logging businesses, logging and trucking businesses, and large, diversified trucking businesses. Fleet sizes ranged from zero trucks (recently ceased hauling) to more than 50 log trucks. Log trucks were driven an average of 127,324 km year⁻¹ and delivered an average of 17,410 t year⁻¹. Participants averaged 48% loaded km. Analysis suggests the current combination of average payload, percent-loaded km, and published haul rates make it difficult for log trucking companies to be profitable. The most important challenges faced by log truck owners were a shortage of qualified drivers and rising truck insurance premiums, which were identified as the greatest challenge by 44% and 39% of participants, respectively. Increasing percent-loaded km, reducing turn times at mills and harvest sites, providing driver training, and adopting technologies, such as global positioning system tracking and onboard cameras, could improve transportation efficiency and safety. Full article

Community forestry is required to follow a forest management plan (FMP) to ensure sustainable tree harvesting. However, the role of FMPs or forest bureaucrats’ discretion in guiding harvesting decisions and the resultant effects has not been explored. This paper investigates tree harvesting practices in community forests (CF) and its effects on forest sustainability, using the forest inventory panel dataset for three consecutive periods (2010, 2013 and 2016), together with qualitative information obtained by key informant interviews and a review of records of the community forest users’ group. Harvesting decisions in the CF are largely guided by the decrees or schematic instructions of forest bureaucrats, where the role of the FMP remains highly contested. Whether harvesting decisions should be guided by the prescriptions of the FMP or should be regulated through decrees is a matter of discourse. Forest bureaucrats are arbitrarily reducing harvesting quantities and rarely referring to the prescriptions of the FMP. Consequently, users are compelled to harvest less than half the quantity of trees prescribed in the FMP. Furthermore, they are only allowed to harvest poor quality and dead trees. As a result, the number of good quality trees has increased, while the number of seedlings and saplings has decreased significantly. Although harvesting of saplings and seedlings is a common practice, it is against the provisions of the FMP. Though the current bureaucratic discretion has shown quick short-term effects on the forest stand conditions, the long-term impacts should not be undermined. Our findings will be useful to implementors and policy makers in Nepal and other developing countries with similar circumstances for deciding the tree harvesting. We argue for a rational approach in designing harvesting prescriptions and complying with them rather than regulating harvesting practices through guidelines, circulars and bureaucratic discretion. Full article

Wildfire in declining whitebark pine forests can be a tool for ecosystem restoration or an ecologically harmful event. This document presents a set of possible wildfire management practices for facilitating the restoration of whitebark pine across its range in Western North America. These management actions are designed to enhance whitebark pine resilience and health, while also being effective wildfire management measures. The actions are presented by the three phases of the wildfire continuum: Before, during, and after a wildfire. Current pre-wildfire restoration actions, such as mechanical thinning’s, prescribed burning, and fuel treatments, can also be designed to be fuel treatment activities that allow more effective suppression of wildfires when needed. Three wildfire strategies can be implemented while the wildfire is burning—full suppression, partial suppression, and wildland fire use (letting some fires burn under acceptable conditions)—for protecting valuable whitebark pine trees and for ecosystem restoration. Finally, post-wildfire activities include planting rust-resistant seedlings and monitoring effects of the wildfires. Recommended wildfire management practices for the wildfire continuum are specified by region, site type, and stand type in the last section of this paper. Full article

Elevation gradients offer excellent opportunities to explore the climate sensitivity of vegetation. Here, we investigated elevation patterns of structural, chemical, and physiological traits in tropical tree species along a 1700–2700 m elevation gradient in Rwanda, central Africa. Two early-successional (Polyscias fulva, Macaranga kilimandscharica) and two late-successional (Syzygium guineense, Carapa grandiflora) species that are abundant in the area and present along the entire gradient were investigated. We found that elevation patterns in leaf stomatal conductance (g_s), transpiration (E), net photosynthesis (A_n), and water-use efficiency were highly season-dependent. In the wet season, there was no clear variation in g_s or A_n with elevation, while E was lower at cooler high-elevation sites. In the dry season, g_s, A_n, and E were all lower at drier low elevation sites. The leaf-to-air temperature difference was smallest in P. fulva, which also had the highest g_s and E. Water-use efficiency (A_n/E) increased with elevation in the wet season, but not in the dry season. Leaf nutrient ratios indicated that trees at all sites are mostly P limited and the N:P ratio did not decrease with increasing elevation. Our finding of strongly decreased gas exchange at lower sites in the dry season suggests that both transpiration and primary production would decline in a climate with more pronounced dry periods. Furthermore, we showed that N limitation does not increase with elevation in the forests studied, as otherwise most commonly reported for tropical montane forests. Full article

