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Considering the Effects of Cannabinoids and Exercise on the Brain: A Narrative Review
Jump Rope Training Improves Muscular Strength and Cardiovascular Fitness in University Students: A Controlled Educational Intervention
The Effect of Consuming Caffeine Before Late Afternoon/Evening Training or Competition on Sleep: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis
Neuroplasticity of Brain Networks Through Exercise: A Narrative Review About Effect of Types, Intensities, and Durations
Developing the Physical Fitness of Children: A Systematic Scoping Review of Pedagogy in Research

Journal Description

Sports

Sports is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal published monthly online by MDPI. The Strength and Conditioning Society (SCS), The European Sport Nutrition Society (ESNS) and The European Network of Sport Education (ENSE) are affiliated with Sports and their members receive discounts on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, ESCI (Web of Science), PubMed, PMC, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Sport Sciences) / CiteScore - Q2 (Physical Therapy, Sports Therapy and Rehabilitation)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 18.7 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 3.7 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.

Impact Factor: 2.9 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 3.3 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2075-4663

Latest Articles

12 pages, 229 KB

Open AccessArticle

Are There Sex Differences in Lower-Limb Biomechanics and Muscle Activation During Rope Jumping in Muay Thai Athletes?

by Torsak Kaewjaratwilai, Niromlee Makaje and Monchai Chottidao

Sports 2025, 13(11), 410; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110410 - 13 Nov 2025

Sex-related differences in lower-limb biomechanics and neuromuscular strategies during rope jumping remain underexplored, particularly in combat-sport athletes. This study investigated leg stiffness and muscle activation in ten female (22.8 ± 0.8 years) and ten male (22.9 ± 1.4 years) Muay Thai athletes. Participants [...] Read more.

Sex-related differences in lower-limb biomechanics and neuromuscular strategies during rope jumping remain underexplored, particularly in combat-sport athletes. This study investigated leg stiffness and muscle activation in ten female (22.8 ± 0.8 years) and ten male (22.9 ± 1.4 years) Muay Thai athletes. Participants performed rope skipping under three conditions: dominant leg, non-dominant leg, and double leg at 2.2 Hz. Ground reaction forces were recorded at 1000 Hz, center of mass displacement at 200 Hz, and electromyographic activity of the vastus lateralis, biceps femoris, tibialis anterior, and medial gastrocnemius at 3000 Hz. Vertical stiffness (K_vert) was calculated as the ratio of peak vertical force to displacement. Results showed no significant sex differences in peak ground reaction force (e.g., dominant leg: females 2.83 ± 0.42 vs. males 3.22 ± 0.57 kN; double leg: females 4.04 ± 0.83 vs. males 4.35 ± 0.73 kN; p > 0.05), vertical stiffness (females 17.02 ± 3.66 vs. males 16.21 ± 4.09 kN/m; p > 0.05), contact time (females 0.280 ± 0.03 vs. males 0.275 ± 0.05 s; p > 0.05), or flight time (females 0.205 ± 0.03 vs. males 0.245 ± 0.05 s; p > 0.05). In contrast, females exhibited significantly higher co-activation ratios during unilateral skipping, including BF/VL (0.76 ± 0.18 vs. 0.63 ± 0.10; p < 0.05) and TA/MG (0.38 ± 0.11 vs. 0.29 ± 0.07; p < 0.05), suggesting a neuromuscular strategy to enhance joint stability. These findings highlight rope jumping as a practical drill that can promote neuromuscular control and stability in Muay Thai training. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuromuscular Performance: Insights for Athletes and Beyond)

14 pages, 422 KB

Open AccessArticle

Concussion Knowledge, Attitudes and Behaviours Among Australian Taekwondo Athletes: A Cross-Sectional Exploratory Study

by Daniel A. Brown, John Whitting, Zachary Crowley-McHattan, Mike Climstein and Luke Del Vecchio

Sports 2025, 13(11), 409; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110409 - 13 Nov 2025

Background: Sport-related concussion (SRC) is a recognised public health concern, with combat sport athletes particularly vulnerable due to frequent head impacts. In Taekwondo, concussion incidence is comparable to other contact sports, yet underreporting and misconceptions may hinder safe management. Understanding knowledge, attitudes, and [...] Read more.

Background: Sport-related concussion (SRC) is a recognised public health concern, with combat sport athletes particularly vulnerable due to frequent head impacts. In Taekwondo, concussion incidence is comparable to other contact sports, yet underreporting and misconceptions may hinder safe management. Understanding knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours in this cohort is critical for athlete safety. Methods: This cross-sectional online survey was distributed to Australian Taekwondo athletes (AKA). Participants completed demographic, concussion history, and the Rosenbaum Concussion Knowledge and Attitudes Survey. Knowledge (CKI) and attitudes (CAI) indices were derived. Group differences were analysed using non-parametric tests, with associations between knowledge, attitudes, and reporting behaviours explored via correlation and logistic regression. Results: Athletes (n = 98) demonstrated good knowledge (mean CKI 19.8/25) and positive attitudes (mean CAI 61.6/75), though misconceptions remained. While 92% indicated they would seek medical attention, 21% reported returning to play the same day as a suspected concussion, and over 20% admitted to concealing symptoms. Higher CAI scores, but not CKI, were associated with safer reporting intentions. Conclusions: AKA showed strong knowledge and attitudes towards concussion; however, risky behaviours persisted. Attitudes, rather than knowledge, were more predictive of reporting behaviours, underscoring the need for interventions that strengthen positive attitudes and cultural support for symptom disclosure. Full article

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14 pages, 1284 KB

Open AccessArticle

Foot Morphology and Plantar Pressures in Elite Male Soccer Players—A Baropodometric On-Field Dynamic Assessment

by Pablo Vera-Ivars, Juan Vicente-Mampel, Oscar Fabregat-Andrés and Carlos Barrios

Sports 2025, 13(11), 408; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110408 - 13 Nov 2025

Introduction: Numerous overuse injuries affecting the lower limbs of elite athletes have been associated with biomechanical alterations in plantar loading of the foot. This study aimed to analyze the plantar pressure distribution in elite male soccer players and its relationship with various morphological [...] Read more.

