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Sustainable Management, Conservation, and Restoration of the Amazon River Delta and Amazon-Influenced Guianas Coast: A Review -
Impacts of Water Resources Allocation on Water Environmental Capacity under Climate Change -
Vegetation and Residence Time Interact to Influence Metabolism and Net Nutrient Uptake in Experimental Agricultural Drainage Systems -
Hydrological Processes in Eucalypt and Pine Forested Headwater Catchments within Mediterranean Region
Journal Description
Water
Water
is a peer-reviewed, open access journal on water science and technology, including the ecology and management of water resources, and is published semimonthly online by MDPI. Water collaborates with the International Conference on Flood Management (ICFM) and Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI). In addition, the American Institute of Hydrology (AIH), and The Polish Limnological Society (PLS) are affiliated with Water and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, GEOBASE, GeoRef, AGRICOLA, AGRIS, CAPlus / SciFinder, Inspec, and many other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Water Resources) / CiteScore - Q1 (Geography, Planning and Development)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision provided to authors approximately 16.9 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 3.5 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2021).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
- Companion journals for Water include: GeoHazards and Hydrobiology.
Impact Factor:
3.103 (2020)
;
5-Year Impact Factor:
3.229 (2020)
Latest Articles
Soil Hydrology Process and Rational Use of Soil Water in Desert Regions
Water 2021, 13(17), 2377; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13172377 (registering DOI) - 29 Aug 2021
Abstract
There is a balanced plant–water relationship in the original vegetation in the desert area. With the increase in the population and social development of the desert area, people need the goods and services of the forest vegetation ecosystem. To meet the growing demand
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There is a balanced plant–water relationship in the original vegetation in the desert area. With the increase in the population and social development of the desert area, people need the goods and services of the forest vegetation ecosystem. To meet the growing demand for plant community goods and services, more original vegetation has been changed into non-native vegetation, such as in the Loess Plateau in China. However, with the plant growth, sometime soil drying happens and becomes gradually serious with time in most desert regions. Serious drying of soil eventually results in soil quality degradation, vegetation decline, and crop failure, which influence the produce and supply of forest vegetation goods and services in the market in dry years or waste of soil water resources in wet years, which wastes precious natural resources. In order to use soil water rationally, soil water must be used in a sustainable way and the plant–water relationship has to be regulated for the Soil Water carrying capacity for vegetation in the key period of plant–water relationship regulation to carry out a sustainable use of natural resources, high-quality sustainable development of forest and grass, and high-quality production of fruit and crops in desert regions.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Water)
Open AccessArticle
High-Resolution Spatiotemporal Trend Analysis of Precipitation Using Satellite-Based Products over the United Arab Emirates
by
, , , and
Water 2021, 13(17), 2376; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13172376 (registering DOI) - 29 Aug 2021
Abstract
Current water demands are adequately satisfied in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) with the available water resources. However, the changing climate and growing water demand pose a great challenge for water resources managers in the country. Hence, there is a great need for
[...] Read more.
Current water demands are adequately satisfied in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) with the available water resources. However, the changing climate and growing water demand pose a great challenge for water resources managers in the country. Hence, there is a great need for management strategies and policies to use the most accurate information regarding water availability. Understanding the frequency and the short- and long-term trends of the precipitation by employing high-resolution data in both the spatial and temporal domains can provide invaluable information. This study examines the long-term precipitation trends over the UAE using 17 years of data from three of the most highly cited satellite-based precipitation products and rain gauge data observed at 18 stations. The UAE received, on average, 42, 51, and 120 wet hours in a year in the 21st century as recorded by CMORPH, PERSIANN, and IMERG, respectively. The results show that the areal average annual precipitation of the UAE is significantly lower in the early 21st century than that of the late 20th century, even though it shows an increasing trend by all the products. The Mann–Kendall trend test showed positive trends in six rain gauge stations and negative trends in two stations out of 18 stations, all of which are located in the wetter eastern part of the UAE. Results indicate that satellite products have great potential for improving the spatial aspects of rainfall frequency analysis and can complement rain gauge data to develop rainfall intensity–duration–frequency curves in a very dry region, where the installation of dense rain gauge networks is not feasible.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrometeorological Observation and Modeling)
Open AccessArticle
An Analytical Solution for Investigating the Characteristics of Tidal Wave and Surge Propagation Associated with Non-Tropical and Tropical Cyclones in the Humen Estuary, Pearl River
Water 2021, 13(17), 2375; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13172375 (registering DOI) - 29 Aug 2021
Abstract
The Humen Estuary, one of the largest outlets of the Pearl River, is a long and wide tidal channel with a considerable tidal flow every year. Storm surges, always superposing spring tide, travel from the estuary and endanger the safety of people living
[...] Read more.