The common walnut (Juglans regia L.) and iron walnut (J. sigillata Dode) are well-known economically important species cultivated for their edible nuts, high-quality wood, and medicinal properties and display a sympatric distribution in southwestern China. However, detailed research on the genetic diversity and introgression of these two closely related walnut species, especially in southwestern China, are lacking. In this study, we analyzed a total of 506 individuals from 28 populations of J. regia and J. sigillata using 25 EST-SSR markers to determine if their gene introgression was related to sympatric distribution. In addition, we compared the genetic diversity estimates between them. Our results indicated that all J. regia populations possess slightly higher genetic diversity than J. sigillata populations. The Geostatistical IDW technique (H_O, PPL, N_A and PrA) revealed that northern Yunnan and Guizhou provinces had high genetic diversity for J. regia while the northwestern Yunnan province had high genetic diversity for J. sigillata. AMOVA analysis revealed that significant genetic variation was mainly distributed within population as 73% in J. regia and 76% in J. sigillata. The genetic differentiation (F_ST) was 0.307 between the two walnut species (p < 0.0001), which was higher than F_ST values within populations (J. regia F_ST = 0.265 and J. sigillata F_ST = 0.236). However, the STRUCTURE analysis of the J. regia and J. sigillata populations revealed two genetic clusters in which gene introgression exists, therefore, the boundary of separation between these two walnut species is not clear. Moreover, these results were validated by NJ and UPGMA analysis with additional conformation from the PCoA. Based on the SSR data, our results indicate that J. sigillata is an ecotype of J. regia. Taken together, these results reveal novel information on population genetics and provide specific geographical regions containing high genetic diversity of the Juglans species sampled, which will assist in future conservation management. Full article

A prerequisite for sustainable peatland forestry is sufficiently low water table (WT) level for profitable tree production. This requires better understanding on controls and feedbacks between tree stand and its evapotranspiration, drainage network condition, climate, and WT levels. This study explores the role of spatial tree stand distribution in the spatiotemporal distribution of WT levels and site water balance. A numerical experiment was conducted by a three-dimensional (3-D) hydrological model (FLUSH) applied to a 0.5 ha peatland forest assuming (1) spatially uniform interception and transpiration, (2) interception and transpiration scaled with spatial distributions of tree crown and root biomass, and (3) the combination of spatially scaled interception and uniform transpiration. Site water balance and WT levels were simulated for two meteorologically contrasting years. Spatial variations in transpiration were found to control WT levels even in a forest with relatively low stand stem volume (<100 m³/ha). Forest management scenarios demonstrated how stand thinning and reduced drainage efficiency raised WT levels and increased the area and duration of excessively wet conditions having potentially negative economic (reduced tree growth) and environmental (e.g., methane emissions, phosphorus mobilization) consequences. In practice, silvicultural treatment manipulating spatial stand structure should be optimized to avoid emergence of wet spots. Full article

Poplar plantations have the capacity to improve the properties of soils in muddy coastal areas; however, our understanding of the impacts of plantation development on soil arthropods remains limited. For this study, we determined the community dynamics of soil dwelling arthropods across poplar plantations of different ages (5-, 10-, and 21-years) over the course of one year in Eastern Coastal China. The total abundance of soil arthropods differed with stand development. Further, there were some interactions that involved the sampling date. On average, total abundance was highest in the 10-year-old stands and lowest in the 5-year-old stands. Total abundance exhibited strong age-dependent trends in June and September, but not in March or December. The abundance of Prostigmata and Oribatida increased in the 5- to 21-year-old stands, with the highest levels being in the 10-year-old stands. The abundance of Collembola increased with stand development; however, the stand age had no significant impact on the abundance of epedapic, hemiedaphic, and euedaphic Collembola. Order richness (Hill number q = 0) curve confidence intervals overlapped among three stand ages. Shannon and Simpson diversity (Hill numbers q = 1 and q = 2) differed between 10- and 21-year-old stand age. They showed almost similar trends, and the highest and lowest values were recorded in the 21- and 10-year-old stand ages, respectively. Permutational multivariate analysis of variance demonstrated that composition also varied significantly with the sampling date and stand age, and the 10-year-old stands that were sampled in June stood well-separated from the others. Indicator analysis revealed that Scolopendromorpha and Prostigmata were indicators in June for the 10-year-old stands, while Collembola were indicators for the 21-year-old stands sampled in September. Our results highlight that both stand development and climate seasonality can significantly impact soil arthropod community dynamics in the reclaimed coastal saline soils of managed poplar plantations. Full article

