You seem to have javascript disabled. Please note that many of the page functionalities won't work as expected without javascript enabled.

Search for Articles:

Title / Keyword

Author / Affiliation / Email

Journal

Article Type

Advanced Search

Section

Special Issue

Volume

Issue

Number

Page

Logical OperatorOperator

Search Text

Search Type

Industrial Wastewater Treatment by Coagulation–Flocculation and Advanced Oxidation Processes: A Review
Microvascular Responses in the Dermis and Muscles After Balneotherapy: Results from a Prospective Pilot Histological Study
Simultaneous Heterotrophic Nitrification and Aerobic Denitrification of High C/N Wastewater in a Sequencing Batch Reactor
Urban Geochemical Contamination of Highland Peat Wetlands of Very High Ecological and First Nations Cultural Value
Numerical Study of Turbulent Open-Channel Flow Through Submerged Rigid Vegetation

Journal Description

Water

Water is a peer-reviewed, open access journal on water science and technology, including the ecology and management of water resources, and is published semimonthly online by MDPI. Water collaborates with the Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI). In addition, the American Institute of Hydrology (AIH), The Polish Limnological Society (PLS) and Japanese Society of Physical Hydrology (JSPH) are affiliated with Water and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, GEOBASE, GeoRef, PubAg, AGRIS, CAPlus / SciFinder, Inspec, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Water Resources) / CiteScore - Q1 (Aquatic Science)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 19.1 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.6 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Companion journals for Water include: GeoHazards.
Journal Clusters of Water Resources: Water, Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, Hydrology, Resources, Oceans, Limnological Review, Coasts.

Impact Factor: 3.0 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 3.3 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2073-4441

Latest Articles

17 pages, 962 KB

Open AccessArticle

SARS-CoV-2, Noroviruses, Adenoviruses, and Antibiotic-Resistant Coliforms Within Chilean Rural Wastewater Treatment Plants

by Angela Plaza-Garrido, Cristina A. Villamar-Ayala, Manuel Ampuero and Aldo Gaggero

Water 2025, 17(22), 3197; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17223197 (registering DOI) - 8 Nov 2025

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) is an effective tool for assessing health risks in rural areas with limited access to health care. Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) allow for the monitoring of pathogenic microorganisms, which is key to detecting viral integrity and bacterial viability to assess [...] Read more.

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) is an effective tool for assessing health risks in rural areas with limited access to health care. Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) allow for the monitoring of pathogenic microorganisms, which is key to detecting viral integrity and bacterial viability to assess health risks. This study evaluated five rural WWTPs in Chile during 2022 in two seasons (autumn–winter and spring–summer). SARS-CoV-2, norovirus GI/GII, and HAdV-F40/41 was analyzed, along with antibiotic-resistant coliforms. Influent and effluent samples were used, with viral integrity analysis by propidium monoazide and culture methods to assess bacterial resistance. Despite the low number of clinical cases, SARS-CoV-2 was detected in all influent samples. Intact viral particles of NoV GI (78%), NoV GII (72%), and HAdV-F40/41 (65%) were found. This suggests that they may still be infectious. Viral removal ranged from 74% to 100%, although intact HAdV was detected in effluent (6.2%). Coliforms resistant to various antibiotics were detected and partially removed (22–100%). Removal efficiency depends on the type of treatment and the season of the year. WWTPs act as temporary reservoirs of infectious agents. This study reinforces the usefulness of WBE in rural contexts and WWTPs as barriers or not to these contaminants to the environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Wastewater Treatment and Reuse)

19 pages, 836 KB

Open AccessReview

Advances in Microbial Bioremediation for Effective Wastewater Treatment

by Tarun Mishra, Pankaj Bharat Tiwari, Swarna Kanchan and Minu Kesheri

Water 2025, 17(22), 3196; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17223196 (registering DOI) - 8 Nov 2025

Recent advances in microbial bioremediation have significantly enhanced the effectiveness of wastewater management, offering innovative and sustainable alternatives to conventional treatment methods. Microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and algae, are increasingly recognized for their remarkable ability to degrade, transform, and remove a broad spectrum [...] Read more.

Recent advances in microbial bioremediation have significantly enhanced the effectiveness of wastewater management, offering innovative and sustainable alternatives to conventional treatment methods. Microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and algae, are increasingly recognized for their remarkable ability to degrade, transform, and remove a broad spectrum of pollutants such as organic compounds, heavy metals, and emerging contaminants from wastewater. Cutting-edge research has led to the development of novel approaches such as bioaugmentation, bio-stimulation, and the use of genetically engineered microbes, which have improved the efficiency, specificity, and resilience of bioremediation processes. The application of microbial consortia and advanced bioreactor designs further optimizes pollutant removal under diverse environmental conditions. Additionally, omics technologies and systems biology are providing deeper insights into microbial community dynamics and metabolic pathways, enabling the fine-tuning of bioremediation strategies for targeted outcomes. Despite ongoing challenges related to scalability, environmental variability, and regulatory considerations, these advances are paving the way for more robust, cost-effective, and eco-friendly wastewater management solutions. Overall, the integration of innovative microbial technologies holds great promise for addressing global water quality challenges and promoting environmental sustainability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Environmental Microbiology in Water Treatment)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 13236 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Object-Level Flood Impact Considering Pump Station Operations in Coastal Urban Areas

by Yan Xiong, Jinghua Jiang, Yunsong Cui, Xiaodong Ming, Xiaolei Ji, Hairong Zhang and Mingzhou Jing

