Sports

9 pages, 2982 KB

Open AccessArticle

Graft-to-Footprint Mismatch Is Not Associated with Early ACL Reconstruction Failure: A Retrospective Cohort Study

by Alex Quok An Teo, Zavier Yongxuan Lim, Janice Hui En Tan, Joel Zhao Jie Lee, Hoi Pong Nicholas Wong and Fucai Han

Sports 2026, 14(9), 367; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14090367 - 25 Aug 2026

Abstract

Purpose: In a relatively new concept of individualised ACL reconstruction, the restoration or matching of the native ACL footprints at both the tibial and femoral insertions might be sufficient as a surgical objective. This study aimed to determine whether ACL graft size [...] Read more.

Purpose: In a relatively new concept of individualised ACL reconstruction, the restoration or matching of the native ACL footprints at both the tibial and femoral insertions might be sufficient as a surgical objective. This study aimed to determine whether ACL graft size relative to the native ACL tibial footprint influences the rate of graft failure in a Singaporean Asian population. Methods: A retrospective study of all consecutive patients who underwent primary hamstring autograft ACL reconstruction over a 3-year period at a tertiary referral centre was performed. Baseline anthropometric data and native ACL tibial footprint area from pre-operative MRI scans were collected. Graft area was calculated based on the graft tunnel diameter. ACL graft failures were diagnosed clinically and confirmed radiologically. Multivariable analyses were performed using pre-specified variables based on the literature. Results: This cohort comprised 240 patients with a mean age of 24.4 years. There were a total of seven graft failures (2.92%), with two patients undergoing revision surgeries. There was no association between graft-to-footprint ratios and failure rates (71.9 vs. 80.2%, p = 0.386). There were no other significant predictors of graft failure. There was no statistically significant difference in graft failure rate between grafts <8 mm and ≥8 mm (p = 1.00). Gender, but not the graft-to-footprint ratio, was a significant predictor of graft size. Conclusions: No statistically significant association was identified between graft-to-footprint ratio and early graft failure. However, the low event rate and short-term follow-up limit definitive conclusions. Full article

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13 pages, 272 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Performance Indicators in Decision-Making and Execution in U14 Female Basketball Players

by Jorge Iglesias-Martín, Salvador Pérez-Muñoz and Alberto Rodríguez-Cayetano

Sports 2026, 14(9), 366; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14090366 - 24 Aug 2026

Abstract

Female youth basketball remains an underexplored area of performance analysis. This study aimed to analyze the participation and offensive performance of players on a female youth basketball team across a season, assessing decision-making and execution in offensive plays according to playing position and [...] Read more.

Female youth basketball remains an underexplored area of performance analysis. This study aimed to analyze the participation and offensive performance of players on a female youth basketball team across a season, assessing decision-making and execution in offensive plays according to playing position and contextual variables. An observational methodology was applied using the Game Performance Assessment Instrument (GPAI) across 15 matches involving a youth team (n = 11; mean age 13.89 ± 0.25 years). A total of 9450 offensive acts (dribbles, passes, shots, screens, and off-ball movements) were analyzed, calculating participation, execution, decision-making, and game performance metrics by playing position (guards, forwards, and centers) and four contextual variables. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was applied, and univariate analyses of variance (ANOVA) were subsequently conducted to identify the specific index in which differences were located. Results showed the highest values across all indices for guards (Participation = 45.12%; Execution = 0.85; Decision-Making = 0.92; Game Performance = 0.89) and the lowest for centers (26.28%, 0.77, 0.85, 0.81, respectively), confirming differentiated offensive profiles. Regarding contextual variables, playing at home improved offensive performance for all positions, while performance declined in all positions as proximity to the opponent’s basket increased. By contrast, the game period showed position-specific differences, and also previous wins modulated participation and offensive performance, reflecting the influence of perceived opponent quality, with effects varying by position. These findings highlight the need for position- and context-specific training to enhance offensive performance for this team’s players. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue From Brain to Movement: Cognitive and Perceptual Roles in Motor Control and Sport Performance)

11 pages, 436 KB

Open AccessArticle

Relative Age and Maturity Timing in Youth Team Sports: Associations with Body Size and Vertical Jump Performance

by Cíntia França, Francisco Teixeira, Francisco Martins, Honorato Sousa, Koulla Parpa, Fahri Safa Cinarli and Élvio R. Gouveia

Sports 2026, 14(9), 365; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14090365 - 24 Aug 2026

Abstract

Relative age effect (RAE) and biological maturation can significantly impact athlete selection. This study examined the presence of RAE in youth team invasion sports and assessed whether the timing of maturity influences body size and lower-body explosive strength. Athletes were grouped by age [...] Read more.