The Humen Estuary, one of the largest outlets of the Pearl River, is a long and wide tidal channel with a considerable tidal flow every year. Storm surges, always superposing spring tide, travel from the estuary and endanger the safety of people living around the river. However, little research has quantified the relationship between the hydraulic characteristics and the geometry features in this estuary. In this regard, an analytical model, combined with a numerical model, is applied to investigate the characteristics of tidal waves and surge propagations in the estuary. Given the geometric, topographic, and tidal parameters at the mouth of the estuary, the tidal damping and wave celerity can be computed. The numerical results were used to calibrate and verify the analytical model. The results indicate that the analytical model can describe the astronomical tidal dynamics very well in correspondence with the numerical results. However, the analytical model cannot predict the tide well when a tropical cyclone-induced surge is superimposed on the astronomical tide. The reason is that this model does not take the wind stress and the pressure depression into account. After reducing Manning’s coefficient, we found that the analytical results could be close to the numerical results. Finally, we analyzed the characteristics of the tidal wave in the Humen Estuary using the analytical solution and its parameters.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Model Projections: Sea-Level Rise and Impacts on Coastal Defense Decision-Making)
Open AccessArticle
The Significance of Hydrogen and Oxygen Stable Isotopes in the Water Vapor Source in Dingxi Area
by
, , , , , , and
Water 2021, 13(17), 2374; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13172374 (registering DOI) - 29 Aug 2021
Abstract
Deuterium excess and stable oxygen isotopes in precipitation have been widely applied to trace the source of water vapor. In this study, hydrogen and oxygen isotope analyses of samples were collected on seven sampling stations in Dingxi area from April 2019 to April
[...] Read more.
Deuterium excess and stable oxygen isotopes in precipitation have been widely applied to trace the source of water vapor. In this study, hydrogen and oxygen isotope analyses of samples were collected on seven sampling stations in Dingxi area from April 2019 to April 2020. The seasonal variation of hydrogen and oxygen stable isotopes as well as the d-excess indicate that the source of water vapor in Dingxi area is mostly from a single source. However, there are different sources of water vapor in the summer. Meanwhile, water vapor sources were analyzed using the Lagrange algorithm, indicating two different principal water vapor sources for precipitation in the area: some locally recycled water vapor in summer and autumn, and most water vapor from the westerly belt. Further studies using the PSCF and CWT analysis methods show that the locally recycled water vapor contributes more to its precipitation in the northwest of Dingxi area.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Hydrology)
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Open AccessArticle
A Study on the Flux of Total Suspended Matter in the Padma River in Bangladesh Based on Remote-Sensing Data
Water 2021, 13(17), 2373; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13172373 (registering DOI) - 29 Aug 2021
Abstract
The flux of total suspended matter (TSM), FTSM, output by several large rivers in Asia, has been in decline due to human activities. As the estuary of the Ganges–Brahmaputra River, the Padma River transports a significant amount of suspended matter (SM)
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The flux of total suspended matter (TSM), FTSM, output by several large rivers in Asia, has been in decline due to human activities. As the estuary of the Ganges–Brahmaputra River, the Padma River transports a significant amount of suspended matter (SM) to the Bay of Bengal each year. In this study, the TSM concentration (CTSM) and FTSM in the Padma River in the period 1991–2019 were calculated based on the data acquired by the Landsat series satellites and an empirical TSM algorithm model for large, high-turbidity rivers. The results showed that the maximum and minimum FTSM values (318 ± 62 and 73 ± 29 mt, respectively) in the Padma River occurred in 2011 and 2015, respectively. On average, FTSM in the Padma River decreased at an annual rate of 3.3 mt (p < 0.01). The impact of human activities on CTSM contributed more significantly to the changes in FTSM (R = 0.76) than natural factors (R = 0.44). Due to a lack of water conservancy facilities within the river basin, changes in the water and soil retention capacity due to the changes in vegetation coverage were an important human factor (R = −0.79).
