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A special issue of Sports (ISSN 2075-4663).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 October 2026 | Viewed by 30247

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Brianna L. Larsen

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Guest Editor

1. School of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Southern Queensland, Ipswich, QLD 4305, Australia
2. Centre for Health Research, University of Southern Queensland, Ipswich, QLD 4305, Australia
Interests: female athletes; menstrual cycle; hormonal contraception; performance; thermoregulation

Dr. Anthea Clarke

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Guest Editor

Sport, Performance, and Nutrition Research Group, School of Allied Health, Human Services and Sport, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC 3086, Australia
Interests: female athlete; team sports; women; menstrual cycle; education; performance

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We are proud to lead this Special Issue that aims to promote and support the contributions of all scientists in the areas of sports science and public health, with a particular focus on highlighting the important role of women in these fields.

While progress has been made, there remains a gender imbalance within sports science that manifests in various ways. Recent reviews indicate that women are underrepresented in first and last authorship positions in sport and exercise science research, and that research participants in these studies are predominantly male. Additionally, women are less represented than men in editorial roles within sports science journals, as well as in elite coaching and sports performance support staff positions. Addressing these issues is essential, as studies have shown that an increased representation of women in editorial and senior authorship roles is associated with a higher proportion of women as study participants.

This Special Issue is part of the “Women’s Special Issue Series”, which aims to encourage and highlight the contributions of women to sports science research, in fields such as biomechanics, sports nutrition, sports injuries, sport psychology, sports medicine, public health, and more. All types of papers are welcome, including original research papers and review articles.

While the purpose of this Special Issue is to celebrate the achievements of women working in sports science and related fields. We welcome submissions from all authors, irrespective of gender.

Dr. Brianna L. Larsen
Dr. Anthea Clarke
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sports is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Women’s Special Issue Series

This Special Issue is part of Sports’s Women’s Special Issue Series, hosted by women editors for women researchers. The Series advocates the advancement of women in science. We invite contributions to the Special Issue whose lead authors identify as women. The submission of articles with all-women authorship is especially encouraged. However, we do welcome articles from all authors, irrespective of gender.

Keywords

sports performance
exercise performance
sports nutrition
sports psychology
biomechanics
sports medicine
sports injury
clinical exercise physiology

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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20 pages, 1190 KB

Open AccessArticle

Establishing the Reliability of a Functional Performance Test Battery That Incorporates the QASLS Tool in Pre-Elite Female Field Hockey Players

by Rosalyn Cooke, Lee Herrington, James Martin, Alison Rushton, Nicola Heneghan and Andy Soundy

Sports 2026, 14(5), 198; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14050198 - 12 May 2026

Viewed by 149

Abstract

Pre-elite female field hockey players have a high incidence of lower extremity injury, highlighting the need for practical and reliable screening approaches. A dual assessment combining Functional Performance Tests (FPTs) with movement quality scoring (QASLS) may provide a more comprehensive evaluation; however, its reliability in this population is unclear. Fifteen pre-elite female field hockey players (16.7 ± 0.7 years) completed an FPT battery (anterior reach (AR), single leg drop vertical jump–land (DVJL), single hop for distance (SHFD), side hop (SH)) on two occasions, 28 days apart. Movement quality was assessed by three raters using QASLS. Reliability was evaluated using ICC with 95% confidence intervals (CI), alongside standard error of measurement (SEM), smallest detectable difference (SDD), and percentage exact agreement (PEA). Test–retest reliability varied across tasks (ICC_2,1 0.33–0.90), with wide confidence intervals indicating uncertainty in several estimates. AR demonstrated the most consistent reliability, supporting its use for monitoring over time. In contrast, the DVJL and SH showed the greatest variability, likely reflecting higher task complexity, while the SHFD required relatively large performance changes to exceed measurement error. Intra-rater reliability for QASLS was consistent across the FPT battery (ICC_2,k 0.79–0.90), whereas inter-rater reliability was more variable (0.38–0.82), indicating rater-dependent differences. PEA demonstrated generally high agreement (60–100%), although lower agreement was observed for pelvic alignment components. These findings support the use of a dual assessment approach as a practicable profiling approach in pre-elite female field hockey, enabling practitioners to identify movement deficits not captured by performance metrics alone. However, variability in complex tasks and between raters highlights the need to consider measurement error and implement standardised rater training when profiling or monitoring performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Women's Special Issue Series: Sports)