Water 2025, 17(22), 3195; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17223195 (registering DOI) - 8 Nov 2025

Flooding increasingly threatens lives and property under climate change and rapid urbanization. Mobile pumping stations offer a practical and cost-effective solution for flood protection in low-lying, densely populated coastal areas. However, previous studies typically used simplified methods to represent pump stations, and few [...] Read more.

Flooding increasingly threatens lives and property under climate change and rapid urbanization. Mobile pumping stations offer a practical and cost-effective solution for flood protection in low-lying, densely populated coastal areas. However, previous studies typically used simplified methods to represent pump stations, and few have integrated pump operations into high-resolution simulations of multi-source urban flooding. This study develops a High-Performance Integrated Hydrodynamic Modeling System–Pumping System Model–Flood Impact Assessment Model (i.e., HiPIMS-PSM-FIM) framework to evaluate object-level exposure and quantify the benefits of pumping. In this framework, the PSM is two-way coupled with HiPIMS using a Source Coupling Method to simulate spatiotemporal flood dynamics. The results are then integrated with exposure data through FIM to identify risks and support mitigation strategies. The framework is applied to a multi-source flood in Yuhuan City, Zhejiang Province, China, at 3 m resolution, and shows strong agreement with field surveys. Vulnerability analysis shows Children > Sedans > Adults > SUVs, with educational facilities facing highest risks. Sensitivity results to pumping rates demonstrate that mobile pumping can reduce the affected population by 82% and decrease impacts on key facilities and roads, demonstrating the framework’s robustness and practical value for enhancing urban flood resilience. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Numerical Modeling in Estuarine and Coastal Dynamics)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 1895 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Polyculture Patterns in Ponds on Water Quality and Intestinal Flora of Penaeus monodon

by Xueliang Sun, Zhenzhen Fang, Hong Yu, Honghao Zhao, Yuanyuan Yang, Falin Zhou, Yongjun Guo, Chengxun Chen, Lin Zhao and Yunchen Tian

Water 2025, 17(22), 3194; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17223194 (registering DOI) - 8 Nov 2025

Shrimp aquaculture ponds are dynamic ecosystems in which water quality and microbial interactions play a central role in animal health. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between the intestinal microbiota of Penaeus monodon and the microbial community of polyculture pond water. Shrimp [...] Read more.

Shrimp aquaculture ponds are dynamic ecosystems in which water quality and microbial interactions play a central role in animal health. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between the intestinal microbiota of Penaeus monodon and the microbial community of polyculture pond water. Shrimp and water samples were collected from polyculture ponds at four time points during the rearing period. Water-quality parameters were measured, and microbial community structures were analyzed by high-throughput 16S rRNA sequencing. Statistical analyses, including one-way ANOVA, revealed significant variations in water-quality parameters and microbial diversity among sampling stages (p < 0.05). Water quality indicators showed progressive changes from July to September, with pH decreasing from 8.1 to 7.5 but remaining within a suitable range. Nitrogen compounds, including ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate, increased steadily, with total nitrogen rising from 0.71 to 1.86 mg·L⁻¹, while phosphate and total phosphorus reached 0.31 and 0.36 mg·L⁻¹, respectively, exceeding thresholds commonly associated with algal bloom risk. Microbial community profiling using Illumina MiSeq sequencing revealed 166 OTUs shared between shrimp intestine and pond water, while both habitats contained more than 350 OTUs overall. Alpha diversity analysis showed higher microbial richness in water than in shrimp intestines, dominated by unclassified taxa, whereas shrimp guts were enriched in specific genera such as Vibrio. Cluster analysis indicated partial overlap but distinct grouping of gut and water microbiota, with the PMB intestinal community diverging most strongly. These findings highlight a close link between water quality and microbial composition, emphasizing the importance of pond management for maintaining ecological stability and shrimp health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aquaculture Tailwater Treatment: Theoretical Foundations and Applied Techniques)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 3277 KB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing River Waste Detection with Deep Learning and Preprocessing: A Case Study in the Urban Canals of the Chao Phraya River

by Maiyatat Nunkhaw, Detchphol Chitwatkulsiri and Hitoshi Miyamoto

Water 2025, 17(22), 3193; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17223193 (registering DOI) - 8 Nov 2025

Plastic waste in river systems represents a major pathway of marine pollution, with rivers estimated to contribute up to 80% of the plastic entering the ocean. This study introduces a deep learning framework with preprocessing for automated detection and tracking of floating plastic [...] Read more.

