Sports

13 pages, 623 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of a 6-Week Intermittent Hypoxia–Hyperoxia Exposure Program on Blood Pressure, Respiratory Function, Cardiac Autonomic Nervous Activity and CRP Levels in Older Adults: A Randomized Clinical Trial

by Arturo Ladriñán-Maestro, Alberto Sánchez-Sierra, María Herrera-Gómez-Platero and Jorge Sánchez-Infante

Sports 2026, 14(1), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14010042 - 16 Jan 2026

Abstract

Background and Objectives: The aim of this study is to objectively evaluate the effects of a six-week intermittent hypoxic–hyperoxic exposure program on blood pressure, respiratory function, cardiac autonomic nervous activity and C Reactive Protein levels in older adults. Materials and Methods: A double-blinded [...] Read more.

Background and Objectives: The aim of this study is to objectively evaluate the effects of a six-week intermittent hypoxic–hyperoxic exposure program on blood pressure, respiratory function, cardiac autonomic nervous activity and C Reactive Protein levels in older adults. Materials and Methods: A double-blinded randomized controlled clinical trial was conducted on twenty-two older adults. Heart rate variability, respiratory function, blood pressure, C Reactive Protein levels and oxygen saturation were measured at two time points: baseline and after 6 weeks of treatment. Results: The maximal inspiratory pressure variable increased significantly in the EG (+7.50 ± 1.72 cmH2O, p < 0.01, ES = 1.17), while no changes were observed in the CG. The LF/HF variable decreased significantly in the EG (−1.23 ± 0.34 n.u, p < 0.01, ES = 1.11), with no significant changes in the CG. The C Reactive Protein variable decreased significantly in the EG (−7.00 ± 3.07 mg/L, p < 0.01, ES = 1.4), with no significant changes in the CG. Conclusions: Six weeks of intermittent hypoxic–hyperoxic exposure was associated with trends toward improvements in blood pressure, respiratory function, cardiac autonomic nervous activity, and C Reactive Protein levels, compared with a placebo application of the same therapy. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 1085 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effectiveness of an mHealth Exercise Program on Fall Incidence, Fall Risk, and Fear of Falling in Nursing Home Residents: The Cluster Randomized Controlled BeSt Age Trial

by Jonathan Diener, Jelena Krafft, Sabine Rayling, Janina Krell-Roesch, Hagen Wäsche, Anna Lena Flagmeier, Alexander Woll and Kathrin Wunsch

Sports 2026, 14(1), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14010041 - 15 Jan 2026

Abstract

The global rise in nursing home (NH) populations presents substantial challenges, as residents frequently experience physical and cognitive decline, low physical activity, and high fall risk. This study evaluates the effectiveness of the BeSt Age App, a tablet-based, staff-supported mHealth intervention designed to [...] Read more.

The global rise in nursing home (NH) populations presents substantial challenges, as residents frequently experience physical and cognitive decline, low physical activity, and high fall risk. This study evaluates the effectiveness of the BeSt Age App, a tablet-based, staff-supported mHealth intervention designed to promote physical activity and prevent falls among NH residents. Primary outcomes were fall incidence and fall risk (assessed using Berg Balance Scale [BBS] and Timed Up and Go [TUG]); fear of falling was a secondary outcome. In a cluster-randomized controlled trial across 19 German NHs, 229 residents (mean age = 85.4 ± 7.4 years; 74.7% female) were assigned to an intervention group (IG) or control group (CG). The 12-week intervention comprised twice-weekly, tablet-guided exercise sessions implemented by NH staff. Mixed models and generalized estimating equations were used under an intention-to-treat framework. The IG showed significantly greater improvement in BBS scores than the CG (group × time: F(1, 190.81) = 8.25, p = 0.005, d = 0.22), while group × time changes in TUG performance, fear of falling, and fall incidence were nonsignificant. These findings demonstrate the feasibility of a staff-mediated mHealth approach to fall prevention in NH residents, showing significant improvements in BBS scores as one functional indicator of fall risk, while TUG, fall incidence and fear of falling showed no change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physical Activity for Preventing and Managing Falls in Older Adults)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 353 KB

Open AccessArticle

Incorporating Squat-Based Training into the Warm-Up Twice Weekly Improves Sprint, Jump, and Change-of-Direction Performance in Young Soccer Players

by Okba Selmi, Hamza Marzouki, Mohamed Amine Rahmoune, Elena Adelina Panaet, Bogdan Alexandru Antohe, Cristina Ioana Alexe, Ana Maria Vulpe and Anissa Bouassida

Sports 2026, 14(1), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14010040 - 14 Jan 2026

Abstract

Understanding the long-term effectiveness of warm-up strategies is essential for enhancing neuromuscular performance in youth soccer players. This study examined the long-term effects of integrating squat exercises into the final phase of the warm-up over nine weeks on sprint, jump, change-of-direction (COD), and [...] Read more.