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12 pages, 255 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Estradiol Levels and Menstrual Cycle Phase on Basal and Exercise-Induced ROS and IL-6 Responses in Eumenorrheic Women

by Markus Gassner, Johanna Diewald, Linda Leichtfried, Lucie Zeller, Serena Ryan, Karl-Heinz Wagner and Daniel König

Sports 2026, 14(5), 168; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14050168 - 22 Apr 2026

Viewed by 634

Abstract

Biological differences between sexes—particularly due to fluctuating levels of 17β-estradiol and menstrual cycle dynamics—may influence exercise-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, inflammation and exercise performance. Despite these considerations, there is a lack of research exploring how estradiol and menstrual cycle phases may impact exercise performance, exercise-induced ROS formation and inflammation. This study aimed to examine whether estradiol concentration or menstrual cycle phase may be significantly associated with resistance circuit high-intensity interval training (HIIT) performance, as well as exercise-induced formation of ROS and Interleukin-6 (IL-6). A total of 30 young healthy female participants completed a single bout of resistance-based HIIT in a fasted state. Blood samples were collected at four time points: at baseline after overnight fasting, two hours after consumption of 0.5 L of water (pre-HIIT), immediately post exercise (post-HIIT) and after 15 min of recovery (15-post-HIIT). Additionally, participants attended six fasting baseline assessments scheduled across various menstrual cycle days. These sessions enabled the assessment of estradiol, ROS and IL-6 concentrations throughout the menstrual cycle without being confounded by nutritional factors. Neither baseline levels of ROS nor IL-6 differed significantly between menstrual cycle phases (luteal vs. follicular ROS: 0.013 µmol/min, p = 0.716; IL-6: 0.052, p = 0.679) menstruation status (yes vs. no ROS: −0.056 µmol/min, p = 0.259; IL-6: −0.302 pg/mL, p = 0.088) or 17β-estradiol concentrations (low (11–≤72.5 pg/mL) vs. high (>72.5–394 pg/mL) ROS: −0.038 µmol/min, p = 0.266; IL-6: +0.015 pg/mL, p = 0.906). On the resistance-circuit-HIIT intervention day, no significant differences in ROS or IL-6 were observed between estradiol concentrations (ROS: p = 0.477; IL-6: p = 0.249), menstrual cycle phase (ROS; p = 0.752; IL-6: p = 0.557) or menstruation status (ROS: p = 0.383; IL-6: p = 0.808) from baseline to pre-HIIT, post-HIIT or 15-post-HIIT. These findings should be interpreted with caution, as the menstrual cycle phases were assigned using a calendar-based approach without biochemical ovulation confirmation and the subgroup sizes were relatively small. These findings suggest that natural 17-beta-Estradiol fluctuations within the menstrual cycle, as well as differences in the menstrual cycle itself, may not substantially modulate ROS or IL-6 responses to acute resistance-based HIIT in young healthy female adults. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Women's Special Issue Series: Sports)

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19 pages, 1348 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Menstrual Cycle Phase and Urinary Incontinence on Potential ACL Injury Risk Factors with a Focus on Hip Strength and Postural Control in Elite Female Team Sport Athletes: A Pilot Study

by Elisabeth Maria Kirschbaum, Roxane Windisch, Katrin Heyde, Richard Hunger and Kirsten Legerlotz

Sports 2026, 14(3), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030096 - 3 Mar 2026