Plastic waste in river systems represents a major pathway of marine pollution, with rivers estimated to contribute up to 80% of the plastic entering the ocean. This study introduces a deep learning framework with preprocessing for automated detection and tracking of floating plastic waste (macroplastics) in the urban canals of the Chao Phraya River, Thailand. Unlike previous approaches that rely on site-specific retraining or model modification, our method employs a YOLO-based detection model integrated with DeepSORT (Deep Simple Online and Realtime Tracking). The model, initially trained on laboratory flume images, was adapted to real river conditions through a three-step preprocessing pipeline comprising skew correction, background removal, and object region extraction. Experiments on 2000 canal images demonstrated that preprocessing improved the mean Average Precision (mAP) from 0.74 to 0.85, with notable gains for categories such as foam and paper. Testing with a more advanced YOLO architecture further enhanced accuracy, indicating that preprocessing and model upgrades are complementary. These findings suggest that reliable detection and quantification of floating waste can be achieved without retraining. The proposed framework provides a scalable and cost-effective solution for monitoring in data-limited regions, contributing to efforts to mitigate riverine and marine plastic pollution. Future work will address the remaining limitations, as detection performance is still influenced by strong reflections, motion blur, and occlusion, occasionally resulting in missed detections. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence in Water Science: Opportunities, Prospects, and Concerns)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 2345 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing the Demographical Dynamics of Evacuations During Flood Hazard Using Mobile Spatial Statistics

by Masakazu Hashimoto, Shintaro Sata, Erick Mas, Shinichi Egawa, Daisuke Sano and Shunichi Koshimura

Water 2025, 17(22), 3192; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17223192 (registering DOI) - 8 Nov 2025

This study proposes a method to quantitatively assess evacuation demographics during regional floods using Mobile Spatial Statistics (MSSs). It focuses on Koriyama City, affected by Typhoon Hagibis in 2019, as well as Yamagata City, which experienced torrential rains in July 2020, when COVID-19 [...] Read more.

This study proposes a method to quantitatively assess evacuation demographics during regional floods using Mobile Spatial Statistics (MSSs). It focuses on Koriyama City, affected by Typhoon Hagibis in 2019, as well as Yamagata City, which experienced torrential rains in July 2020, when COVID-19 infection risks in evacuation shelters could have affected evacuation behavior. Both events led to flooding. MSS provided by NTT Docomo were used to explore the dynamics of the population. Evacuees’ demographics, according to the changes in river levels, were presented by gender and age group. Our results show differences in evacuation dynamics between the two regions: In Koriyama, younger people were more likely to evacuate faster; in Yamagata, older people moved faster than other age groups. At the evacuation peak, the average relative evacuation ratios were 2.2 times higher for women in their 20s in Koriyama, and 2.5 times higher for women in their 30s in Yamagata. Gender differences indicate that women were more likely to evacuate than men. The effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on evacuation dynamics remains unclear; however, concerns about infection risk in shelters may have influenced people’s willingness to evacuate. MSSs provide a robust representation of evacuation dynamics in the local context and can help municipal governments develop more targeted evacuation policies, such as tailored warnings for specific age groups and enhanced support for older adults. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Flood Hazard and Risk Analysis: Theory, Methods, Numerical Models, Strategies, and Applications)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 4055 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing the Impact of Hydropower to Multipurpose Dam Reoperation on Downstream Hydrology and Water Quality

by Jeongin Yoon, Sooyeon Yi, Eunkyung Lee, Jungwon Ji, Seonmi Lee and Jaeeung Yi

Water 2025, 17(22), 3191; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17223191 - 7 Nov 2025

Dams play a vital role in hydropower generation and water management, yet growing environmental and societal demands increasingly require reoperation to balance multiple purposes. Despite this shift, few studies have quantitatively evaluated how converting an existing hydropower dam to multipurpose operation affects downstream [...] Read more.

Dams play a vital role in hydropower generation and water management, yet growing environmental and societal demands increasingly require reoperation to balance multiple purposes. Despite this shift, few studies have quantitatively evaluated how converting an existing hydropower dam to multipurpose operation affects downstream hydrology and water quality. This study examines the Hwacheon Dam in South Korea, which was converted to multipurpose use, to assess the effects of this operational change. The analysis focused on changes in the number and frequency of non-release days, downstream flow regime variation, and water quality responses evaluated using the national water quality standards and the real-time water quality index (RTWQI). After the transition, non-release days decreased sharply and the dam maintained continuous releases of 22.2 cubic meters per second (CMS), ensuring stable water supply and consistent downstream flow. Results show that flood, high, and normal flows decreased by 51.4% (from 1037.0 CMS to 503.5 CMS), 21.7% (from 54.4 CMS to 42.6 CMS), and 13.0% (from 23.9 CMS to 20.8 CMS), respectively. In contrast, the low flow increased by 7.4 times (from 2.4 CMS to 20.2 CMS) after the transition to multipurpose operation, while the drought flow increased from 0 CMS to 17.8 CMS. Water quality also improved across all downstream stations, with both national water quality standards and RTWQI scores indicating excellent and stable conditions. The multipurpose operation of the Hwacheon Dam stabilized hydrologic and water quality conditions, demonstrating the potential of dam reoperation for sustainable water and ecosystem management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir Control Operation and Water Resources Management, 2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 3890 KB