Understanding the long-term effectiveness of warm-up strategies is essential for enhancing neuromuscular performance in youth soccer players. This study examined the long-term effects of integrating squat exercises into the final phase of the warm-up over nine weeks on sprint, jump, change-of-direction (COD), and aerobic performance in youth soccer players. Twenty-four male U17 players were randomly assigned to either a squat-based warm-up (experimental group [EG]) or a rondo-based warm-up (control group [CG]). The EG trained twice weekly using 3–4 sets of 4–12 repetitions at progressively increasing intensities (50–85% of 1-RM). Performance was assessed pre- and post-intervention using 10 and 30 m sprint, squat jump (SJ), countermovement (CMJ), standing long jump (SLJ), 5-jump (5JT), T-half (COD), and VAMEVAL tests. The EG showed small to large significant gains in sprint (10 m: −2.21%, Cohen’s d [d] = 1; 30 m: −1.6%, d = 0.58), jumping (SJ: +9.29%, d = 1.23; CMJ: +12.08%, d = 1.83; SLJ: +7.14%, d = 0.8; 5JT: +2.33%, d = 0.32), and COD (−1.41%, d = 0.32), while aerobic endurance showed no significant change (p > 0.05). The CG showed no significant improvements (p > 0.05). Overall, integrating brief, progressive squat exercises at the end of warm-ups twice weekly led to chronic improvements in explosive neuromuscular performance, with minimal impact on aerobic endurance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Health Through Physical Activity and Sports Science: Innovations in Applied Research)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 1612 KB

Open AccessCase Report

An Exploratory Case Series Investigating Concurrent Aerobic and Resistance Training in Young, Highly Trained Rowers

by Melissa E. Brown, Angela L. Spence, Martyn J. Binnie and Dale W. Chapman

Sports 2026, 14(1), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14010039 - 14 Jan 2026

Abstract

This study examined the longitudinal patterns of concurrent aerobic and resistance training in young elite rowers to address the limited understanding of how training volume, modality, and periodisation interact across a season, and to introduce a novel rowing-specific resistance training classification. A retrospective [...] Read more.

This study examined the longitudinal patterns of concurrent aerobic and resistance training in young elite rowers to address the limited understanding of how training volume, modality, and periodisation interact across a season, and to introduce a novel rowing-specific resistance training classification. A retrospective design was used to analyse group training data over 36 weeks (n = 9; 20.6 ± 0.5 years), and individual case studies over 55 weeks (n = 4; 21.6 ± 0.4 years). Aerobic loads, resistance training tonnage, and ergometer performance (power output) were tracked, with resistance exercises categorised as rowing-specific, upper accessory, lower accessory, or core. Weekly aerobic volume averaged 14.0 ± 5.0 h, and rowing-specific resistance accounted for 48–57% of total tonnage (14.13 × 10³ ± 7.41 × 10³ kg). Exploratory analyses suggested an inverse relationship between aerobic, and resistance loads across training phases and trends toward improved ergometer power in three of four case athletes. High concurrent loads also appeared to coincide with occasional missed or modified sessions in several cases. These findings highlight the importance of managing concurrent loads to support consistent training while offering a practical resistance training classification that may enhance monitoring and decision-making for developing rowers. Full article

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

20 pages, 3500 KB

Open AccessReview

Mapping Scientific Research on High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) in Overweight Populations (2011–2024)

by Juan David Paucar-Uribe, Andrés Julián Rendón-Sanchéz, Mauricio Vladimir Peña-Giraldo, Kevin Ricardo Forero González, Anyi Tatiana Sanabria Moreno, Boryi A. Becerra-Patiño, Laura del Pilar Prieto Mondragon, Jorge Olivares-Arancibia, Rodrigo Yáñez-Sepúlveda and José Francisco López-Gil

Sports 2026, 14(1), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14010038 - 14 Jan 2026

Abstract

Background: Several studies have investigated the importance of physical exercise (PE) in overweight and obese populations; however, to date, no bibliometric study has analyzed research trends in high-intensity interval training (HIIT) in overweight and obese populations across the entire life course. Objective [...] Read more.

Background: Several studies have investigated the importance of physical exercise (PE) in overweight and obese populations; however, to date, no bibliometric study has analyzed research trends in high-intensity interval training (HIIT) in overweight and obese populations across the entire life course. Objective: To analyze the scientific output of HIIT trends in overweight and obese populations. Method: Theoretical study using bibliometrics as a research technique. A total of 282 studies were identified in the Web of Science and PubMed databases for analysis with VOSViewer software 1.6.20. The equation used was (“High-intensity interval training” OR HIIT) AND (overweight OR obesity OR “risk factors” OR “obesity risk”). Results: The year 2022 was the most productive year (n = 46). Most of the documents are research articles (81%), followed by review articles (15%). Most studies do not specify the characteristics of the sample, only mentioning the application of a HIIT program in overweight or obese individuals in (65.6%) of the total articles found. There is low scientific output in research focused on women (23.4%). The most frequently occurring words were “exercise” (n = 145), “obesity” (n = 131), “high-intensity interval training” (n = 81), “overweight” (n = 78), “physical activity” (n = 73), “body composition” (n = 46), “weight loss” (n = 45), “health” (n = 42), and “cardiorespiratory fitness” (n = 40). Conclusions: Scientific research has advanced the understanding of the impact of HIIT in relation to excess weight, with total fat reduction being one of the most frequently reported variables and no differences observed between sexes. HIIT has shown benefits in populations with overweight and obesity when compared with low-intensity training programs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Benefits of Physical Activity and Exercise to Human Health: 2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 390 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Effects of Training Interventions on Physical Fitness and Performance in Kabaddi Players: A Systematic Review