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Oceans and Coastal Zones)
Open AccessArticle
Hydrological Responses of Watershed to Historical and Future Land Use Land Cover Change Dynamics of Nashe Watershed, Ethiopia
Water 2021, 13(17), 2372; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13172372 (registering DOI) - 29 Aug 2021
Abstract
Land use land cover (LULC) change is the crucial driving force that affects the hydrological processes of a watershed. The changes of LULC have an important influence and are the main factor for monitoring the water balances. The assessment of LULC change is
[...] Read more.
Land use land cover (LULC) change is the crucial driving force that affects the hydrological processes of a watershed. The changes of LULC have an important influence and are the main factor for monitoring the water balances. The assessment of LULC change is indispensable for sustainable development of land and water resources. Understanding the watershed responses to environmental changes and impacts of LULC classes on hydrological components is vigorous for planning water resources, land resource utilization, and hydrological balance sustaining. In this study, LULC effects on hydrological parameters of the Nashe watershed, Blue Nile River Basin are investigated. For this, historical and future LULC change scenarios in the Nashe watershed are implemented into a calibrated Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model. Five LULC scenarios have been developed that represent baseline, current, and future periods corresponding to the map of 1990, 2005, 2019, 2035, and 2050. The predicted increase of agricultural and urban land by decreasing mainly forest land will lead till 2035 to an increase of 2.33% in surface runoff and a decline in ground water flow, lateral flow, and evapotranspiration. Between 2035 and 2050, a gradual increase of grass land and range land could mitigate the undesired tendency. The applied combination of LULC prognosis with process-based hydrologic modeling provide valuable data about the current and future understanding of variation in hydrological parameters and assist concerned bodies to improve land and water management in formulating approaches to minimize the conceivable increment of surface runoff.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrological Processes in Small Catchments—Runoff and Sediment Yield in Changing Environment)
Open AccessArticle
Ecological Influences of Water-Level Fluctuation on Food Web Network
Water 2021, 13(17), 2371; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13172371 (registering DOI) - 29 Aug 2021
Abstract
Seasonal water-level fluctuations may lead to changes in river nutrients, which causes corresponding changes in the trophic structure of an aquatic food web, and finally affects the whole ecosystem. In this study, we focused on the Ganjing River, a tributary of the Yangtze
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Seasonal water-level fluctuations may lead to changes in river nutrients, which causes corresponding changes in the trophic structure of an aquatic food web, and finally affects the whole ecosystem. In this study, we focused on the Ganjing River, a tributary of the Yangtze River, China. Common organisms were sampled and measured for carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes in the wet and dry seasons, respectively, and the relative contributions of different food sources were combined to construct the food web, so as to realize the influence of water-level fluctuation on aquatic food web. Our results showed that basal food sources for fish consumers were endogenous carbon sources such as POM, zooplankton and zoobenthos in the dry season, while high water level exposed fish to more diverse and abundant food sources, and the contribution proportions of exogenous carbon sources (e.g., terrestrial detritus) to consumers increased in the wet season. In parallel, the abundance and species diversity of fish were higher than those in the dry season. Most fish species had relatively higher trophic levels in the dry season compared to the wet season, because the increase in fish densities led to an increase in piscivores fish. The food web was composed of planktonic and benthic food chains in the dry season. During the wet season, the planktonic food chain was dominant, followed by the herbivorous food chain, and the benthic food chain was relatively less important. Therefore, water-level fluctuation may alter the trophic linkages within fish communities, which contributed to a more complex and interconnected food web. Moreover, as we expect, the stable isotope analysis food web was broadly in line with the gut content analysis food web.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Biodiversity and Functionality of Aquatic Ecosystems)
Open AccessArticle
Spontaneous Imbibition in a Fractal Network Model with Different Wettabilities
by
, , , , , , , and
Water 2021, 13(17), 2370; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13172370 (registering DOI) - 29 Aug 2021
Abstract
In this work, we derived a mathematical model for spontaneous imbibition in a Y-shaped branching network model. The classic Lucas–Washburn equation was used for modeling the imbibition process occurring in the Y-shape model. Then, a mathematical model for the Newtonian fluid’s imbibition was
[...] Read more.
