Sports

17 pages, 863 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

The Optimal Exercise Modality and Dose for Cortisol Reduction in Psychological Distress: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis

by Xiongjie Li, Jianping Huang and Feilong Zhu

Sports 2025, 13(12), 415; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13120415 - 24 Nov 2025

Abstract

Objectives: Psychological distress has been linked to dysregulation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis and altered cortisol secretion. Exercise is increasingly recognized as a non-pharmacologic strategy for stress regulation. This systematic review and network meta-analysis assessed the relative efficacy of different exercise modalities [...] Read more.

Objectives: Psychological distress has been linked to dysregulation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis and altered cortisol secretion. Exercise is increasingly recognized as a non-pharmacologic strategy for stress regulation. This systematic review and network meta-analysis assessed the relative efficacy of different exercise modalities and the optimal dose in modulating cortisol levels in adults with psychological distress. Methods: We systematically searched five databases up to 30 June 2025 for relevant randomized controlled trials. Two reviewers independently conducted study selection, data extraction, and risk-of-bias assessments. Pairwise meta-analyses and a frequentist network meta-analysis were performed with random-effects models. Standardized mean differences (SMDs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated. Dose–response relationships were examined, and the certainty of evidence was evaluated using the GRADE framework. Results: Forty-four studies were included. Overall, exercise was associated with moderate cortisol reductions. Yoga demonstrated the greatest effect (SMD = −0.59; 95% CI = −0.90 to −0.28; SUCRA = 93%), followed by qigong and multicomponent exercise. High-intensity interval training tended to increase cortisol levels, although not significantly. The dose–response analysis revealed an inverted U-shaped relationship, characterized by an optimal response at approximately 530 MET-min/week, and longer intervention duration predicted greater reductions. The certainty of evidence ranged from very low to high, with yoga–control comparisons supported by the strongest evidence. Conclusions: Exercise, particularly mind–body practices such as yoga and qigong, can reduce cortisol levels in individuals with psychological distress. The dose–response relationship exhibited a non-linear pattern, with optimal efficacy observed at approximately 530 MET-min/week. Nevertheless, further high-quality trials are required to confirm the optimal modality and dose. Full article

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19 pages, 2086 KB

Open AccessArticle

Biomechanical Model of Non-Contact Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury Concerning Shin Angle and Field Surface Traction Parameters—With a Piezo2 Interpretation

by Tekla Sümegi, Balázs Sonkodi, Krisztián Havanecz, István Berkes and Bence Kopper

Sports 2025, 13(12), 414; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13120414 - 21 Nov 2025

Abstract

Background: Biomechanical factors behind non-contact anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury in soccer and handball are still not fully understood. Unfortunately, ACL injuries more frequently appear in game situations. Aim: To describe a possible ACL injury mechanism in male professional handball players using MRI [...] Read more.

Background: Biomechanical factors behind non-contact anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury in soccer and handball are still not fully understood. Unfortunately, ACL injuries more frequently appear in game situations. Aim: To describe a possible ACL injury mechanism in male professional handball players using MRI images and our own biomechanical model. Hypothesis: The friction parameters of the surface have extreme importance in the non-contact ACL injury mechanism. If the surface is more slippery, the horizontal component of the ground reaction force (GRF) will be smaller, consequently the torque originating from the GRF acting on the knee will be greater during the landing phase of a vertical jump, resulting in greater abduction effect on the knee. Consequently, the risk of knee injury increases. Methods: We have collected MRI images and anthropometric data of 15 healthy male individuals (age 19–23) to create a biomechanical model to calculate the torques in the knee to obtain more knowledge about ACL injury mechanism. Results: The lower extremity lean angle during the landing phase of a jump and friction parameters substantially affect abduction torques in the knee and consequently the risk of ACL injury occurrence. Conclusions: The landing posture when the knee is fully extended during landing is highly unfortunate for the ACL, compared to when the knee is partially flexed. If the knee is fully extended, greater hip abduction will increase the risk of an ACL injury, and if the surface is more slippery, e.g., the surface is wet, the possibility of ACL injury is even greater. In addition, we also applied a molecular working hypothesis through acquired Piezo2 channelopathy theory, as the proposed preceding neuromuscular disruptor prior to non-contact ACL injury. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanical Research to Optimize Performance and Reduce Injury Risk in Team Sports)

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14 pages, 2173 KB

Open AccessArticle

Chronic Effects of a Dynamic Stretching and Core Stability Exercise Protocol on Physical Performance in U-16 Volleyball Players

by Annamaria Mancini, Loretta Francesca Cosco, Vincenzo Monda, Gian Pietro Emerenziani, Domenico Martone and Pasqualina Buono

Sports 2025, 13(11), 413; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110413 - 20 Nov 2025

Abstract

Background: Volleyball requires explosive jumps, agility, and upper and lower limb coordination. Dynamic stretching (DS) and core stability (CS) protocols are often used separately in training sessions, but little is known about their combined effects on the performance in adolescent players. This study [...] Read more.