Introduction: Numerous overuse injuries affecting the lower limbs of elite athletes have been associated with biomechanical alterations in plantar loading of the foot. This study aimed to analyze the plantar pressure distribution in elite male soccer players and its relationship with various morphological and functional factors, including foot type, metatarsal and digital alignment, and on-field position. Material and Method: Dynamic foot pressure measurements were obtained from 21 soccer players who participated in the UEFA Champion League. The participants had an average age of 27 years, with an average height of 180.9 cm, weight of 76.9 kg, and BMI of 23.4. An insole system (BioFoot/IBV) with telemetry transmission was employed to record plantar loading patterns during normal gait and running. Results: During the support or contact phase, the central and medial metatarsal areas exhibited the highest peak pressure under both walking and running conditions. When walking, the right foot exerted 13–60% more pressure on the outer metatarsal and toe areas. The left foot experienced up to 13% more peak pressure in the middle metatarsal area. During running, the total pressure difference between the feet ranged from −8% to +19%. The right foot usually had more peak pressure on the heel and first toe. In players with valgus feet, the pressure in the central metatarsal area increased from 1086 kPa (walking) to 1490 kPa (running), representing a 37% increase. Conversely, in players with cavus-varus feet, the pressure in this central area increased from 877 kPa to 1804 kPa, a 105% increase. Conclusions: Foot morphology and playing position significantly influenced the plantar pressure patterns in elite soccer players. The central metatarsal region bears the highest load, particularly during running, with distinct variations across foot types and field positions. These findings highlight the need for individualized biomechanical assessments to prevent overuse injuries and optimize performance. Full article

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11 pages, 232 KB

Open AccessArticle

Seasonal Variations in Training Load, Sleep Parameters, and Hormonal Markers in Collegiate Male Rowers During the Off-Season

by Junta Iguchi, Masaki Takimoto, Kenji Kuzuhara, Tatsuya Hojo and Yoshihiko Fujisawa

Sports 2025, 13(11), 407; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110407 - 12 Nov 2025

Background: Adequate sleep is essential for recovery and performance in athletes. Internal and external training loads closely relate to sleep, but few studies have examined their distinct off-season effects. This study investigated the relationships among training load, hormonal markers, and sleep parameters in [...] Read more.

Background: Adequate sleep is essential for recovery and performance in athletes. Internal and external training loads closely relate to sleep, but few studies have examined their distinct off-season effects. This study investigated the relationships among training load, hormonal markers, and sleep parameters in collegiate male rowers. Methods: Eleven rowers were monitored over 4 months (October 2022–January 2023). Internal load was assessed via session ratings of perceived exertion, external load by accelerometry-based indicators, sleep variables by actigraphy and the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, and hormonal status via salivary cortisol and testosterone. Repeated-measures analysis of variance and correlation and regression analyses were applied. Results: Training load showed significant temporal variation (p < 0.01), with October having the highest intensity. Increased loads were associated with poorer sleep outcomes, including reduced total sleep time (p < 0.05), higher latency (p < 0.05), and decreased efficiency (p < 0.05). External load was linked to fragmentation indices (wake after sleep onset, awakenings; p < 0.05), whereas internal load correlated with improved efficiency in certain months (p < 0.05). Hormonal fluctuations, particularly cortisol and testosterone, also correlated with sleep parameters (p < 0.05). Conclusions: Internal and external loads exerted distinct influences on sleep, supporting the hypothesis that both must be monitored. Sleep duration and efficiency emerged as modifiable targets for optimizing recovery and performance in athletes. Full article

10 pages, 1057 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Cadence and Torque in Fatigue-Related Power Output Decline in Cycling’s Grand Monuments

by Alejandro Javaloyes, Jose Luis Sánchez-Jiménez, Iván Peña-González, Manuel Moya-Ramón and Manuel Mateo-March

Sports 2025, 13(11), 406; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110406 - 12 Nov 2025

This study examined the effects of cadence and torque on fatigue-related power output (PO) decline in professional cyclists during the Five Monuments, comparing top-5 finishers with cyclists ranked from 6th to 30th. Retrospective data from 64 male cyclists (top-5 n = 14, top-30 [...] Read more.