by Daniel González-Devesa, Lidia Iglesias Vieites and Nerea Blanco-Martínez

Sports 2026, 14(1), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14010037 - 13 Jan 2026

Abstract

Kabaddi is a contact sport that demands high physical fitness and specific technical skills. Although multiple training programs have been designed to improve performance, no systematic review had previously synthesized their effects on physical, physiological, and performance-related outcomes. This systematic review of randomized [...] Read more.

Kabaddi is a contact sport that demands high physical fitness and specific technical skills. Although multiple training programs have been designed to improve performance, no systematic review had previously synthesized their effects on physical, physiological, and performance-related outcomes. This systematic review of randomized controlled trials aimed to evaluate the impact of different training interventions on physical fitness, physiological parameters, and sport performance in kabaddi players. A systematic review was performed in the Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus databases up to May 2025. Randomized controlled trials analyzing training interventions in kabaddi players were included. Ten studies with a total of 458 participants were included. Interventions lasted between 6 and 12 weeks and comprised modalities such as strength training, plyometrics, combined training, circuit training, SAQ (speed, agility, and quickness), and Tabata. Nine studies reported significant within-group improvements in variables such as strength, speed, agility, and flexibility. In studies with between-group comparisons, training interventions could be more effective than control conditions. One study also reported improvements in physiological and hematological parameters. Overall, training interventions in kabaddi players may improve physical fitness, sport-specific performance, and certain physiological and hematological parameters. However, the evidence should be interpreted with caution given the predominantly fair methodological quality of the included trials. PROSPERO (CRD420251272758). Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 1054 KB

Open AccessArticle

A New Method of Analysing Sprint, Deceleration, and Change of Direction Abilities in Trained Athletes

by Gregory Gordon and Andrew Green

Sports 2026, 14(1), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14010036 - 13 Jan 2026

Abstract

In modern sports, straight-line sprinting alone is insufficient for assessing overall sprint performance, as athletes must also decelerate and change direction efficiently. Existing methods lack a single metric that integrates all abilities, enabling holistic assessment. This study aimed to develop a comprehensive and [...] Read more.

In modern sports, straight-line sprinting alone is insufficient for assessing overall sprint performance, as athletes must also decelerate and change direction efficiently. Existing methods lack a single metric that integrates all abilities, enabling holistic assessment. This study aimed to develop a comprehensive and novel measurement of multidirectional sprinting ability. Fifty-four university athletes (21.0 ± 1.5 years; 69.6 ± 9.1 kg; 172.6 ± 7.8 cm) performed linear sprints, decelerations, and 45°, 90°, and 135° change of direction (COD) tests in both directions over 30 m. Sprint accelerations and decelerations were recorded using a Stalker ATS II radar gun, while COD times were measured with stationary time gates. Sprint velocities were used to generate a multidirectional sprint area (MDSA), which was divided into forward, backward, left, and right sections. The MDSA method is calculated as the area of the octagonal polygon created by plotting eight velocity vectors from different angles of sprints. Paired t-tests compared area differences across directions, and ANOVA tests were used to compare sporting codes and sex. The resulting model reported differences across sporting codes (p < 0.001), sex (p < 0.001), the total area value (p < 0.001), and total area percentage (p < 0.001). The results showed a significant difference between forward and backward accelerations (p < 0.001), but no significant difference between left and right movements (p = 0.244). The MDSA method offers a reliable, quantitative intra-session approach for assessing athletes’ multidirectional sprint abilities by calculating the octagonal area on the basis of velocity data. This holistic analysis identifies asymmetries and performance weaknesses, providing valuable insights for coaches. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 1064 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Educational Intervention on Legal Anti-Doping Knowledge and Doping Tendency in Elite Athletes

by Antonela Sinkovic, Dinko Pivalica, Igor Jukic, Miran Pehar, Bozen Pivalica, Ivana Cerkez Zovko and Damir Sekulic

Sports 2026, 14(1), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14010035 - 9 Jan 2026

Abstract

Studies have rarely examined the effects of changes in legal anti-doping knowledge (LADK) on doping tendencies in athletes. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a structured educational intervention focused on LADK and to analyze how LADK changes affect elite athletes’ doping [...] Read more.