Background: Volleyball requires explosive jumps, agility, and upper and lower limb coordination. Dynamic stretching (DS) and core stability (CS) protocols are often used separately in training sessions, but little is known about their combined effects on the performance in adolescent players. This study aimed to investigate the impact of a 12-week integrated DS and CS program (StretCor), in addition to standard training, on physical performance in U-16 volleyball players. Methods: Twenty-one volunteer players (15.1 ± 0.6 years) were randomly assigned to the Intervention Group (IG; n = 12) or Control Group (CG; n = 9). IG performed the StretCor protocol four times a week for twelve weeks in addition to standard volleyball training; CG continued standard volleyball training. Physical performance assessment included Countermovement Jump (CMJ), Vertec jump with run-up, isometric shoulder strength (ASH-I), dynamic balance (mSEBT), and agility (t-test) tests. Results: Significant group × time interactions (p < 0.05, η² ranged: 0.20–0.90) were found for CMJ height and peak power, Vertec jump, ASH-I, mSEBT scores, and t-test performance. Post hoc analyses showed improvements in IG for CMJ height (+16.5%), Vertec jump (+10.2%), shoulder strength (+11–14%), balance across directions (+8–12%), and agility (−5.7% t-test time). No significant changes were observed in CG. Conclusions: The present study suggests that a 12 weeks of StretCor protocol training improves jump performance, agility, dynamic balance, and upper limb strength in U-16 volleyball players. These findings also support that StretCor protocol may be beneficial for the performance when incorporated into regular training programs for adolescent athletes. Full article

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15 pages, 1161 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Leg-Length Discrepancy Compensation and Wedge Foot-Orthoses on Tensor Fasciae Latae EMG in Runners

by Ruben Sanchez-Gomez, Boon Peng Chang, Vitali Lipik, Paola Sanz-Wozniak, Dan Iulian Alexe, Jimena Garrido Cebrecos, Marta Martín Vega and Alvaro Gomez Carrion

Sports 2025, 13(11), 412; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110412 - 17 Nov 2025

Abstract

Aims: Structural lower limb-length discrepancies (LLLD) have been classically associated with the etiology of low back pain. However, their biomechanical effects on lower-limb muscle activity during running remain unclear. This pilot crossover study aimed to evaluate the influence of orthotic interventions—designed to compensate [...] Read more.

Aims: Structural lower limb-length discrepancies (LLLD) have been classically associated with the etiology of low back pain. However, their biomechanical effects on lower-limb muscle activity during running remain unclear. This pilot crossover study aimed to evaluate the influence of orthotic interventions—designed to compensate for LLLD and modify foot biomechanics—on the electromyographic (EMG) activity of the contralateral tensor fasciae latae (TFL) in healthy runners. Methods: A total of 41 recreational male and female runners (mean age 32.27 ± 6.09) with structural LLLD were recruited and classified as neutral (Ng), supinated (SPg), or pronated (PRg) based on their foot posture. Surface EMG activity of the TFL in the longer leg was recorded with specific surface electrodes while participants ran on a treadmill at a constant speed of 9 km/h for 3 min. Each subject randomly wore standard orthoses with 5 mm pronating (PRO), supinating (SUP) wedges or orthoses with a heel lift (TAL) to compensate for the shorter leg, alongside the baseline condition (SIN). Results: Perfect reliability (close to 1) was obtained for all measurements. A statistically significant reduction in TFL EMG activity was recorded in the Ng group: SIN 105.64 ± 50.6%MVC vs. PRO 100.16 ± 48.61%MVC (p < 0.05), and SIN vs. TAL 93.49 ± 15.88%MVC (p < 0.001). A significant reduction was also observed in the PRg group: SIN 91.82 ± 40.75%MVC vs. TAL 80.08 ± 31.75%MVC (p < 0.05). Conclusion: Orthotic compensation for LLLD and foot pronation modifications produced measurable changes in TFL EMG activity during running. These findings provide mechanistic insight into the interaction between limb-length asymmetry, foot biomechanics, and proximal muscle activation in runners, and may inform future studies on overuse injuries such as iliotibial band syndrome. Full article

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20 pages, 482 KB

Open AccessArticle

Training Load, Mileage, and Perceived Exertion as a Predictive Model of Injury and Illness in Women’s Soccer

by Corbit Franks, Andrew Yockey, Nicholas Bosley, Tyler Myers, Kaitlyn Armstrong, Melinda Valliant and Chip Wade

Sports 2025, 13(11), 411; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110411 - 17 Nov 2025

Abstract

This study examined the relationship between training load, mileage, and session rating of perceived exertion (s-RPE) as predictors of injury and illness in Division I women’s soccer players. Twenty-four athletes were monitored over a 13-week season including 69 athlete exposures (49 training sessions [...] Read more.

