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Sediment Transport Constraints for Restoration of the Ebro Delta
Comparative Analysis of Livestock Wastewater Reuse Under Summer and Winter Conditions at a Scale-Down Microalgae Culture
Insights to Estimate the Largest 1/3, 1/10, and 1/100 of Offshore Wave Heights and Periods Under Fetch-Limited Conditions in the Central Aegean Sea
Waterway Regulation Effects on River Hydrodynamics and Hydrological Regimes: A Numerical Investigation
Asymmetric Impacts of Urbanization on Extreme Hourly Precipitation Across the Yangtze River Delta Urban Agglomeration During 1978–2012

Journal Description

Water

Water is a peer-reviewed, open access journal on water science and technology, including the ecology and management of water resources, and is published semimonthly online by MDPI. Water collaborates with the Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI). In addition, the American Institute of Hydrology (AIH), The Polish Limnological Society (PLS) and Japanese Society of Physical Hydrology (JSPH) are affiliated with Water and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, GEOBASE, GeoRef, PubAg, AGRIS, CAPlus / SciFinder, Inspec, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Water Resources) / CiteScore - Q1 (Aquatic Science)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 19.1 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.6 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Companion journals for Water include: GeoHazards.
Journal Clusters of Water Resources: Water, Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, Hydrology, Resources, Oceans, Limnological Review, Coasts.

Impact Factor: 3.0 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 3.3 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2073-4441

Latest Articles

914 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Incorporation of Adsorbents with Contrasting Properties into the Soil Substrate for the Removal of Multiple Pollutants in Stormwater Treatment for the Reuse of Water—A Review

by Paripurnanda Loganathan, Jaya Kandasamy, Harsha Ratnaweera and Saravanamuthu Vigneswaran

Water 2025, 17(13), 2007; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17132007 - 3 Jul 2025

Stormwater carries significant amounts of pollutants—including metals, microorganisms, organic micropollutants, and nutrients—from land surfaces into nearby water bodies, leading to water quality deterioration and threats to both human health and ecosystems. The removal of these contaminants is essential not only for environmental protection, [...] Read more.

Stormwater carries significant amounts of pollutants—including metals, microorganisms, organic micropollutants, and nutrients—from land surfaces into nearby water bodies, leading to water quality deterioration and threats to both human health and ecosystems. The removal of these contaminants is essential not only for environmental protection, but also to enable the reuse of treated water for various beneficial applications. Common treatment methods include bioretention systems, biofiltration, constructed wetlands, rain gardens, swales, and permeable pavements. To improve pollutant removal efficiency, adsorbent materials are often incorporated into the soil substrate of these treatment devices. However, most research on adsorbents has focused on their effectiveness against one or two specific pollutants and has been conducted under static, short-term laboratory conditions rather than dynamic, field-relevant scenarios. Column-based dynamic filtration type studies, which are more informative for field applications, are limited. In one study, a combination of two or more adsorbents with contrasting properties that matched the affinity preferences of the different pollutants to the substrate media removed 77–100% of several heavy metals that occur in real stormwater compared to 38–73% removal with only one adsorbent. In another study, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon removal with zeolite was only 30–50%, but increased to >99% with 0.3% granular activated carbon addition. Long-term dynamic column-based filtration experiments and field studies using real stormwater, which contains a wide range of pollutants, are recommended to better evaluate the performances of the combined adsorbent systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Membrane and Other Innovative Technologies for Water Purification: Design, Development, and Application)

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2777 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on an Underwater Target Classification Method Based on the Spatial–Temporal Characteristics of a Flow Field

by Xinghua Lin, Hang Xu, Hao Wang, Peilong Sun, Enyu Yang and Guozhen Zan

Water 2025, 17(13), 2006; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17132006 - 3 Jul 2025

In order to solve problems such as recognition of blind areas which exist in traditional technology in underwater near-field target sensing, this paper constructs an underwater robot target sensing model based on the fish lateral line sensing mechanism and adopts CFD simulation technology [...] Read more.