Relative age effect (RAE) and biological maturation can significantly impact athlete selection. This study examined the presence of RAE in youth team invasion sports and assessed whether the timing of maturity influences body size and lower-body explosive strength. Athletes were grouped by age category (U14, U16, U18), and the distribution of birth quartiles was analyzed. Maturity timing was estimated using age at peak height velocity (APHV), and lower-body explosive strength was evaluated through jumping performance. Comparisons across age groups showed progressive increases in body size and jumping performance with advancing age, consistent with pubertal changes in fat-free mass and neuromuscular function. The birthdate distribution indicated an overrepresentation of relatively older athletes (U16 and U18), suggesting that selection bias may intensify with age around the pubertal window. Regression analyses showed that earlier APHV was significantly associated with greater body size after controlling for chronological age (CA) (p ≤ 0.01), although CA remained the strongest predictor. In contrast, APHV did not significantly explain additional variance in jumping performance, suggesting that anthropometrics, training exposure, and movement technique likely contributed. The current findings underscore the role of biological maturation in body size and the need for youth sport systems to include structured strength and conditioning programs that optimize lower-body muscle power. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Youth Sport Performance and Athlete Development)

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16 pages, 904 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Use of the STRYD^® Power Meter and Its Metrics in Trained Runners: A Systematic Review

by Eugenio Barrios García-Miguel, Carmen Repullo, Teresa Urbina-Gómez and José María González-Ravé

Sports 2026, 14(8), 364; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080364 - 21 Aug 2026

Abstract

The STRYD^® power meter has been used by runners and running coaches in recent years. The data it provides may offer useful information for training monitoring and performance assessment. Accordingly, this systematic review identifies and analyzes the use of the main parameters [...] Read more.

The STRYD^® power meter has been used by runners and running coaches in recent years. The data it provides may offer useful information for training monitoring and performance assessment. Accordingly, this systematic review identifies and analyzes the use of the main parameters provided by the STRYD^® power meter in the scientific literature. The PRISMA guidelines were used to identify relevant studies. The search was conducted in the electronic databases PubMed, Scopus and Google Scholar. In total, 142 studies were identified. After removing duplicates and assessing the eligibility of the abstracts, 29 studies were included in the systematic review. Eight of the main metrics provided by STRYD^® were analyzed. The total number of times each metric appeared varied widely, as did the number of metrics analyzed in each study. Power output was identified as the most frequently used metric in scientific studies and as the primary variable in the primary objectives sought. Ground contact time and cadence were also used by a high percentage of users, far exceeding the rest: vertical oscillation, flight time, stride length, form power, and stiffness. The study provides coaches and technical staff with guidelines on which variables to use when analyzing runners using STRYD^®. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Endurance Sports Performance: Training, Recovery and Injury-Prevention Strategies)

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16 pages, 1247 KB

Open AccessArticle

Contribution of Aerobic Physiological Variables to 500 m Sprint Kayak Performance in National-Level Athletes: A Hierarchical Regression Analysis

by Apostolos Papandreou, Giorgos Paradisis, Anastassios Philippou and Elias Zacharogiannis

Sports 2026, 14(8), 363; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080363 - 20 Aug 2026

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine the independent contribution of aerobic physiological variables to 500 m sprint kayak performance in national-level male athletes. Twenty-four male flatwater kayak athletes completed post-intervention physiological and performance assessments following a 6-week training intervention. Sprint performance [...] Read more.

The purpose of this study was to examine the independent contribution of aerobic physiological variables to 500 m sprint kayak performance in national-level male athletes. Twenty-four male flatwater kayak athletes completed post-intervention physiological and performance assessments following a 6-week training intervention. Sprint performance was assessed using a 500 m kayak ergometer time trial. Pearson correlation and hierarchical multiple regression analyses were performed after accounting for training-group allocation. Power output at VO₂max (POVO₂max) demonstrated the strongest association with 500 m performance time (r = −0.71, p < 0.001). Hierarchical multiple regression analysis showed that training-group allocation explained a small, non-significant proportion of the variance in performance time (R² = 0.082, p = 0.648). The addition of POVO₂max significantly increased the explained variance (R² = 0.708, ΔR² = 0.626, p < 0.001); whereas, VO₂max (ΔR² = 0.012, p = 0.363) and post-exercise blood lactate concentration (ΔR² = 0.004, p = 0.855) did not provide additional explanatory value. These findings indicate that POVO₂max was the strongest independent physiological predictor of 500 m sprint kayak performance after accounting for training-group allocation. Full article

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20 pages, 1650 KB

Open AccessArticle

Acute and Short-Term Effects of Real-Time Feedback Neuromuscular Training on Vertical Jump Performance and Reactive Efficiency in Youth Basketball Players

by Alexandra Reta Iacobini, Pierre Joseph de Hillerin and Vlad Adrian Geantă

Sports 2026, 14(8), 362; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080362 - 20 Aug 2026

Abstract

Real-time feedback-based training has emerged as a potentially time-efficient approach for enhancing neuromuscular performance, yet evidence in youth basketball athletes remains limited. This study examined the acute and short-term effects of a five-day simulator-based neuromuscular training program incorporating real-time feedback on vertical jump [...] Read more.

Real-time feedback-based training has emerged as a potentially time-efficient approach for enhancing neuromuscular performance, yet evidence in youth basketball athletes remains limited. This study examined the acute and short-term effects of a five-day simulator-based neuromuscular training program incorporating real-time feedback on vertical jump performance and reactive efficiency in youth basketball players. A quasi-experimental, single-group repeated-measures design was employed, with performance assessed at three time points: pre-intervention (T1), post-intervention (T2), and 7-day follow-up (T3). Twenty-one male junior athletes (15.1 ± 0.7 years) completed five consecutive sessions on a condition simulation device (ERGOSIM), designed to enhance force control and neuromuscular coordination through real-time visual feedback. Vertical jump performance was assessed using a 15 s repeated jump test (OptoJump), including bilateral and unilateral conditions. Primary outcomes were jump height (H), mean average power (PU), and contact time (CT), analyzed via the MGM-15 method. Repeated-measures ANOVA revealed significant time effects for bilateral performance: H (F(2,40) = 16.593, p < 0.001, η²_p = 0.453), PU (F(2,40) = 19.281, p < 0.001, η²_p = 0.491), and CT (F(2,40) = 6.009, p = 0.005, η²_p = 0.231). From T1 to T3, bilateral jump height increased by 17.0%, accompanied by a 14.5% increase in average power and a 10.3% reduction in contact time. Unilateral performance improved significantly in both limbs, with progressive reduction in inter-limb asymmetry across the intervention period. Performance gains were largely maintained at T3, indicating short-term retention of neuromuscular adaptations. These findings suggest that simulator-based, feedback-driven neuromuscular training represents a time-efficient strategy for optimizing explosive performance and inter-limb symmetry within competitive microcycles although the single-group design and absence of a control group warrant cautious interpretation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Youth Sport Performance and Athlete Development)

