Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S), which underpins the concept of low energy availability (LEA), can negatively affect athletes’ health and performance. This study aims to investigate the prevalence of RED-S among national athletes in...
Background/Objectives: The primary aim of this study was to characterize athletes approaching an outpatient interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary consultation structure for athletes with a suspected relative energy deficiency in sport (REDs) cross-...
Background: Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs) results from an imbalance between energy intake and expenditure, leading to low energy availability (LEA) and impairments of physiological and/or psychological functions in female and male athlet...
Energy imbalance exposes athletes to relative energy deficiency in sports (REDs) syndrome. Data on energy consumption, REDs, and bone mineral density (BMD) in adolescent acrobatic gymnasts, especially in males, are scarce. Our aim was to examine the...
Objective: The purpose of the study was to conduct a systematic review assessing the impact of pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions on Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs). The study design follows a systematic review and meta-...
The purpose of this narrative review is to identify health and performance consequences associated with LCA in female endurance athletes. The intake of carbohydrates (CHO) before, during, and after exercise has been demonstrated to support sport perf...
Background: Relative energy deficiency in sport (REDs) is a multi-system syndrome precipitated by sustained low energy availability (LEA) and known to perturb bone, muscle, adipose, endocrine, and fluid–electrolyte homeostasis in athletic popul...
To reduce the risk of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sports (RED-S), athletes and their support teams first require sufficient knowledge about the signs and symptoms of RED-S in athletic performance, recovery and overall health. Thus, our study aimed...
The female athlete triad (TRIAD) is a spectrum of disorders involving low energy availability (LEA), low bone mineral density, and menstrual disorders. It is increasingly common to use the term ‘relative energy deficiency in sport’ (RED),...
Background: Low Energy Availability (LEA), Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S) and the Female Athlete Triad (Triad) are generally related to the negative health effects of consuming insufficient energy to meet exercise energy expenditure and...
Longitudinal measurements of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs) among adolescent male elite athletes are lacking. We aimed to monitor REDs indicators and their possible impact on performance in elite high-school cross-country skiing and biath...
Female endurance athletes are considered a high-risk group for developing Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs). Due to the lack of educational and behavioral intervention studies, targeting and evaluating the effects of the practical daily mana...
Low energy availability (EA) underpins the female and male athlete triad and relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S). The condition arises when insufficient calories are consumed to support exercise energy expenditure, resulting in compromised ph...
Taekwondo is a high-intensity, intermittent, weight-category combat sport requiring repeated explosive actions, rapid decision-making, and effective recovery between bouts. These demands, combined with congested competition schedules and weight-manag...
Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S) can adversely affect athletes’ health and performance. Coaches in individual sports may help recognize warning signs and facilitate referrals, yet their awareness remains understudied, especially amon...
(1) Background: Low energy availability (LEA) has negative effects on performance, but mechanisms, timing, and other circumstances of these effects are not yet established. We aim to assess the performance-related effects of low energy availability i...
Background/Objectives: As an endurance multi-sport race, triathlon places significant energy demands on athletes during performance and training. Insufficient energy intake from food can lead to low energy availability (LEA) and Relative Energy Defic...
Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) is a condition that arises from persistent low energy availability (LEA), which affects the hypothalamic–pituitary axis and results in alterations of several hormones in both male and female athletes....
Aim: Increasing female participation in elite sports has highlighted the need to better understand how intensive training affects reproductive health and sexual function. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to assess the prevalence of libido lo...
Background and Objectives: Triathlon combines low-impact swimming and cycling with repetitive running and high energy demand. We evaluated triathlon-specific evidence on skeletal adaptation, low energy availability (LEA), Relative Energy Deficiency i...
In general, aerobic exercise has a positive impact on the vascular system, but the syndrome of relative energy-deficiency in sports (RED-S) makes this impact less clear for the athlete. The present cross-sectional controlled study aimed to investigat...
Background and Objectives: Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) has been introduced as a broad-spectrum syndrome leading to possible dysfunction in numerous physiological systems, driven primarily by low energy availability (EA). Research in f...
Adolescent athletes face unique nutritional challenges due to the simultaneous demands of growth, development, and athletic performance. This review synthesizes current evidence on energy and macronutrient requirements, hydration strategies, and key...
17 December 2025
Background: This study examined nutritional intake, body composition, menstrual health, and performance in elite female trail runners. Methods: A cross-sectional multivariate analysis was conducted on 35 athletes (14 eumenorrheic, 21 amenorrheic/olig...
Low energy availability (LEA) and nutrient intake have been well studied in able-bodied athletes, but there is a lack of research examining these issues amongst athletes with spinal cord injury (SCI). To date, there have been no studies that have exa...
This is the first study to examine the nutritional status of professional Slovenian football players. This study aimed to analyze the dietary intake of elite football players during their preparation phase of the season and to investigate whether the...