Viewed by 1226

Abstract

To improve understanding of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries, this study investigated the effect of menstrual cycle (MC) phase on ACL injury risk factors in elite female team sport athletes with and without urinary incontinence (UI). Additionally, associations between endogenous sex hormones, MC-related symptoms, and these risk factors were investigated. Ten elite female athletes (24.2 ± 3.6 years, BMI 23.2 ± 1.3 kg/m², 10.9 ± 1.8 training hours/week) completed three testing sessions across three MC phases, determined using the three-step method. Assessments included static and dynamic postural control and hip strength. Mixed-model ANOVA and canonical correlation analyses evaluated the effects of MC phase, UI, hormones, and performance. A significant interaction between MC phase and UI was observed for single-leg sway area with eyes closed (p = 0.036), and UI was associated with a higher hip adduction:abduction ratio (p = 0.037). No further significant interaction between UI and MC phase was observed. Moreover, hormones explained 16.5% of the variance in risk factors, while subjective symptoms explained 24.5%. Lower progesterone was associated with higher symptoms, lower estradiol and progesterone with reduced strength and poorer postural control, and higher testosterone with greater strength. Although limited by its pilot design, menstrual symptoms, more than MC phases, may influence performance and injury risk, supporting the potential value of systematic symptoms monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Women's Special Issue Series: Sports)

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18 pages, 669 KB

Open AccessArticle

Advancing Women’s Performance in Fitness and Sports: An Exploratory Field Study on Hormonal Monitoring and Menstrual Cycle-Tailored Training Strategies

by Viktoriia Nagorna, Kateryna Sencha-Hlevatska, Daniel Fehr, Mathias Bonmarin, Georgiy Korobeynikov, Artur Mytko and Silvio R. Lorenzetti

Sports 2026, 14(1), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14010007 - 1 Jan 2026

Viewed by 3479

Abstract

Background. Extensive research confirms that hormonal fluctuations during the menstrual cycle significantly influence female athletic performance, with profound implications for public health, including promoting equitable access to sports and enhancing women’s overall physical and mental well-being. Numerous scientifically validated methods are available to monitor hormonal status and menstrual cycle phases. However, our prior investigations revealed that these insights are rarely applied in practice due to the complexity and invasiveness of existing methods. This study examines the effects of hormonal fluctuations on elite female basketball players. It assesses practical, non-invasive, cost-effective, and field-applicable methods for hormonal monitoring, with a focus on cervical mucus analysis for estrogen crystallization. The goal is to optimize training, promote equity in women’s sports, and support public health strategies for female empowerment through sustained physical activity, addressing the limitations of male-centric training models. Materials and Methods. This exploratory field study employed a multifaceted approach, beginning with a comprehensive meta-analysis via literature searches on PubMed, SCOPUS, and Google Scholar to evaluate hormonal impacts on physical performance, supplemented by an expert survey of 20 sports scientists and coaches using Kendall’s concordance coefficient for reliability and an experimental phase involving 25 elite female Ukrainian basketball players assessed over three months through daily performance tests (e.g., sprints, jumps, agility drills, and shooting) integrated into six weekly training sessions, with cycle phases tracked via questionnaires, basal body temperature, and the fern leaf method for estrogen levels. Results. Performance peaked during the postmenstrual and post-ovulatory phases (e.g., a 7.5% increase in sprint time and a 5.1% improvement in running jump). It declined in the premenstrual phase (e.g., a 2.3% decrease in acceleration). The estrogen crystallization test using cervical mucus provided preliminary insights into hormonal status but was less precise than laboratory-based methods, such as LC-MS/MS, which remain impractical for routine use due to cost and complexity. The fern test and basal body temperature showed limited precision due to external factors. Conclusions. There is a critical need to develop simple, non-invasive, field-applicable devices for accurate, real-time hormonal monitoring. This will bridge the gap between research and practice, enhancing training personalization, equity in women’s fitness and sports, and public health outcomes by increasing female participation in physical activities, reducing gender-based health disparities, and fostering inclusive wellness programs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Women's Special Issue Series: Sports)