This study examined the effects of cadence and torque on fatigue-related power output (PO) decline in professional cyclists during the Five Monuments, comparing top-5 finishers with cyclists ranked from 6th to 30th. Retrospective data from 64 male cyclists (top-5 n = 14, top-30 n = 42) in the 2021–2023 Five Monuments were analyzed. PO, cadence, and torque profiles were constructed for 10 s, 1 min, 5 min, and 20 min maximal mean power efforts and after 30–60 kJ·kg⁻¹ workloads. Repeated-measures ANOVA assessed group differences, and Pearson correlations evaluated variable relationships under fatigue. Top-5 finishers exhibited higher PO (e.g., 20 min: p = 0.003; 60 kJ·kg⁻¹: p < 0.001) and torque (e.g., 20 min at 60 kJ·kg⁻¹: p < 0.001) compared to cyclists ranked 6th to 30th. They also displayed lower cadence during 10 s efforts at 50–60 kJ·kg⁻¹ (p = 0.008). Top-5 cyclists maintained stable PO and torque beyond 60 kJ·kg⁻¹, whereas the top-30 group showed significant declines (p < 0.001). Torque was strongly correlated with PO (r = 0.6–0.9, p < 0.001), while cadence showed a weaker correlation (r = 0.1–0.5). Top-5 cyclists show greater durability, sustaining higher torque and power output during prolonged efforts with minimal cadence changes. These biomechanical traits distinguish elite performers in the Five Monuments and underscore the value of training for torque sustainability and fatigue resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integration and Application of Exercise and Sports Science: How Durability Relates to Cycling Performance, Injury Reduction, and Health)

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24 pages, 1648 KB

Open AccessArticle

Normative Data for a Multi-Domain Concussion Assessment in the Female Community Sport of Ladies Gaelic Football

by Róisín Leahy, Keith D. Rochfort, Enda Whyte, Anthony P. Kontos, Michael W. Collins and Siobhán O'Connor

Sports 2025, 13(11), 405; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110405 - 12 Nov 2025

Due to the highly individualised presentation of sport-related concussion (SRC), multi-domain assessments examining cognitive, migraine, vestibular, ocular, mood, sleep, and neck-related function have been suggested to assist clinicians with diagnosis, management, and rehabilitation. Normative data on such assessments for female, community players from [...] Read more.

Due to the highly individualised presentation of sport-related concussion (SRC), multi-domain assessments examining cognitive, migraine, vestibular, ocular, mood, sleep, and neck-related function have been suggested to assist clinicians with diagnosis, management, and rehabilitation. Normative data on such assessments for female, community players from countries outside the U.S. are needed. This study aimed to (i) describe normative data from community-level Ladies Gaelic Football players using a multi-domain assessment, and (ii) compare findings between adolescent and adult players. A total of 138 LGF players without SRC (101 adults, 37 adolescents) completed a multi-domain SRC assessment including Sport Concussion Assessment Tool 5th Edition, Concussion Clinical Profiles Screening, Vestibular/Ocular Motor Screening (VOMS), Immediate Post-Concussion Assessment and Cognitive Testing (ImPACT^®), Patient Health Questionnaire-9, Generalised Anxiety Disorder-7, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, Migraine Disability Assessment, and Neck Bournemouth Questionnaire, and neck dynamometry. Normative data were summarised using descriptive statistics, while differences in test scores between adolescents and adults were examined using parametric or non-parametric tests. While adolescents and adults scored similarly on most measures, adolescents scored worse on ImPACT^® visual–motor speed (d = 0.09) and reaction time (r = 0.52), SCAT5 concentration (V = 0.38), total modified Balance Error Scoring System (r = 0.42), and CP Screen vestibular profile (r = 0.38) (p < 0.05). This is the first study to describe and compare normative data for multidomain SRC assessments in adolescent and adult female, community athletes. Differences in some tests between adolescents and adults highlight the need for demographic-specific normative data when interpreting post-SRC assessment results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport-Related Concussion and Head Impact in Athletes)

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15 pages, 491 KB

Open AccessArticle

Acute Effects of a Multi-Ingredient Preworkout Supplement on Peak Torque and Muscle Excitation During an Isokinetic Fatigue Protocol

by Benjamin R. Connors, Clayton L. Camic, Andrew R. Jagim, Christopher M. Hill, Emerson Sebastião, Peter J. Chomentowski, Rachel A. Kowal and Matteo F. de Leon

Sports 2025, 13(11), 404; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110404 - 11 Nov 2025

The primary purpose of this study was to examine the acute effects of a multi-ingredient preworkout supplement (MIPS) on isometric, concentric, and eccentric peak torque and electromyographic (EMG) responses of the leg extensors during a fatiguing isokinetic protocol. Thirteen male subjects (mean age [...] Read more.

The primary purpose of this study was to examine the acute effects of a multi-ingredient preworkout supplement (MIPS) on isometric, concentric, and eccentric peak torque and electromyographic (EMG) responses of the leg extensors during a fatiguing isokinetic protocol. Thirteen male subjects (mean age ± SD = 22.9 ± 2.2 years) were assigned in crossover fashion to ingest an MIPS or placebo before an isokinetic protocol that consisted of 30 maximal, concentric and eccentric muscle actions with EMG signals recorded from the vastus lateralis, rectus femoris, and vastus medialis muscles. Immediately before (PRE) and after (POST) the isokinetic fatigue protocol, subjects were assessed for isometric peak torque. The MIPS condition resulted in greater isometric (205 ± 48 vs. 185 ± 44 N·m, p = 0.04) and concentric (121 ± 34 vs. 103 ± 27 N·m, p = 0.015) torque values versus placebo (collapsed across time). For eccentric peak torque as well as EMG amplitude and frequency values, there were no significant (p > 0.05) interactions or main effects for each condition. These findings indicated that acute ingestion of the MIPS enhanced isometric and concentric peak torque of the leg extensors, which was not explained by changes in the EMG signal. Full article

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10 pages, 379 KB

Open AccessArticle

Size of Biceps Femoris Long Head Muscle Is Related to Running Economy in Male Recreational Runners

by Srivatsav Yaddanapudi, Harshvardhan Singh, John P. McCarthy, Bradley R. Newcomer and Gary R. Hunter

Sports 2025, 13(11), 403; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110403 - 11 Nov 2025

Although the hamstring muscles play an important role in running, very little is known about the individual contributions of each hamstring muscle (biceps femoris_{long head}, biceps femoris_{short head}, semitendinosus, and semimembranosus) toward running economy. As such, our study examined [...] Read more.