Open AccessReview

International Inland Waterways in Poland: Current State and Their Importance in EU Transport Policy

by Katarzyna Kubiak-Wójcicka and Valentina-Mariana Manoiu

Water 2025, 17(22), 3190; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17223190 - 7 Nov 2025

In recent years, the share of cargo transport in Poland’s water has been marginal. Through comprehensively reviewing 61 relevant studies in the field, supplemented by the investigation of several important databases, this paper estimates the historical and current state of inland navigation in [...] Read more.

In recent years, the share of cargo transport in Poland’s water has been marginal. Through comprehensively reviewing 61 relevant studies in the field, supplemented by the investigation of several important databases, this paper estimates the historical and current state of inland navigation in Poland, and at the same time, identifies the main threats to the future development of inland navigation. A detailed evaluation in regard to the degree of technical infrastructure use is presented for the Lower Vistula section in the years 1986–2020. In that period, there was a decrease in the number of cargo vessels passing through the only lock on the Lower Vistula, at Włocławek. This was due to a number of factors, including natural conditions resulting from climate change, which led to more frequent occurrences of low water levels. In recent years (2016–2020), there has been an increase in the number of tourist vessels passing through the lock in Włocławek and locks on Vistula branches. This boost is marked mainly in the summer (from June to August) at locks near city centers. Revitalizing inland navigation in Poland is possible through joint planning, implementation and financing of strategic infrastructure investments at the national, regional and local levels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Water Resources Management, Policy and Governance)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 10270 KB

Open AccessArticle

In Situ Tests on the Flexural Strength and Effective Elastic Modulus of Brackish Ice During Different Ice Periods

by Shaopeng Ji, Yubo Liu, Qingkai Wang, Peng Lu and Shunqi Yuan

Water 2025, 17(22), 3189; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17223189 - 7 Nov 2025

Global warming reduces the thickness and duration of seasonal lake ice, increasing the risk of ice cover failure. To investigate the bending behavior of ice cover, six groups of full-scale cantilever beam tests were conducted on a brackish water lake during the winter [...] Read more.

Global warming reduces the thickness and duration of seasonal lake ice, increasing the risk of ice cover failure. To investigate the bending behavior of ice cover, six groups of full-scale cantilever beam tests were conducted on a brackish water lake during the winter of 2023–2024, covering the following three ice periods: growth, stable, and melt. A total of 16 upward-loaded beams and 24 downward-loaded beams were tested. The results showed that the flexural strength of brackish ice was 374.21 ± 99.93 kPa, and the effective elastic modulus was 2.77 ± 0.93 GPa. The square root of bulk porosity, fitted with an exponential function, is the optimal predictor of flexural performance. Both flexural strength and effective elastic modulus systematically decreased with increasing porosity, and empirical regression formulas were established. On average, downward-loaded flexural strength was approximately 17.3% to 38.8% higher than upward-loaded strength, whereas elastic modulus showed no significant difference between the two loading directions. Flexural mechanical properties during the melt period reduced significantly, with a strength and modulus about 33.0% to 61.1% lower than those in the growth and stable periods. Comparisons with existing datasets demonstrate that the mechanical properties of brackish ice are lower than those of freshwater ice but higher than those of sea ice. This study provides new in situ data on the full-scale flexural mechanical properties of brackish ice and offers an important basis for assessing ice loads in lakes and estuarine environments under climate change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mathematical, Physical, Chemical, and Biological Methods for Ice and Water Problems)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 5462 KB

Open AccessArticle

Accumulation of Metal Contaminants in Rural Roof-Harvested Drinking Water Tanks in the Vicinity of a Metal Mine and Coal Mines

by Ian A. Wright, Anna Christie and Amy-Marie Gilpin

Water 2025, 17(22), 3188; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17223188 - 7 Nov 2025

The central objective of this study was to investigate metals accumulating in water at the bottom of roof-harvested drinking water tanks in rural inland NSW, located from 220 km west to 420 km northwest of Sydney. Two of three study areas contained mining [...] Read more.