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26 pages, 10360 KB

Open AccessArticle

Trunk Muscle Performance, Spinal Alignment, and Postural Profiles in 9–11-Year-Old Children Participating in Intensively Organized Sport Assessed with Non-Radiographic Tools

by Ivana Sović, Mirela Vučković, Verner Marijančić, Mia Hrlec, Gordana Starčević-Klasan, Tanja Grubić Kezele and Antonio Kokot

Sports 2026, 14(8), 361; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080361 - 19 Aug 2026

Abstract

Comprehensive data on sagittal spinal alignment, regional mobility, trunk muscle strength and imbalances in 9–11-year-old children participating in intensively organized sport (IOS) are limited. This cross-sectional study evaluated the association between IOS participation and the aforementioned postural parameters, compared with a non-intensive comparison [...] Read more.

Comprehensive data on sagittal spinal alignment, regional mobility, trunk muscle strength and imbalances in 9–11-year-old children participating in intensively organized sport (IOS) are limited. This cross-sectional study evaluated the association between IOS participation and the aforementioned postural parameters, compared with a non-intensive comparison cohort. A total of 143 children were included (IOS: n = 66; controls: n = 77). Sagittal spinal curvatures (thoracic kyphosis and lumbar lordosis) and regional mobility were assessed using Spinal Mouse^®, software-generated sagittal spinal curvature and trunk muscle imbalance profiles were assessed using Moti Physio 3D system, and absolute trunk muscle strength was measured using a K-Push dynamometer. Statistical analyses included multivariable ANCOVA, multivariable ordinal logistic regression, Fisher’s exact tests, and Benjamini–Hochberg (BH) adjustments, with significance set at p ≤ 0.05. In adjusted ANCOVA models, the IOS group demonstrated significantly higher absolute trunk flexor (20.1 ± 0.5 vs. 16.8 ± 0.5 kgf) and extensor (25.5 ± 0.5 vs. 22.7 ± 0.5 kgf) strength than controls (both p < 0.001), independent of demographic and anthropometric covariates. At the univariate level, the comparison group showed a significantly higher prevalence of software-classified weakness of the m. rectus abdominis (88.3% vs. 72.7%; BH-adjusted p = 0.05) and tightness of the m. psoas major (96.1% vs. 83.3%; BH-adjusted p = 0.05). In contrast, sagittal spinal curvatures and mobility did not differ between groups. After BH adjustment, m. quadratus lumborum differences showed only a non-significant trend (BH-adjusted p = 0.06). Structural parameters were mainly associated with biological factors: age showed an independent association with lumbar lordosis severity (BH-adjusted p = 0.03), whereas sex was independently associated with thoracic (BH-adjusted p = 0.01) and lumbar spine mobility (BH-adjusted p = 0.03). In summary, IOS participation in children aged 9–11 years is associated with greater absolute trunk strength, whereas structural sagittal spinal profiles and software-based muscle-imbalance classifications appear to be driven primarily by age and sex. These findings support integrating non-invasive posture screening with trunk strength assessment when monitoring young athletes and planning developmentally appropriate exercise interventions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interventions to Increase Physical Activity and Measurements to Evaluate Performance in Children and Adolescents)

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18 pages, 645 KB

Open AccessReview

Artificial Intelligence and Psychophysiological Monitoring for Integrated Performance Modeling in Elite Soccer: A Scoping Review of Applications, Evidence Gaps, and Translational Challenges

by Ismail Dergaa, Wissem Dhahbi, Mohamed Amine Dergaa, Mortadha Razzak, Halil İbrahim Ceylan, Valentina Stefanica, Raul Ioan Muntean and Noomen Guelmami

Sports 2026, 14(8), 360; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080360 - 19 Aug 2026

Abstract

Background: Elite soccer performance emerges from the interplay of cognitive, emotional, psychophysiological, and tactical processes that operate in real time during matches. Advances in wearable sensors and artificial intelligence (AI) now allow continuous monitoring of physiological and psychological states. They also allow modeling [...] Read more.