Although the hamstring muscles play an important role in running, very little is known about the individual contributions of each hamstring muscle (biceps femoris_{long head}, biceps femoris_{short head}, semitendinosus, and semimembranosus) toward running economy. As such, our study examined all the muscles in the hamstring to provide insight into which muscles contribute the most to running economy. Such information can provide insight in designing precise exercise training programs for enhancing running performance. Secondary analysis from our cross-sectional study conducted on 23 male recreational runners examined the relationships between stretch shortening cycle potentiation (via leg press throw), running net VO₂ (inverse of running economy) (at 11.3 km/h), and maximum cross-sectional area of biceps femoris_{long head}, biceps femoris_{short head}, semitendinosus, and semimembranosus was assessed via magnetic resonance imaging. We obtained significant correlations between the maximum cross-sectional area of the biceps femoris_{long head} and log₁₀running net VO₂ (r = −0.52; p < 0.05). Our multiple regression model showed that the maximum cross-sectional area of biceps femoris_{long head} but not stretch shortening cycle potentiation predicted log₁₀running net VO₂ (r = −0.52; p < 0.01). We found no other relationship between any other hamstring muscles and log₁₀running net VO₂. Our findings provide preliminary evidence of the importance of the biceps femoris_{long head} toward running economy. This may be due to the preferential activation of efficient slow twitch muscle fibers of the biceps femoris_{long head}. Additionally, we noted that the biceps femoris_{short head}, semitendinosus, and semimembranosus muscles were not related to running economy in recreational male runners. Full article

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12 pages, 558 KB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Profiles: A New Approach Based on Training Focused on Physical Aspects Rather than Technical–Tactical Ones

by Amalia Campos-Redondo, Almudena Martínez-Sánchez, Pablo López-Sierra, Eduardo Chacón-Fernández and Javier García-Rubio

Sports 2025, 13(11), 402; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110402 - 10 Nov 2025

This study aimed to identify distinct external load profiles of 23 semi-professional football players (22.52 ± 1.74 years) during four official matches (40 cases in total; 10 per match). Using GPS-based inertial technology WIMU PRO (Hudl, Lincoln, NE, USA), data were collected to [...] Read more.

This study aimed to identify distinct external load profiles of 23 semi-professional football players (22.52 ± 1.74 years) during four official matches (40 cases in total; 10 per match). Using GPS-based inertial technology WIMU PRO (Hudl, Lincoln, NE, USA), data were collected to analyze players’ physical performance. A principal component analysis (PCA) identified three performance profiles—“Total Player,” “Explosive Player,” and “Dynamic Player”—that together explained 70.08% of the variance. These profiles revealed that players may share similar physical characteristics despite occupying different on-field positions. Training players based on their physical performance profiles, rather than solely on their tactical roles, may enhance both individual development and overall team performance. This approach offers a novel framework for individualized conditioning in team sports. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cutting-Edge Research on Physical Fitness Profile in Soccer Players: 2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 1122 KB

Open AccessCase Report

Training, Immunity, and Health in Elite Kayaking: A Longitudinal Study Monitoring a World-Class Marathon Paddler with Exercise-Induced Bronchoconstriction

by José Augusto Rodrigues dos Santos, Tiago Rama, Liliana Carina Baptista, Ana Isabel Padrão and Rodrigo Zacca

Sports 2025, 13(11), 401; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110401 - 7 Nov 2025

Background: Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB) is common in athletes, being more frequent in outdoor endurance-based/long-distance sports. We followed a World-Class marathon paddler’s season with recurrent episodes of EIB, which intensified during cold exposure workouts. This unique immunophenotype profile during the season and its variations [...] Read more.

Background: Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB) is common in athletes, being more frequent in outdoor endurance-based/long-distance sports. We followed a World-Class marathon paddler’s season with recurrent episodes of EIB, which intensified during cold exposure workouts. This unique immunophenotype profile during the season and its variations were reflected in acute and chronic inflammatory markers. Methods: A longitudinal case study was conducted with blood sampling obtained from a single paddler after overnight fasting at three timepoints: T1 (beginning of season, after 15-day rest period), T2 (post-Winter National Championship), and T3 (post-Summer National Championship). Complete blood counts and lymphocyte immunophenotyping were performed using automated hematology analysis and multiparametric flow cytometry. Results: The total numbers of leukocytes (T1: 6.3; T2: 5.0; T3: 5.5 × 10⁹/L), neutrophils (3.1; 2.5; 2.8 × 10⁹/L), and lymphocytes (2.4; 1.8; 2.2 × 10⁹/L) declined between T1 and T2, followed by a partial recovery at T3. In contrast, monocyte counts exhibited the reverse pattern (0.41; 0.62; 0.31 × 10⁹/L). The two T cell subsets (αβ and γδ) remained relatively stable, showing only minor seasonal fluctuations. CD19+ B cells, initially at very low levels, increased steadily as the season progressed (0.05; 0.07; 0.16 × 10⁹/L). During T2, the proportion of memory lymphocytes (CD45RO+) rose, while naive cells (CD45RA+) declined; this trend was subsequently inverted at M3. Although the CD4+/CD8+ ratio varied over time, it consistently stayed below the normal reference range established for healthy controls (0.50; 0.83; 0.60 for T1, T2, and T3, respectively). Conclusions: The immune assessment of the World-Class marathon paddler revealed transient immunosuppression early in the season, marked by reduced neutrophils, a low CD4+/CD8+ ratio, and diminished CD19+ lymphocytes. Over time, immune parameters showed signs of recovery, indicating a temporary imbalance that did not impair the athlete’s physical performance. Conclusions: This case study of an elite marathon kayaker revealed transient immune fluctuations across a competitive season, including early immunosuppression (low neutrophils, CD4+/CD8+ ratio 0.50, and minimal CD19+ B cells) followed by partial recovery mid- and late-season. Despite persistently inverted CD4+/CD8+ ratios suggesting chronic immune dysregulation, the athlete maintained competitive performance, highlighting the temporary nature of these changes and emphasizing that regular immune monitoring can help optimize health and performance in elite athletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Human Physiology in Exercise, Health and Sports Performance)