The central objective of this study was to investigate metals accumulating in water at the bottom of roof-harvested drinking water tanks in rural inland NSW, located from 220 km west to 420 km northwest of Sydney. Two of three study areas contained mining operations. The Narrabri study area contained five coal mines, the Cadia study area a large gold and copper mine. A third region (Mendooran) had no mines. In this study, turbidity, pH, salinity and the total concentration of 15 metals were measured in water tank samples. Four metals (cadmium, lead, nickel and manganese) and arsenic from the bottom of tanks often exceeded Australian Drinking Water Guidelines. Of drinking water samples, 90% exceeded lead guidelines (<10 µg L⁻¹), with 54% exceeding by 100 times and 3.6% of samples exceeding lead guidelines by 1000 times. Contamination was generally greater in Cadia area tanks. It is likely that metal-enriched mine particulate emissions contribute through fallout onto roofs used to harvest drinking water. Improved environmental monitoring and governance to address metal-contaminated dust emissions from mines and improved information on fallout plumes are needed. Action is also needed to encourage regular cleaning of drinking water tanks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Urban Water Management)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

30 pages, 2656 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Political Ecology of Fisheries Regulation and Community Resilience in the Coastal Mississippi River Delta, Southeast Louisiana, U.S.A.

by Grant S. McCall

Water 2025, 17(22), 3187; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17223187 - 7 Nov 2025

The estuaries of the Mississippi River Delta are among the most productive coastal ecosystems in the world and have attracted human fishing communities for centuries. Beginning in the early 20th century, the oil and gas industry also emerged as a powerful economic force [...] Read more.

The estuaries of the Mississippi River Delta are among the most productive coastal ecosystems in the world and have attracted human fishing communities for centuries. Beginning in the early 20th century, the oil and gas industry also emerged as a powerful economic force in exploiting coastal fossil fuel deposits. This paper reviews the complex history of the oil and gas industry in Southeast Louisiana, including its relationships with political corruption, inequality, pollution, and environmental catastrophe; and also its role in supporting coastal fishing communities with complementary economic opportunities. In the 21st century, a series of disasters—above all Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and the B.P. oil spill in 2010—drew attention to the risks inherent to the region, as well as its crucial role in buffering the impacts of tropical storms for inland urban communities. This paper examines the evolution of fisheries regulations and their consequences of small-scale fishers, focusing especially on the banning of gill net use in 1990s. By combining historical information with ethnographic interviews and participant observation, this paper examines the complex political–economic forces involved in shifting regulatory frameworks and policies, and it shows their negative consequences for fishing communities facing an existentially threatening combination of coastal erosion, fisheries declines, and various macroeconomic headwinds. This paper argues that resilient coastal communities are crucial to combating the environmental problems facing coastal regions and that rethinking fisheries regulations may be a dynamic tool in enhancing community resilience. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coastal Ecology and Fisheries Management)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 1073 KB

Open AccessArticle

Developing Insights into Pretreatment Optimization: Effects of Eliminating Lime and Soda Ash in Groundwater RO Desalination

by Yazeed Algurainy, Ashraf Refaat and Omar Alrehaili

Water 2025, 17(22), 3186; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17223186 - 7 Nov 2025

In arid and water-stressed regions, groundwater desalination plants are critical for ensuring reliable potable water supplies, making improvements in their operational efficiency and cost effectiveness a priority for utilities. In many such facilities, lime and soda ash softening remain common pretreatment practices, which [...] Read more.

In arid and water-stressed regions, groundwater desalination plants are critical for ensuring reliable potable water supplies, making improvements in their operational efficiency and cost effectiveness a priority for utilities. In many such facilities, lime and soda ash softening remain common pretreatment practices, which increase chemical consumption and sludge generation, prompting the need for alternative low-chemical strategies. This study evaluates the technical, operational, and economic implications of transitioning a full-scale brackish groundwater desalination plant, from lime–soda ash softening (old plan) to a low-chemical pretreatment strategy based on antiscalant dosing (new plan) upstream of reverse osmosis (RO). Key parameters, including pH, total hardness, calcium and magnesium hardness, silica, iron, alkalinity, and total dissolved solids (TDS), were measured and compared at multiple locations within the treatment plant under both the old and new plans. Removing lime and soda ash caused higher levels of hardness, alkalinity, and silica in the water before RO treatment, increasing the risk of scaling. Operationally, the feed pressure increased from 11.43 ± 0.16 bar (old plan) to a peak of 25.50 ± 0.10 bar in the new plan, accompanied by a decline in water production. Chemical cleaning effectively restored performance, reducing feed pressure to 13.13 ± 0.05 bar, confirming that fouling and scaling were the primary, reversible causes. Despite these challenges, the plant consistently produced water that complied with Saudi Standards for Unbottled Drinking Water (e.g., pH = 7.18 ± 0.09, TDS = 978.27 ± 9.26 mg/L). Economically, the new strategy reduced operating expenditure by approximately 54% (0.295 → 0.135 $/m³), largely due to substantial reductions in chemical and sludge handling costs, although these savings were partially offset by higher energy consumption and more frequent membrane maintenance. Overall, the findings emphasize the importance of systematic performance evaluation during operational transitions, providing guidance for utilities seeking to optimize pretreatment design while maintaining compliance, long-term membrane protection, and environmental sustainability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Hydrogeology)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 3299 KB

Open AccessArticle

Criticality Assessment of Pipes in Water Distribution Networks Based on the Minimum Pressure Criterion

by Daniele Puleo, Marco Sinagra, Calogero Picone and Tullio Tucciarelli

Water 2025, 17(22), 3185; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17223185 - 7 Nov 2025

A new criticality indicator for Water Distribution Networks (WDNs) is presented. The new indicator is based on the minimum pressure (MP) model, which relies on the assumption that air can enter the pipes, e.g., when failure occurs in water scarcity scenarios, and maintain [...] Read more.