In order to solve problems such as recognition of blind areas which exist in traditional technology in underwater near-field target sensing, this paper constructs an underwater robot target sensing model based on the fish lateral line sensing mechanism and adopts CFD simulation technology to analyze the perturbation characteristic law of the pressure signal in the flow field around the underwater robot. By extracting the pressure signal following the bionic lateral line on the surface of the underwater robot as the target recognition information, the SVM multi-target recognition model is trained and built to realize the perception and recognition of the structural features and attitude features of the underwater robot. The results show that the structural features and attitude features of the underwater robot can be recognized by using the time-domain waveform structural features and spatially symmetric distribution features of the pressure coefficients, and the recognition accuracy can reach over 90%, which reveals the principle of target feature resolution based on the sideline perception signals of the fish nerve center. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrodynamics Science Experiments and Simulations, 2nd Edition)

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3646 KiB

Open AccessArticle

SPEI Drought Forecasting in Central Mexico

by Mauricio Carrillo-Carrillo, Laura Ibáñez-Castillo, Ramón Arteaga-Ramírez and Gustavo Arévalo-Galarza

Water 2025, 17(13), 2005; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17132005 (registering DOI) - 3 Jul 2025

This study compares three Standardized Precipitation and Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) prediction models at different time scales: (1) Kalman filter with exogenous variables (DKF-ARX-Pt, FK), (2) gated recurrent unit (GRU), and (3) autoregressive neural networks with external input (NARX). Using observed data from meteorological [...] Read more.

This study compares three Standardized Precipitation and Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) prediction models at different time scales: (1) Kalman filter with exogenous variables (DKF-ARX-Pt, FK), (2) gated recurrent unit (GRU), and (3) autoregressive neural networks with external input (NARX). Using observed data from meteorological stations in the State of Mexico and Mexico City, considering performance metrics, such as mean absolute error (MAE), mean square error (MSE), root mean square error (RMSE), coefficient of determination (R²), Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency coefficient (NSE) and Kling–Gupta efficiency (KGE). The results indicate that the FK model with exogenous variables is the most accurate model for SPEI prediction at different time scales, standing out in terms of stability and low variance in prediction error. GRU networks showed acceptable performance on long time scales (SPEI12 and SPEI24), but with lower stability on short scales. In contrast, NARX presented the worst performance, with high errors and negative efficiency coefficients at several time scales. Models based on Kalman filters can be key tools to improve drought mitigation strategies in vulnerable regions, as it has an improved average predictive accuracy by reducing the MAE by up to 68% and achieving higher consistency in KGE values at longer time scales (SPEI12 and SPEI24). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impacts of Climate Change & Human Activities on Wetland Ecosystems)

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1214 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Groundwater Management Modeling in the Güzelyurt Region (Northern Cyprus): A Group Model Building Approach

by Farhad Bolouri, Hüseyin Gökçekuş, Vahid Nourani and Youssef Kassem

Water 2025, 17(13), 2004; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17132004 - 3 Jul 2025

Groundwater plays an important role in areas facing water scarcity, which can cause many problems if poorly managed. In Northern Cyprus, in the Güzelyurt region, where agriculture is thriving, excessive and inappropriate groundwater use has caused a sharp decrease in water levels and [...] Read more.

Groundwater plays an important role in areas facing water scarcity, which can cause many problems if poorly managed. In Northern Cyprus, in the Güzelyurt region, where agriculture is thriving, excessive and inappropriate groundwater use has caused a sharp decrease in water levels and electrical conductivity in many coastal areas. This study explores this problem using system dynamics tools designed to analyze feedback loops and causal links. The qualitative system dynamics approach is employed to investigate complex systems by focusing on structural and behavioral patterns through qualitative elements such as feedback loops, causal relationships, and system archetypes, rather than relying solely on numerical data. For this purpose, group model building is used, for which a basic model is built using library studies, and then the model is developed and improved through numerous interviews and meetings held with policymakers, farmers, soil and water managers, university professors, and representatives from the local community. The study examines water management practices, including transferring water from Turkey to Northern Cyprus and allocating a portion for agricultural use in Güzelyurt. It also explores agricultural strategies and the employment of advanced irrigation methods. In the tourism and urban consumption sectors, raising public awareness and educating citizens about water scarcity linked to climate change are highlighted as essential measures in promoting sustainable water usage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Qualitative and Quantitative Management of Groundwater Resources in Urban Areas)

11781 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Combined Hydrogeophysical System for Soil Column Experiments Using Time Domain Reflectometry and Ground-Penetrating Radar

by Alexandros Papadopoulos, George Apostolopoulos, Petros Kofakis, Ioannis Argyrokastritis, Margarita Tsaniklidou and Andreas Kallioras

Water 2025, 17(13), 2003; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17132003 - 3 Jul 2025

To further comprehend kinetic processes in the unsaturated zone, a series of soil column experiments was conducted to simulate downward and upward water movement under variable saturation conditions. High-accuracy spatial and temporal measurements were carried out using the time domain reflectometry—TDR—and Ground-Penetrating Radar—GPR—geophysical [...] Read more.