In this work, we derived a mathematical model for spontaneous imbibition in a Y-shaped branching network model. The classic Lucas–Washburn equation was used for modeling the imbibition process occurring in the Y-shape model. Then, a mathematical model for the Newtonian fluid’s imbibition was derived to reveal the relationship between dimensionless imbibition time and length ratio, radius ratio, and wetting strength. The dimensionless imbibition time in the model was adopted to compare with that of the capillary bundle model. Different length and radius ratios were considered in the adjacent two-stage channels, and different wettabilities were considered in the different branches. The optimal radius ratio, length ratio, and wetting strength were calculated under the condition of the shortest imbibition time. In addition, the shortest dimensionless imbibition time of the three-stage Y-shaped branching network model was calculated when the wettability changes randomly. The results indicate that the imbibition time changed mostly when the wettability of the second branch changed, and the second branch was the most sensitive to wettability in the model.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Advances in Modeling for Water Imbibition in Porous Media: A Multiscale Perspective)
Open AccessArticle
Environmental Drivers of Macroinvertebrate Assemblages within Peat Pool Habitat-Implication for Bioassessment
Water 2021, 13(17), 2369; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13172369 (registering DOI) - 28 Aug 2021
Abstract
Macroinvertebrates are a crucial component of wetland trophic webs. Many taxa are used as bioindicators of ecosystem change. However, relationships between macroinvertebrates and the environmental factors in peat pool habitats are still not well recognized. The present study shows the results of long-term
[...] Read more.
Macroinvertebrates are a crucial component of wetland trophic webs. Many taxa are used as bioindicators of ecosystem change. However, relationships between macroinvertebrates and the environmental factors in peat pool habitats are still not well recognized. The present study shows the results of long-term studies during the years 2010–2020, on the responses of macroinvertebrates to the changes of environmental variables in a peat pool habitat formed as a result of peat exploitation on continental raised bog. The RDA analysis significantly explained 87.3% of the variance in macroinvertebrates abundances. Assemblages of most taxa (Anisoptera, Chironomidae, Ceratopogonidae, Coleoptera, Hydrachnidia and Tabanidae) showed a strong relationship with N-NO3 and pH. Moreover, densities of Chaoboridae larvae were explained by chlorophyll-a concentrations. Dominant taxon, Chironomidae, constituted from 48% to 87% of total faunal density. The highest proportions showed larvae of Psectrocladius sp. (gr. sordidellus) and Chironomus sp. Changes in the composition of macroinvertebrate fauna over a period of 10 years reflect the eutrophication process of the peat pool and deterioration of habitat conditions.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Abundance and Trophic Relationships in Freshwater Ecosystems)
Open AccessArticle
Degradation of Tryptophan by UV Irradiation: Influencing Parameters and Mechanisms
Water 2021, 13(17), 2368; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13172368 (registering DOI) - 28 Aug 2021
Abstract
The chlorination of dissolved amino acids can generate disinfection by-products (DBPs). To prevent the formation of DBPs, we examined the UV-induced degradation of tryptophan (Trp). In order to further understand the impact of UV disinfection on Trp, the effects of initial concentrations of
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The chlorination of dissolved amino acids can generate disinfection by-products (DBPs). To prevent the formation of DBPs, we examined the UV-induced degradation of tryptophan (Trp). In order to further understand the impact of UV disinfection on Trp, the effects of initial concentrations of Trp, pH, temperature, concentrations of NO3−, HCO3− and Cl− on Trp removal were investigated, and a degradation mechanism was also proposed. The results demonstrated that degradation fitted a pseudo first-order reaction kinetic model. The degradation of Trp was mainly caused by direct UV degradation. The apparent rate constant kobs decreased with the increase in initial Trp concentration and increased with increases in pH and temperature. The thermal degradation activation energy was 19.65 kJ/mol. Anions in water also had a significant influence on the degradation of Trp. HCO3− and NO3− contributed to the kobs of Trp, but Cl− inhibited the degradation rate. By electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, ·OH was proven to be formed during the degradation of Trp by UV. Based on the intermediate products of C11H15NO3, C10H15N and C9H13N detected by LC-MS-MS, the degradation pathway of Trp was speculated.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Wastewater Treatment and Reuse)
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Open AccessArticle
Optimisation of Various Physicochemical Variables Affecting Molybdenum Bioremediation Using Antarctic Bacterium, Arthrobacter sp. Strain AQ5-05
by
, , , , , and
Water 2021, 13(17), 2367; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13172367 (registering DOI) - 28 Aug 2021
Abstract
The versatility of a rare metal, molybdenum (Mo) in many industrial applications is one of the reasons why Mo is currently one of the growing environmental pollutants worldwide. Traces of inorganic contaminants, including Mo, have been discovered in Antarctica and are compromising the