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14 pages, 1408 KB

Open AccessArticle

Application of the Vienna Test System to Measure Training-Induced Changes in Choice Reaction Time in U20 Fencers: A 12-Week Training Program Pilot Study

by Lukass Edmunds Teteris, Sergejs Saulite, Renars Licis, Mara Greve and Behnam Boobani

Sports 2025, 13(11), 400; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110400 - 7 Nov 2025

This pilot study examined the effects of a 12-week reaction training program on physical and cognitive performance (choice reaction) in U20 Latvian fencers. Five qualified right-handed male fencers (aged 14.8–18.6 years) completed the Vienna Test System choice reaction task at baseline and after [...] Read more.

This pilot study examined the effects of a 12-week reaction training program on physical and cognitive performance (choice reaction) in U20 Latvian fencers. Five qualified right-handed male fencers (aged 14.8–18.6 years) completed the Vienna Test System choice reaction task at baseline and after 12 weeks while cycling through five heart rate zones (1–5). Reaction speed (RS), motor speed (MS), choice reaction time (CR), and heart rate (HR) were recorded. Paired-sample t-tests indicated no significant group-level changes: RS (t = 1.46, p = 0.21, d = 0.65, 95% CI [−36.92, 118.92]), MS (t = 2.37, p = 0.07, d = 1.06, 95% CI [−3.14, 40.34]), CR (t = 1.70, p = 0.16, d = 0.76, 95% CI [−37.30, 156.26]), and HR (t = −2.69, p = 0.054, d = −1.20, 95% CI [−12.53, 0.17]). Individual responses revealed that three athletes improved CR in low- to moderate-intensity zones (−12.66% to −27.18%), whereas heart rate increased modestly (1.35% to 9.60%). Given the critical age for developing choice reaction, these findings should be considered as preliminary and exploratory, offering initial insights into how training might influence cognitive performance in young fencers and demonstrating that responses can differ across heart rate zones and among individuals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport-Specific Testing and Training Methods in Youth)

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18 pages, 430 KB

Open AccessArticle

Physical Activity Levels and Barriers Among Young People with Mental Disorders: A Mixed Methods Analysis Supporting the Development of a National Sport Mental Health Clinic

by Daniel Vella Fondacaro, Paul Mansell, Michela Agius, Karl Apap Gatt, Nicole Borg, Roberto Galea, Catherine Gatt, Gertrude Fenech, Adrian Richard, Caroline Vassallo and Matthew Slater

Sports 2025, 13(11), 399; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110399 - 6 Nov 2025

Background: While the positive relationship between mental health and physical activity (PA) is well established, numerous barriers are reported. This study analyzed PA levels and associated barriers in young people attending a national child and adolescent mental health service using a quantitatively driven [...] Read more.

Background: While the positive relationship between mental health and physical activity (PA) is well established, numerous barriers are reported. This study analyzed PA levels and associated barriers in young people attending a national child and adolescent mental health service using a quantitatively driven mixed methods design. Methods: From contacted patient families (n = 1284) meeting inclusion criteria, 23.67% (n = 304; age 12 to 18 years) completed a questionnaire (quantitative component/supplementary qualitative component). Statistical tests and thematic analysis were used to interpret data. Results: 57.24% (n = 174) of participants practiced PA/sport. Those in a sporting discipline did more PA overall, and males were almost twice as likely (OR = 1.98) to do PA/sports than females. PA levels were significantly different across mental disorder groups (highest in personality disorders and related traits, and lowest in disruptive behavioral or dissocial disorders). Participants supported the positive association between mental health and athletic performance, including the use of exercise prescriptions. Barriers to PA included excessive screentime, reduced mental health support/awareness, lack of appropriate facilities, financial difficulties, etc. Conclusion: Further research is needed. However, such results will serve to inform the development of the first documented sport mental health clinic for young people. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Exercise and Nutrition for Physical Performance, Mental Health and General Well-Being)

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24 pages, 1820 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of the Core Training and Mobility Training Effects on Basketball Athletic Performance in Young Players: A Comparative Experimental Study

by Alessandra Amato, Cristina Cortis, Matteo Tropea, Marco Politi, Andrea Fusco and Giuseppe Musumeci

Sports 2025, 13(11), 398; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110398 - 6 Nov 2025

This study compared the effects of core (CTG) or mobility training (MTG) on basketball-specific skills in youth players, focusing on dynamic balance. Both training modalities have a recognized role in enhancing performance, but few studies have examined their impact on this population. Thirty-one [...] Read more.