To further comprehend kinetic processes in the unsaturated zone, a series of soil column experiments was conducted to simulate downward and upward water movement under variable saturation conditions. High-accuracy spatial and temporal measurements were carried out using the time domain reflectometry—TDR—and Ground-Penetrating Radar—GPR—geophysical methods. Several custom spatial TDR sensors were constructed and used alongside point-measuring TDR sensors, which served as reference points for the calibration of the custom spatial waveguides. The experimental results validated the ability of the custom-made spatial sensors, and the TDR technique in general, to capture water movement and soil moisture changes with high precision during varying wetting processes and demonstrated the complementarity, the limitations, and the potential of the GPR method under the same conditions. The study proved that the combination of the aforementioned measuring technologies provides a better understanding of the kinetic processes that occur in variably saturated conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section New Sensors, New Technologies and Machine Learning in Water Sciences)

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9182 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Energy Loss Characteristics of a Francis Turbine Under Off-Design Conditions with Sand-Laden Flow Based on Entropy Generation Theory

by Xudong Lu, Kang Xu, Zhongquan Wang, Yu Xiao, Yaogang Xu, Changjiu Huang, Jiayang Pang and Xiaobing Liu

Water 2025, 17(13), 2002; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17132002 - 3 Jul 2025

To investigate the impact of sand-laden flow on energy loss in Francis turbines, this study integrates entropy generation theory with numerical simulations conducted using ANSYS CFX. The mixture multiphase flow model and the SST k-ω turbulence model are employed to simulate the solid–liquid [...] Read more.

To investigate the impact of sand-laden flow on energy loss in Francis turbines, this study integrates entropy generation theory with numerical simulations conducted using ANSYS CFX. The mixture multiphase flow model and the SST k-ω turbulence model are employed to simulate the solid–liquid two-phase flow throughout the entire flow passage of the turbine at the Gengda Hydropower Station (Minjiang River Basin section, 103°17′ E and 31°06′ N). The energy loss characteristics under different off-design conditions are analyzed on the basis of the average sediment concentration during the flood season (2.9 kg/m³) and a median particle diameter of 0.058 mm. The results indicate that indirect entropy generation and wall entropy generation are the primary contributors to total energy loss, while direct entropy generation accounts for less than 1%. As the guide vane opening increases, the proportion of wall entropy generation initially rises and then decreases, while the total indirect entropy generation exhibits a non-monotonic trend dominated by the flow pattern in the draft tube. Entropy generation on the runner walls increases steadily with larger openings, whereas entropy generation on the draft tube walls first decreases and then increases. The variation in entropy generation on the guide vanes remains relatively small. These findings provide technical support for the optimal design and operation of turbines in sediment-rich rivers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Hydraulics and Hydrodynamics)

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3763 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Proposed Solutions to Mitigate Flow Regulation in the Central Part of the Tagus River (Spain)

by Domingo Baeza, Andrea Armenteros and Diego García de Jalón

Water 2025, 17(13), 2001; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17132001 - 3 Jul 2025

This study examines hydrological alterations across thirteen sections of the Tagus River’s central axis, focusing on deviations from natural hydrological regimes. The goal is to assess the conservation status of aquatic ecosystems by analyzing how human activities have affected the river’s flow. The [...] Read more.

This study examines hydrological alterations across thirteen sections of the Tagus River’s central axis, focusing on deviations from natural hydrological regimes. The goal is to assess the conservation status of aquatic ecosystems by analyzing how human activities have affected the river’s flow. The study investigates changes in flow regime as the river moves downstream, noting that alterations in monthly and extreme flows decrease downstream and have less impact in the lower basin. The inversion of seasonal high and low flows, a significant alteration in the upper reaches, becomes less pronounced further downstream, while the rate of flow change emerges as a key factor in the lower sections. By identifying which variables most influence these alterations, the study allows for more targeted hydrological corrections. As an application of a better definition of the alterations found, hydrological restoration measures are proposed that include a maximum flow limit in the upper part of the basin and a monthly ecological flow regime in the lower section to reduce the most relevant impacts found. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Catchment Ecohydrology)

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3581 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sediment Legacy of Aquaculture Drives Endogenous Nitrogen Pollution and Water Quality Decline in the Taipu River–Lake System

by Jingyi Huang, Fengyan Tian, Yuanxing Huang, Hong Tao and Feipeng Li

Water 2025, 17(13), 2000; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17132000 - 3 Jul 2025

Excessive nitrogen accumulation from aquaculture poses a significant threat to water quality in river–lake systems. This study investigated the Taipu River and five interconnected lakes to analyze the forms, spatial distribution, and ecological impact of nitrogen in both water and surface sediments. Sediment [...] Read more.