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The versatility of a rare metal, molybdenum (Mo) in many industrial applications is one of the reasons why Mo is currently one of the growing environmental pollutants worldwide. Traces of inorganic contaminants, including Mo, have been discovered in Antarctica and are compromising the ecosystem. Bioremediation utilising bacteria to transform pollutants into a less toxic form is one of the approaches for solving Mo pollution. Mo reduction is a process of transforming sodium molybdate with an oxidation state of 6+ to Mo-blue, an inert version of the compound. Although there are a few Mo-reducing microbes that have been identified worldwide, only two studies were reported on the microbial reduction of Mo in Antarctica. Therefore, this study was done to assess the ability of Antarctic bacterium, Arthrobacter sp. strain AQ5-05, in reducing Mo. Optimisation of Mo reduction in Mo-supplemented media was carried out using one-factor-at-a-time (OFAT) and response surface methodology (RSM) approaches. Through OFAT, Mo was reduced optimally with substrate concentration of sucrose, ammonium sulphate, and molybdate at 1 g/L, 0.2 g/L, and 10 mM, respectively. The pH and salinity of the media were the best at 7.0 and 0.5 g/L, respectively, while the optimal temperature was at 10 °C. Further optimisation using RSM showed greater Mo-blue production in comparison to OFAT. The strain was able to stand high concentration of Mo and low temperature conditions, thus showing its potential in reducing Mo in Antarctica by employing conditions optimised by RSM.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecological Risk Assessment of Heavy Metal Pollution)
Open AccessFeature PaperReview
Tools for Edible Cities: A Review of Tools for Planning and Assessing Edible Nature-Based Solutions
by
, , , , , , , and
Water 2021, 13(17), 2366; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13172366 (registering DOI) - 28 Aug 2021
Abstract
In the last five years, European research and innovation programmes have prioritised the development of online catalogues and tools (handbooks, models, etc.) to facilitate the implementation and monitoring of Nature-Based Solutions (NBS). However, only a few catalogues and toolkits within European programmes are
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In the last five years, European research and innovation programmes have prioritised the development of online catalogues and tools (handbooks, models, etc.) to facilitate the implementation and monitoring of Nature-Based Solutions (NBS). However, only a few catalogues and toolkits within European programmes are directly related to mainstreaming of NBS for food production (i.e., edible NBS). Therefore, the main aim of this paper is to present existing NBS tools through the eyes of productive urban landscapes. We reviewed 32 projects related to NBS and 50 tools were identified and characterised. Then, the six tools already available and provided indicators were further analysed in terms of their format and knowledge domains. Our main conclusion demonstrates that there is a lack of tools capable of supporting users for planning and implementing edible NBS; calculating the food potential of a city and/or of individual edible NBS, including the needed resources for implementation and operation (water, nutrients, energy); and assessing their urban design value, environmental and socio-economic impacts. Moreover, when they do exist, there is a resistance to share the models and equations behind the tools to allow other projects to reuse or validate them, a fact which is contrary to the open science principles upheld by many public research agencies.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water and Circular Cities)
Open AccessReview
Review of Techniques to Reduce and Prevent Carbonate Scale. Prospecting in Water Treatment by Magnetism and Electromagnetism
Water 2021, 13(17), 2365; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13172365 (registering DOI) - 28 Aug 2021
Abstract
Carbonate scale is one of the main problems in hot water systems, and therefore, interest in this subject has grown since 2000s. Water treatments, based on magnetic and electromagnetic (EM) techniques to prevent scale, are being commercialized, but their effectiveness is not clearly
[...] Read more.
Carbonate scale is one of the main problems in hot water systems, and therefore, interest in this subject has grown since 2000s. Water treatments, based on magnetic and electromagnetic (EM) techniques to prevent scale, are being commercialized, but their effectiveness is not clearly demonstrated because it depends on temperature, pressure, dissolved CO2, pH, field intensity, water flow, etc. In this paper, a review of these techniques, together with other classical techniques, such as chemical softening, the use of inhibitors, ion exchange, electrochemical and membrane treatments is presented. The latter alter the composition of the water and generate hazardous waste for health and the environment, unlike magnetic and EM treatments, which are considered non-invasive techniques. Different hypotheses are used to explain the effect of these treatments, such as the formation of aragonite instead of calcite or crystal nuclei formation within the fluid. Analysis of salts formed with SEM, X-ray diffraction, or colorimetric tests seem to support the efficiency of these treatments since study in the fluid is not easy. Dissolution of the formed scale or its prevention endorse the commercialization of these techniques, but their effectiveness must be verified in each installation.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Wastewater Treatment and Reuse)
Open AccessArticle
Science and Binational Cooperation: Bidirectionality in the Transboundary Aquifer Assessment Program in the Arizona-Sonora Border Region
by
, , , and
Water 2021, 13(17), 2364; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13172364 (registering DOI) - 28 Aug 2021
Abstract
Sharing scientific data and information is often cited within academic literature as an initial step of water cooperation, but the transfer of research findings into policy and practice is often slow and inconsistent. Certain attributes—including salience, credibility, and legitimacy of scientific information; iterative
[...] Read more.