Background: Elite soccer performance emerges from the interplay of cognitive, emotional, psychophysiological, and tactical processes that operate in real time during matches. Advances in wearable sensors and artificial intelligence (AI) now allow continuous monitoring of physiological and psychological states. They also allow modeling of how these states relate to tactical and physical performance. Existing reviews have examined machine learning in soccer, heart rate variability (HRV) monitoring, and psychological determinants of performance separately. No scoping review has mapped the intersection of AI analytics, wearable psychophysiological monitoring, and psychological performance constructs as one integrated decision-support framework in elite soccer. Aim: The aim of this study was to map the available evidence on the integration of AI and machine learning with psychophysiological monitoring for performance modeling in elite soccer, to identify the psychological constructs already used as model inputs, to describe the wearable technologies and AI methods applied, and to set out the translational challenges and evidence gaps that need priority attention. Methods: The review followed the PRISMA extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) and the updated Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) methodology. The protocol was registered on the Open Science Framework (OSF). Six databases (PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, IEEE Xplore, and PsycINFO) were searched from January 2000 to March 2026 using the Population–Concept–Context (PCC) framework. Two reviewers independently screened titles, abstracts, and full texts (Cohen’s kappa = 0.82). Results: Thirty-six sources met the eligibility criteria after screening of 3104 records. AI and machine learning have been applied widely to predict physical and tactical performance in soccer, yet they rarely include psychological constructs. Reported models (decision trees, gradient boosting, and artificial neural networks) reach high accuracy for physical outcomes in internal validation, for example, above 66% for injury risk. Multi-modal models that add physiological and psychological inputs report stronger prediction. These figures come mostly from internal validation, and external validation and overfitting controls are seldom reported, so they should be read as optimistic upper bounds. Psychological and psychophysiological inputs remain under-represented. Explainable AI (XAI) methods, in particular Shapley Addictive exPlanations (SHAP) values, are appearing, but validation with domain experts is scarce. HRV has been reviewed as a psychophysiological marker in soccer, yet its use within AI decision-support tools for real-time psychological readiness has not been mapped. Three translational challenges stand out: the ecological validity gap between laboratory cognitive tests and match-embedded psychophysiology; the interpretability problem of opaque AI in high-stakes decisions; and the data fragmentation problem created by disconnected physical, tactical, and psychological data streams. Conclusions: Integrating AI with wearable psychophysiological monitoring offers a credible route toward integrated performance modeling in elite soccer. Closing this gap calls for multi-modal frameworks that combine psychological constructs, physiological markers, and tactical data within explainable AI. Research priorities include ecologically valid psychophysiological assessment protocols, position-specific psychological profiling, and practitioner-validated tools that turn AI outputs into usable coaching recommendations. Full article

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20 pages, 1499 KB

Open AccessArticle

Progressive Resistance Exercise Training and Physical and Behavioural Health Components in Adults with Intellectual Disabilities: A Repeated Time-Series Design

by Kirsten I. de Oude, Roy G. Elbers, Alyt Oppewal and Dederieke A. M. Maes-Festen

Sports 2026, 14(8), 359; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080359 - 19 Aug 2026

Abstract

This study, part of the PRET-study (NCT06579898), investigated changes in body composition, physical fitness, sarcopenia, activities of daily living (ADL), challenging behaviour, and falls in adults with intellectual disabilities (ID) following participation in a 24-week progressive resistance exercise training (PRET) intervention. A repeated-time-series [...] Read more.

This study, part of the PRET-study (NCT06579898), investigated changes in body composition, physical fitness, sarcopenia, activities of daily living (ADL), challenging behaviour, and falls in adults with intellectual disabilities (ID) following participation in a 24-week progressive resistance exercise training (PRET) intervention. A repeated-time-series design with one study group was used. We used multilevel linear regression models and non-parametric tests to investigate changes in body composition (bioelectrical impedance), physical fitness (ID-fitscan), sarcopenia, ADL (Barthel Index, Lawton IADL scale), challenging behaviour (Aberrant Behaviour Checklist), and falls. Thirty-six adults with mild to moderate ID (mean age: 55.6 ± 12.9 years; 52.8% male) participated and 26 completed the intervention. Intention-to-treat and per-protocol analyses showed statistically significant improvements in physical fitness and challenging behaviour. As these analyses concerned multiple secondary outcomes from a study powered for cardiovascular risk factors, these findings should be considered exploratory. Intention-to-treat analyses showed improvements in the five-times chair stand (−2.40 s, 95% CI [−4.06; −0.75]), and reductions in irritability (−1.10, 95% CI [−2.21; −0.00]) and inappropriate speech (−0.75, 95% CI [−1.22; −0.28]). No statistically significant changes were observed for body composition, ADL, or falls and no cases of sarcopenia were identified. The findings suggest that participation in PRET may be associated with improvements in lower body functional muscular endurance and challenging behaviour. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Importance of Exercise for People with Disabilities: From Assessment to Intervention and Inclusion)

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17 pages, 3558 KB

Open AccessArticle

by Eva Åkerman, Taru Tervo and Marie Klingberg-Allvin

Sports 2026, 14(8), 358; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080358 - 18 Aug 2026

Abstract

Purpose: This study aimed to examine the impact of menstrual symptoms on sport participation and management strategies among adolescent girls playing floorball in Sweden. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among floorball players aged 12–18 years (n = 545). Logistic regression was [...] Read more.