A new criticality indicator for Water Distribution Networks (WDNs) is presented. The new indicator is based on the minimum pressure (MP) model, which relies on the assumption that air can enter the pipes, e.g., when failure occurs in water scarcity scenarios, and maintain a minimum pressure equal to zero in the whole network. The proposed indicator properly integrates topological features, provided by structural hole theory, with the hydraulic constraints provided by the WDN steady-state solution, with a particular focus on pipes where occurring free surface flow leads to a serious reduction in the quality of the network service. The new indicator leads to a new criterion for the prioritized maintenance of pipes in existing networks, as well as for the design and planning of new ones, which is different from the one derived from other popular indicators. Three real-life WDNs are selected as test cases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Urban Water Management)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 40968 KB

Open AccessArticle

Pressure Pulsation and Energy Dissipation Mechanism of a Pump-Turbine Considering Runner Blade Leading Edge Effect

by Bin Liu, Yongyao Luo, Jinhui Ouyang, Xupeng Chen, Shizhe Liu and Han Zhang

Water 2025, 17(22), 3184; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17223184 - 7 Nov 2025

Efficiency and stability significantly determine the operating quality of a pump-turbine, and the runner blade leading edge angle (BLEA) is a critical factor influencing these performance indicators. In this study, numerical simulations were conducted to investigate the pressure pulsation characteristics and energy dissipation [...] Read more.

Efficiency and stability significantly determine the operating quality of a pump-turbine, and the runner blade leading edge angle (BLEA) is a critical factor influencing these performance indicators. In this study, numerical simulations were conducted to investigate the pressure pulsation characteristics and energy dissipation mechanisms within a pump-turbine under three different runner blade leading edge angles (standard, +15°, and −15°). The findings indicate that the blade angle has little effect on efficiency, with the maximum relative difference of 0.5%. When compared to the original blade geometry, the variant whose blade inclines 15° toward the rotational direction in turbine mode demonstrates superior performance both in terms of efficiency and in reducing pressure pulsations, under both turbine and pump operational modes. Additionally, it was observed that energy dissipation locations vary notably depending on the flow direction: when operating as a turbine, prominent dissipation occurs within the runner region, while in pump mode, significant energy losses are primarily concentrated in the stay vanes and guide vanes. The insights presented in this work provide beneficial guidance for optimizing pump-turbine designs, enhancing efficiency and stability, and ultimately contributing to sustainable development in pumped-storage power plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Hydraulics and Hydrodynamics)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

28 pages, 2466 KB

Open AccessArticle

Insights from Hydro-Economic Modeling for Climate Resilience in the Nazas–Aguanaval Watershed in Mexico

by David-Eduardo Guevara-Polo, Carlos Patiño-Gomez, Josué Medellin-Azuara and Benito Corona-Vasquez

Water 2025, 17(21), 3183; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17213183 - 6 Nov 2025

Agriculture uses 80% of global water resources, driving several water management challenges across the world. These challenges require the exchange of effective practices. We found that California’s Tulare Lake Basin (TLB) and Mexico’s Nazas–Aguanaval watershed share key features, leading us to propose the [...] Read more.

Agriculture uses 80% of global water resources, driving several water management challenges across the world. These challenges require the exchange of effective practices. We found that California’s Tulare Lake Basin (TLB) and Mexico’s Nazas–Aguanaval watershed share key features, leading us to propose the TLB as a model of climate resilience. After contrasting the policies for TLB with those for Nazas–Aguanaval, we found that no constrained pricing policy proposal exists for the Nazas–Aguanaval watershed. We apply a hydro-economic model using Positive Mathematical Programming to support an incentive structure for reducing water use in agriculture while maximizing profits. The optimal crop policy could reduce water demand by 20%, with a trade-off of an 11% reduction in profits. This would save 185.4 hm³/year, which represents 90% of the volume required for an ongoing infrastructure project for urban water supply in the watershed. Additionally, implementing a price of 14 USD/dam³ could increase the irrigation district’s revenue, boosting farmers’ profits by up to 16% and district revenue by up to 134%. Our results demonstrate the benefits of applying Positive Mathematical Programming in a semiarid watershed to support water and agriculture policy. This research is a starting point for increasing the climate resilience of watersheds under water and financial stress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimization–Simulation Modeling of Sustainable Water Resource)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 15083 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Wetland Resolution on Hydraulic and Contaminant Transport Predictions

by Andrea Bottacin-Busolin, Eleonora Dallan, Gianfranco Santovito and Andrea Marion

Water 2025, 17(21), 3182; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17213182 - 6 Nov 2025

Accurate assessment of wetland hydraulic performance and solute treatment depends on the spatial resolution of bed topography and vegetation density. To evaluate this influence, synthetic shallow-water wetlands with spatially correlated random fields of bed elevation and vegetation density were used to examine how [...] Read more.