We compared the effects of hydrophilic polymer amendments on drought and salt tolerance of Metasequoia glyptostroboides Hu and W.C.Cheng seedlings using commercially available Stockosorb and Luquasorb synthetic hydrogels and a biopolymer, Konjac glucomannan (KGM). Drought, salinity, or the combined stress of both drought and salinity caused growth retardation and leaf injury in M. glyptostroboides. Under a range of simulated stress conditions, biopolymers and synthetic hydrogels alleviated growth inhibition and leaf injury, improved photosynthesis, and enhanced whole-plant and unit transpiration. For plants subjected to drought conditions, Stockosorb hydrogel amendment specifically caused a remarkable increase in water supply to roots due to the water retention capacity of the granular polymer. Under saline stress, hydrophilic polymers restricted Na⁺ and Cl⁻ concentrations in roots and leaves. Moreover, root K⁺ uptake resulted from K⁺ enrichment in Stockosorb and Luquasorb granules. Synthetic polymers and biopolymers increased the ability of M. glyptostroboides to tolerate combined impacts of drought and salt stress due to their water- and salt-bearing capacities. Similar to the synthetic polymers, the biopolymer also enhanced M. glyptostroboides drought and salt stress tolerance. Full article

Intrinsic water-use efficiency (iWUE) is affected by the balance of photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, and climate, along with many other exogenous factors, such as the CO₂ concentration in the atmosphere (CO_2atm), nutrients, and water holding capacity of the soil. The relative contributions of CO_2atm and climate to iWUE are still incompletely understood, particularly for boreal forests where the climate is undergoing unprecedented warming. We combined δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O in tree rings from the Siberian larch (Larix sibirica Ledeb.) in Northwestern China’s Altay Mountains, which receives 190 mm in annual precipitation, to detect the drivers of long-term iWUE changes and their time-varying contributions over the past 222 years. A climate optimization approach was used to isolate the influence of climate from CO_2atm influence on iWUE. We found that iWUE increased about 33.6% from 1790 to 2011, and rising CO_2atm contributed 48.8% to this iWUE increase. The contributions of CO_2atm and climate (drought conditions) varied during the study period 1790–2011. From 1790 to 1876, the climate was the most important factor contributing to the changes in iWUE. From 1877 to 1972, CO_2atm was the main contributor; however, after 1973, the climate was again the dominant contributor to the increase in iWUE, especially during 1996–2011. During the period 1996–2011, climate substantially (83%) contributed to the iWUE increase. Our findings imply that, in the boreal forest in Northwestern China’s arid region, iWUE experienced three changes: (1) the climate dominating from 1790 to 1876; (2) CO_2atm dominating from 1877 to 1972, and (3) climate dominating again during the past four decades. We observed that the relationships between iWUE and tree-ring width shifted from positive to negative from 1996 onwards. These relationship changes indicate that CO_2atm-mediated effects of increasing iWUE on tree growth are counteracted by climatic drought stress and iWUE increase cannot counter the stress from drought on tree growth in China’s arid boreal forest. Full article

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of a Douglas fir plantation along a stand chronosequence in the North Apennine (Italy) on soil carbon and nitrogen stocks, as well as on soil chemical and biochemical properties involved in the nutrients biogeochemical cycle. In 2014, three sites of Douglas fir stands, aged 80, 100, and 120 years, were selected in Vallombrosa forest to study the dynamics of soil nutrients in the ecosystem. Along the Douglas fir chronosequence, general evidence of surface element accumulation was found, including a conspicuous increase of alkaline element with respect to Al, which was attributed to the increase of soil pH along the Douglas fir stand age classes. A general increase of specific enzyme activity (per unit of organic carbon) and functional diversity were observed in the epipedon of the Douglas fir stand over 100 years of age. Moreover, the (chitinase + leucine aminopeptidase) to acid phosphatase ratio progressively increased from 0.15 to 0.31 in the epipedon of the chrononsequence, while the β-glucosidase to (chitinase + leucine aminopeptidase) ratio decreased from 1.45 to 0.83, suggesting nitrogen limitation with respect to carbon. In fact, the soil carbon stock progressively increased along the chronosequence, in the epipedon from 17 to 53 Mg C ha⁻¹ and in the endopedon from 17 to 37 Mg C ha⁻¹. Conversely, the soil nitrogen stock increased from 1.2 to 2.4 Mg N ha⁻¹, but not over the 100-year-old stand class. In conclusion, soil organic matter accumulation became sufficient to define the umbric horizon in the Northern Apennines when the Douglas fir plantation reached the age of 100 years. Over this age class of plants, a limitation of soil nitrogen may occur, affecting enzyme activities regulating the biogeochemical cycle of nutrients. Full article