Purpose: This study aimed to examine the impact of menstrual symptoms on sport participation and management strategies among adolescent girls playing floorball in Sweden. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among floorball players aged 12–18 years (n = 545). Logistic regression was used to assess factors associated with menstrual-related symptoms and their impact on participation and absence from training sessions or matches. Results: Menstrual pain (89.6%) and mood swings (81.9%) were the most commonly reported symptoms. Symptoms such as menstrual pain, heavy menstrual bleeding, headache, fatigue, dizziness, and concentration difficulties were more prevalent among participants with early menarche (≤11 years) than those with later menarche. Overall, about 62.2% perceived that their menstrual symptoms affected their training and matches. Early menarche (≤11 years) was associated with nearly three times higher odds of refraining from training sessions or matches. Despite substantial impact, healthcare-seeking and communication with coaches were limited. Conclusions: Given the high prevalence of menstrual symptoms and their impact on sport participation and experiences, menstrual health should be recognised as a core component of athlete well-being in youth sport. Efforts are needed to improve menstrual health awareness, early identification of girls with high symptom burden, and supportive sport environments to promote gender equality in youth sport. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wellbeing, Health, and Performance in Sport and Physical Activity: Individual, Organisational, and Societal Perspectives)

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13 pages, 3667 KB

Open AccessArticle

Clinical, Functional, and Ultrasonographic Assessment of the Shoulder–Elbow Complex in Padel Players with Lateral Elbow Tendinopathy: A Pilot Observational Study

by Luis Morales-Rodríguez-Parets, Maria Gabriela Cortiguera and Blanca De-la-Cruz-Torres

Sports 2026, 14(8), 357; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080357 - 18 Aug 2026

Abstract

Introduction: Lateral elbow pain (LEP) is traditionally considered a local tendinopathy; however, emerging evidence suggests that proximal shoulder function and kinetic chain adaptations may contribute to its development in overhead and racquet sport athletes such as padel players. This study compared shoulder strength, [...] Read more.

Introduction: Lateral elbow pain (LEP) is traditionally considered a local tendinopathy; however, emerging evidence suggests that proximal shoulder function and kinetic chain adaptations may contribute to its development in overhead and racquet sport athletes such as padel players. This study compared shoulder strength, neuromuscular activation, elbow tendon morphology, and grip strength between padel players with lateral elbow pain and healthy controls, and between pain and non-pain sides within the symptomatic group. Methods: A pilot study was conducted in padel players with unilateral LEP and matched healthy controls. Assessments included isometric shoulder internal and external rotator (IR/ER) strength, glenohumeral rotational range of motion, electromyographic activity (infraspinatus/deltoid posterior and upper trapezius/lower trapezius ratios), grip strength, and ultrasound evaluation of infraspinatus and common extensor tendon thickness. Results: No significant differences were observed between groups or sides in shoulder strength, IR/ER ratios, electromyographic activity, or grip strength (all p > 0.05). The symptomatic group showed greater infraspinatus muscle thickness than controls. Within the symptomatic group, the pain side demonstrated reduced glenohumeral IR (p = 0.04) and increased common extensor tendon thickness (p = 0.02–0.05). Conclusions: Padel players with LEP demonstrated largely preserved neuromuscular and strength profiles. However, reduced shoulder IR and increased tendon thickness suggest proximal mobility alterations and local tendon adaptations, supporting a kinetic chain interpretation of lateral elbow pain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Prevention and Rehabilitation of Training Injuries)

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23 pages, 548 KB

Open AccessReview

Methods Used to Assess Physical Abilities in Police Students: A Scoping Review

by Emilia Martinsson, Haris Pojskic, Anna Hafsteinsson Östenberg and Jesper Augustsson

Sports 2026, 14(8), 356; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080356 - 18 Aug 2026

Abstract

Physical ability testing is an essential part of police education, as fitness assessments indicate students’ preparedness for police work. Clear documentation and reporting of test protocols and measurement properties are essential for interpreting, evaluating, and comparing the usefulness of different test batteries. Therefore, [...] Read more.

Physical ability testing is an essential part of police education, as fitness assessments indicate students’ preparedness for police work. Clear documentation and reporting of test protocols and measurement properties are essential for interpreting, evaluating, and comparing the usefulness of different test batteries. Therefore, this scoping review aimed to map the fitness tests used in police education programs internationally, including reporting standards of test protocols, reliability, validity, and sex-based test specificity, thereby providing insight into the physical abilities considered important for police work. The main searches were conducted in the databases CINAHL, PubMed, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science. The database search yielded 1323 articles, of which 92 met the inclusion criteria. An additional nine articles were included through citation and hand searching. Of the 101 studies, 95 used an average of 4–5 general fitness tests, and 29 included work-related police tests. Test protocols were generally well documented across studies. However, only a few studies included in this review assessed test–retest reliability, and only a limited number of studies, whose primary aim was to validate the tests, evaluated test validity. The most commonly used assessments were upper-body and core muscular endurance (60 s push-up, maximum pull-up, and 60 s sit-up tests), upper-body muscular strength (hand-grip test), lower-body power (standing long jump, and vertical jump tests), and aerobic capacity (20 m multistage fitness, 2400 m Cooper, and 12 min Cooper tests. Only 19 studies reported sex-specific performance standards, including differences in test execution, scoring systems, VO_2max estimation, or time limits. The findings indicate that tests of upper-body muscular endurance and strength, lower-body power, and aerobic capacity are among the most frequently measured physical abilities in police education programs internationally, while also highlighting the need for more standardized reporting of test protocols, reliability, and validity. Full article

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21 pages, 358 KB

Open AccessReview

Anatomical Variants of the Cervical Spine and Sports-Related Injury in Athletes: A Narrative Review

by Juan Alberto Sanchis-Gimeno, Alejandro Bruna-Mejías, Mathias Orellana-Donoso, Juan José Valenzuela-Fuenzalida, Gustavo Oyanedel-Amaro and José Eduardo León-Rojas

Sports 2026, 14(8), 355; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080355 - 18 Aug 2026

Abstract

Congenital and developmental cervical spine variants, as well as acquired or sport-adapted cervical morphologies, may alter canal reserve, segmental stability, foraminal dimensions, and the cervicothoracic outlet in athletes. This narrative review aimed to integrate the anatomically and methodologically heterogeneous literature linking these findings [...] Read more.