This study examined the relationship between training load, mileage, and session rating of perceived exertion (s-RPE) as predictors of injury and illness in Division I women’s soccer players. Twenty-four athletes were monitored over a 13-week season including 69 athlete exposures (49 training sessions and 20 matches). Internal and external load were measured during each athlete exposure. Player injury and illness status were documented daily by medical staff and categorized as healthy, medical attention, or time-loss. Associations between athlete exposures and injury/illness status were analyzed using a mixed-effects ordinal logistic regression model with player ID as a random intercept. A total of 1560 athlete observations were included. Higher daily mileage was associated with increased odds of injury or illness (OR = 1.67, 95% CI: 1.19–2.34). Training load was associated with reduced odds of injury or illness, with each unit increase lowering the odds by 42% (OR = 0.58, 95% CI: 0.41–0.83). Session-RPE was not significantly associated with injury or illness (OR = 0.96, 95% CI: 0.65–1.42). These findings indicate that accumulated mileage elevates injury and illness risk, while structured increases in training load enhance athlete resilience, and reduce injury and illness risk. Monitoring both internal and external workload provides performance staff with a practical approach to optimize training stress, augment recovery, and prepare athletes for the demands of competition in women’s soccer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cutting-Edge Research on Physical Fitness Profile in Soccer Players: 2nd Edition)

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12 pages, 229 KB

Open AccessArticle

Are There Sex Differences in Lower-Limb Biomechanics and Muscle Activation During Rope Jumping in Muay Thai Athletes?

by Torsak Kaewjaratwilai, Niromlee Makaje and Monchai Chottidao

Sports 2025, 13(11), 410; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110410 - 13 Nov 2025

Abstract

Sex-related differences in lower-limb biomechanics and neuromuscular strategies during rope jumping remain underexplored, particularly in combat-sport athletes. This study investigated leg stiffness and muscle activation in ten female (22.8 ± 0.8 years) and ten male (22.9 ± 1.4 years) Muay Thai athletes. Participants [...] Read more.

Sex-related differences in lower-limb biomechanics and neuromuscular strategies during rope jumping remain underexplored, particularly in combat-sport athletes. This study investigated leg stiffness and muscle activation in ten female (22.8 ± 0.8 years) and ten male (22.9 ± 1.4 years) Muay Thai athletes. Participants performed rope skipping under three conditions: dominant leg, non-dominant leg, and double leg at 2.2 Hz. Ground reaction forces were recorded at 1000 Hz, center of mass displacement at 200 Hz, and electromyographic activity of the vastus lateralis, biceps femoris, tibialis anterior, and medial gastrocnemius at 3000 Hz. Vertical stiffness (K_vert) was calculated as the ratio of peak vertical force to displacement. Results showed no significant sex differences in peak ground reaction force (e.g., dominant leg: females 2.83 ± 0.42 vs. males 3.22 ± 0.57 kN; double leg: females 4.04 ± 0.83 vs. males 4.35 ± 0.73 kN; p > 0.05), vertical stiffness (females 17.02 ± 3.66 vs. males 16.21 ± 4.09 kN/m; p > 0.05), contact time (females 0.280 ± 0.03 vs. males 0.275 ± 0.05 s; p > 0.05), or flight time (females 0.205 ± 0.03 vs. males 0.245 ± 0.05 s; p > 0.05). In contrast, females exhibited significantly higher co-activation ratios during unilateral skipping, including BF/VL (0.76 ± 0.18 vs. 0.63 ± 0.10; p < 0.05) and TA/MG (0.38 ± 0.11 vs. 0.29 ± 0.07; p < 0.05), suggesting a neuromuscular strategy to enhance joint stability. These findings highlight rope jumping as a practical drill that can promote neuromuscular control and stability in Muay Thai training. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuromuscular Performance: Insights for Athletes and Beyond)

14 pages, 422 KB

Open AccessArticle

Concussion Knowledge, Attitudes and Behaviours Among Australian Taekwondo Athletes: A Cross-Sectional Exploratory Study

by Daniel A. Brown, John Whitting, Zachary Crowley-McHattan, Mike Climstein and Luke Del Vecchio

Sports 2025, 13(11), 409; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110409 - 13 Nov 2025

Abstract

Background: Sport-related concussion (SRC) is a recognised public health concern, with combat sport athletes particularly vulnerable due to frequent head impacts. In Taekwondo, concussion incidence is comparable to other contact sports, yet underreporting and misconceptions may hinder safe management. Understanding knowledge, attitudes, and [...] Read more.

Background: Sport-related concussion (SRC) is a recognised public health concern, with combat sport athletes particularly vulnerable due to frequent head impacts. In Taekwondo, concussion incidence is comparable to other contact sports, yet underreporting and misconceptions may hinder safe management. Understanding knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours in this cohort is critical for athlete safety. Methods: This cross-sectional online survey was distributed to Australian Taekwondo athletes (AKA). Participants completed demographic, concussion history, and the Rosenbaum Concussion Knowledge and Attitudes Survey. Knowledge (CKI) and attitudes (CAI) indices were derived. Group differences were analysed using non-parametric tests, with associations between knowledge, attitudes, and reporting behaviours explored via correlation and logistic regression. Results: Athletes (n = 98) demonstrated good knowledge (mean CKI 19.8/25) and positive attitudes (mean CAI 61.6/75), though misconceptions remained. While 92% indicated they would seek medical attention, 21% reported returning to play the same day as a suspected concussion, and over 20% admitted to concealing symptoms. Higher CAI scores, but not CKI, were associated with safer reporting intentions. Conclusions: AKA showed strong knowledge and attitudes towards concussion; however, risky behaviours persisted. Attitudes, rather than knowledge, were more predictive of reporting behaviours, underscoring the need for interventions that strengthen positive attitudes and cultural support for symptom disclosure. Full article

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14 pages, 1284 KB

Open AccessArticle

Foot Morphology and Plantar Pressures in Elite Male Soccer Players—A Baropodometric On-Field Dynamic Assessment

by Pablo Vera-Ivars, Juan Vicente-Mampel, Oscar Fabregat-Andrés and Carlos Barrios

Sports 2025, 13(11), 408; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110408 - 13 Nov 2025

Abstract

Introduction: Numerous overuse injuries affecting the lower limbs of elite athletes have been associated with biomechanical alterations in plantar loading of the foot. This study aimed to analyze the plantar pressure distribution in elite male soccer players and its relationship with various morphological [...] Read more.