Excessive nitrogen accumulation from aquaculture poses a significant threat to water quality in river–lake systems. This study investigated the Taipu River and five interconnected lakes to analyze the forms, spatial distribution, and ecological impact of nitrogen in both water and surface sediments. Sediment total nitrogen (TN), ammonium nitrogen (NH₄⁺-N), and nitrate nitrogen (NO₃⁻-N) were measured, with aquaculture-dominated lakes such as Xueluoyang Lake and Caodang Marsh exhibiting significantly higher sedimentary TN concentrations than the Taipu River. In Xueluoyang Lake, the average TN content reached 1037.3 mg/kg—1.87 times higher than in the river—highlighting the legacy effect of historical intensive aquaculture. Correlation analyses showed strong associations between sediment NH₄⁺-N and NO₃⁻-N and nitrogen levels in overlying water, confirming sediments as a major endogenous nitrogen source. Multivariate statistical methods, including Pearson’s correlation, hierarchical clustering, and principal component analysis, were applied to elucidate spatial patterns and key influencing factors. Water quality evaluation indices and sediment organic pollution assessments revealed widespread TN exceedance, particularly in dry seasons, with water quality deteriorating to Class V or worse. These results underscore the need for strengthened control of sedimentary nitrogen release and effective management of agricultural non-point source pollution to restore and protect water quality in river–lake systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sources, Transport, and Fate of Contaminants in Waters and Sediment)

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2596 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Startup Process of Pumped Storage Unit for Avoiding S-Shaped Region Based on Geometric Perspective Method

by Xiaohui Yuan, Kunjie Zhao and Yanhe Xu

Water 2025, 17(13), 1999; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17131999 - 3 Jul 2025

This paper aims to study the mechanism of avoiding the S-shaped region (S-shaped region, SFR) during the startup of pumped storage units (pumped storage units, PSUs). Firstly, the state space model of the PSU in frequency mode is built using the transfer coefficient [...] Read more.

This paper aims to study the mechanism of avoiding the S-shaped region (S-shaped region, SFR) during the startup of pumped storage units (pumped storage units, PSUs). Firstly, the state space model of the PSU in frequency mode is built using the transfer coefficient of the pump turbine. Then, according to the characteristics of the SFR, the accurate range of the SFR is determined in the full characteristic curve. Finally, combined with a specific power station, this paper proposes a novel geometric perspective method to reveal the underlying mechanism for avoiding the SFR during the startup of PSUs. The core innovation lies in establishing, for the first time, the precise spatial relationship (positioning and distance) between the no-load operating point and the upper boundary of the SFR, thereby identifying two critical necessary and sufficient conditions for successful startup avoiding instability. Based on this mechanism, the critical state of PSUs entering the SFR and the influence of operation points on the startup stability that the PSU is putting into PID control are analyzed using the Hopf bifurcation principle. The results show that two conditions need to be met when the PSU starts up to avoid the SFR. One is that the system operation point is in the stable region, and the other is that the speed overshoot is less than the critical speed overshoot. The speed overshoot is the direct cause of the unit entering the SFR, leading to startup failure. When the PSU is started up and put into proportional–integral–derivative (proportional–integral–derivative, PID) control, a certain margin of flow and guide vane opening will help reduce the speed overshoot and prevent the unit from entering the SFR. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Hydraulics and Hydrodynamics)

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3492 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transforming Water Education Through Investment in Innovation: A Case Study on the Cost-Benefit of Virtual Reality in Water Education

by Aleksandar Djordjević, Milica Ćirić, Vuk Milošević, Dragan Radivojević, Edwin Zammit, Daren Scerri and Milan Gocić

Water 2025, 17(13), 1998; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17131998 - 3 Jul 2025

This paper examines the relationship between investment in water education and economic performance, focusing on the context of widening countries (EU Member States and Associated Countries with lower research and innovation performance). Through time-series data and panel regression analysis, the study investigates whether [...] Read more.

This paper examines the relationship between investment in water education and economic performance, focusing on the context of widening countries (EU Member States and Associated Countries with lower research and innovation performance). Through time-series data and panel regression analysis, the study investigates whether increased spending on education correlates with Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth. While the initial static model indicates a positive but statistically insignificant association, a dynamic model with lagged GDP significantly improves explanatory power, suggesting that educational investments may influence growth with a temporal delay. Complementing the macroeconomic data, the paper analyses how targeted investments in educational innovation, especially in digital technologies such as virtual reality (VR) applications, enhance teaching quality and student engagement. Examples from partner universities involved in the WATERLINE project (Horizon Europe, 101071306) show how custom-built VR modules, aligned with existing hydraulic labs, contribute to advanced water-related skills. The paper also presents a cost-benefit analysis of VR applications in water education, highlighting their economic efficiency compared to traditional laboratory equipment. Additionally, it explores how micro-level innovations in education can generate macroeconomic benefits through widespread adoption and systemic impact. Ultimately, the research highlights the long-term value of education and innovation in strengthening both economic and human capital across diverse regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Water Resources Management, Policy and Governance)