This study compared the effects of core (CTG) or mobility training (MTG) on basketball-specific skills in youth players, focusing on dynamic balance. Both training modalities have a recognized role in enhancing performance, but few studies have examined their impact on this population. Thirty-one young (age 14.71 ± 2.27 years) males were assigned to an 8-week CTG or MTG. Overhead Squat, Y-Balance Test, Agility T-Test, Sit-and-Reach, Functional Hop Tests, and the Balance Error Scoring System were assessed before (pre) and after (post) the intervention for both dominant (D) and non-dominant (ND) limbs. Both groups improved the postero-lateral direction of the Y-Balance Test for the D (CTG, MD [95% CIs] = −8.108 [−15.620, −0.595], p = 0.035; MTG, MD [95% CIs] = −15.234 [−23.512, −6.956], p = 0.024) and ND (CTG, MD [95% CIs] = −9.110 [−16.150, −2.070], p = 0.013; MTG MD [95% CIs] = −13.899 [−21.657, −6.141], p = 0.001) limb and the medial reach for D (CTG, MD [95% CIs] = −17.279 [−26.364, −8.194], p = 0.001; MTG, MD [95% CIs] = −22.050 [−32.061, −12.039], p = 0.03) and ND (CTG, MD [95% CIs] = −9.309 [−17.093, −1.526], p = 0.021; MTG, MD [95% CIs] = −13.614 [−22.190, −5.037], p = 0.003), the Overhead Squat Test (CTG, MD [95% CIs] = −3.059 [−3.797, −2.321], p = 0.001; MTG, MD [95% CIs] = −3.643 [−4.456, −2.830], p = 0.001), and Agility T-Test (CTG, MD [95% CIs] = 0.572 [0.072, 1.073], p = 0.026; MTG, MD [95% CIs] = 0.696 [0.145, 1.248], p = 0.024) skills. Only CTG showed a significant improvement (MD [95% CIs] = −8.294 [−16.162, −0.426], p = 0.04) in single-leg hop performance for the ND limb. No significant improvements were observed in static balance or flexibility. No time × group effect was found. Both interventions improved key basketball-specific motor abilities and could be added to the basketball training session without adverse effect. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport-Specific Testing and Training Methods in Youth)

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9 pages, 205 KB

Open AccessArticle

Is She or He the Key Player in Pickleball Mixed Doubles? A Pilot Study on Sex-Based Performance Profiles

by Alexandru Nicolae Ungureanu, Paolo Riccardo Brustio, Damiano Li Volsi and Corrado Lupo

Sports 2025, 13(11), 397; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110397 - 6 Nov 2025

Pickleball is a recent sport, and very little scientific information exists on its match performance, especially for mixed doubles. Therefore, the aim of this study was to describe the performance profile in relation to sex differences in terms of shot outcome, margin of [...] Read more.

Pickleball is a recent sport, and very little scientific information exists on its match performance, especially for mixed doubles. Therefore, the aim of this study was to describe the performance profile in relation to sex differences in terms of shot outcome, margin of victory, and advantage. Seventeen elite mixed double matches from Professional Pickleball Association tours were analyzed, specifically considering the final as well as the penultimate shot with regard to the sex of the opponent who played it to analyze the inter-player dynamics between the opponents. Elite mixed pickleball matches have been characterized by 1:1.4 work-to-rest ratio, with rallies meanly lasting 10.6 s and separated by 11.4 s between them. Among the 1678 final shots analyzed, males played significantly fewer forced errors and more winners than females, especially when the penultimate shot was played by a female opponent. No sex differences emerged when the penultimate shot was played by a male opponent. Additionally, males played more winners both when leading and when winning the match. Mixed doubles pickleball matches appear to be partially influenced by sex-imbalanced game dynamics, with a higher number of winners played by males, particularly when the preceding shot is played by a female, suggesting that this format offers only moderate inclusivity between sexes. Full article

20 pages, 983 KB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Visuospatial Working Memory and Motor Skills Through School-Based Coordination Training

by Pasqualina Forte, Elisa Pugliese, Giovanna Aquino, Carmela Matrisciano, Fabio Carlevaro, Francesca Magno, Daniele Magistro and Cristiana D’Anna

Sports 2025, 13(11), 396; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110396 - 6 Nov 2025

The school-age period is a crucial time for the integrated development of cognitive and motor functions. Literature highlights that physical activity enhances executive functions, including visuospatial working memory (VSWM). In light of this evidence, this study investigated the effects of a school-based coordinative [...] Read more.

The school-age period is a crucial time for the integrated development of cognitive and motor functions. Literature highlights that physical activity enhances executive functions, including visuospatial working memory (VSWM). In light of this evidence, this study investigated the effects of a school-based coordinative motor intervention on VSWM and gross motor skills in primary school children. An experimental research trial was conducted involving 184 children aged 9–10 years (mean age = 9.5 years, SD = 0.50 years), with 51.1% girls, divided into an experimental group (EG; n = 110), and a control group (CG; n = 74). Randomisation was performed at the class level via sealed envelope extraction by an independent researcher, ensuring allocation concealment. Outcome assessors were blinded to group assignment. VMWM was assessed using BVS-Corsi-2, and gross motor skills were evaluated via the TGMD-3. The EG showed significant improvements in VSWM (Corsi Forward: p < 0.001, d = 1.12; Corsi Backward: p < 0.001, d = 1.40) and gross motor skills, including Total Gross Motor: p < 0.001, d = 1.58, as well as in locomotion (p < 0.001, d = 2.11) and ball skills score (p < 0.001, d = 1.34). These findings strongly endorse incorporating cognitively demanding physical activities into standard school programmes to support children’s overall development and demonstrate the practicality of implementing such programmes within existing educational settings. Full article