Studies have rarely examined the effects of changes in legal anti-doping knowledge (LADK) on doping tendencies in athletes. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a structured educational intervention focused on LADK and to analyze how LADK changes affect elite athletes’ doping tendency. The participants were athletes (n = 310; 156 females; 24.1 ± 4.2 years of age), all actively competing at the senior national or international level in either individual (N = 119) or team sports (N = 191), tested on sociodemographic-, sport-, doping-factors (including doping tendency—DT), and LADK. Participants were randomly divided into an experimental group (E: N = 140) and a control group (C: N = 170). The E group participated in a structured educational program on LADK. A pre- and posttest design was used to evaluate changes in LADK (dependent variable). Logistic regression was calculated to evaluate the association between LADK and binarized DT (negative vs. neutral/positive DT). Factorial ANOVA for repeated measurements revealed significant improvement in LADK in the E group, with significant ANOVA effects for time (F test = 35.8, p < 0.05) and time × group interaction (F test = 12.27, p < 0.05). The logistic regression did not reveal significant correlations between LADK and DT. Further studies exploring younger athletes, as well as long-term, multidimensional interventions, are warranted. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 594 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Mechanical and Cardiopulmonary Adaptations During Repeated Jumps in Volleyball Players: Insights from CPET Analysis

by Ștefan Adrian Martin, Isabella Pelaghie, George Mihăiță Gavra, Gabriela Szabo and Roxana Maria Martin-Hadmaș

Sports 2026, 14(1), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14010034 - 8 Jan 2026

Abstract

Volleyball physical performance relies on the interaction between mechanical power, metabolic efficiency, and ventilatory regulation during repeated high-intensity actions. This study examined mechanical and cardiopulmonary responses during three consecutive 15 s countermovement jump bouts in female volleyball players, using simultaneous cardiopulmonary exercise testing. [...] Read more.

Volleyball physical performance relies on the interaction between mechanical power, metabolic efficiency, and ventilatory regulation during repeated high-intensity actions. This study examined mechanical and cardiopulmonary responses during three consecutive 15 s countermovement jump bouts in female volleyball players, using simultaneous cardiopulmonary exercise testing. Eighteen female athletes (18–28 years) completed the protocol with 60 s active recovery between efforts. Mechanical performance showed a progressive decline (p < 0.01), with jump height decreasing from 20.59 ± 3.04 cm to 19.30 ± 3.23 cm and power output from 15.80 ± 2.61 to 14.83 ± 2.25 W/kg (p = 0.001). Oxygen uptake (VO₂) increased from 16.40 ± 6.73 to 20.87 ± 6.08 mL/min/kg (p = 0.002), while respiratory exchange ratio (RER) rose above 1.0, suggesting a growing anaerobic contribution. VE/VO₂ and PetO₂ also increased significantly (p < 0.001), indicating ventilatory adjustment to metabolic stress. Despite these adaptations, recovery between efforts appeared incomplete, reflected by persistent ventilatory and metabolic activation. These findings suggest moderate oxidative efficiency and partial fatigue compensation under short recovery conditions. The testing model may serve as a practical approach to evaluate the interplay between mechanical and metabolic performance and to refine individualized conditioning strategies in volleyball players. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Health-Optimized Athletic Training)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 660 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Effects of Repeated Linear Sprint and Change-of-Direction Speed Training on Performance, Perceived Exertion and Enjoyment in Youth Soccer Players

by Okba Selmi, Mohamed Amine Rahmoune, Hamza Marzouki, Bilel Cherni, Anissa Bouassida, Antonella Muscella, Santo Marsigliante, Jolita Vveinhardt and Wafa Douzi

Sports 2026, 14(1), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14010033 - 8 Jan 2026

Abstract

Youth soccer requires an integrated approach combining technical–tactical, physical, and psychological components to enhance performance and long-term engagement. Although Repeated Linear Sprint Training (LRST) and Repeated Change of Direction Speed (RCOD) training are widely used to improve fitness, direct comparisons of their effects [...] Read more.

Youth soccer requires an integrated approach combining technical–tactical, physical, and psychological components to enhance performance and long-term engagement. Although Repeated Linear Sprint Training (LRST) and Repeated Change of Direction Speed (RCOD) training are widely used to improve fitness, direct comparisons of their effects on physical performance and perceptual responses in adolescent players remain limited. This study compared the effects of an 8-week LRST versus RCOD training program on physical performance, perceived exertion, and enjoyment in youth soccer players. Twenty-six male players were randomly assigned to an LRST group (n = 13) or an RCOD group (n = 13). Both groups completed two weekly sessions of their assigned training in addition to regular soccer practice. Pre- and post-intervention assessments included acceleration and sprint speed, change-of-direction (COD) performance (T-Half Test [THT], Illinois Agility Test [IAT]), lower-limb power (Five-Jump Test [5JT], Squat Jump [SJ], Countermovement Jump [CMJ]), and endurance-intensive fitness. Enjoyment and session-RPE were recorded after each training session. Both groups improved across all physical measures (main effect of time, p < 0.0001). Significant time × group interactions favored RCOD for THT (~1.6%), IAT (~1.1%), 5JT (~2.3%), CMJ (~5.2%), and SJ (~6.3%), with no overall main effect of group. Enjoyment was consistently higher in the RCOD group (p < 0.0001), while session-RPE did not differ between groups. In youth soccer, both LRST and RCOD effectively enhance physical performance. However, RCOD appears more effective for improving pre-planned COD and explosive performance while eliciting greater enjoyment without increasing perceived exertion. Incorporating structured RCOD training alongside linear sprint work may represent a practical strategy to optimize physical development and sustain player engagement. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 2594 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Sport-Specific Brain Endurance Training on Performance in Elite Orienteering Athletes