Introduction: Numerous overuse injuries affecting the lower limbs of elite athletes have been associated with biomechanical alterations in plantar loading of the foot. This study aimed to analyze the plantar pressure distribution in elite male soccer players and its relationship with various morphological and functional factors, including foot type, metatarsal and digital alignment, and on-field position. Material and Method: Dynamic foot pressure measurements were obtained from 21 soccer players who participated in the UEFA Champion League. The participants had an average age of 27 years, with an average height of 180.9 cm, weight of 76.9 kg, and BMI of 23.4. An insole system (BioFoot/IBV) with telemetry transmission was employed to record plantar loading patterns during normal gait and running. Results: During the support or contact phase, the central and medial metatarsal areas exhibited the highest peak pressure under both walking and running conditions. When walking, the right foot exerted 13–60% more pressure on the outer metatarsal and toe areas. The left foot experienced up to 13% more peak pressure in the middle metatarsal area. During running, the total pressure difference between the feet ranged from −8% to +19%. The right foot usually had more peak pressure on the heel and first toe. In players with valgus feet, the pressure in the central metatarsal area increased from 1086 kPa (walking) to 1490 kPa (running), representing a 37% increase. Conversely, in players with cavus-varus feet, the pressure in this central area increased from 877 kPa to 1804 kPa, a 105% increase. Conclusions: Foot morphology and playing position significantly influenced the plantar pressure patterns in elite soccer players. The central metatarsal region bears the highest load, particularly during running, with distinct variations across foot types and field positions. These findings highlight the need for individualized biomechanical assessments to prevent overuse injuries and optimize performance. Full article

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11 pages, 232 KB

Open AccessArticle

Seasonal Variations in Training Load, Sleep Parameters, and Hormonal Markers in Collegiate Male Rowers During the Off-Season

by Junta Iguchi, Masaki Takimoto, Kenji Kuzuhara, Tatsuya Hojo and Yoshihiko Fujisawa

Sports 2025, 13(11), 407; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110407 - 12 Nov 2025

Abstract

Background: Adequate sleep is essential for recovery and performance in athletes. Internal and external training loads closely relate to sleep, but few studies have examined their distinct off-season effects. This study investigated the relationships among training load, hormonal markers, and sleep parameters in [...] Read more.

Background: Adequate sleep is essential for recovery and performance in athletes. Internal and external training loads closely relate to sleep, but few studies have examined their distinct off-season effects. This study investigated the relationships among training load, hormonal markers, and sleep parameters in collegiate male rowers. Methods: Eleven rowers were monitored over 4 months (October 2022–January 2023). Internal load was assessed via session ratings of perceived exertion, external load by accelerometry-based indicators, sleep variables by actigraphy and the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, and hormonal status via salivary cortisol and testosterone. Repeated-measures analysis of variance and correlation and regression analyses were applied. Results: Training load showed significant temporal variation (p < 0.01), with October having the highest intensity. Increased loads were associated with poorer sleep outcomes, including reduced total sleep time (p < 0.05), higher latency (p < 0.05), and decreased efficiency (p < 0.05). External load was linked to fragmentation indices (wake after sleep onset, awakenings; p < 0.05), whereas internal load correlated with improved efficiency in certain months (p < 0.05). Hormonal fluctuations, particularly cortisol and testosterone, also correlated with sleep parameters (p < 0.05). Conclusions: Internal and external loads exerted distinct influences on sleep, supporting the hypothesis that both must be monitored. Sleep duration and efficiency emerged as modifiable targets for optimizing recovery and performance in athletes. Full article

10 pages, 1057 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Cadence and Torque in Fatigue-Related Power Output Decline in Cycling’s Grand Monuments

by Alejandro Javaloyes, Jose Luis Sánchez-Jiménez, Iván Peña-González, Manuel Moya-Ramón and Manuel Mateo-March

Sports 2025, 13(11), 406; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110406 - 12 Nov 2025

Abstract

This study examined the effects of cadence and torque on fatigue-related power output (PO) decline in professional cyclists during the Five Monuments, comparing top-5 finishers with cyclists ranked from 6th to 30th. Retrospective data from 64 male cyclists (top-5 n = 14, top-30 [...] Read more.