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826 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Two-Level System for Optimal Flood Risk Coverage in Spain

by Sonia Sanabria García and Joaquin Torres Sempere

Water 2025, 17(13), 1997; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17131997 - 3 Jul 2025

This study evaluates the current Spanish insurance framework for catastrophic flood risk, administered by the Consorcio de Compensación de Seguros (CCS), based on nationwide loss data reported by the CCS for the period 1996–2020. The analysis of historical claims data enables a clear [...] Read more.

This study evaluates the current Spanish insurance framework for catastrophic flood risk, administered by the Consorcio de Compensación de Seguros (CCS), based on nationwide loss data reported by the CCS for the period 1996–2020. The analysis of historical claims data enables a clear differentiation between frequent, low-cost events and infrequent, high-impact catastrophes. While the CCS has fulfilled a critical role in post-disaster compensation, the findings highlight the parallel need for ex ante risk mitigation strategies. The study proposes a more efficient, two-tier risk coverage model. Events whose impacts can be managed through standard insurance mechanisms should be underwritten by private insurers using actuarially fair premiums. In contrast, events with catastrophic implications—due to their scale or financial impact—should be addressed through general solidarity mechanisms, centrally managed by the CCS. Such a risk segmentation would improve the financial sustainability of the system and create fiscal space for prevention-oriented incentives. The current design of the CCS scheme may generate moral hazard, as flood exposure is not explicitly priced into the premium structure. Empirical findings support a shift towards a more transparent, incentive-aligned model that combines collective risk sharing with individual risk responsibility—an essential balance for effective climate adaptation and long-term resilience. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water: Economic, Social and Environmental Analysis)

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18 pages, 1462 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pollution Characteristics and Risk Assessment of Microplastics and Plasticizers Around a Typical Chemical Industrial Park

by Hongrun Wang, Jinxuan Ai and Jiali Jiang

Water 2025, 17(13), 1996; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17131996 - 2 Jul 2025

Although the risks of microplastics (MPs) and plasticizers have received attention, plastic chemical parks, as an important source of them, lack adequate research. A river in eastern China that connects to Hangzhou Bay and receives wastewater from the plastics industry was targeted for [...] Read more.

Although the risks of microplastics (MPs) and plasticizers have received attention, plastic chemical parks, as an important source of them, lack adequate research. A river in eastern China that connects to Hangzhou Bay and receives wastewater from the plastics industry was targeted for investigation. The highest concentrations of MPs in water and sediment samples were found at the effluent (2250 ± 469 items/L and 3245 ± 430 items/kg, respectively). The WWTP effluent significantly increased the concentrations of MPs in the downstream water and sediments, which were 2.77 and 2.57 times higher than those in the upstream water, respectively. It was estimated that 2.24 × 10¹³ MPs entered the environment annually through wastewater discharge. The di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) concentration was the highest at the effluent (32.6 ± 7.9 μg/L in water and 2.7 ± 3.4 μg/g in sediment), and the downstream DEHP concentrations were 3.37 and 2.41 times higher than those in the upstream water and sediment, respectively. All three risk assessment models showed that the WWTP discharge outlet had the highest risk of MPs. DEHP in 87.5% of sediment samples posed a medium risk to algae. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact of Microplastic Pollution on Soil and Groundwater Environment)

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26 pages, 724 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Risk Analysis and Assessment of Water Supply Projects Using the Fuzzy DEMATEL-ANP and Artificial Neural Network Methods

by Mohammad Khalilzadeh, Sayyid Ali Banihashemi, Ali Heidari, Darko Božanić and Aleksandar Milić

Water 2025, 17(13), 1995; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17131995 - 2 Jul 2025

Today, companies face complexities and uncertainties that make it difficult to manage various risks. One of the important tools for achieving success in water supply projects is the proper implementation of risk management processes and activities throughout the project’s make-span. Risk identification and [...] Read more.