by Kenneth Buch, Richard Thomas, Walter Staiano and Simon Lønbro

Sports 2026, 14(1), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14010032 - 8 Jan 2026

Abstract

Aim: To investigate the effect of a 6-week sport-specific BET intervention on cognitive and physical performance in elite orienteering athletes. Methods: A single-arm cross-over study with an initial 6-week control period (CON) followed by a 6-week brain endurance training (BET). Thirteen Danish national [...] Read more.

Aim: To investigate the effect of a 6-week sport-specific BET intervention on cognitive and physical performance in elite orienteering athletes. Methods: A single-arm cross-over study with an initial 6-week control period (CON) followed by a 6-week brain endurance training (BET). Thirteen Danish national team orienteering athletes participated in the study. CON athletes adhered to planned physical, cognitive, and technical training. BET athletes added 20 min of route choice assessment (RCA) training after each weekly aerobic training session. The 30 min Stroop color-word task and a sport-specific RCA task evaluated general and sport-specific cognitive performance. A submaximal (1000 m) and a maximal (5000 m) running test were also conducted. Endpoints were assessed pre and post CON and post BET. Results: Average time used per RCA task was 1.4 ± 0.4 s lower following BET (27%) (p = 0.009) compared with no change after CON. Similarly, the total number of correct Stroop answers increased by 13.8 ± 5.21 points (2%) after BET with no change after CON. RCA time use declined steeply from session 1–7, whereafter average time use plateaued. Running performance did not differ significantly between periods. Conclusion: BET improved sport-specific performance and aspects of general cognitive performance, and may effectively improve cognitive parts important for elite orienteering performance. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 1242 KB

Open AccessArticle

Hierarchical Analysis of Physical Activity Determinants in Brazilian Adolescents: A Cross-Sectional Study

by Arley Santos Leão, Roberto Jerônimo dos Santos Silva, Naiara Ribeiro Almeida, Cinthya Luiza Rezende Oliveira, Diego Ignacio Valenzuela Pérez, Esteban Aedo-Muñoz, Ciro José Brito, Júlio Manuel Cardoso Martins and Aldo Matos da Costa

Sports 2026, 14(1), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14010031 - 8 Jan 2026

Abstract

Background: Physical inactivity during adolescence remains a major public health concern, yet its multifactorial determinants are not fully understood in low- and middle-income settings. Objective: To identify and quantify the determinants of physical activity (PA) among Brazilian adolescents using a hierarchical logistic regression [...] Read more.

Background: Physical inactivity during adolescence remains a major public health concern, yet its multifactorial determinants are not fully understood in low- and middle-income settings. Objective: To identify and quantify the determinants of physical activity (PA) among Brazilian adolescents using a hierarchical logistic regression model that reflects the theoretical ordering of distal to proximal factors. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted with 856 adolescents (13–19 years). Data were obtained from the validated Brazilian Youth Risk Behavior Survey and the Brazilian Economic Classification Criteria (ABEP) socioeconomic questionnaire. PA was dichotomized according to World Health Organization recommendations. Hierarchical logistic regression examined five theoretical blocks: sociodemographic, anthropometric, substance use, weight/diet, and sedentary behavior. Results: Overall, 5 out of 17 predictors were significant in the full model. extended Body mass index (eBMI) was negatively associated with physical activity (OR = 0.331, 95% CI: 0.169–0.647, p = 0.001), while body mass was positively associated (OR = 2.078, 95% CI: 1.045–4.135, p = 0.037). Working status (OR = 1.235, 95% CI: 1.035–1.475, p = 0.019) and weight loss attempts (OR = 1.327, 95% CI: 1.042–1.690, p = 0.022) increased the odds of being active, whereas current smoking reduced it (OR = 0.715, 95% CI: 0.517–0.990, p = 0.043). Model discrimination improved progressively (AUC = 0.577 to 0.692). Conclusions: Physical activity among Brazilian adolescents was primarily influenced by behavioral and perceptual rather than demographic factors. These findings highlight the need for integrated interventions promoting muscle development, body positivity, and smoking prevention. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Benefits of Physical Activity and Exercise to Human Health: 2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

14 pages, 1112 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cognitive Processing Efficiency (Throughput) Improves with Aerobic Exercise and Is Independent of the Environmental Oxygenation Level: A Randomized Crossover Trial

by Takehira Nakao, Toru Hirata, Takahiro Adachi, Jun Fukuda, Tadanori Fukada, Kaori Iino-Ohori, Miki Igarashi, Keisuke Yoshikawa, Kensuke Iwasa and Atsushi Saito

Sports 2026, 14(1), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14010030 - 7 Jan 2026

Abstract

Aerobic exercise with eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) may enhance cognition via cerebrovascular pathways. We tested whether mild hyperbaric oxygen (HBO; 1.41 atmospheres absolute [ATA], approximately 30% O₂) adds to gains in cognitive processing capacity (throughput) versus normobaric normoxia (1.0 ATA, approximately 21% [...] Read more.