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27 pages, 1055 KB

Open AccessArticle

Acute Adrenal Suppression Following Resistance Training in Elite Female Athletes: A Comprehensive Steroid Profile

by Sabrina Vollrath, Norman Bitterlich, Dennis Lüdin, Adrian Rothenbühler, Anthony C. Hackney, Silvio R. Lorenzetti, Anna Drewek, Basil Achermann, Therina du Toit and Petra Stute

Sports 2025, 13(12), 426; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13120426 - 3 Dec 2025

Viewed by 2440

Abstract

Aim: This prospective observational study aimed to evaluate acute adrenal-derived hormonal responses and training performance in elite female athletes during resistance training with respect to the female cycle. Methods: In 19 elite female athletes, acute hormonal responses to resistance training were examined over four weeks, measured before and 60 min after exercise. Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry provided a comprehensive steroid profile, including classical and adrenal-specific 11-oxygenated androgens. Performance metrics were tracked using a velocity-based training method. Results: Sixty minutes after resistance training, significant acute changes in steroid hormone concentrations were observed. Levels of 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) (−0.707 nmol/L; p = 0.012, −20.0%), androsterone (−0.201 nmol/L; p = 0.049, −14.8%), and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) (−3.813 nmol/L; p = 0.006, −17.1%) decreased significantly. The total sum of glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and bioactive androgens decreased. No significant differences in absolute or relative velocity loss and estimated one-repetition maximum were observed, suggesting comparable strength and fatigue across menstrual cycle phases. Conclusions: The observed post-exercise decline in glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and androgens such as DHEA indicates a coordinated acute suppression of adrenal steroidogenesis in response to resistance training in female elite athletes. No differences in strength parameters were observed across menstrual cycle phases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Women's Special Issue Series: Sports)

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13 pages, 258 KB

Open AccessArticle

Physical Fitness Profiles of Young Female Team Sport Athletes from Portuguese Rural Settings: A Cross-Sectional Study

by Bebiana Sabino, Margarida Gomes, Ana Rodrigues, Pedro Bento and Nuno Loureiro

Sports 2025, 13(8), 248; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13080248 - 28 Jul 2025

Viewed by 1893

Abstract

Background: Sports performance indicators are mainly based on male athletes, highlighting the importance of portraying the female reality, particularly in rural contexts. This study aims to characterize sports performance indicators (body composition and physical fitness) of young Portuguese female athletes. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted with 124 girls (13.66 ± 1.93 years) participating in federated team sports in a rural region of Portugal. Body composition was assessed using bioelectrical impedance, and physical fitness was evaluated through vertical jump tests (countermovement jump and squat jump), sprint (20 m), agility (T-test), handgrip strength, and cardiovascular endurance (Yo-Yo IR1). Results: Volleyball players are taller; football and basketball players are heavier; football and volleyball players have more fat-free mass than handball players (p < 0.05). Body mass index and % body fat did not differ between sports (p > 0.05). Volleyball players performed better in the countermovement jump (F = 4.146, p = 0.008) and squat jump (F = 7.686, p < 0.001) when compared to basketball, football, and handball players. No differences were observed in the speed or cardiorespiratory endurance tests (p > 0.05). Conclusions: The results revealed that, despite some specific differences between sports, most physical fitness indicators did not differ significantly between sports after controlling for age, menarche, and training experience. These findings suggest that shared contextual limitations in rural regions may take precedence over sport-specific adaptations in the early stages of sports participation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Women's Special Issue Series: Sports)

10 pages, 498 KB

Open AccessArticle

Binary Sex Input Has No Effect on Metabolic or Pulmonary Variables: A Within-Subjects Observational Study

by Olivia R. Perez, Michael W. H. Wong, Dustin W. Davis and James W. Navalta

Sports 2025, 13(8), 241; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13080241 - 23 Jul 2025