Sharing scientific data and information is often cited within academic literature as an initial step of water cooperation, but the transfer of research findings into policy and practice is often slow and inconsistent. Certain attributes—including salience, credibility, and legitimacy of scientific information; iterative information production; and sociocultural factors—may influence how easily scientific information can be used in management and policymaking. However, transnationality usually complicates these sorts of interactions. Accordingly, we argue that the production of scientific information and transboundary water cooperation build upon each other bidirectionally, each informing and enhancing the other. We employ a case-study analysis of the Transboundary Aquifer Assessment Program (TAAP), a binational collaborative effort for scientific assessment of aquifers shared between Mexico and the United States. Here, information sharing was possible only by first completing a formal, jointly agreed-upon cooperative framework in 2009. This framework resulted in a collaborative science production process, suggesting that the relationship between sharing data and information and transboundary groundwater governance is iterative and self-reinforcing. In keeping with the publication of the TAAP’s first binational scientific report in 2016, we demonstrate the bidirectional relationship between science production and water governance in the TAAP and explore remaining challenges after scientific assessment.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Transboundary Aquifer Assessment)
Open AccessArticle
Controls of Organic Carbon and Nutrient Export from Unmanaged and Managed Boreal Forested Catchments
by
, , , , , , , , and
Water 2021, 13(17), 2363; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13172363 (registering DOI) - 28 Aug 2021
Abstract
Understanding the anthropogenic and natural factors that affect runoff water quality is essential for proper planning of water protection and forest management, particularly in the changing climate. We measured water quality and runoff from 10 unmanaged and 20 managed forested headwater catchments (7–12,149
[...] Read more.
Understanding the anthropogenic and natural factors that affect runoff water quality is essential for proper planning of water protection and forest management, particularly in the changing climate. We measured water quality and runoff from 10 unmanaged and 20 managed forested headwater catchments (7–12,149 ha) located in Finland. We used linear mixed effect models to test whether the differences in total organic carbon (TOC), total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) export and concentrations observed can be explained by catchment characteristics, land use, forest management, soil fertility, tree volume and hydrometeorological variables. Results show that much of variation in TOC, TN and TP concentrations and export was explained by drainage, temperature sum, peatland percentage and the proportion of arable area in the catchment. These models explained 45–63% of variation in concentrations and exports. Mean annual TOC export in unmanaged catchments was 56.4 ± 9.6 kg ha−1 a−1, while in managed it was 79.3 ± 3.3 kg ha−1 a−1. Same values for TN export were 1.43 ± 0.2 kg ha−1 a−1 and 2.31 ± 0.2 kg ha−1 a−1, while TP export was 0.053 ± 0.009 kg ha−1 a−1 and 0.095 ± 0.008 kg ha−1 a−1 for unmanaged and managed, respectively. Corresponding values for concentrations were: TOC 17.7 ± 2.1 mg L−1 and 28.7 ± 1.6 mg L−1, for TN 420 ± 45 µg L−1 and 825 ± 51 µg L−1 and TP 15.3 ± 2.3 µg L−1 and 35.6 ± 3.3 µg L−1. Overall concentrations and exports were significantly higher in managed than in unmanaged catchments. Long term temperature sum had an increasing effect on all concentrations and exports, indicating that climate warming may set new challenges to controlling nutrient loads from catchment areas.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Ecohydrology)
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Open AccessArticle
Seismic Performance Assessment of Water Distribution Systems Based on Multi-Indexed Nodal Importance
Water 2021, 13(17), 2362; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13172362 (registering DOI) - 28 Aug 2021
Abstract
Seismic performance assessment of water distribution systems (WDSs) based on hydraulic simulation is essential for resilience evaluation of WDSs under earthquake disasters. The assessment is mainly to determine how the water supply will be affected due to pipe breaks caused by the earthquake,
[...] Read more.