Aerobic exercise with eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) may enhance cognition via cerebrovascular pathways. We tested whether mild hyperbaric oxygen (HBO; 1.41 atmospheres absolute [ATA], approximately 30% O₂) adds to gains in cognitive processing capacity (throughput) versus normobaric normoxia (1.0 ATA, approximately 21% [20.9%] O₂). Healthy young adults (n = 16) performed cycling exercise at 60–70% VO_2peak for 60 min, twice weekly, for 4 weeks per environment with a 1-week washout; EPA (2170 mg·day⁻¹) was taken during each 4-week training phase (total 8 weeks) and was paused during the washout. An EPA-only control (n = 8) was included for supplementary analysis. The primary outcome was throughput (correct·min⁻¹; T1–T4); secondary outcomes were interference indices (I1: stroop interference, I2: reverse-stroop interference). Effects were estimated using linear mixed models [environment, time, environment × time; AR(1), REML] and Hedges’ g_av; accuracy used generalized estimating equations. Throughput improved mainly with time (T1–T2 p < 0.001; T4 p = 0.017; T3 p = 0.055), with no environment or interaction effects. I1/I2 showed no significant change, and one task exhibited an accuracy ceiling. Under safe, feasible conditions (≤1.41 ATA), aerobic exercise improved processing capacity (throughput) independently of environmental oxygenation level. The absence of detectable additive effects should be interpreted cautiously under conservative settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Benefits of Physical Activity and Exercise to Human Health)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 1044 KB

Open AccessArticle

Towards Accurate Reference Values for Heart Rate and Speed Zones by Aerobic Fitness and Sex in Long-Distance Runners

by Jonathan Esteve-Lanao, Sergio Sellés-Pérez, Héctor Arévalo-Chico and Roberto Cejuela

Sports 2026, 14(1), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14010029 - 7 Jan 2026

Abstract

Background: This study aimed to provide reference values for estimating training intensities in long-distance runners based on progressive incremental tests, considering differences related to sex and performance level. Methods: A total of 1411 endurance-trained runners (819 men and 592 women) completed a standardized [...] Read more.

Background: This study aimed to provide reference values for estimating training intensities in long-distance runners based on progressive incremental tests, considering differences related to sex and performance level. Methods: A total of 1411 endurance-trained runners (819 men and 592 women) completed a standardized treadmill protocol with gas exchange analysis to determine ventilatory thresholds and peak oxygen consumption (VO_2peak). Heart rate (HR) and running speed at each threshold were expressed relative to their peak values. Results: HR at second ventilatory threshold (VT2) occurred at 93.5 ± 2.5% of HR peak, and HR at first ventilatory threshold at 85.1 ± 4.6%. The relative running speeds at VT2 and VT1 corresponded to 87.6 ± 3.9% and 73.9 ± 5.5% of the speed at VO_2peak, respectively. In men, beginners exhibited higher relative HR and VO₂ values at the ventilatory thresholds than elite runners. In contrast, women displayed higher and more stable relative values across performance levels. Conclusions: These findings establish precise, evidence-based reference ranges derived from a large cohort of runners and highlight the need to consider sex and performance level when estimating exercise intensities. Individualized physiological assessment remains essential for accurate training prescription and performance optimization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Endurance Sports Performance: Training, Recovery and Injury-Prevention Strategies)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 423 KB

Open AccessArticle

Some Biomechanical and Anthropmetric Differences Between Elite Swimmers with Down Syndrome and Intellectual Disabilities

by Ana Querido, António R. Sampaio, Ana Silva, Rui Corredeira, Daniel Daly and Ricardo J. Fernandes

Sports 2026, 14(1), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14010028 - 6 Jan 2026

Abstract

The purpose was to characterize and compare biomechanical and coordinative parameters at maximum velocity between swimmers with Down syndrome and intellectual disabilities and examine these in relation to their anthropometrics. Nine swimmers (four with Down syndrome and five with intellectual disabilities) performed three [...] Read more.