Today, companies face complexities and uncertainties that make it difficult to manage various risks. One of the important tools for achieving success in water supply projects is the proper implementation of risk management processes and activities throughout the project’s make-span. Risk identification and assessment are two important steps in project risk management. In this research, the Fuzzy DEMATEL and Fuzzy ANP as well as Artificial Neural Network methods are exploited for the analyzing and ranking of environmental risks of water supply projects. Risks are classified and then prioritized by the Fuzzy ANP and Artificial Neural Network methods into four main categories, including technical, organizational, project management, and external risks. The weight of each of the technical, organizational, project management, and external risks using the ANP method was obtained as 0.31, 0.26, 0.25, and 0.18, respectively, and the following weights were obtained using the Artificial Neural Network: 0.42, 0.27, 0.22, and 0.09, respectively. The results show that although the exact weights differed between methods, especially for technical and external risks, the overall prioritization of risk categories followed a broadly consistent pattern. In addition, the risk associated with the suppliers obtained the highest weight among the external risks; the risk associated with the high cost of materials gained the highest weight among the organizational risks; the risk associated with the requirements acquired the highest weight among the technical risks; and finally, the risk associated with communication achieved the highest weight among the project management risks. The method presented in this research helps project managers and decision-makers in the water supply industry to make a better and more realistic risk assessment by considering the mutual effects of project risks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Supply System Reliability, Resilience, Safety and Risk Modelling & Assessment, 3rd Edition)

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13 pages, 839 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Iterative Solver of the Wet-Bed Step Riemann Problem

by Renyi Xu and Alistair G. L. Borthwick

Water 2025, 17(13), 1994; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17131994 - 2 Jul 2025

This study presents a one-dimensional solver of the shallow water equations designed for the wet-bed step Riemann problem. Nonlinear mass and momentum equations incorporating shock and rarefaction waves in a straight one-dimensional channel are expressed as a pair of equations that depend solely [...] Read more.

This study presents a one-dimensional solver of the shallow water equations designed for the wet-bed step Riemann problem. Nonlinear mass and momentum equations incorporating shock and rarefaction waves in a straight one-dimensional channel are expressed as a pair of equations that depend solely on local depth values either side of the step. These unified equations are uniquely designed for the four conditions involving shock and rarefaction waves that can occur in the Step Riemann Problem. The Levenberg–Marquardt method is used to solve these simplified nonlinear equations. Four verification tests are considered for shallow free surface flow in a wet-bed channel with a step. These cases involve two rarefactions, opposing shock-like hydraulic bores, and a rarefaction and shock-like bore. The numerical predictions are in close agreement with existing theory, demonstrating that the method is very effective at solving the wet-bed step Riemann problem. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydraulics and Hydrodynamics in Fluid Machinery, 2nd Edition)

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22 pages, 3653 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Perceptions and Adaptive Behaviors of Farmers

by Jiaojiao Wang, Ya Luo, Yajie Ruan, Shengtian Yang, Guotao Dong, Ruifeng Li, Wenhao Yin and Xiaoke Liang

Water 2025, 17(13), 1993; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17131993 - 2 Jul 2025

A clear understanding of drought perceptions and adaptation behaviors adopted by farmers is an important way to cope with climate change and achieve sustainable agricultural development. Karst is a type of landscape where the dissolving of the bedrock has created sinkholes, sinking streams, [...] Read more.

A clear understanding of drought perceptions and adaptation behaviors adopted by farmers is an important way to cope with climate change and achieve sustainable agricultural development. Karst is a type of landscape where the dissolving of the bedrock has created sinkholes, sinking streams, caves, springs, and other characteristic features. The study took the Huajiang karst dry-hot river valley area located in the southwestern part of Guizhou as the study area and used questionnaire survey method, the index of perception and the diversity index of adaptation strategy to explore the risk perception, adaptation perception and adaptation behavior of farmers to non-climatic droughts in the subtropical karst dry-hot valleys. A total of 530 questionnaires were distributed and 520 were returned. The results show that (1) the farmers’ risk perception of drought is stronger than adaptation perception, which shows that although farmers are well aware of the possible risks posed by drought, their subjective initiative and motivation to adapt to drought are weaker; (2) in the face of drought, farmers prioritize selected non-farm measures for adaptation, followed by crop management and finally water resource management; and (3) compared to farmers in arid and semi-arid regions, those in karst hot-dry river valleys exhibit distinct adaptive behaviors in response to drought, particularly in water resource management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Interrelationship Between Climate Change, Human Activities and Hydrological Processes (3rd Edition))

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18 pages, 8570 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring Urban Water Management Solutions for Mitigating Water Cycle Issues: Application to Bogotá, Colombia

by Yoonkyung Park, Inkyeong Sim, Changyeon Won, Jongpyo Park and Reeho Kim

Water 2025, 17(13), 1992; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17131992 - 2 Jul 2025

Urbanization and climate change have disrupted natural water circulation by increasing impervious surfaces and altering rainfall patterns, leading to reduced groundwater infiltration, deteriorating water quality, and heightened flood risks. This study investigates the application of Low Impact Development (LID) and flood control facilities [...] Read more.