Viewed by 1028

Abstract

Metabolic analysis systems require binary sex input, conflating biological sex with gender, limiting inclusivity. This study aimed to determine whether sex input altered metabolic or pulmonary variables during self-paced walking and running. Twenty adults completed two 5-min walking and running trials under both female (FC) and male (MC) input conditions in randomized order. Dependent t-tests determined differences between conditions; p-values < 0.05 were considered significant, and effect sizes were calculated. No significant within-participant differences were found between FC and MC for any variable. During walking, mean relative VO₂ (mL/kg/min) was 11.13 ± 2.73 (FC) and 10.81 ± 2.39 (MC), p = 0.08, R² = 0.93; mean energy expenditure (kcal) was 18.28 ± 4.74 (FC) and 17.86 ± 4.33 (MC), p = 0.12, R² = 0.94. During running, mean relative VO₂ was 28.80 ± 5.89 (FC) and 28.82 ± 6.06 (MC), p = 0.90, R² = 0.98; mean energy expenditure was 45.79 ± 13.08 (FC) and 45.55 ± 12.26 (MC), p = 0.99, R² = 0.98. Binary sex input in the TrueOne 2400 system did not affect variables, supporting inclusive sex and gender data collection to improve research ethics, accuracy, and representation of gender-diverse people without compromising integrity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Women's Special Issue Series: Sports)

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17 pages, 237 KB

Open AccessArticle

Time–Motion Analysis of the 2023 Women’s World Boxing Championships Finals

by Francesca Martusciello, Andrea Perazzetti, Arben Kaçurri, Marco Consolati and Antonio Tessitore

Sports 2025, 13(6), 187; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060187 - 17 Jun 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2794

Abstract

Background: This study investigated boxers’ activity profiles during the final matches (3 × 3 min format) of the IBA 2023 Women’s World Boxing Championships. Methods: Footage of the 12 finals was used to analyse the frequency and duration of fighting (F), punching (P), clinching (C), no-fighting (NF), and arbitral interruption (AI) phases. The analysis was conducted both for weight categories and divisions (lightweight (LWC): 48, 50, 52, 54, 57, and 60 kg; middleweight (MWC): 63, 66, 70, and 75 kg; heavyweight (HWC): 81 and 81+ kg). Results: Pooled data per round revealed significant differences for P (<0.001), C (p = 0.002), NF (p < 0.001), and AI (p < 0.001) phases, as well for P mean duration across rounds (p < 0.001). The MWC division showed significantly shorter F duration compared with the LWC (p = 0.007) and MWC divisions (<0.001). The F/NF total time ratio showed a prevalence of F in the 48, 50, 63, and 81+ kg categories, while NF prevailed in the 54, 57, 60, and 75 kg categories. Conclusions: While HWC primarily relied on C actions, the 54, 57, 60, and 75 kg categories showed higher NF frequency. This fact explains a different strategic match management approach with deliberate rhythm, controlled pauses, and opponent analysis, which coaches should consider for enhancing athletes’ performance by considering weight categories. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Women's Special Issue Series: Sports)

13 pages, 901 KB

Open AccessArticle

Can Unilateral Strength Training Optimize Change of Direction Mechanics and Mitigate Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury Risk in Female Soccer Players? A Preliminary Pre–Post Intervention Study

by Alice Rogalski, Ayrton Moiroux-Sahraoui, Maria Stergiou, Maxence Pieulhet, Maurice Douryang and Florian Forelli

Sports 2025, 13(5), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13050135 - 29 Apr 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4819

Abstract

Background: Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries are a major concern in female soccer players, with change of direction (COD) movements being a key contributor to non-contact injuries. Traditional injury prevention programs have shown limited effectiveness in addressing individual biomechanical deficits. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of a 10-week unilateral strength training program on COD mechanics and ACL injury risk factors. Methods: Eleven female soccer players participated in a pre–post intervention study. Movement mechanics was assessed using the Cutting Movement Assessment Score (CMAS) at 45°, 75°, and 90° angles. The training program included unilateral lower limb strengthening exercises designed to enhance neuromuscular control and reduce biomechanical risk factors. Risk profiles were analyzed before and after the intervention. Statistical analyses included paired t-tests and effect size calculations. Results: Significant improvements in CMAS scores were observed at all COD angles (p < 0.05), with the largest effect at 90° (Cohen’s d = 2.1). The percentage of high-risk players decreased from 82% to 0%, while the proportion of low-risk players increased from 36% to 73%. Improved knee alignment, foot placement, and trunk stability were key contributors to the observed movement enhancements. Conclusions: Unilateral strength training may effectively improve COD mechanics and reduces biomechanical risk factors associated with ACL injuries in female soccer players. Our findings suggest that individualized training interventions can influence current injury prevention strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Women's Special Issue Series: Sports)