This study examined the effects of cadence and torque on fatigue-related power output (PO) decline in professional cyclists during the Five Monuments, comparing top-5 finishers with cyclists ranked from 6th to 30th. Retrospective data from 64 male cyclists (top-5 n = 14, top-30 n = 42) in the 2021–2023 Five Monuments were analyzed. PO, cadence, and torque profiles were constructed for 10 s, 1 min, 5 min, and 20 min maximal mean power efforts and after 30–60 kJ·kg⁻¹ workloads. Repeated-measures ANOVA assessed group differences, and Pearson correlations evaluated variable relationships under fatigue. Top-5 finishers exhibited higher PO (e.g., 20 min: p = 0.003; 60 kJ·kg⁻¹: p < 0.001) and torque (e.g., 20 min at 60 kJ·kg⁻¹: p < 0.001) compared to cyclists ranked 6th to 30th. They also displayed lower cadence during 10 s efforts at 50–60 kJ·kg⁻¹ (p = 0.008). Top-5 cyclists maintained stable PO and torque beyond 60 kJ·kg⁻¹, whereas the top-30 group showed significant declines (p < 0.001). Torque was strongly correlated with PO (r = 0.6–0.9, p < 0.001), while cadence showed a weaker correlation (r = 0.1–0.5). Top-5 cyclists show greater durability, sustaining higher torque and power output during prolonged efforts with minimal cadence changes. These biomechanical traits distinguish elite performers in the Five Monuments and underscore the value of training for torque sustainability and fatigue resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integration and Application of Exercise and Sports Science: How Durability Relates to Cycling Performance, Injury Reduction, and Health)

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24 pages, 1648 KB

Open AccessArticle

Normative Data for a Multi-Domain Concussion Assessment in the Female Community Sport of Ladies Gaelic Football

by Róisín Leahy, Keith D. Rochfort, Enda Whyte, Anthony P. Kontos, Michael W. Collins and Siobhán O'Connor

Sports 2025, 13(11), 405; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110405 - 12 Nov 2025

Abstract

Due to the highly individualised presentation of sport-related concussion (SRC), multi-domain assessments examining cognitive, migraine, vestibular, ocular, mood, sleep, and neck-related function have been suggested to assist clinicians with diagnosis, management, and rehabilitation. Normative data on such assessments for female, community players from [...] Read more.

Due to the highly individualised presentation of sport-related concussion (SRC), multi-domain assessments examining cognitive, migraine, vestibular, ocular, mood, sleep, and neck-related function have been suggested to assist clinicians with diagnosis, management, and rehabilitation. Normative data on such assessments for female, community players from countries outside the U.S. are needed. This study aimed to (i) describe normative data from community-level Ladies Gaelic Football players using a multi-domain assessment, and (ii) compare findings between adolescent and adult players. A total of 138 LGF players without SRC (101 adults, 37 adolescents) completed a multi-domain SRC assessment including Sport Concussion Assessment Tool 5th Edition, Concussion Clinical Profiles Screening, Vestibular/Ocular Motor Screening (VOMS), Immediate Post-Concussion Assessment and Cognitive Testing (ImPACT^®), Patient Health Questionnaire-9, Generalised Anxiety Disorder-7, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, Migraine Disability Assessment, and Neck Bournemouth Questionnaire, and neck dynamometry. Normative data were summarised using descriptive statistics, while differences in test scores between adolescents and adults were examined using parametric or non-parametric tests. While adolescents and adults scored similarly on most measures, adolescents scored worse on ImPACT^® visual–motor speed (d = 0.09) and reaction time (r = 0.52), SCAT5 concentration (V = 0.38), total modified Balance Error Scoring System (r = 0.42), and CP Screen vestibular profile (r = 0.38) (p < 0.05). This is the first study to describe and compare normative data for multidomain SRC assessments in adolescent and adult female, community athletes. Differences in some tests between adolescents and adults highlight the need for demographic-specific normative data when interpreting post-SRC assessment results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport-Related Concussion and Head Impact in Athletes)

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15 pages, 491 KB

Open AccessArticle

Acute Effects of a Multi-Ingredient Preworkout Supplement on Peak Torque and Muscle Excitation During an Isokinetic Fatigue Protocol

by Benjamin R. Connors, Clayton L. Camic, Andrew R. Jagim, Christopher M. Hill, Emerson Sebastião, Peter J. Chomentowski, Rachel A. Kowal and Matteo F. de Leon

Sports 2025, 13(11), 404; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110404 - 11 Nov 2025

Abstract

The primary purpose of this study was to examine the acute effects of a multi-ingredient preworkout supplement (MIPS) on isometric, concentric, and eccentric peak torque and electromyographic (EMG) responses of the leg extensors during a fatiguing isokinetic protocol. Thirteen male subjects (mean age [...] Read more.

The primary purpose of this study was to examine the acute effects of a multi-ingredient preworkout supplement (MIPS) on isometric, concentric, and eccentric peak torque and electromyographic (EMG) responses of the leg extensors during a fatiguing isokinetic protocol. Thirteen male subjects (mean age ± SD = 22.9 ± 2.2 years) were assigned in crossover fashion to ingest an MIPS or placebo before an isokinetic protocol that consisted of 30 maximal, concentric and eccentric muscle actions with EMG signals recorded from the vastus lateralis, rectus femoris, and vastus medialis muscles. Immediately before (PRE) and after (POST) the isokinetic fatigue protocol, subjects were assessed for isometric peak torque. The MIPS condition resulted in greater isometric (205 ± 48 vs. 185 ± 44 N·m, p = 0.04) and concentric (121 ± 34 vs. 103 ± 27 N·m, p = 0.015) torque values versus placebo (collapsed across time). For eccentric peak torque as well as EMG amplitude and frequency values, there were no significant (p > 0.05) interactions or main effects for each condition. These findings indicated that acute ingestion of the MIPS enhanced isometric and concentric peak torque of the leg extensors, which was not explained by changes in the EMG signal. Full article