Strip roads serve to enable silviculture operations, maintain biodiversity, and decrease damages to the soil and environment. At the same time, strip roads decrease the productive area. The aim of this study is to evaluate the influence of strip roads on the productivity of spruce plantations growing in different density regimes. Five trials, each of 0.234 ha area, with different density regimes and two replications in an experimental spruce plantation were used for this study. The permanent plots were established in the plantation of 15 years of age and were remeasured every 4–5 years over 24 years. Differences in tree growth between outer rows bordering strip roads and inner rows, 1.75 and 3.5 m from the strip road, were estimated using t statistics. The gross annual increment of trees in outer rows at age 39 years exceeded the increment of trees in inner rows by up to 60%–78%. Increase of productivity occurred primarily due to the more intensive diameter growth and higher density of trees in the outer rows. In general, the influence of strip roads on the total productivity of plantation depends on the ratio of the growth intensity of trees between outer and inner rows as well as ratio of the width of treed strips to the width of the strip road. Full article

A tree list is a list of trees in the area of interest containing, for example, the species, diameter, height, and stem volume of each tree. Tree lists can be used to derive various characteristics of the growing stock, and are therefore versatile and informative sources of data for several forest management purposes. Especially in heterogonous and unmanaged forest structures with multiple species, tree list estimates imputed from local reference field data can provide an alternative to mean value estimates of growing stock (e.g., basal area, total stem volume, mean tree diameter, mean tree height, and number of trees). In this study, reference field plots, airborne laser scanning (ALS) data, and SPOT 5 satellite (Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre) imagery were used for tree list imputation applying the k most similar neighbors (k-MSN) estimation method in the West Ural taiga region of the Russian Federation for diameter distribution estimation. In k-MSN, weighted average of k field reference plots with highest similarity between field reference plot and target (forest grid cell, or field plot) based on ALS and SPOT 5 features were used to predict the mean values of growing stock and tree lists for the target object simultaneously. Diameter distributions were then constructed from the predicted tree lists. The prediction of mean values and diameter distributions was tested in 18 independent validation plots of 0.25–0.5 ha in size, whose species specific diameter distributions were measured in the field and grouped into three functional groups (Pines, Spruce/Fir, Broadleaf Group), each containing several species. In terms of root mean squared error relative to mean of validation plots, the accuracy of estimation was 0.14 and 0.17 for basal area and total stem volume, respectively. Reynolds error index values and visual inspection showed encouraging results in evaluating the goodness-of-fit statistics of the estimated diameter distributions. Although estimation accuracy was worse for functional group mean values and diameter distributions, the results indicate that it is possible to predict diameter distributions in forests of the test area with the tested methodology and materials. Full article

Community based approaches are becoming the norm in environmental governance initiatives. One prominent example of this is Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+), a climate change mitigation strategy that aims at reducing carbon emissions caused by deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries. REDD+ policies generally evoke communities as both potential beneficiaries of REDD+ and as agents for its implementation. However, it is unclear what REDD+ policies are really referring to when they talk about communities. Drawing on critical social science literature about the idea of community, this article advances a performative perspective to analyze how communities are articulated in international and national REDD+ policy, and reflects on the potential implications of these articulations. Results reveal that international policy documents, including those of the major non-governmental organizations (NGOs) engaged in REDD+, tend to present an interpretation that corresponds to Agrawal and Gibson’s myth of communities as small, localized, and homogenous social units that share social norms. On the other hand, national policy documents reveal enormous variety in the communities that are actually targeted in national REDD+ policies in terms of resources, governance structure, and social cohesion. One conclusion that could be drawn from this is that the dominant uniform interpretation of communities in REDD+ policy, and in much academic and NGO literature, is clearly unrealistic. However, this does not mean that it is inconsequential. We conclude our article by discussing the performative effects of the identified articulations of community. Full article