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17 pages, 1355 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of a 90-Minute Nap at Different Times of the Day on Physical Performance, Psycho-Cognitive Responses, and Perceived Recovery in Trained Youth Male Athletes

by Arwa Jebabli, Slaheddine Delleli, Nourhène Mahdi, Khouloud Ben Maaoui, Juan Del Coso, Hamdi Chtourou, Luca Paolo Ardigò and Ibrahim Ouergui

Sports 2025, 13(11), 395; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110395 - 6 Nov 2025

Napping is recognized as a strategy to enhance athletic performance. However, the optimal timing and duration for maximizing its benefits remain unclear. This study investigated the effects of a 90 min nap at different times on physical performance, psycho-cognitive responses, and perceived recovery [...] Read more.

Napping is recognized as a strategy to enhance athletic performance. However, the optimal timing and duration for maximizing its benefits remain unclear. This study investigated the effects of a 90 min nap at different times on physical performance, psycho-cognitive responses, and perceived recovery in trained youth male athletes. Fourteen athletes (18 ± 1 years) completed four conditions in a randomized crossover design: (1) No-nap-13h, (2) No-nap-15h, (3) Nap-13h, and (4) Nap-15h. After each condition, athletes performed a 5 m shuttle run test (5mSRT) and were assessed on best distance (BD), total distance (TD), and fatigue index (FI). Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were recorded after each 5mSRT repetition, whereas muscle soreness (DOMS) and recovery (PRS) were assessed post-test and 24 h later. The digit cancelation test (DCT), feeling scale (FS), Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS), and Hooper Questionnaire evaluated sleep quality and psycho-cognitive state. Results showed that the athletes felt greater sleepiness before Nap-15h and after Nap-13h versus the no-nap conditions. TD was higher in Nap-13h than Nap-15h (p = 0.001) and No-nap-15h (p = 0.0009). BD was higher in Nap-13h versus No-nap-15h and No-nap-13h, while RPE was higher in Nap-13h versus No-nap-13 h, Nap-15h, and No-nap-15h (all, p < 0.05). DCT scores were also higher in Nap-13h. No significant effects were found for FI, FS, or Hooper. In conclusion, a 90 min nap at 13:00 was more effective than a later nap or no nap in improving performance and recovery, suggesting benefits for afternoon training or competitions. Full article

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12 pages, 668 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Combined Repeated Sprint and Large-Sided Game Training on Physical Performance in Elite U20 Soccer Players: A Randomised Controlled Trial

by Mehdi Ben Brahim, Bekir Erhan Orhan, Hussain Yasin and Shaher A. I. Shalfawi

Sports 2025, 13(11), 394; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110394 - 5 Nov 2025

Background: The purpose of the present study was to investigate the impact of a combined Repeated Sprint Training (RST) with Large-Sided Soccer Games (LSSG) on soccer players’ physical performance indicators. Methods: A randomised controlled trial protocol was designed and implemented to examine the [...] Read more.

Background: The purpose of the present study was to investigate the impact of a combined Repeated Sprint Training (RST) with Large-Sided Soccer Games (LSSG) on soccer players’ physical performance indicators. Methods: A randomised controlled trial protocol was designed and implemented to examine the effects of an 8-week training programme on the physical performance of U20 national team soccer players. Participants were randomly assigned after matching them based on their pre-test results from a 30 m sprint to one of two groups: an experimental group (EG; n = 16) and a control group (CG; n = 10). The EG took part in two extra training sessions per week, which included RST and LSSG, whereas the CG stuck to their usual training routine. Sprint, Repeated sprint ability (RSA), vertical jump, the New Multi-Change of Direction Agility Test (NMAT), and the 15 m ball dribbling agility test performances were assessed. Results: The main findings from this study indicate that the EG showed statistically significant improvements in short sprint performance (5 m), vertical jump height (SJ and CMJ), agility (NMAT), RSA, and fatigue tolerance, with moderate to large effect sizes. The CG showed no statistically significant changes, though some small to moderate effect sizes were observed. Conclusions: The findings suggest that this hybrid method has the potential to produce improvements in specific performance domains, particularly agility and fatigue tolerance, beyond what may be expected from regular soccer training alone. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Football Science: Integrating Technology, Performance, and Well-Being)

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12 pages, 695 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

The Influence of Muscle Flexibility Training on Chronic Pain in Older Adults: An Exploratory Systematic Review

by Rodrigo Melenas, Raúl Antunes, Rui Matos, Diogo Monteiro, Nuno Amaro, Nuno Couto and Miguel Jacinto

Sports 2025, 13(11), 393; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110393 - 5 Nov 2025