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10 pages, 379 KB

Open AccessArticle

Size of Biceps Femoris Long Head Muscle Is Related to Running Economy in Male Recreational Runners

by Srivatsav Yaddanapudi, Harshvardhan Singh, John P. McCarthy, Bradley R. Newcomer and Gary R. Hunter

Sports 2025, 13(11), 403; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110403 - 11 Nov 2025

Abstract

Although the hamstring muscles play an important role in running, very little is known about the individual contributions of each hamstring muscle (biceps femoris_{long head}, biceps femoris_{short head}, semitendinosus, and semimembranosus) toward running economy. As such, our study examined [...] Read more.

Although the hamstring muscles play an important role in running, very little is known about the individual contributions of each hamstring muscle (biceps femoris_{long head}, biceps femoris_{short head}, semitendinosus, and semimembranosus) toward running economy. As such, our study examined all the muscles in the hamstring to provide insight into which muscles contribute the most to running economy. Such information can provide insight in designing precise exercise training programs for enhancing running performance. Secondary analysis from our cross-sectional study conducted on 23 male recreational runners examined the relationships between stretch shortening cycle potentiation (via leg press throw), running net VO₂ (inverse of running economy) (at 11.3 km/h), and maximum cross-sectional area of biceps femoris_{long head}, biceps femoris_{short head}, semitendinosus, and semimembranosus was assessed via magnetic resonance imaging. We obtained significant correlations between the maximum cross-sectional area of the biceps femoris_{long head} and log₁₀running net VO₂ (r = −0.52; p < 0.05). Our multiple regression model showed that the maximum cross-sectional area of biceps femoris_{long head} but not stretch shortening cycle potentiation predicted log₁₀running net VO₂ (r = −0.52; p < 0.01). We found no other relationship between any other hamstring muscles and log₁₀running net VO₂. Our findings provide preliminary evidence of the importance of the biceps femoris_{long head} toward running economy. This may be due to the preferential activation of efficient slow twitch muscle fibers of the biceps femoris_{long head}. Additionally, we noted that the biceps femoris_{short head}, semitendinosus, and semimembranosus muscles were not related to running economy in recreational male runners. Full article

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12 pages, 558 KB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Profiles: A New Approach Based on Training Focused on Physical Aspects Rather than Technical–Tactical Ones

by Amalia Campos-Redondo, Almudena Martínez-Sánchez, Pablo López-Sierra, Eduardo Chacón-Fernández and Javier García-Rubio

Sports 2025, 13(11), 402; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110402 - 10 Nov 2025

Abstract

This study aimed to identify distinct external load profiles of 23 semi-professional football players (22.52 ± 1.74 years) during four official matches (40 cases in total; 10 per match). Using GPS-based inertial technology WIMU PRO (Hudl, Lincoln, NE, USA), data were collected to [...] Read more.

This study aimed to identify distinct external load profiles of 23 semi-professional football players (22.52 ± 1.74 years) during four official matches (40 cases in total; 10 per match). Using GPS-based inertial technology WIMU PRO (Hudl, Lincoln, NE, USA), data were collected to analyze players’ physical performance. A principal component analysis (PCA) identified three performance profiles—“Total Player,” “Explosive Player,” and “Dynamic Player”—that together explained 70.08% of the variance. These profiles revealed that players may share similar physical characteristics despite occupying different on-field positions. Training players based on their physical performance profiles, rather than solely on their tactical roles, may enhance both individual development and overall team performance. This approach offers a novel framework for individualized conditioning in team sports. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cutting-Edge Research on Physical Fitness Profile in Soccer Players: 2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 1122 KB

Open AccessCase Report

Training, Immunity, and Health in Elite Kayaking: A Longitudinal Study Monitoring a World-Class Marathon Paddler with Exercise-Induced Bronchoconstriction

by José Augusto Rodrigues dos Santos, Tiago Rama, Liliana Carina Baptista, Ana Isabel Padrão and Rodrigo Zacca

Sports 2025, 13(11), 401; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110401 - 7 Nov 2025

Abstract

Background: Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB) is common in athletes, being more frequent in outdoor endurance-based/long-distance sports. We followed a World-Class marathon paddler’s season with recurrent episodes of EIB, which intensified during cold exposure workouts. This unique immunophenotype profile during the season and its variations [...] Read more.