Congenital and developmental cervical spine variants, as well as acquired or sport-adapted cervical morphologies, may alter canal reserve, segmental stability, foraminal dimensions, and the cervicothoracic outlet in athletes. This narrative review aimed to integrate the anatomically and methodologically heterogeneous literature linking these findings with sports-related injury and return-to-play decisions. PubMed/MEDLINE was searched from database inception through 6 July 2026 using controlled vocabulary and free-text terms for cervical anatomy, specific variants, athletic exposure, neurological syndromes, injury mechanisms, and return to sport; reference lists of relevant publications were also examined. English-language human studies were selected for direct anatomical, biomechanical, clinical, or athlete relevance and synthesized by evidence type, mechanism, vertebral level, and sport. The strongest athlete-specific evidence concerned developmental or functional cervical stenosis, space available for the cord, cervical cord neurapraxia, transient quadriparesis, and stingers in collision sports. Evidence for atlas arch defects, os odontoideum, Klippel–Feil syndrome, cervical spondylolysis, and cervical rib-related thoracic outlet syndrome was predominantly case-based or derived from expert guidance. These findings support cautious, individualized interpretation rather than universal clearance rules. Clinical assessment should integrate symptoms, neurological findings, imaging, dynamic stability, recurrence, and sport-specific exposure while recognizing that prospective athlete-specific evidence remains limited. Full article

17 pages, 2074 KB

Open AccessArticle

Acute Structural, Functional, and Biochemical Responses to a High- and Low-Volume Foam Rolling Exercise on the Hamstring Muscles: A Randomized Controlled Trial

by Jakob Hofer, David G. Behm, Masatoshi Nakamura and Andreas Konrad

Sports 2026, 14(8), 354; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080354 - 17 Aug 2026

Abstract

Foam rolling (FR) is widely used to acutely enhance range of motion, yet the influence of different application volumes on neuromuscular, structural, and biochemical responses remains unclear. This study investigated the acute effects of low- and high-volume hamstrings FR interventions. Fifty-seven healthy male [...] Read more.

Foam rolling (FR) is widely used to acutely enhance range of motion, yet the influence of different application volumes on neuromuscular, structural, and biochemical responses remains unclear. This study investigated the acute effects of low- and high-volume hamstrings FR interventions. Fifty-seven healthy male participants were randomly assigned to a high-volume FR group (IG10; 10 min per posterior thigh), a low-volume FR group (IG2; 2 min per posterior thigh), or a control group (CG; 20 min rest). Pre- and post-intervention assessments included sit-and-reach (SAR) performance, shoulder circumduction (SC) (mobility), maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC), biceps femoris muscle stiffness (MS), and creatine kinase (CK) levels. Linear mixed-effects models revealed significant Time effects for SAR performance and SC, as well as a Group effect for SC (p < 0.05), whereas no significant Group × Time interactions were observed for any outcome (all p > 0.05). Significant improvements in SC were observed in both intervention groups compared with the CG, whereas no differences were detected between the two intervention durations. In contrast, no differential effects were observed for MS, maximal strength, or CK concentrations between the intervention groups, indicating that extending the FR duration from 2 to 10 min did not provide additional acute benefits. Full article

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15 pages, 2834 KB

Open AccessArticle

Neuromuscular Activation Strategies of the Lower Limb During Maximal Sprinting in Youth Track and Field Athletes: Age-Related Differences and Implications for Talent Identification

by Gaku Kakehata, Tuncay Örs, Sofyan Sahrom and Chee Yong Low

Sports 2026, 14(8), 353; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080353 - 17 Aug 2026

Abstract

Sprint performance improves throughout adolescence as a result of both structural and neuromuscular development. In particular, increases in body height, lower limb length, and muscle volume have been consistently linked to improvements in sprint performance. However, allometric scaling of force, speed, and power [...] Read more.

Sprint performance improves throughout adolescence as a result of both structural and neuromuscular development. In particular, increases in body height, lower limb length, and muscle volume have been consistently linked to improvements in sprint performance. However, allometric scaling of force, speed, and power remain lower in adolescents compared to adults even after structural differences are accounted for, implicating neural factors as independent contributors to performance development. The purpose of this study was to investigate differences in neuromuscular activation patterns of the lower limb muscles during maximal sprinting between youth male athletes across two age groups (U19: 17–19 years; U16: 13–16 years). Eighteen athletes performed a 50 m maximal sprint. Spatiotemporal variables (running speed, step frequency, step length) were measured over 30–50 m using a high-speed camera (240 Hz) and timing gates. Electromyographic (EMG) signals were recorded simultaneously from ten lower limb muscles using wireless EMG sensors (2000 Hz): rectus femoris (RF), biceps femoris (BF), semitendinosus (ST), gluteus maximus (Gmax), gluteus medius (Gmed), vastus lateralis (VL), vastus medialis (VM), tibialis anterior (TA), gastrocnemius (GAS), and soleus (SOL). Root mean square (RMS) amplitude was calculated across four gait phases (contact, early-swing, mid-swing, late-swing) and normalised to maximal voluntary Isometric contraction (%MVIC). The U19 group demonstrated significantly greater running speed (U19: 9.49 ± 0.39 vs. U16: 8.67 ± 0.25 m·s⁻¹, p < 0.001), step frequency (U19: 4.49 ± 0.12 vs. U16: 4.35 ± 0.16 Hz, p = 0.004), and step length (U19: 2.12 ± 0.12 vs. U16: 1.99 ± 0.06 m, p = 0.010) than U16. The overall pattern of lower limb muscle activation across the gait cycle was broadly similar between groups; however, a significant group × phase interaction was observed for RF (p = 0.003, F = 5.257, η² = 0.247), with post hoc analysis revealing greater RF activation during early swing in U19 (p = 0.033). These findings may indicate that sprint-specific training in youth athletes is associated with not only structural but also neuromuscular differences, specifically reflecting enhanced RF recruitment during the phase-critical moment of early swing—a window in which high-threshold motor unit activation is most mechanically decisive. EMG-based assessment of hip flexor activation during maximal sprinting may provide a complementary tool, pending further validation, for talent identification and training prescription in youth track and field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport-Specific Testing and Training Methods in Youth: 2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 2107 KB