Seismic performance assessment of water distribution systems (WDSs) based on hydraulic simulation is essential for resilience evaluation of WDSs under earthquake disasters. The assessment is mainly to determine how the water supply will be affected due to pipe breaks caused by the earthquake, with the water supply loss estimated based on the loss of supply to nodes. Existing research works usually use the average or overall performance metric of all user nodes as the system performance indicator without considering user nodes' individual performance and criticality. This paper proposes a framework to evaluate the importance of user nodes considering post-earthquake rescue service and the seismic performance of individual user nodes in the WDS, which supports the pipeline renovation plan to improve the performance of critical user nodes. The importance of user nodes is evaluated by a multi-index model, including the indices for daily service, post-earthquake rescue service, and network topology influence of user nodes. These indices evaluate the importance of user nodes in terms of their roles for daily water service, emergent rescue service, and water transmission to other nodes, respectively. Fragility model of pipelines evaluates the earthquake-induced damages of the WDS, and the seismic performance assessment of the WDS system is performed by the hydraulic model of the WDS with pipeline damages. The proposed framework is implemented in an actual WDS; the results show that the importance classification to user nodes by multi-index approach can identify the critical user nodes for post-earthquake rescue service, which traditional methods may ignore. The importance classification and seismic performance of individual user nodes make it feasible to check the seismic performance of critical user nodes and formulate a targeted pipeline renovation plan to focus limited resources on critical user nodes.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Resilience of Interdependent Urban Water Systems)
Open AccessArticle
Evaluation of Pollutant Removal Efficiency by Small-Scale Nature-Based Solutions Focusing on Bio-Retention Cells, Vegetative Swale and Porous Pavement
Water 2021, 13(17), 2361; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13172361 (registering DOI) - 28 Aug 2021
Abstract
Rapid urbanization, aging infrastructure, and changes in rainfall patterns linked to climate change have brought considerable challenges to water managers around the world. Impacts from such drivers are likely to increase even further unless the appropriate actions are put in place. Floods, landslides,
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Rapid urbanization, aging infrastructure, and changes in rainfall patterns linked to climate change have brought considerable challenges to water managers around the world. Impacts from such drivers are likely to increase even further unless the appropriate actions are put in place. Floods, landslides, droughts and water pollution are just a few examples of such impacts and their corresponding consequences are in many cases devastating. At the same time, it has become a well-accepted fact that traditional (i.e., grey infrastructure) measures are no longer effective in responding to such challenges. Nature-based solutions (NBS) have emerged as a new response towards hydro-meteorological risk reduction and the results obtained to date are encouraging. However, their application has been mainly in the area of water quantity management with few studies that report on their efficiency to deal with water quality aspects. These solutions are based on replicating natural phenomena and processes to solve such problems. The present paper addresses the question of three NBS systems, namely, bio-retention cells, vegetative swales and porous pavements, for the removal of total suspended solids (TSS), total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) when applied in different configurations (single or networked). The results presented in this paper aim to advance the understanding of their performances during varying rainfall patterns and configurations and their potential application conditions.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrologic and Water Quality Performance of Stormwater Best Management Practices)
Open AccessArticle
Forecasting of Debris Flow Using Machine Learning-Based Adjusted Rainfall Information and RAMMS Model
Water 2021, 13(17), 2360; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13172360 (registering DOI) - 27 Aug 2021
Abstract
In recent years, climate change and extreme weather conditions have caused natural disasters of various sizes and forms across the world. The increase in the resulting flood damage and secondary damage has also inflicted massive social and economic harm. Korea is no exception,
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In recent years, climate change and extreme weather conditions have caused natural disasters of various sizes and forms across the world. The increase in the resulting flood damage and secondary damage has also inflicted massive social and economic harm. Korea is no exception, where debris flows created by typhoons and localized heavy rainfalls have caused human injuries and property damage in the Wumyeonsan Mountain in Seoul, Majeoksan Mountain in Chuncheon, Sinnam in Samcheok, Gokseong in Jeollanam-do, and Anseong in Gyeonggi-do. Disaster damage needs to be minimized by preparing for typhoons and heavy rainfalls that cause debris flow. To that end, we need accurate prediction of rainfall and flooding through simulations based on debris flow models. Most of the previous literature analyzed debris flows using rainfall events in the past before debris flow occurrence, rather than analyzing and predicting based on rainfall predictions. The main body of this study assesses the applicability of hydrological quantitative precipitation forecast (HQPF) generated