Background: Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB) is common in athletes, being more frequent in outdoor endurance-based/long-distance sports. We followed a World-Class marathon paddler’s season with recurrent episodes of EIB, which intensified during cold exposure workouts. This unique immunophenotype profile during the season and its variations were reflected in acute and chronic inflammatory markers. Methods: A longitudinal case study was conducted with blood sampling obtained from a single paddler after overnight fasting at three timepoints: T1 (beginning of season, after 15-day rest period), T2 (post-Winter National Championship), and T3 (post-Summer National Championship). Complete blood counts and lymphocyte immunophenotyping were performed using automated hematology analysis and multiparametric flow cytometry. Results: The total numbers of leukocytes (T1: 6.3; T2: 5.0; T3: 5.5 × 10⁹/L), neutrophils (3.1; 2.5; 2.8 × 10⁹/L), and lymphocytes (2.4; 1.8; 2.2 × 10⁹/L) declined between T1 and T2, followed by a partial recovery at T3. In contrast, monocyte counts exhibited the reverse pattern (0.41; 0.62; 0.31 × 10⁹/L). The two T cell subsets (αβ and γδ) remained relatively stable, showing only minor seasonal fluctuations. CD19+ B cells, initially at very low levels, increased steadily as the season progressed (0.05; 0.07; 0.16 × 10⁹/L). During T2, the proportion of memory lymphocytes (CD45RO+) rose, while naive cells (CD45RA+) declined; this trend was subsequently inverted at M3. Although the CD4+/CD8+ ratio varied over time, it consistently stayed below the normal reference range established for healthy controls (0.50; 0.83; 0.60 for T1, T2, and T3, respectively). Conclusions: The immune assessment of the World-Class marathon paddler revealed transient immunosuppression early in the season, marked by reduced neutrophils, a low CD4+/CD8+ ratio, and diminished CD19+ lymphocytes. Over time, immune parameters showed signs of recovery, indicating a temporary imbalance that did not impair the athlete’s physical performance. Conclusions: This case study of an elite marathon kayaker revealed transient immune fluctuations across a competitive season, including early immunosuppression (low neutrophils, CD4+/CD8+ ratio 0.50, and minimal CD19+ B cells) followed by partial recovery mid- and late-season. Despite persistently inverted CD4+/CD8+ ratios suggesting chronic immune dysregulation, the athlete maintained competitive performance, highlighting the temporary nature of these changes and emphasizing that regular immune monitoring can help optimize health and performance in elite athletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Human Physiology in Exercise, Health and Sports Performance)

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14 pages, 1408 KB

Open AccessArticle

Application of the Vienna Test System to Measure Training-Induced Changes in Choice Reaction Time in U20 Fencers: A 12-Week Training Program Pilot Study

by Lukass Edmunds Teteris, Sergejs Saulite, Renars Licis, Mara Greve and Behnam Boobani

Sports 2025, 13(11), 400; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110400 - 7 Nov 2025

Abstract

This pilot study examined the effects of a 12-week reaction training program on physical and cognitive performance (choice reaction) in U20 Latvian fencers. Five qualified right-handed male fencers (aged 14.8–18.6 years) completed the Vienna Test System choice reaction task at baseline and after [...] Read more.

This pilot study examined the effects of a 12-week reaction training program on physical and cognitive performance (choice reaction) in U20 Latvian fencers. Five qualified right-handed male fencers (aged 14.8–18.6 years) completed the Vienna Test System choice reaction task at baseline and after 12 weeks while cycling through five heart rate zones (1–5). Reaction speed (RS), motor speed (MS), choice reaction time (CR), and heart rate (HR) were recorded. Paired-sample t-tests indicated no significant group-level changes: RS (t = 1.46, p = 0.21, d = 0.65, 95% CI [−36.92, 118.92]), MS (t = 2.37, p = 0.07, d = 1.06, 95% CI [−3.14, 40.34]), CR (t = 1.70, p = 0.16, d = 0.76, 95% CI [−37.30, 156.26]), and HR (t = −2.69, p = 0.054, d = −1.20, 95% CI [−12.53, 0.17]). Individual responses revealed that three athletes improved CR in low- to moderate-intensity zones (−12.66% to −27.18%), whereas heart rate increased modestly (1.35% to 9.60%). Given the critical age for developing choice reaction, these findings should be considered as preliminary and exploratory, offering initial insights into how training might influence cognitive performance in young fencers and demonstrating that responses can differ across heart rate zones and among individuals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport-Specific Testing and Training Methods in Youth)

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18 pages, 430 KB

Open AccessArticle

Physical Activity Levels and Barriers Among Young People with Mental Disorders: A Mixed Methods Analysis Supporting the Development of a National Sport Mental Health Clinic

by Daniel Vella Fondacaro, Paul Mansell, Michela Agius, Karl Apap Gatt, Nicole Borg, Roberto Galea, Catherine Gatt, Gertrude Fenech, Adrian Richard, Caroline Vassallo and Matthew Slater

Sports 2025, 13(11), 399; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110399 - 6 Nov 2025

Abstract

Background: While the positive relationship between mental health and physical activity (PA) is well established, numerous barriers are reported. This study analyzed PA levels and associated barriers in young people attending a national child and adolescent mental health service using a quantitatively driven [...] Read more.