The purpose was to characterize and compare biomechanical and coordinative parameters at maximum velocity between swimmers with Down syndrome and intellectual disabilities and examine these in relation to their anthropometrics. Nine swimmers (four with Down syndrome and five with intellectual disabilities) performed three bouts of 25 m crawl stroke, each at maximum velocity, which were recorded with the Qualysis motion analysis system. Anthropometric variables, BMI, and percentage of body fat were also assessed. Swimmers with Down syndrome presented a smaller height, acromion height, sitting height, arm span, hand length, hand width, foot length, foot width, and velocity than swimmers with intellectual disabilities. Swimmers with Down syndrome have disadvantageous anthropometrics and slower swimming velocities compared to swimmers with intellectual disabilities. Those swimmers also appear to present distinctive coordination (catch-up for Down syndrome and superposition for intellectual disabilities) and intracyclic velocity variation (Down syndrome presented higher values) compared to swimmers with intellectual disabilities, suggesting a lower swimming efficiency. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 1889 KB

Open AccessArticle

Physical and Performance Profiles Differentiate Competitive Levels in U-18 Basketball Players

by Anna Goniotaki, Dimitrios I. Bourdas, Antonios K. Travlos, Panteleimon Bakirtzoglou, Apostolos Theos and Emmanouil Zacharakis

Sports 2026, 14(1), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14010027 - 5 Jan 2026

Abstract

Background: Evidence on how physical and technical factors distinguish U-18 basketball levels is limited, yet these determinants may aid talent identification and development. This study examined differences in anthropometric, physical performance, and technical characteristics between high-level (HL; n = 38) and low-level (LL; [...] Read more.

Background: Evidence on how physical and technical factors distinguish U-18 basketball levels is limited, yet these determinants may aid talent identification and development. This study examined differences in anthropometric, physical performance, and technical characteristics between high-level (HL; n = 38) and low-level (LL; n = 35) U-18 male basketball players and explored relationships between technical skills and key physical attributes across all participants. Methods: Participants were evaluated across anthropometry, physical performance, and basketball-specific technical skills. Statistical analyses assessed between-group differences and correlations, with significance set at p ≤ 0.05. Results: Compared to LL players, HL players exhibited significantly superior physical attributes, including greater height (Cohen’s d = 0.67) and arm-span (d = 0.65), reduced body fat (d = −0.58), and advanced performance metrics (10 m-speed running (d = −0.78), 20 m-speed running (d = −0.93), flexibility (d = 1.26), counter-movement jump height (d = 1.27), intermittent endurance (d = 1.18)). Technical proficiency in tasks such as 10 m- and 20 m-speed dribbling, maneuver dribbling and defensive sliding was also significantly faster in the HL group (d = −0.96, d = −1.05, d = −1.87, and d = −1.14, respectively). Several anthropometric and performance variables were strongly correlated with technical skills, indicating their relevance for distinguishing competitive levels. Conclusions: These findings underscore the interplay of physical, technical, and performance factors in high-level youth basketball. Coaches may use this information to guide targeted training strategies that support talent identification, player development, and competitive success. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 2100 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Contrast Water Therapy on Physiological and Perceptual Recovery Following High-Intensity Interval Swimming in Collegiate Swimmers

by Kazuki Kino, Mitsuo Neya, Yuya Watanabe and Noriyuki Kida

Sports 2026, 14(1), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14010026 - 5 Jan 2026

Abstract

This study examined the effects of contrast water therapy (CWT) on physiological, perceptual, and performance-related recovery in collegiate male swimmers following high-intensity interval training. Fifteen freestyle swimmers (19.3 ± 1.1 years) completed two sessions of five 100 m maximal-effort intervals under two recovery [...] Read more.

This study examined the effects of contrast water therapy (CWT) on physiological, perceptual, and performance-related recovery in collegiate male swimmers following high-intensity interval training. Fifteen freestyle swimmers (19.3 ± 1.1 years) completed two sessions of five 100 m maximal-effort intervals under two recovery conditions, CWT and passive rest (PAS), in a crossover design. The CWT protocol consisted of 10 alternating immersions in hot (40–41 °C, 60 s) and cold (20–21 °C, 30 s) water. Blood lactate (LA), blood pressure (BP), and subjective fatigue (VAS-FAS) were assessed at multiple time points. Compared with PAS, CWT resulted in significantly lower post-recovery blood LA (7.75 ± 2.08 vs. 10.86 ± 2.86 mmol/L, p = 0.002) and reduced subjective fatigue (6.60 ± 1.30 vs. 7.60 ± 0.91 cm, p = 0.021), whereas no significant differences were observed in BP or 100-m swimming performance. Individual-level analyses revealed heterogeneous responses, with most swimmers demonstrating improved lactate clearance and reduced fatigue following CWT, although performance responses varied among participants. These findings indicate that CWT facilitates physiological and perceptual recovery without producing immediate performance enhancement. CWT may be considered a practical short-term recovery option for competitive swimmers, although its effectiveness likely depends on individual response characteristics. Further research involving larger and more diverse samples is warranted to clarify optimal application parameters and individual recovery profiles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Endurance Sports Performance: Training, Recovery and Injury-Prevention Strategies)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 940 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Physical Activity as a Tool for Social Inclusion in Multiple Sclerosis: A Systematic Review of Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed-Methods Evidence

by Federica Marzoli, Ludovica Cardinali, Gianluca Di Pinto, Matteo Campanella, Andrea Colombo, Dafne Ferrari, Lorenzo Marcelli, Fioretta Silvestri, Andrea De Giorgio, Andrea Velardi, Davide Curzi and Laura Guidetti

Sports 2026, 14(1), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14010025 - 5 Jan 2026

Abstract

Background: People with multiple sclerosis (PwMS) face a wide range of social barriers, including stigma, limited support, and inaccessible environments, that restrict participation in physical activity (PA). Although PA is known to improve physical and psychological outcomes, its role in reducing social [...] Read more.