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11 pages, 1442 KB

Open AccessArticle

Unilateral Exercise and Bilateral Vascular Health in Female Tennis Players and Active Controls

by Chanhtel E. Thongphok, Abena O. Gyampo, Elisa Fioraso, Anneli O. Ramolins, Elianna G. Hills, Claire E. Coates and Stephen J. Ives

Sports 2025, 13(4), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13040107 - 1 Apr 2025

Viewed by 1475

Abstract

Blood pressure (BP), interarm differences (IAD) in BP, and arterial stiffness (AS) are related to cardiovascular disease risk and are attenuated by exercise training. While active, tennis players (TP) experience bilateral differences in shear stress, and thus vascular function due to the unilateral nature of the sport. However, it is unknown if this translates into attenuated bilateral differences in peripheral blood pressure (pBP), estimated central blood pressure (cBP), and AS, which could provide insight into the local versus systemic effects of exercise training on BP in women. Purpose: to evaluate bilateral differences in pBP, cBP, and AS in Division III female college TP and healthy recreationally active (RA) age- and sex-matched controls. Methods: In a parallel design, TP (n = 10) and RA controls (n = 10) were assessed for anthropometrics, body composition, and bilateral BP measurements using oscillometric cuff technique. Results: TP and RA were well-matched for body weight, body fat percentage, and BMI (all, p > 0.69). Interaction of arm and group, and effects of arm, or group were insignificant for pSBP and pDBP (all, p > 0.137). IAD in pSBP tended lower in TP (p = 0.096, d = 0.8), but IAD in cSBP was lower (p = 0.040, d = 0.8). Augmentation pressure and index were different between arms (p = 0.02), but no interactions (group by arm) were observed (p > 0.05). Conclusions: In groups well-matched for age and body composition, TP tended to have lower BP and IAD in pSBP, but cSBP revealed ~50% lower IAD in TP. Thus, measurement site and exercise training matter when assessing arterial stiffness and interarm differences in BP. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Women's Special Issue Series: Sports)

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15 pages, 2547 KB

Open AccessCase Report

Heart Rate Variability Measurements Across the Menstrual Cycle and Oral Contraceptive Phases in Two Olympian Female Swimmers: A Case Report

by Marine Dupuit, Kilian Barlier, Benjamin Tranchard, Jean-François Toussaint, Juliana Antero and Robin Pla

Sports 2025, 13(6), 185; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13060185 - 12 Jun 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 7582

Abstract

The heart rate variability (HRV), influenced by female sex hormone fluctuations, is an indicator of athletes’ adaptation. This case study explores HRV responses over 18 months across a natural menstrual cycle (MC) and during oral contraceptive (OC) use in two Olympic female swimmers. HRV measurements—including mean heart rate (HR); root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD); and frequency-domain indices—were collected at rest in supine (SU) and standing (ST) positions across two competitive seasons. Nocturnal HR and RMSSD were assessed using the Ōura^® ring. MC and OC phases were identified through specific tracking, and training load was controlled. In both athletes, resting HR was lower during bleeding phases, increasing from menstruation to the luteal phase (MC) and from withdrawal to active pill phases (OC). In the ST position, RMSSD was higher but decreased throughout the phases. Nocturnal measurements confirmed these trends. Overall, findings suggest a phase-related parasympathetic overactivity shift. This study provides novel insights into HRV responses across hormonal cycles in elite female athletes, which present unique characteristics. Such monitoring tools may support a data-informed approach to guide and periodize training more effectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Women's Special Issue Series: Sports)

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