Open AccessArticle

Physical and Developmental Characteristics of Elite Under-19 Female Cricketers: Positional Differences, Relative Age Effects, and Maturity

by Sibi Walter, Gregory King, Harrison Jones-Park, Dayle Shackel, Ben Ramsay and Elena Moltchanova

Sports 2026, 14(8), 352; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080352 - 17 Aug 2026

Abstract

Background: Women’s cricket is rapidly expanding at the elite youth level, yet limited research has comprehensively examined the physical, positional, and developmental characteristics underpinning performance in elite under-19 (U19) female players. In particular, the role of biological maturation and relative age effects in [...] Read more.

Background: Women’s cricket is rapidly expanding at the elite youth level, yet limited research has comprehensively examined the physical, positional, and developmental characteristics underpinning performance in elite under-19 (U19) female players. In particular, the role of biological maturation and relative age effects in shaping physical performance within this population remains poorly understood. Objective: This study aimed to characterise the anthropometric and physical profile of elite U19 female cricketers, examine positional differences, assess the presence of relative age effects (RAE), and evaluate the applicability of maturity offset estimation in this cohort. Methods: Ninety elite U19 female cricketers representing six regional high school teams were assessed using a cross-sectional design. Anthropometric measures, strength, power, sprint performance, and agility were evaluated. Maturity status was estimated using both the original and modified maturity offset equations, and birth quartiles were used to assess RAE via a chi-squared test. Between-group differences were analysed using ANOVA. Results: Statistically significant positional differences were observed for vertical jump, isometric strength, and sprint performance (p < 0.05), with spin bowlers demonstrating lower power and slower sprint times, and seam bowlers exhibiting greater maximal strength. No differences were observed in anthropometry or agility. Birth quartile distribution was relatively uniform, indicating no clear RAE. Maturity offset estimates indicated that players were well beyond peak height velocity; however, both original and modified estimates demonstrated limited variability and a tendency to overestimate maturity timing in this cohort. Conclusions: Elite U19 female cricketers demonstrate role-specific physical profiles driven primarily by strength, power, and speed rather than anthropometry or maturity status. The absence of a clear RAE and limited applicability of maturity offset methods highlight the need for performance-based, position-specific approaches to training and talent identification in female cricket. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport-Specific Testing and Training Methods in Youth: 2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 1358 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Integrated Multi-Biomarker Perspective on Acute Exercise: Differential Orexin, Alpha-Amylase, and Cortisol Responses Across Modalities

by Fiorenzo Moscatelli, Vincenzo Monda, Marco La Marra, Antonietta Messina, Antonietta Monda, Maria Casillo, Nicola Mancini, Girolamo Di Maio, Gabriella Marsala, Giovanni Messina and Rita Polito

Sports 2026, 14(8), 351; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080351 - 13 Aug 2026

Abstract

Purpose: Acute exercise elicits coordinated neuroendocrine and autonomic responses that are strongly influenced by exercise modality and intensity. While cortisol and salivary alpha-amylase are widely used as peripheral indicators of hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis and sympathetic nervous system activation, respectively, salivary orexin remains an [...] Read more.

Purpose: Acute exercise elicits coordinated neuroendocrine and autonomic responses that are strongly influenced by exercise modality and intensity. While cortisol and salivary alpha-amylase are widely used as peripheral indicators of hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis and sympathetic nervous system activation, respectively, salivary orexin remains an exploratory biomarker whose relationship with central orexinergic activity is not yet fully established, particularly in response to different exercise conditions. This study aimed to compare the acute salivary responses of orexin, alpha-amylase, and cortisol following distinct exercise modalities characterized by different physiological loads. Methods: A repeated-measures design was employed in a sample of physically active young women. Each participant completed four experimental sessions: high-intensity interval training (HIIT), combined exercise (CE), moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT), and yoga. Saliva samples were collected at baseline (T0), immediately post-exercise (T1), and during early recovery (T2 and T3). Biomarker concentrations were analyzed to assess temporal dynamics and modality-dependent differences. Results: All biomarkers showed modality-dependent responses. HIIT elicited the most pronounced increases in alpha-amylase and cortisol, reflecting robust sympathetic and HPA axis activation, whereas CE and MICT induced more moderate responses. Yoga was associated with minimal changes across all biomarkers. Orexin displayed a graded response across the exercise modalities, with higher post-exercise levels observed following HIIT compared to lower-intensity conditions. Temporal analyses revealed distinct kinetic profiles, with alpha-amylase peaking rapidly in the early post-exercise phase, whereas cortisol exhibited a more delayed response. Conclusions: These findings demonstrate that acute salivary responses of orexin, alpha-amylase, and cortisol are strongly modulated by exercise modality, supporting the importance of an integrated, multi-biomarker approach to characterize the physiological response to exercise. The inclusion of salivary orexin provides exploratory information on a potentially relevant arousal- and energy-regulation-related pathway, complementing established peripheral markers of autonomic and endocrine activation. This integrated perspective may contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of exercise-induced stress responses in young women. Full article