through a machine learning method named the Random Forest (RF) method to debris flow analysis models. To that end, this study uses scatter plots to compare and analyze the precipitation observation data collected from the areas hit by debris flows in the past, and the quantitative precipitation forecast (QPF) and HQPF data from the Korea Meteorological Administration (KMA). Based on the verified HQPF data, runoff was calculated using the spatial runoff assessment tool (S-RAT) model, and the soil amount was calculated to simulate the debris flow damage with a two-dimensional rapid mass movements (RAMMS) model. The debris flow simulation based on the said data indicated varying degrees of flow depth, impact force, speed, and damage area depending on the precipitation. The correction of the HQPF was verified by measuring and comparing the spatial location accuracy by analyzing the Lee Sallee shape index (LSSI) of the damage areas. The findings confirm the correction of the HQPF based on machine learning and indicate its applicability to debris flow models.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Debris Flows Research: Hazard and Risk Assessments)
Open AccessArticle
The Phenomenological Theory of Turbulence and the Scour Evolution Downstream of Grade-Control Structures under Steady Discharges
Water 2021, 13(17), 2359; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13172359 (registering DOI) - 27 Aug 2021
Abstract
A more complete understanding of scour mechanisms for flows downstream of grade-control structures, including their temporal evolution, has the potential to lead to improved predicting tools for design. To date, design equations have been mostly derived empirically, i.e., by parametric modelling (at
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A more complete understanding of scour mechanisms for flows downstream of grade-control structures, including their temporal evolution, has the potential to lead to improved predicting tools for design. To date, design equations have been mostly derived empirically, i.e., by parametric modelling (at generally-small scales) corresponding to specific structure configurations, and for limited ranges of hydraulic conditions. Although these approaches allowed different authors to propose many empirical and/or semi-empirical equations, they lack generality and may lead to incorrect estimations when applied outside their ranges of validity. First-principles-based methods with solid calibration and validation procedures can overcome these issues. Following recent theoretical advancements presented elsewhere by the last three authors, in this work we analyze and test the predictive capability of a scour evolution model based on the phenomenological theory of turbulence (PTT) by using a large dataset pertaining to different grade-control structures. Although the PTT model was developed (and validated) for scour evolution caused by oblique and vertical plunging jets, we show that its basic assumptions are still valid for the addressed low-head structures, encompassing rock structures, stepped gabion weirs, rock and bed sills, and others. Furthermore, we also provide interesting insights on scour evolution by contrasting the predicting capability of our model against experimental data by different authors for specific structures. Results of the comparison conclusively show that the PTT model has a general validity and represents a trustable tool to estimate scour evolution regardless of the structure configuration and hydraulic conditions.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Erosion Processes in Hydraulic Engineering)
Open AccessArticle
Future Changes in Precipitation Extremes over East Africa Based on CMIP6 Models
Water 2021, 13(17), 2358; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13172358 (registering DOI) - 27 Aug 2021
Abstract
This paper presents an analysis of projected precipitation extremes over the East African region. The study employs six indices defined by the Expert Team on Climate Change Detection Indices to evaluate extreme precipitation. Observed datasets and Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase six (CMIP6)
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This paper presents an analysis of projected precipitation extremes over the East African region. The study employs six indices defined by the Expert Team on Climate Change Detection Indices to evaluate extreme precipitation. Observed datasets and Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase six (CMIP6) simulations are employed to assess the changes during the two main rainfall seasons: March to May (MAM) and October to December (OND). The results show an increase in consecutive dry days (CDD) and decrease in consecutive wet days (CWD) towards the end of the 21st century (2081–2100) relative to the baseline period (1995–2014) in both seasons. Moreover, simple daily intensity (SDII), very wet days (R95 p), very heavy precipitation >20 mm (R20 mm), and total wet-day precipitation (PRCPTOT) demonstrate significant changes during OND compared to the MAM season. The spatial variation for extreme incidences shows likely intensification over Uganda and most parts of Kenya, while a reduction is observed over the Tanzania region. The increase in projected extremes may pose a serious threat to the sustainability of societal infrastructure and ecosystem wellbeing. The results from these analyses present an opportunity to understand the emergence of extreme events and the capability of model outputs from CMIP6 in estimating the projected changes. More studies are recommended to examine the underlying physical features modulating the occurrence of extreme incidences projected for relevant policies.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrological Extremes under Climate Change and Socioeconomic Developments in Developing Countries)
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