Urbanization and climate change have disrupted natural water circulation by increasing impervious surfaces and altering rainfall patterns, leading to reduced groundwater infiltration, deteriorating water quality, and heightened flood risks. This study investigates the application of Low Impact Development (LID) and flood control facilities as structural measures to address these challenges in the upper watershed of the Fucha River in Bogotá, Colombia. The methodology involved analyzing watershed characteristics, defining circulation problems, setting hydrological targets, selecting facility types and locations, evaluating performance, and conducting an economic analysis. To manage the target rainfall of

26.5

m

m

under normal conditions, LID facilities such as vegetated swales, rain gardens, infiltration channels, and porous pavements were applied, managing approximately 2362

m^{3}

of runoff. For flood control, five detention tanks were proposed, resulting in a 31.8% reduction in peak flow and a 7.3% decrease in total runoff volume. The flooded area downstream was reduced by

46.8

h a

, and the benefit–cost ratio was calculated at 1.02. These findings confirm that strategic application of LID and detention facilities can contribute to effective urban water cycle management and disaster risk reduction. While the current disaster management approach in Bogotá primarily focuses on post-event response, this study highlights the necessity of transitioning toward proactive disaster preparedness. In particular, the introduction and expansion of flood forecasting and warning systems are recommended as non-structural measures, especially in urban areas with complex infrastructure and climate-sensitive hydrology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Water Management: Challenges and Prospects)

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28 pages, 41871 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Episodic vs. Sea Level Rise Coastal Flooding Scenarios at the Urban Scale: Extreme Event Analysis and Adaptation Strategies

by Sebastian Spadotto, Saverio Fracaros, Annelore Bezzi and Giorgio Fontolan

Water 2025, 17(13), 1991; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17131991 - 2 Jul 2025

Sea level rise (SLR) and increased urbanisation of coastal areas have exacerbated coastal flood threats, making them even more severe in important cultural sites. In this context, the role of hard coastal defences such as promenades and embankments needs to be carefully assessed. [...] Read more.

Sea level rise (SLR) and increased urbanisation of coastal areas have exacerbated coastal flood threats, making them even more severe in important cultural sites. In this context, the role of hard coastal defences such as promenades and embankments needs to be carefully assessed. Here, a thorough investigation is conducted in Grado, one of the most significant coastal and historical towns in the Friuli Venezia Giulia region of Italy. Grado is located on a barrier island of the homonymous lagoon, the northernmost of the Adriatic Sea, and is prone to flooding from both the sea and the back lagoon. The mean and maximum sea levels from the historical dataset of Venice (1950–2023) were analysed using the Gumbel-type distribution, allowing for the identification of annual extremes based on their respective return periods (RPs). Grado and Trieste sea level datasets (1991–2023) were used to calibrate the statistics of the extremes and to calculate the local component (subsidence) of relative SLR. The research examined the occurrence of annual exceedance of the minimum threshold water level of 110 cm, indicating Grado’s initial notable marine ingression. The study includes a detailed analysis of flood impacts on the urban fabric, categorised into sectors based on the promenade elevation on the lagoon side, the most vulnerable to flooding. Inundated areas were obtained using a high-resolution digital terrain model through a GIS-based technique, assessing both the magnitude and exposure of the urban environment to flood risk due to storm surges, also considering relative SLR projections for 2050 and 2100. Currently, approximately 42% of Grado’s inhabited area is inundated with a sea level threshold value of 151 cm, which occurs during surge episodes with a 30-year RP. By 2100, with an optimistic forecast (SSP1-2.6) of local SLR of around +53 cm, the same threshold will be met with a surge of ca. 100 cm, which occurs once a year. Thus, extreme levels linked with more catastrophic events with current secular RPs will be achieved with a multi-year frequency, inundating more than 60% of the urbanized area. Grado, like Venice, exemplifies trends that may impact other coastal regions and historically significant towns of national importance. As a result, the generated simulations, as well as detailed analyses of urban sectors where coastal flooding may occur, are critical for medium- to long-term urban planning aimed at adopting proper adaptation measures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Flood Frequency Analysis and Risk Assessment)

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19 pages, 1369 KiB

Open AccessReview

Current State of Arsenic, Fluoride, and Nitrate Groundwater Contamination in Northern Mexico: Distribution, Health Impacts, and Emerging Research

by Mélida Gutiérrez, María Teresa Alarcón-Herrera, María Socorro Espino-Valdés and Luz Idalia Valenzuela-García

Water 2025, 17(13), 1990; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17131990 - 2 Jul 2025

The plateaus of north-central Mexico have an arid to semiarid climate and groundwater naturally contaminated with inorganic arsenic (iAs) and fluoride (F). Like other arid and semiarid areas, this region faces great challenges to maintain a safe supply of drinking and irrigation water. [...] Read more.