Background: While the positive relationship between mental health and physical activity (PA) is well established, numerous barriers are reported. This study analyzed PA levels and associated barriers in young people attending a national child and adolescent mental health service using a quantitatively driven mixed methods design. Methods: From contacted patient families (n = 1284) meeting inclusion criteria, 23.67% (n = 304; age 12 to 18 years) completed a questionnaire (quantitative component/supplementary qualitative component). Statistical tests and thematic analysis were used to interpret data. Results: 57.24% (n = 174) of participants practiced PA/sport. Those in a sporting discipline did more PA overall, and males were almost twice as likely (OR = 1.98) to do PA/sports than females. PA levels were significantly different across mental disorder groups (highest in personality disorders and related traits, and lowest in disruptive behavioral or dissocial disorders). Participants supported the positive association between mental health and athletic performance, including the use of exercise prescriptions. Barriers to PA included excessive screentime, reduced mental health support/awareness, lack of appropriate facilities, financial difficulties, etc. Conclusion: Further research is needed. However, such results will serve to inform the development of the first documented sport mental health clinic for young people. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Exercise and Nutrition for Physical Performance, Mental Health and General Well-Being)

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24 pages, 1820 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of the Core Training and Mobility Training Effects on Basketball Athletic Performance in Young Players: A Comparative Experimental Study

by Alessandra Amato, Cristina Cortis, Matteo Tropea, Marco Politi, Andrea Fusco and Giuseppe Musumeci

Sports 2025, 13(11), 398; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110398 - 6 Nov 2025

Abstract

This study compared the effects of core (CTG) or mobility training (MTG) on basketball-specific skills in youth players, focusing on dynamic balance. Both training modalities have a recognized role in enhancing performance, but few studies have examined their impact on this population. Thirty-one [...] Read more.

This study compared the effects of core (CTG) or mobility training (MTG) on basketball-specific skills in youth players, focusing on dynamic balance. Both training modalities have a recognized role in enhancing performance, but few studies have examined their impact on this population. Thirty-one young (age 14.71 ± 2.27 years) males were assigned to an 8-week CTG or MTG. Overhead Squat, Y-Balance Test, Agility T-Test, Sit-and-Reach, Functional Hop Tests, and the Balance Error Scoring System were assessed before (pre) and after (post) the intervention for both dominant (D) and non-dominant (ND) limbs. Both groups improved the postero-lateral direction of the Y-Balance Test for the D (CTG, MD [95% CIs] = −8.108 [−15.620, −0.595], p = 0.035; MTG, MD [95% CIs] = −15.234 [−23.512, −6.956], p = 0.024) and ND (CTG, MD [95% CIs] = −9.110 [−16.150, −2.070], p = 0.013; MTG MD [95% CIs] = −13.899 [−21.657, −6.141], p = 0.001) limb and the medial reach for D (CTG, MD [95% CIs] = −17.279 [−26.364, −8.194], p = 0.001; MTG, MD [95% CIs] = −22.050 [−32.061, −12.039], p = 0.03) and ND (CTG, MD [95% CIs] = −9.309 [−17.093, −1.526], p = 0.021; MTG, MD [95% CIs] = −13.614 [−22.190, −5.037], p = 0.003), the Overhead Squat Test (CTG, MD [95% CIs] = −3.059 [−3.797, −2.321], p = 0.001; MTG, MD [95% CIs] = −3.643 [−4.456, −2.830], p = 0.001), and Agility T-Test (CTG, MD [95% CIs] = 0.572 [0.072, 1.073], p = 0.026; MTG, MD [95% CIs] = 0.696 [0.145, 1.248], p = 0.024) skills. Only CTG showed a significant improvement (MD [95% CIs] = −8.294 [−16.162, −0.426], p = 0.04) in single-leg hop performance for the ND limb. No significant improvements were observed in static balance or flexibility. No time × group effect was found. Both interventions improved key basketball-specific motor abilities and could be added to the basketball training session without adverse effect. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport-Specific Testing and Training Methods in Youth)

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9 pages, 205 KB

Open AccessArticle

Is She or He the Key Player in Pickleball Mixed Doubles? A Pilot Study on Sex-Based Performance Profiles

by Alexandru Nicolae Ungureanu, Paolo Riccardo Brustio, Damiano Li Volsi and Corrado Lupo

Sports 2025, 13(11), 397; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110397 - 6 Nov 2025

Abstract

Pickleball is a recent sport, and very little scientific information exists on its match performance, especially for mixed doubles. Therefore, the aim of this study was to describe the performance profile in relation to sex differences in terms of shot outcome, margin of [...] Read more.

Pickleball is a recent sport, and very little scientific information exists on its match performance, especially for mixed doubles. Therefore, the aim of this study was to describe the performance profile in relation to sex differences in terms of shot outcome, margin of victory, and advantage. Seventeen elite mixed double matches from Professional Pickleball Association tours were analyzed, specifically considering the final as well as the penultimate shot with regard to the sex of the opponent who played it to analyze the inter-player dynamics between the opponents. Elite mixed pickleball matches have been characterized by 1:1.4 work-to-rest ratio, with rallies meanly lasting 10.6 s and separated by 11.4 s between them. Among the 1678 final shots analyzed, males played significantly fewer forced errors and more winners than females, especially when the penultimate shot was played by a female opponent. No sex differences emerged when the penultimate shot was played by a male opponent. Additionally, males played more winners both when leading and when winning the match. Mixed doubles pickleball matches appear to be partially influenced by sex-imbalanced game dynamics, with a higher number of winners played by males, particularly when the preceding shot is played by a female, suggesting that this format offers only moderate inclusivity between sexes. Full article

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