Low energy availability (LEA) has been associated with several physiological consequences, but its impact on sleep has not been sufficiently investigated, especially in the context of young athletes. This study examined the potential association betw...
(1) Background: Limited information exists on the prevalence of low energy availability (LEA) in collegiate team sports. The purpose of this study was to examine the prevalence of LEA in collegiate women soccer players. (2) Methods: Collegiate women...
Adolescent female gymnasts are a vulnerable population in terms of their diet, as their nutritional needs are higher due to their growth and high daily training demands. The Mediterranean diet (MD) is a well-known dietary pattern that is associated w...
As the diet, hormones, amenorrhea, and bone mineral density (BMD) of physique athletes (PA) and gym enthusiasts (GE) are little-explored, we studied those in 69 females (50 PA, 19 GE) and 20 males (11 PA, 9 GE). Energy availability (EA, kcal·k...
Climbing is an Olympic discipline in full development and multidisciplinary in nature, where the influences of body composition and nutritional status on performance have not yet been clarified despite the quest for a low weight in anti-gravity disci...
There is limited information regarding the dietary habits and energy availability (EA) of collegiate athletes. Therefore, the purpose of the present study is to assess the nutrient intakes, dietary habits, and prevalence of low EA (<30 kcals/kg FF...
Low energy availability in athletes is an insufficiently researched phenomenon due to lack of a universal methodology. Current objective and subjective methods for assessing low energy availability lack in accuracy, are not used with a standardized a...
Metabolic suppression due to relative energy deficiency can cause various physiological impairments in athletes. The purpose of this study was to evaluate within-day energy balance (WDEB) and the ratio between measured and predicted resting energy ex...
The aim of this study was to severely reduce energy availability (EA) in controlled conditions in trained male endurance athletes to observe any effects on health, performance, and psychological and energy markers. EA was reduced by 50% over 14 days...
Both dietary and exercise behaviors need to be considered when examining underlying causes of low energy availability (LEA). The study assessed if exercise dependence is independently related to the risk of LEA with consideration of disordered eating...
16 April 2022
This study aimed to determine the prevalence of female athlete triad risk factors among female international volunteers based on the development and income status of their country of service. A total of 2164 past volunteers completed a retrospective...
Coaching athletes is a complex and lengthy process. Recently, attention has been given to coaches over-controlling behavior toward the athletes’ personal lives and possible sex bias, but the impact of these behaviors on coaching success is uncl...
Low energy availability (LEA) is common among female student-athletes and contributes to reduced bone mineral density and hormonal dysfunction. However, limited research exists on student-athletes of color, making it difficult to generalize results a...
Low energy availability (LEA) is a complex health condition that most commonly affects female athletes. Research on LEA is weighted to quantitative approaches, and few studies have employed qualitative methods to understand the development of LEA. Cu...
Adolescent classical ballet dancers are nutritionally vulnerable, as they try to retain a lean body shape during a life period of high nutritional requirements due to rapid growth. Studies conducted on adult dancers have indicated a high risk for the...
Equestrian sport is under-researched within the sport science literature, creating a possible knowledge vacuum for athletes and support personnel wishing to train and perform in an evidence-based manner. This review aims to synthesise available evide...
Relative Energy Deficiency in sport is experiencing remarkable popularity of late, particularly among female athletes. This condition is underpinned by low energy availability, which is a byproduct of high energy expenditure, inadequate energy intake...
Low energy availability (LEA) is considered to be the underlying cause of a number of maladaptations in athletes, including impaired physiological function, low bone mineral density (BMD), and hormonal dysfunction. This is collectively referred to as...
Lowered energy availability (LEA) leading to the female athlete triad or Relative Energy Deficiency in sport are conditions that are becoming increasingly prevalent in athletes. The concept of low energy availability and the accompanied impaired phys...
Stress fractures (SFs) are a common overuse injury in athletes and represent the severe end of the bone stress injury (BSI) continuum. They result from repetitive mechanical loading exceeding the bone’s capacity for adaptation and are associate...
Introduction and Purpose: Athletes, especially in weight-dependent sports, are at higher risk of developing eating disorders (ED). Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S) results from a mismatch between energy intake (EI) and exercise, leading to...
Background/Objectives: Energy availability (EA), defined as the dietary energy remaining after exercise energy expenditure (EEE), is a central determinant of both health and performance in athletes. Chronic insufficient EA leads to low energy availab...
Background: Nutrition in sport is a priority; it is the basis for maintaining optimal health and a prerequisite for the high performance necessary for competitions. The aim of this study was to assess low energy availability and its possible conseque...
In sports nutrition, performance adaptation emerges from the coordinated molecular interaction between physical training and nutrient availability. This narrative review with conceptual synthesis advances Training–Fuel Coupling (TFC) as a syste...
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