The plateaus of north-central Mexico have an arid to semiarid climate and groundwater naturally contaminated with inorganic arsenic (iAs) and fluoride (F). Like other arid and semiarid areas, this region faces great challenges to maintain a safe supply of drinking and irrigation water. Studies conducted in the past few decades on various locations within this region have reported groundwater iAs, F, and nitrate-nitrogen (NO₃-N), and either their source, enrichment processes, health risks, and/or potential water treatments. The relevant findings are analyzed and condensed here to provide an overview of the groundwater situation of the region. Studies identify volcanic rocks (rhyolite) and their weathering products (clays) as the main sources of iAs and F and report that these solutes become enriched through evaporation and residence time. In contrast, NO₃-N is reported as anthropogenic, with the highest concentrations found in large urban centers and in agricultural and livestock farm areas. Health risks are high since the hot spots of contamination correspond to populated areas. Health problems associated with NO₃-N in drinking water may be underestimated. Removal technologies of the contaminants remain at the laboratory or pilot stage, except for the reverse osmosis filtration units fitted to selected wells within the state of Chihuahua. A recent approach to supplying drinking water free of iAs and F to two urban centers consisted of switching from groundwater to surface water. Incipient research currently focuses on the potential repercussions of irrigating crops with As-rich water. The groundwater predicaments concerning contamination, public health impact, and irrigation suitability depicted here can be applied to semiarid areas worldwide. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality Studies: Assessing the Presence of Nutrients and Pollutants)

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21 pages, 5234 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Variations in Water Table Orientation on LNAPL Migration Processes

by Huiming Yu, Qingqing Guan, Xianju Zhao, Hongguang He, Li Chen and Yuan Gao

Water 2025, 17(13), 1989; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17131989 - 2 Jul 2025

Light non-aqueous phase liquids (LNAPLs) are significant groundwater contaminants whose migration in aquifers is governed by dynamic groundwater level fluctuations. This study establishes a multiphase flow coupling model integrating hydraulic, gaseous, LNAPL, and chemical fields, utilizing continuous multi-point water level data to quantify [...] Read more.

Light non-aqueous phase liquids (LNAPLs) are significant groundwater contaminants whose migration in aquifers is governed by dynamic groundwater level fluctuations. This study establishes a multiphase flow coupling model integrating hydraulic, gaseous, LNAPL, and chemical fields, utilizing continuous multi-point water level data to quantify water table orientation variations. Key findings demonstrate that (1) LNAPL migration exhibits directional dependence on water table orientation: flatter gradients reduce migration rates, while steeper gradients accelerate movement. (2) Saturation dynamics correlate with gradient steepness, showing minimal variation under flattened gradients but significant fluctuations under steeper conditions. (3) Water table reorientation induces vertical mixing, homogenizing temperature distributions near the interface. (4) Dissolution and volatilization rates of LNAPLs decrease progressively with water table fluctuations. These results elucidate the critical role of hydraulic gradient dynamics in controlling multiphase transport mechanisms at LNAPL-contaminated sites, providing insights for predictive modeling and remediation strategies. Full article

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27 pages, 8871 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Towards a Realistic Data-Driven Leak Localization in Water Distribution Networks

by Arvin Ajoodani, Sara Nazif and Pouria Ramazi

Water 2025, 17(13), 1988; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17131988 - 2 Jul 2025

Current data-driven methods for leak localization (LL) in water distribution networks (WDNs) rely on two unrealistic assumptions: they frame LL as a node-classification task, requiring leak examples for every node—which rarely exists in practice—and they validate models using random data splits, ignoring the [...] Read more.

Current data-driven methods for leak localization (LL) in water distribution networks (WDNs) rely on two unrealistic assumptions: they frame LL as a node-classification task, requiring leak examples for every node—which rarely exists in practice—and they validate models using random data splits, ignoring the temporal structure inherent in hydraulic time-series data. To address these limitations, we propose a temporal, regression-based alternative that directly predicts the leak coordinates, training exclusively on past observations and evaluating performance strictly on future data. By comparing five machine-learning techniques—k-nearest neighbors, linear regression, decision trees, support vector machines, and multilayer perceptrons—in both classification and regression modes, and using both random and temporal splits, we show that conventional evaluation methods can misleadingly inflate model accuracy by up to four-fold. Our results highlight the importance and suitability of a temporally consistent, regression-based approach for realistic and reliable leak localization in WDNs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Management of Water Distribution Systems)

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