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21 pages, 2661 KB

Open AccessArticle

Basketball Players Jump and Maximal Strength Performance Improvements After French Contrast Training

by Yiqing Xie, Yemin Han, Qing Du, Zhen Zhang, Rodrigo Ramirez-Campillo and Kai Xu

Sports 2026, 14(8), 350; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080350 - 12 Aug 2026

Abstract

(1) Background: French contrast training (FCT) enhances sports performance, but its long-term efficacy in elite basketball players remains unclear. This study compared FCT and traditional strength training (TST) on jump performance and lower-limb strength. (2) Methods: Sixteen elite basketball players (age 22.4 ± [...] Read more.

(1) Background: French contrast training (FCT) enhances sports performance, but its long-term efficacy in elite basketball players remains unclear. This study compared FCT and traditional strength training (TST) on jump performance and lower-limb strength. (2) Methods: Sixteen elite basketball players (age 22.4 ± 1.4 years; 14 male, 2 female) were randomly assigned to 8 weeks of FCT (n = 8) or TST (n = 8). The TST protocol consisted of barbell back squat, barbell Bulgarian split squat, conventional deadlift, and barbell hip thrust (4 sets of 8, 6, 4, 4 repetitions at 80%, 95%, 90%, 90% of one-repetition maximum [1RM]; 2–3 min inter-set rest). Assessments included countermovement jump (CMJ) kinetics, CMJ with arm swing (CMJA), running CMJ, running single-leg CMJ, and back squat 1RM, analyzed via repeated-measures ANOVA. (3) Results: A significant Group × Time interaction favored FCT for maximal relative force (p = 0.007, ηp² = 0.41): FCT increased 6.80% (Cohen’s d = 1.55), TST decreased 2.41% (d = −0.36). Significant time effects (p < 0.001–0.044) occurred for CMJA, running CMJ, flight height, reactive strength index, and back squat 1RM, with large improvements in both groups (e.g., back squat 1RM: FCT +30.45%, d = 2.89; TST +26.77%, d = 2.34). The interaction for average power approached significance (p = 0.053, ηp² = 0.24). No other interactions were significant. (4) Conclusions: Both FCT and TST improved performance, but FCT yielded superior gains in maximal relative force. Limitations include small sample (n = 16), mixed-gender composition, short 8-week intervention, and lack of retention testing. Full article

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24 pages, 4878 KB

Open AccessReview

Mapping Scientific Knowledge on Body Composition and Anthropometry in Soccer: A Bibliometric Analysis of the Last 35 Years (1990–2025)

by Juan David Paucar-Uribe, Boryi A. Becerra-Patiño, Aura D. Montenegro-Bonilla, Armando Monterrosa-Quintero, Jorge Olivares-Arancibia, Daniel Rojas-Valverde, Rodrigo Yáñez-Sepúlveda and José Francisco López-Gil

Sports 2026, 14(8), 349; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14080349 - 12 Aug 2026

Abstract

Background: Anthropometric analysis has become a key tool for analyzing body composition to assess, monitor, and track structural changes in soccer players. Objective: The objective of this study was to analyze the scientific literature on body composition and anthropometry in soccer using a [...] Read more.

Background: Anthropometric analysis has become a key tool for analyzing body composition to assess, monitor, and track structural changes in soccer players. Objective: The objective of this study was to analyze the scientific literature on body composition and anthropometry in soccer using a bibliometric analysis. Material and Methods: The following databases were consulted: Scopus, Web of Science (WoS), PubMed (Medline), SportDiscus, and the ScienceDirect publishing platform. The study included documents published between 1990 and 2025. Data was selected following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines statement flowchart and subsequently analyzed using Bibliometrix and R software to identify keywords, frequency of occurrence, journal analysis, countries, and other bibliometric indicators. Results: A total of 384 documents met the inclusion criteria. Spain, Italy, Brazil and Portugal stand out as the countries with the highest output. These countries are associated with the most representative authors, led by Suarez-Arrones, L; Nikolaidis, PT; and Campa, F., who are in turn associated with the most representative concepts: “Male”, “Adolescent” and “Athletic performance”. The most prevalent concepts are population-based: “Adolescent” and “Young adult”. The top three organizations in terms of contributing to the scientific study of body composition and anthropometry were the University of the Basque Country, Pablo de Olavide University, and the University of Coimbra. It can be observed that most of the literature has focused on youth (29.16% of the total documents), followed by elite players (22.91%) and professionals (14.84%), where the focus is on those aged 14 to 19 years and playing at highly competitive levels, seeking peak performance. Conclusions: Methodological heterogeneity in evaluation protocols constitutes the main structural shortcoming in this field: 32.29% of studies do not specify their protocols, which compromises the comparability of the results. The widespread adoption of international standards, such as the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK) methodology, along with a requirement to indicate the instrument used and the evaluator’s certification level, is a priority for improving the quality of scientific communication in future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Body Composition Assessment for Sports Performance and Athlete Health)

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