Accurate assessment of wetland hydraulic performance and solute treatment depends on the spatial resolution of bed topography and vegetation density. To evaluate this influence, synthetic shallow-water wetlands with spatially correlated random fields of bed elevation and vegetation density were used to examine how data resolution affects predictions of hydrodynamic residence time and treatment performance. Coarse-graining of input data produced modest median errors in nominal residence time, although variability across realizations increased with greater topographic heterogeneity. The variance of residence time was the most sensitive metric, showing a consistent tendency toward underestimation as grid size increased, with maximum median errors exceeding 10% and 35% for grid sizes equal to and twice the correlation length, respectively. In contrast, outlet concentration errors remained relatively small, typically below 5% even when grid size exceeded the correlation length of bed features, indicating a stronger dependence on nominal residence time than on variance. Within the range of vegetation stem density variability considered, heterogeneous vegetation patterns in a flat-bed wetland exerted comparatively little influence on residence time metrics and contaminant concentration at the outlet. The results provide insights into the reliability of wetland models under varying data resolutions and identify conditions under which coarse-graining is acceptable, offering guidance for field measurement strategies and numerical modeling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Hydraulics and Hydrodynamics)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 3351 KB

Open AccessArticle

Borehole Resistivity Imaging Method for the Disaster Evolution Process of Tunnel Seepage Instability-Induced Water Inrush

by Dongjie Li, Zhanxiang Li, Yanbin Xue, Zhi-Qiang Li, Lei Han and Yi Wang

Water 2025, 17(21), 3181; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17213181 - 6 Nov 2025

Water inrush disasters pose a serious threat during tunnel construction. Accurately evaluating their evolution process is essential for timely prevention and risk mitigation. Given the staged nature of seepage-instability-induced inrushes and the sensitivity of borehole resistivity imaging to water-bearing anomalies, this study explores [...] Read more.

Water inrush disasters pose a serious threat during tunnel construction. Accurately evaluating their evolution process is essential for timely prevention and risk mitigation. Given the staged nature of seepage-instability-induced inrushes and the sensitivity of borehole resistivity imaging to water-bearing anomalies, this study explores the use of borehole resistivity methods to monitor the evolution of such events. A four-stage geoelectrical evolution model is developed based on the characteristics of inclined fault-related water inrushes. A time-lapse evaluation method combining least squares inversion and resistivity ratio analysis is proposed to assess the inrush process. Numerical simulations show that this method achieves a localization error below 2 m for inclined water-conducting channels. Across the four stages, the resistivity ratio of the channel ranges from 0.65 to 1.40, capturing the three-dimensional expansion of the inrush pathway. These findings confirm that borehole resistivity imaging effectively characterizes the evolution of water inrush disasters and supports early warning and mitigation strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evaluation and Monitoring of Hydrogeological Hazards in Underground Engineering)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 6692 KB

Open AccessArticle

Internal Flow Characteristics and Modal Analysis of an Ultra-Low Specific Speed Pump as Turbine

by Wang Zheng, Yingxiao Shi, Bochen Wan, Yueyang Wang and Jianping Yuan

Water 2025, 17(21), 3180; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17213180 - 6 Nov 2025

With the growing global demand for renewable energy, the pump as turbine (PAT) exhibits significant potential in the micro-hydropower sector. To reveal its internal unsteady flow characteristics and energy loss mechanisms, this study analyzes the internal flow field of an ultra-low specific speed [...] Read more.

With the growing global demand for renewable energy, the pump as turbine (PAT) exhibits significant potential in the micro-hydropower sector. To reveal its internal unsteady flow characteristics and energy loss mechanisms, this study analyzes the internal flow field of an ultra-low specific speed pump as turbine (USSPAT) by employing a combined approach of entropy generation theory and dynamic mode decomposition (DMD). The results indicate that the outlet pressure pulsation characteristics are highly dependent on the flow rate. Under low flow rate conditions, pulsations are dominated by low-frequency vortex bands induced by rotor-stator interaction (RSI), whereas at high flow rates, the blade passing frequency (BPF) becomes the absolute dominant frequency. Energy losses within the PAT are primarily composed of turbulent and wall dissipation, concentrated in the impeller and volute, particularly at the impeller inlet, outlet, and near the volute tongue. DMD reveals that the flow field is governed by a series of stable modes with near-zero growth rates, whose frequencies are the shaft frequency (25 Hz) and its harmonics (50 Hz, 75 Hz, 100 Hz). These low-frequency modes, driven by RSI, contain the majority of the fluctuation energy. Therefore, this study confirms that RSI between the impeller and the volute is the root cause of the dominant pressure pulsations and periodic energy losses. This provides crucial theoretical and data-driven guidance for the design optimization, efficient operation, and stability control of PAT. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Hydrodynamics for Pumping Systems: Modeling, Optimization, and Applications)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

4 pages, 138 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Advances in Watershed Hydro-Environment Simulation: From Process Mechanisms to Sustainable Management

by Chengpeng Lu and Peipeng Wu

Water 2025, 17(21), 3179; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17213179 - 6 Nov 2025

Groundwater (GW) and surface water (SW), two crucial factors in the water cycle, are often viewed in an artificially segmented way within scientific research, resulting in insufficient interactions between them, especially in areas in which frequent SW–GW interactions occur [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Surface Water and Groundwater Simulation in River Basin)

17 pages, 1572 KB

Open AccessArticle

Uncovering the Drivers of Urban Flood Reports: An Environmental and Socioeconomic Analysis Using 311 Data

by Natalie R. Lerma, Jonathan L. Goodall and Julianne D. Quinn

Water 2025, 17(21), 3178; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17213178 - 6 Nov 2025

Cities use 311 platforms for residents to report flooding, offering insight into flood-prone areas. The combined role of environmental and socioeconomic factors shaping these reports remains unexplored. This study analyzes five years of 311 flood reports in Norfolk, VA, using a logistic regression [...] Read more.

Cities use 311 platforms for residents to report flooding, offering insight into flood-prone areas. The combined role of environmental and socioeconomic factors shaping these reports remains unexplored. This study analyzes five years of 311 flood reports in Norfolk, VA, using a logistic regression model to identify salient predictors and assess their influence on flood reporting. The model includes environmental variables (precipitation, tide level, and topographic wetness index) and socioeconomic indicators (race, income, and education). The model performed well with an area under the receiver operator characteristic (ROC) curve (AUC) of 0.8. Permutation-based feature importance revealed precipitation as the most important predictor (AUC contribution: 0.27), followed by the percentage of Black residents (0.02); tide only contributed ~0.01. The influence of the percentage of Hispanics was also ~0.01. Increases in the percentage of Black residents were associated with increased reporting, while the converse was true for a higher percentage of Hispanic residents. Higher reporting in Norfolk from locations with more Black residents is distinct from findings in other cities, suggesting Norfolk may have more effective communication with these residents about 311 reporting. However, lower reporting in locations with more Hispanic residents suggests Norfolk could improve outreach to non-native speakers, for example, by adding Spanish language options to their 311 platform. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Risk Management, Sea Level Rise and Coastal Impacts)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

More Articles...

Submit to Water Review for Water

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

► Journal Browser

Highly Accessed Articles

View More...

Latest Books

More Books and Reprints...

E-Mail Alert

News

6 November 2025
MDPI Launches the Michele Parrinello Award for Pioneering Contributions in Computational Physical Science

1 October 2025
2024 MDPI Top 1000 Reviewers

4 November 2025
MDPI INSIGHTS: The CEO's Letter #28 - WSF11, Nobel Laureates, Proofig AI, Romania Summit, STM and FBF

More News & Announcements...

Topics

Propose a Topic

Topic in Applied Nano, Catalysts, Molecules, Nanomaterials, Water, Gels, Polymers

Water Purification and Catalytic Disintegration at the Nanoscale Topic Editors: Michael Arkas, Ioannis Pashalidis, Dimitrios A. Giannakoudakis, Ioannis P. Anastopoulos
Deadline: 30 November 2025

Topic in Energies, Membranes, Minerals, Water

Water-Energy Nexus in Mining Industry Topic Editors: Sergio Santoro, Francesco Chidichimo, Barbara Ruffino, Lourdes García-Rodríguez, Sunil Kumar Tripathy
Deadline: 31 December 2025

Topic in Agriculture, Climate, Sustainability, Water, Resources

Advances in Water and Soil Management Towards Climate Change Adaptation Topic Editors: Nektarios N. Kourgialas, Ioannis Anastopoulos, Alexandros I. Stefanakis
Deadline: 30 January 2026

Topic in Atmosphere, Coasts, Land, Sustainability, Water

Contemporary Waterfronts, What, Why and How? Topic Editors: Maria José Andrade Marques, Francesca Dal Cin, João Pedro Costa
Deadline: 28 February 2026

More Topics

Conferences

Propose a Conference Collaboration

11–14 November 2025 The 9th International Electronic Conference on Water Sciences

More Conferences...

Special Issues

Propose a Special Issue

Special Issue in Water

Digital Twin Technologies for Advanced Wastewater Treatment Operation and Control Guest Editors: Usman Safder, Qadeer Akbar Sial
Deadline: 10 November 2025

Special Issue in Water

Sustainable Remediation of Pesticides in Contaminated Water and Sites Guest Editors: Limin Ma, Deyang Kong
Deadline: 10 November 2025

Special Issue in Water

Artificial Intelligence for Sustainable Management of Groundwater Resources: New Developments, Challenges and Untapped Potentials Guest Editor: Claudia Cherubini
Deadline: 10 November 2025

Special Issue in Water

Water and Society: Challenges for Freshwater Quality Under a Climate Change Scenario Guest Editors: Daniela R. De Figueiredo, Patrícia S. M. Santos
Deadline: 12 November 2025

More Special Issues

Back to TopTop