Background/Objectives: This exploratory systematic review aims to analyze the influence of isolated muscle flexibility training on the reduction of chronic pain symptoms in older adults aged 65 years or more. Articles were selected from the Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus databases, using [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: This exploratory systematic review aims to analyze the influence of isolated muscle flexibility training on the reduction of chronic pain symptoms in older adults aged 65 years or more. Articles were selected from the Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus databases, using the EndNote software for reference management. The selection process followed the PICOS framework and the PRISMA 2020 guidelines, and the review protocol was registered in the PROSPERO database. Methods: The inclusion criteria comprised randomized controlled trials with participants aged 65 or older, evaluating the effect of flexibility training as a standalone intervention on chronic pain, and published in English or Portuguese. Studies were excluded if they involved multimodal training, did not specify participants’ ages, evaluated only acute or postoperative pain, or were not peer-reviewed articles. Results: From an initial pool of 1390 articles, only three met all criteria and were included in the final analysis. These studies—conducted in China (n = 2) and the United States (n = 1)—showed moderate methodological quality (PEDro score = 7/10). Two trials applied Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF) in participants with knee osteoarthritis, while the third compared a flexibility-based program to combined strength and aerobic training in a healthy elderly population. All studies reported significant reductions in chronic pain symptoms following flexibility training interventions. Conclusions: The reviewed evidence suggests that muscle flexibility training, particularly using techniques like PNF, may be a promising therapeutic strategy to mitigate specific chronic pain-related symptoms in older adults, particularly reductions in joint stiffness, movement discomfort, and pain intensity associated with osteoarthritis. However, the limited number of high-quality trials and heterogeneity in protocols and pain assessment tools highlight the need for further research. Full article

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16 pages, 4967 KB

Open AccessReview

Protective Equipment in Football: A Review of History, Evolution, Materials, and Contemporary Use

by Marco Vecchiato, Luca Russo, Alberto Livio, Emanuele Zanardo, Mara Mezzalira, Emanuele Farina, Andrea Demeco and Stefano Palermi

Sports 2025, 13(11), 392; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110392 - 5 Nov 2025

Football (soccer) is the world’s most widely played sport, but it carries a high incidence of traumatic injuries, particularly to the head, face, and lower limbs. Once regarded as a low-equipment discipline, the role of protective devices has expanded substantially in recent decades, [...] Read more.

Football (soccer) is the world’s most widely played sport, but it carries a high incidence of traumatic injuries, particularly to the head, face, and lower limbs. Once regarded as a low-equipment discipline, the role of protective devices has expanded substantially in recent decades, both in injury prevention and in return-to-play strategies. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the historical evolution, typology, and materials of football protective equipment, with additional focus on regulatory frameworks, cultural acceptance, and illustrative cases from elite athletes. Shin guards remain the only mandatory device, yet the use of facial masks, headgear, braces, and orthoses is increasing, particularly following high-profile injuries. Advances in carbon fiber composites, thermoplastics, viscoelastic foams, and additive manufacturing have enabled lightweight, customized devices that balance protection with comfort and adherence. Beyond biomechanics, psychological reassurance, esthetics, durability, and hygiene strongly influence player compliance and perception. Despite this progress, critical challenges remain. Football lacks standardized testing protocols, clear certification pathways, and longitudinal studies on long-term outcomes. Evidence is particularly limited for youth athletes and newer categories of equipment. Looking ahead, the integration of wearable technologies, systematic hygiene and durability testing, and sustainable materials could transform protective gear into multifunctional tools for safety, monitoring, and performance optimization. Protective equipment in football has thus evolved into a multidisciplinary field at the intersection of medicine, engineering, psychology, and regulation. Future advances will depend on stronger collaboration between clinicians, researchers, governing bodies, and manufacturers to ensure safe, effective, and widely accepted protective solutions at all levels of the game. Full article

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18 pages, 1934 KB

Open AccessArticle

Testing ACL-Reconstructed Football Players on the Field: An Algorithm to Assess Cutting Biomechanics Injury Risk Through Wearable Sensors

by Stefano Di Paolo, Marianna Viotto, Margherita Mendicino, Chiara Valastro, Alberto Grassi and Stefano Zaffagnini

Sports 2025, 13(11), 391; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110391 - 5 Nov 2025

Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries in football mostly occur during defensive (pressing) cut maneuvers. Football-specific cutting movements are key to identifying dangerous biomechanics but hard to evaluate clinically. This study aimed to develop a practical field-based tool—Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury Risk Profile Detection [...] Read more.

Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries in football mostly occur during defensive (pressing) cut maneuvers. Football-specific cutting movements are key to identifying dangerous biomechanics but hard to evaluate clinically. This study aimed to develop a practical field-based tool—Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury Risk Profile Detection (ACL-IRD)—to assess ACL injury risk during return to sport (RTS). It was hypothesized that the ACL-IRD could detect ACL injury risk profiles after ACLR players had RTS clearance. Sixty-one footballers (21 ACLR, 40 healthy; 16.2 ± 2.2 years old, >14 months post-surgery) were tested on a regular football pitch. Players performed pre-planned (AGTT) and unplanned football-specific cut maneuvers simulating defensive pressing (FS deceiving action). Kinematic data were collected via eight wearable inertial sensors (MTw Awinda, Movella) on trunk and lower limbs. The ACL-IRD analyzed biomechanics in three risk categories, knee valgus collapse, sagittal knee loading, and trunk–pelvis imbalance, using thresholds from healthy players. A clinician-friendly, automatic report was generated. At-risk biomechanics were identified in 36–37/104 AGTT trials and 25–41/97 FS deceiving actions (at initial contact and peak knee flexion). Over 60% of risky trials involved the ACLR limb. Major risk factors were altered knee/hip flexion ratio, knee valgus, and hip abduction. The ACL-IRD is a novel, clinical-friendly tool designed to identify potential ACL injury risk profiles and is intended to support safer RTS decisions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Health Through Physical Activity and Sports Science: Innovations in Applied Research)

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