Background: People with multiple sclerosis (PwMS) face a wide range of social barriers, including stigma, limited support, and inaccessible environments, that restrict participation in physical activity (PA). Although PA is known to improve physical and psychological outcomes, its role in reducing social barriers has not been clearly synthesized. Methods: Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, we conducted a systematic search of PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science (January 1997–October 2025). Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-methods studies examining how PA relates to social barriers, facilitators, or social outcomes for PwMS were included. Data were synthesized using a thematic analysis approach due to heterogeneity in study designs and outcomes. Risk of bias was assessed using JBI, NIH, RoB 2.0, and MMAT tools. Results: Twenty-nine studies met the inclusion criteria. The thematic synthesis identified three overarching mechanisms through which PA contributes to reducing social barriers: (1) peer support and shared experience, whereby group-based PA reduced isolation and normalized fluctuating symptoms; (2) guidance from knowledgeable professionals, which fostered trust, confidence, and perceived safety; and (3) changes in social identity, with participants shifting from a “sick role” toward identities such as “exerciser” or “athlete.” These mechanisms were supported by high-quality qualitative studies and by quantitative evidence showing small-to-moderate effect sizes for improvements in self-efficacy, social participation, and perceived social support. Conclusions: PA functions as a socially transformative practice for PwMS when delivered in group-based, supervised, and accessible formats. Programs designed to intentionally cultivate peer connection, professional support, and identity-building processes may be especially effective in overcoming social barriers and promoting social inclusion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Promotion of Healthy Habits, Inclusive Sport and Educational Improvement)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

19 pages, 1962 KB

Open AccessArticle

Acute Effects of Exercise on Metabolic, Inflammatory, and Immune Markers in Adolescent Girls with Normal Weight or Overweight/Obesity

by Wissal Abassi, Nejmeddine Ouerghi, Moncef Feki, Santo Marsigliante, Anissa Bouassida, Beat Knechtle, Jolita Vveinhardt and Antonella Muscella

Sports 2026, 14(1), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14010024 - 5 Jan 2026

Abstract

Background: Obesity alters metabolic, inflammatory, and immune responses, and acute exercise may affect these parameters differently according to body composition. This study investigated the acute effects of Spartacus exercise on metabolic, inflammatory, and immune markers in adolescent girls with overweight/obesity and normal weight. [...] Read more.

Background: Obesity alters metabolic, inflammatory, and immune responses, and acute exercise may affect these parameters differently according to body composition. This study investigated the acute effects of Spartacus exercise on metabolic, inflammatory, and immune markers in adolescent girls with overweight/obesity and normal weight. Methods: In this non-randomized clinical study, sixteen girls with overweight/obesity (BMI: 31.17 ± 3.85 kg/m²) and fourteen normal-weight girls (BMI: 21.93 ± 0.99 kg/m²) performed an intermittent running test (15 s effort, 15 s passive recovery), starting at 7 km·h⁻¹ with 1 km·h⁻¹ increments every 3 min until exhaustion. Blood samples were collected at rest (T0), immediately post-exercise (T1), and 30 min post-exercise (T2). CRP and ESR were assessed at baseline to characterize participants’ inflammatory status, while glucose and leukocyte subpopulations were evaluated to investigate acute exercise responses. Results: Fasting glucose, lipid profile (TC, TG, HDL-C, LDL-C), inflammatory markers (CRP, ESR), and leukocyte subpopulations were assessed. Significant group effects were observed for all metabolic and inflammatory markers, reflecting higher baseline values in participants with overweight/obesity compared with normal-weight participants (p < 0.05). Significant effects of time were found for glucose and leukocytes (p < 0.001), indicating acute exercise-induced changes, along with significant time × group interactions. Participants with overweight/obesity showed greater and more prolonged increases in glucose, total leukocytes, and neutrophils, whereas normal-weight girls returned to baseline within 30 min. Conclusions: Acute high-intensity intermittent exercise induces transient metabolic and immune responses in adolescents, with amplified and prolonged effects in those with obesity. These findings highlight the importance of considering body composition when prescribing exercise programs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interventions to Increase Physical Activity and Measurements to Evaluate Performance in Children and Adolescents)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Description

Sports

Latest Articles

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Highly Accessed Articles

Latest Books

E-Mail Alert

News

Topics

Conferences

Special Issues

Topical Collections

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI