Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology

22 pages, 5056 KiB

Open AccessReview

Neurosciences and Sports Rehabilitation in ACLR: A Narrative Review on Winning Alliance Strategies and Connecting the Dots

by Rocco Salvatore Calabrò, Andrea Calderone and Nicola Fiorente

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(2), 119; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10020119 - 2 Apr 2025

Abstract

This narrative review explores the significant evolution of sports rehabilitation, tracing its trajectory from basic exercise therapies of the early 20th century to the advanced, neuroplasticity-driven approaches of the 21st century, with a specific focus on anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR). The primary [...] Read more.

This narrative review explores the significant evolution of sports rehabilitation, tracing its trajectory from basic exercise therapies of the early 20th century to the advanced, neuroplasticity-driven approaches of the 21st century, with a specific focus on anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR). The primary aim is to understand how neuroplasticity, motor control, and sensorimotor retraining can optimize recovery, reduce reinjury risk, and enhance long-term athletic performance, and to synthesize current rehabilitation strategies that integrate innovative technologies, such as robotics, virtual reality (VR), and biofeedback systems, to address the neurocognitive deficits that contribute to the alarmingly high reinjury rates (9–29%) observed in young athletes post-ACLR. These deficits include impaired proprioception, motor control, and psychological factors like fear of reinjury. The methodology employed involves a narrative review of peer-reviewed literature from databases including PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. The synthesis of findings underscores the importance of holistic rehabilitation approaches, including targeted proprioceptive exercises, dual-task drills, and immersive VR training, in enhancing sensorimotor integration, decision-making, and athlete confidence. Furthermore, this review highlights the critical need for long-term monitoring and interdisciplinary collaboration between neuroscientists, physiotherapists, and engineers to refine rehabilitation protocols and ensure sustained recovery. By leveraging neuroplasticity and advanced technologies, the field can shift from a focus on purely physical restoration to comprehensive recovery models that significantly reduce reinjury risks and optimize athletic performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanical Properties of Muscle and Tendon in Neurological Conditions)

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15 pages, 1104 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Age and Body Size on the Dribbling Performance of Young Elite Soccer Players: A Cross-Sectional Descriptive Study

by Thiago V. Camata, Andrew H. Hunter, Nicholas M. A. Smith, Mathew S. Crowther, Marcelo Alves Costa, Felipe A. Moura and Robbie S. Wilson

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(2), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10020118 - 31 Mar 2025

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Dribbling is a fundamental skill in soccer, but assessing the performance of youth players in this skill is complicated by the confounded effects of age and physical development. In this study, our aim was to quantify the interactive effects of age, height, [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: Dribbling is a fundamental skill in soccer, but assessing the performance of youth players in this skill is complicated by the confounded effects of age and physical development. In this study, our aim was to quantify the interactive effects of age, height, and mass on the dribbling performance of 180 players between 10 and 21 years old from an elite Brazilian junior academy. Methods: For each player, we quantified their dribbling and sprinting speed along four different paths with varying curvature, and their ability to perform specific, directed dribbling drills using one or both feet. To characterise patterns of variation among player’s age, height, and mass—and to control for their confounding effects—we used a principal component analysis (PCA) to create a multivariate index of age and size (ASI). Results: Dribbling, sprinting, and directed dribbling were all positively associated with ASI; however, age alone was a better predictor of performance than ASI. Using multi-model inference, we found that a player’s overall dribbling was best predicted by models that included sprint speed and overall directed dribbling ability (p < 0.0001). When performing subsequent analyses that separate each of the directed dribbling drills into using dominant, non-dominant, or both feet, we found the best predictors of overall dribbling performance were sprinting and directed dribbling activities that use both feet. Conclusions: These results provide the first set of normative data for a detailed metric of dribbling performance and soccer-specific foot coordination that can allow players and coaches to compare and assess their performances relative to a single population of high-quality junior players Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Athletic Training and Human Performance)

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12 pages, 850 KiB

Open AccessReview

Effects of Passive Movement on Motor Function and Disability in Patients with Stroke: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

by Auwal Abdullahi, Thomson W. L. Wong and Shamay S. M. Ng

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(2), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10020117 - 31 Mar 2025

Abstract

Background: Severe impairment in motor function following a stroke can pose a significant challenge during rehabilitation since the patients are unable to carry out active forms of rehabilitation, such as task-specific training. Thus, in such a case, passive movement can be utilized. [...] Read more.

Background: Severe impairment in motor function following a stroke can pose a significant challenge during rehabilitation since the patients are unable to carry out active forms of rehabilitation, such as task-specific training. Thus, in such a case, passive movement can be utilized. The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis is to determine from the literature the evidence on the effects of passive movement compared with a control on recovery outcomes post stroke. Method: Four databases, PubMED, Embase, Web of Science (WoS), and CENTRAL, were searched. Data on the study participants’ characteristics, such as the mean age, the mean time since stroke, the protocol of the experimental and control interventions, the mean scores on the outcomes assessed post intervention and at follow-up, and the number of participants in both the experimental and control groups were extracted. Result: Four studies (n = 166), with two having a moderate quality and two having a high methodological quality, were included in the study. The test for overall effects showed that passive movement is superior to the control at improving the recovery of function (SMD = 0.82, 95% CI = 0.40 to −1.24, p = 0.0002) post intervention. However, the results of the individual domains showed that the experimental group is only superior to the control at improving motor function (SMD = 0.70, 95% CI = 0.21 to 1.18, p = 0.005) and disability (SMD = 0.81, 95% CI = 0.32 to 1.31, p = 0.001). Conclusions: Evidence for the effects of passive movement on recovery outcomes in patients with stroke seems to be low. Therefore, the clinical decision on its application requires reflection, and further randomized controlled trials need to be carried out to determine the evidence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Exercise for Health Promotion)

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3 pages, 173 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Special Issue “Biomechanical Analysis in Physical Activity and Sports”

by Pedro Forte

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(2), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10020116 - 30 Mar 2025

Abstract

Biomechanics plays a vital role in helping us understand how the human body moves,
especially in the context of sports and physical activity... Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanical Analysis in Physical Activity and Sports)

15 pages, 682 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating Persistent Sympathovagal Dysregulation Following a Complex Dual Task in Concussed Athletes

by Mathieu Bolduc, Gabriel Lavoie, Veronik Sicard, Julien Lépine and Dave Ellemberg

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(2), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10020115 - 29 Mar 2025

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Dual tasks are increasingly being employed in research on concussion, since they provide a somewhat more realistic representation of the demands athletes face on the field. While single cognitive and motor tasks have revealed persisting autonomic alterations in concussed athletes, the unique [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: Dual tasks are increasingly being employed in research on concussion, since they provide a somewhat more realistic representation of the demands athletes face on the field. While single cognitive and motor tasks have revealed persisting autonomic alterations in concussed athletes, the unique autonomic response required by a dual task remains unexplored in this population. The purpose of this study was to evaluate autonomic responses in asymptomatic athletes with a history of concussion (m = 5.46 months ± 2.00) following a complex dual task. Methods: Heart rate variability (HRV), a biomarker of autonomic regulation, was measured in 34 athletes (16 concussed, 18 controls) aged 17 to 24. HRV data were collected using the Polar H10 chest belt. Five-minute segments were extracted under four conditions: rest, following a cognitive task (switch task), after a dual task combining both motor and cognitive components, and after the same dual task preceded by 20 min of aerobic exercise. A series of 4 × 2 mixed-design ANOVAs were conducted to assess the differences between the conditions and groups. Results: The results indicated a significant increase in a global marker of HRV (i.e., the standard deviation of normal-to-normal intervals (SDNN)) following the switch task compared to rest (p = 0.014) only in concussed participants. These results suggest that the switch task may stimulate frontal regions and promote a parasympathetic response, as reflected by the rise in HRV. Notably, the effect of the switch task disappeared when combined with the motor component of the dual task, whether it was preceded by aerobic exercise or not. Conclusions: The dual task results indicate potential competing mechanisms between the motor and cognitive components of the task, which future studies using similar protocols should consider. Meanwhile, the switch task appears sufficiently demanding to reveal autonomic alterations, which, when measured through HRV, may constitute a relevant clinical tool for assessing athletes’ readiness to return to sport and academic study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sports Medicine and Public Health)

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13 pages, 641 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sensory Modality in Students Enrolled in a Specialized Training Program for Security Forces and Its Impact on Karate Performance Indicators

by Ivan Uher, Ján Pivovarník and Mária Majherová

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(2), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10020114 - 28 Mar 2025

Abstract

Objectives: The present study examined the sensory preferences adopted by students over three years of training in a specialized training program for security forces (STPSF). It determines their impact on karate performance metrics. Methods: Thirty-one students aged 20 to 26 (SD = 0.81) [...] Read more.

Objectives: The present study examined the sensory preferences adopted by students over three years of training in a specialized training program for security forces (STPSF). It determines their impact on karate performance metrics. Methods: Thirty-one students aged 20 to 26 (SD = 0.81) completed the modified Visual, Aural, Read/Write, and Kinesthetic questionnaire (VARK), a tool designed to help identify students’ preferred learning styles. This research suggests a theoretical model in which the balanced and optimal engagement of visual, auditory, and kinesthetic modalities rather than a strict mathematical equation might provide an optimal foundation for improving proficiency in martial arts. Balanced engagement of these sensory modalities can foster a deeper understanding of karate techniques, improve performance, minimize dependence on a single sensory channel, and bolster real-time adaptability. The students were tested at two points: once at the beginning of their enrolment and again after completing their three-year training program. Results: After a relatively intensive intervention over three years, the findings suggest a positive shift in the ratio of the primary modalities, moving toward an optimal balance. Considering the ideal sensory balance of 50:50:50%, the visual modality increased from 45.8 to 50.4, approaching the optimal value. The auditory modality, initially above the ideal level at 53.8, adjusted closer to balance, reaching 51.9. In contrast, the kinesthetic modality slightly decreased from 50 to 47.5, indicating a minor deviation from the ideal state. It was further confirmed that a higher technical level, such as the third kyu, exhibits an equal distribution, approaching the optimal use of the three modalities: visual 51.5 auditory 47.6 and kinesthetic 50.7. Moreover, the progress toward an optimal synergy and a more efficient evaluation of situational possibilities within the decision-making process was more frequently noted in females than in male students. Conclusions: Acknowledging students’ sensory processing preferences can assist the teacher, trainer, coach, and student in advancing interaction, optimizing learning strategies, improving performance, promoting analytical skills, and fostering self-assurance and determination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into Motor/Cognitive Skills and Sports Performance in Youth Athletes)

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13 pages, 1446 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Skeletal Muscle Composition and the Effects of Exercise and/or Prebiotic Fiber in Preventing Diet Related Morbidities

by Heiliane de Brito Fontana, Jaqueline Lourdes Rios, John Michaiel, Ruth A. Seerattan, Venus Joumaa, David A. Hart, Raylene A. Reimer and Walter Herzog

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(2), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10020113 - 28 Mar 2025

Abstract

Background: We established a model of diet-induced obesity in Sprague–Dawley rats that produces, in addition to obesity, metabolic syndrome and musculoskeletal degeneration. Prebiotic fiber and aerobic exercise interventions have been shown to rescue bones and joints from degeneration, but it has yet to [...] Read more.

Background: We established a model of diet-induced obesity in Sprague–Dawley rats that produces, in addition to obesity, metabolic syndrome and musculoskeletal degeneration. Prebiotic fiber and aerobic exercise interventions have been shown to rescue bones and joints from degeneration, but it has yet to be shown if muscle degeneration can also be stopped with these interventions. Objectives: This study was aimed at determining if prebiotic fiber supplementation and/or aerobic exercise can prevent muscular alterations in our rat model of obesity. Methods: Using a high-fat/high-sucrose (HFS) diet-induced rat model of obesity, 12-week-old male Sprague–Dawley rats were randomly divided into sedentary (HFS, n = 12), exercise (HFS + E, n = 12), prebiotic fiber supplementation (HFS + F, n = 12), or combined intervention (HFS + F + E, n = 12) groups for 12 weeks, with eight chow-fed animals as controls. Muscle triglyceride levels were measured using colorimetric assays, collagen content was assessed histologically, and CD68 immunohistochemistry was performed on the vastus lateralis (VL) and soleus muscles. Group comparisons were conducted using the Kruskal–Wallis test and chi-squared effect statistics (χ2). Results: VL triglyceride (χ2 = 10.481, p = 0.033) and collagen content in both VL and soleus (χ2 = 23.148, p < 0.001 and χ2 = 34.166, p < 0.001 respectively) were higher in all HFS-diet intervention groups compared to the chow-fed Control group. Lean body mass did not differ among groups (χ2 = 3.9192, p = 0.417). The HFS group exhibited increased total cholesterol and triglyceride levels (χ2 = 11.693, p = 0.019; and χ2 = 21.663, p < 0.001 respectively) and starkly reduced whole-body insulin sensitivity (χ2 = 18.046, p = 0.001) compared to the Control or to the exercise and fiber supplementation groups. Conclusions: Despite the effectiveness of aerobic exercise and prebiotic fiber supplementation in preventing the systemic metabolic disturbances induced by the HFS diet, muscular alterations persisted. Prebiotic fiber supplementation led to the highest muscle collagen content, suggesting potential adaptative muscular response to the systemic insult caused by the HFS diet. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sports Medicine and Public Health)

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15 pages, 2211 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Correlations Between Achilles Tendon Stiffness and Jumping Performance: A Comparative Study of Soccer and Basketball Athletes

by Daniel Schmidt, Lukas Verderber, Andresa M. C. Germano and Nico Nitzsche

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(2), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10020112 - 28 Mar 2025

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Human tendon properties influence athletic performance, and it was shown that Achilles tendon (AT) stiffness correlates with an athlete’s jumping performance across sports. However, the findings on this relationship between basketball and soccer are different. Hence, this study examined the relationship [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: Human tendon properties influence athletic performance, and it was shown that Achilles tendon (AT) stiffness correlates with an athlete’s jumping performance across sports. However, the findings on this relationship between basketball and soccer are different. Hence, this study examined the relationship between AT stiffness and jumping performance in male athletes. Methods: Sixty-six males (24.9 ± 4.7 years; twenty-two basketball players (22.0 ± 4.1 years), and forty-four soccer players (26.3 ± 4.4 years)) participated. Reactive jumping performance (reactive strength index (RSI), jump height (JH), and ground contact time (GCT)) were assessed using drop jumps (fall height: 30 cm), and AT stiffness (supine position) was measured using the MyotonPro. Results: Soccer players had a significantly higher AT stiffness (826.8 ± 90.5 N/m) than basketball players (754.1 ± 80.1 N/m, p = 0.002), but no differences were found in JH, RSI, or GCT (p > 0.05). JH and AT stiffness significantly correlated in basketball players (r = 0.448) but not in soccer players (r < 0.100). The multiple linear regression indicated that AT stiffness is significantly influenced by the sport type (soccer or basketball), while age, mass, and height remained non-significant. Conclusions: Despite higher AT stiffness in soccer players (which can be explained by different activity regimens), a moderate correlation between jumping performance and AT stiffness was evident only in basketball. Given the versatile demands of both sports, tendon characteristics appear to have an influence on jumping performance. For future studies, investigating tendon characteristics represents a valuable addition to training and therapy scheduling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Athletic Training and Human Performance)

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12 pages, 413 KiB

Open AccessReview

Inspiratory Muscle Training and Its Impact on Weaning Success in Mechanically Ventilated ICU Patients: A Systematic Review

by José Luís Alonso-Pérez, Víctor Riquelme-Aguado, Daniel Rodríguez-Prieto, Alejandro López-Mejías, Carlos Romero-Morales, Giacomo Rossettini and Jorge Hugo Villafañe

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(2), 111; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10020111 - 28 Mar 2025

Abstract

Background/Objectives: A major importance is now accorded to respiratory muscle weakness resulting from exposure to invasive mechanical ventilation (IMV) in intensive care unit patients. Some authors suggested that Inspiratory Muscle Training (IMT) could increase the chances of weaning off IMV. This systematic review [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: A major importance is now accorded to respiratory muscle weakness resulting from exposure to invasive mechanical ventilation (IMV) in intensive care unit patients. Some authors suggested that Inspiratory Muscle Training (IMT) could increase the chances of weaning off IMV. This systematic review examined the efficacy of IMT on weaning success in mechanically ventilated patients. Methods: A literature search was conducted on PubMed, Cochrane, and PEDro until June 2023. Weaning success, maximum inspiratory pressure (MIP), and Rapid Shallow Breathing Index (RSBI) were the outcome measures included. Results: Seven randomized controlled trials, including 517 participants under IMV for at least 48 h, were included in the review. From a qualitative point of view, a significant increase in MIP and a significant decrease in RSBI were found in the intervention group during the analysis. However, weaning success was the same between the intervention and control groups. No significant association was found between weaning success and the increase of MIP or the decrease of RSBI. Furthermore, it could not be demonstrated that a positive change in MIP or RSBI would increase the weaning success rates. Conclusions: From a qualitative point of view, IMT is effective in increasing MIP and decreasing RSBI. However, IMT has no significant impact on weaning success. Further research is recommended to analyze the effect of IMT on weaning success. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Basis of Applied Kinesiology, Innovations and Clinical Applications in Musculoskeletal Health)

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14 pages, 1735 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Ankle Joint Angles and Surrounding Muscles on Hip Joint Musculature

by Yuta Murata, Noriyuki Kida, Takumi Jiromaru, Michio Wachi, Kohei Yoshikawa, Shinichi Noguchi and Hitoshi Onishi

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(2), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10020110 - 27 Mar 2025

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Hip abductor weakness is a common issue in patients with lower back pain, knee osteoarthritis, and hip disorders, and compromises pelvic stability, gait control, and function. Side-lying hip abduction exercises are widely used as safe and effective interventions for patients unable [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: Hip abductor weakness is a common issue in patients with lower back pain, knee osteoarthritis, and hip disorders, and compromises pelvic stability, gait control, and function. Side-lying hip abduction exercises are widely used as safe and effective interventions for patients unable to perform high-load or weight-bearing activities. However, the influence of ankle joint angles and distal muscle activity on the hip abductor muscles remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the effects of ankle joint angles and activation states on unilateral right hip abductor strength and muscle activity. Methods: Fifteen healthy male adults (29.1 ± 5.4 years) participated. Surface electromyography (EMG) was used to measure the activity of the tensor fasciae latae (TFL), gluteus medius (G-med), gluteus maximus, tibialis anterior, and medial gas-trocnemius muscles. Hip abduction strength was evaluated in a side-lying position with the ankle positioned at three angles (neutral, dorsiflexion, and plantarflexion) and in three activation states (no activation, maximal dorsiflexion, and maximal plantarflexion). Two-factor (3 × 3) repeated measures ANOVA was used to analyze strength and EMG activity. Results: ANOVA revealed a significant interaction effect. The results of the simple main effects showed significantly higher hip abduction strength in dorsiflexion than in the neutral position and plantarflexion (p < 0.001). TFL and G-med EMG activities peaked during dorsiflexion, particularly under maximal dorsiflexion. Conclusions: These findings suggest that dorsiflexion enhances hip abductor strength and activity by increasing fascial tension (lateral line and superficial backline) and improving limb alignment. This approach may provide effective rehabilitation strategies. This is a load-adjustable training recovery approach that should be confirmed with future intervention studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic New Trends in Physiotherapy Care: Improvements in Functionality, Pain Management, and Quality of Life)

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13 pages, 12411 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reliability and Accuracy of Linear Position Transducers During the Bench Press and Back Squat: Implications for Velocity-Based Training

by Raynier Montoro-Bombú, Armando Costa, Paulo Malico Sousa, Valter Pinheiro, Pedro Forte, Luis Monteiro, Alex S. Ribeiro and Luis Rama

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(2), 109; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10020109 - 27 Mar 2025

Abstract

Background: Selecting the right linear position transducer (LPT) for velocity-based training monitoring sometimes presents uncertainties for coaches. Objectives: This study rigorously examined the test-retest reliability of three LPT–Cs using a simultaneous triangulation method of the same device during bench press (BP) and back [...] Read more.

Background: Selecting the right linear position transducer (LPT) for velocity-based training monitoring sometimes presents uncertainties for coaches. Objectives: This study rigorously examined the test-retest reliability of three LPT–Cs using a simultaneous triangulation method of the same device during bench press (BP) and back squat (SQ) exercises performed on a Smith machine. Methods: Forty university students—13 females (23 ± 2 years) and 27 males (31.5 ± 6 years)—voluntarily participated in a randomized repeated-measures study. LPTs were randomly assigned numbers and placed at 5 cm apart to measure and collect bar displacement (∆S), mean propulsive velocity (MPV), peak velocity (PV), and time to peak velocity (T–PV). Each volunteer performed three BP and SQ attempts with pre-standardized loads (males: BP ≥ 40 kg and SQ ≥ 60 kg; females: BP ≥ 25 kg and SQ ≥ 40 kg). Results: The main findings of this study support a high degree of reliability for LPTs. For all variables, the absolute reliability presented significant values (p ≤ 0.05), with an intraclass correlation coefficient ≥ 0.995, a 95% confidence interval between 0.992–0.999, a coefficient of variation ≤ 10%, and a standard error of the mean ≤ 0.031. Conclusions: Scientists and coaches can use the LPT device as a reliable tool for monitoring velocity-based training by providing rigorous measurements of ∆S, MPV, PV, and T–PV during BP and SQ exercises. In addition, the smallest real difference reported may be useful in identifying minimal changes in ∆S within a single set (BP = 0.10 cm; SQ = 0.13 cm). Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Athletic Training and Human Performance)

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15 pages, 1103 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Different Isometric Exercise Modalities on Myocardial Work in Trained Hypertensive Patients with Ischemic Heart Disease: A Randomized Pilot Study

by Giuseppe Caminiti, Giuseppe Marazzi, Maurizio Volterrani, Valentino D’Antoni, Simona Fecondo, Sara Vadalà, Barbara Sposato, Domenico Mario Giamundo, Matteo Vitarelli, Valentina Morsella, Ferdinando Iellamo, Vincenzo Manzi and Marco Alfonso Perrone

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(2), 108; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10020108 - 27 Mar 2025

Abstract

Background: Isometric exercise effectively reduces blood pressure (BP) but its effects on myocardial work have been poorly studied. For the present study, we compared acute changes in myocardial work during two different isometric exercises, namely, bilateral knee extension and handgrip, in patients with [...] Read more.

Background: Isometric exercise effectively reduces blood pressure (BP) but its effects on myocardial work have been poorly studied. For the present study, we compared acute changes in myocardial work during two different isometric exercises, namely, bilateral knee extension and handgrip, in patients with hypertension and underlying ischemic heart disease (IHD). Methods: This was a randomized pilot study in which 48 stable, trained patients with hypertension and IHD were enrolled. Patients were randomly assigned to perform a single session of bilateral knee extension (IKE) or handgrip (IHG) exercises or no exercise (control), with a 1:1:1 ratio. Both exercises were performed at 30% of maximal voluntary contraction and lasted three minutes. Echocardiography and BP measurements were performed at rest, during the exercise, and after ten minutes of recovery. Results: Both exercises were tolerated well, and no side effects occurred. During the exercise, the systolic BP increased significantly in the IKE group compared with the IHG and control groups (ANOVA p < 0.001). Left ventricular global longitudinal strain decreased significantly in the IKE group (−21%) compared with the IHG and control groups (ANOVA p 0.002). The global work index increased significantly in the IKE group (+28%) compared with the IHG and control groups (ANOVA p 0.034). Global constructive work and wasted work increased significantly in the IKE group compared with the IHG and control groups (ANOVA p 0.009 and <0.001, respectively). Global work efficiency decreased significantly in the IKE group (−8%) while remaining unchanged in the IHG and control groups (ANOVA p 0.002). Conclusions: Myocardial work efficiency was impaired during isometric bilateral knee extension but not during handgrip, which evoked a limited hemodynamic response. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Exercise for Health Promotion)

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13 pages, 6901 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Histological and Immunohistochemical Insights into Disc Perforation in the Temporomandibular Joint: A Case Report

by Josè Freni, Antonio Centofanti, Fabiana Nicita, Davide Labellarte, Giovanna Vermiglio and Michele Runci Anastasi

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(2), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10020107 - 27 Mar 2025

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Anterior disc displacement without reduction (ADDwoR) is a temporomandibular joint (TMJ) disorder characterized by progressive dysfunction and potential complications. Persistent displacement leads to abnormal mechanical stress, predisposing the TMJ disc to structural degeneration, including perforation. This case report aimed to examine [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: Anterior disc displacement without reduction (ADDwoR) is a temporomandibular joint (TMJ) disorder characterized by progressive dysfunction and potential complications. Persistent displacement leads to abnormal mechanical stress, predisposing the TMJ disc to structural degeneration, including perforation. This case report aimed to examine the histological and immunofluorescence characteristics of perforated disc tissue to elucidate the mechanisms contributing to its pathology. Methods: A 50-year-old patient with bilateral ADDwoR and disc perforation underwent functional arthroplasty. Tissue samples from the perforated disc were histologically analyzed using hematoxylin–eosin and Azan Mallory staining. Immunofluorescence was performed to assess the expression of collagen type I, fibrillin-1, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs)-3 and -9, and cluster of differentiation 68 (CD68). Results: Histological analysis revealed disorganized collagen fibres and fibro-chondrocyte cell predominance in the perilesional zone, accompanied by vascular proliferation. Adjacent tissue to perforation exhibited normal fibrous organization. Immunofluorescence showed reduced collagen type I and fibrillin-1 patterns in the perilesional area, indicating an alteration in the fibrillar component of the extracellular matrix (ECM). Increased expression of MMP-3 and MMP-9, as well as elevated numbers of CD68-positive macrophages, suggested active ECM degradation and inflammation localized to the perforation site. Conclusions: This case report underscores the critical role of biomechanical stress and inflammation in disc perforation. Decreased ECM integrity, driven by altered collagen and fibrillin composition, as well as heightened MMP activity, compromises the disc’s capacity to absorb and distribute mechanical loads. These findings advance our understanding of TMJ pathophysiology, emphasizing the need for therapeutic approaches that target both biomechanical stabilization and inflammation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Functional Anatomy and Musculoskeletal System)

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19 pages, 897 KiB

Open AccessReview

Velocity-Based Training in Soccer: A Brief Narrative Review with Practical Recommendations

by Andrés Rojas Jaramillo, Richard B. Kreider, Jorge L. Petro, Diego A. Bonilla, Juan José Gonzalez-Badillo and David Rodriguez-Rosell

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(2), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10020106 - 26 Mar 2025

Abstract

Soccer is an intermittent sport characterized by periods of high intensity interspersed with varying levels of recovery. During the game, soccer players are required to perform numerous determinant actions, such as accelerations, decelerations, pace and directional changes, jumps, and strikes, which demand high [...] Read more.

Soccer is an intermittent sport characterized by periods of high intensity interspersed with varying levels of recovery. During the game, soccer players are required to perform numerous determinant actions, such as accelerations, decelerations, pace and directional changes, jumps, and strikes, which demand high levels of strength, speed, endurance, and mobility. This review aims to examine the current scientific evidence on velocity-based training (VBT) in order to assess its role in optimizing key actions in soccer players and to provide practical applications for its implementation. A narrative review of the scientific literature was conducted, focusing on velocity-based resistance training and its application in soccer, identifying relevant studies on its effectiveness in improving specific physical capacities and sports performance. Velocity-based resistance training is an effective strategy for enhancing key skills such as linear sprints, vertical jumps, and direction changes. Additionally, this methodology allows for the real-time adjustment of training loads, optimizing outcomes and minimizing muscle fatigue. Velocity-based resistance training represents an innovative and practical tool for soccer coaches and strength and conditioning professionals. Its application can contribute to optimizing physical performance, reducing injury risks, and improving sport-specific capabilities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength Training and Performance Enhancement in Athletes, 2nd Edition)

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10 pages, 715 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Acute Effects of Inspiratory Muscle Warm-Up on Performance and Cardiorespiratory Parameters of Scuba Divers—A Preliminary Study

by Ricardo Alberola-Blanes, Fernando Alacid, Carmen Daniela Quero-Calero and Daniel López-Plaza

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(2), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10020105 - 26 Mar 2025

Abstract

Background/Objectives: The inspiratory muscles play a fundamental role in cardiorespiratory performance, especially in water sports. The main objective of this study was to investigate the effects of an inspiratory muscle warm-up (IMW) protocol on the performance and respiratory parameters of scuba divers [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: The inspiratory muscles play a fundamental role in cardiorespiratory performance, especially in water sports. The main objective of this study was to investigate the effects of an inspiratory muscle warm-up (IMW) protocol on the performance and respiratory parameters of scuba divers prior to performing two diving tests, one static and the other dynamic. Methods: Eight young, active divers (six men and two women; 26.63 ± 4.67 years of age) volunteered for the study. In two sessions, one using an IMW protocol and the other without IMW, participants performed two underwater tests with a gas tank: a static immersion at the bottom of the pool for 5 min and a dynamic test consisting of swimming underwater for 12 min at 1 m/s. Some cardiorespiratory parameters such as gas expenditure, oxygen saturation (SO₂), heart rate (HR), spirometry, and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were measured before and after each of the tests. Results: Significant differences were observed in gas expenditure using IMW in both static and dynamic testing (p < 0.05) and in RPE in dynamic testing (p < 0.05). HR values were significantly higher in the pre-dynamic test with IMW and the post-static test with IMW. Finally, with the use of IMW, spirometry values were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in static tests after immersion, whereas in the dynamic test, they were significantly higher before the immersion (p < 0.05). Conclusions: Based on the results of this study, the use of the IMW prior to a dive would be recommended for better overall physical performance, oxygen expenditure, improved pulmonary function, and lower perceived exertion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Physiology of Training—2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 4142 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Injections of Monocytes, Platelet-Rich Plasma, and Hyaluronic Acid in Adults with Knee Osteoarthritis: An Observational Study

by Rita Chiaramonte, Salvatore Caramma, Enrico Buccheri, Patrizia Finocchiaro, Umile Giuseppe Longo, Antonio Ammendolia, Alessandro de Sire and Michele Vecchio

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(2), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10020104 - 26 Mar 2025

Abstract

Background: Knee osteoarthritis (OA) is a prevalent condition among adults that leads to knee joint pain and dysfunction. Over the past two decades, local intra-articular knee injection therapy has gained popularity due to the advent of platelet-rich plasma (PRP), hyaluronic acid (HA), and [...] Read more.

Background: Knee osteoarthritis (OA) is a prevalent condition among adults that leads to knee joint pain and dysfunction. Over the past two decades, local intra-articular knee injection therapy has gained popularity due to the advent of platelet-rich plasma (PRP), hyaluronic acid (HA), and the novel peripheral blood-derived mononuclear cells (PBMNCs). This study aimed to compare the therapeutic efficacy of intra-articular injections of PBMNCs, HA, and PRP combined with hyaluronic acid (PRP-HA) for treating degenerative knee OA classified as stages II and III, according to the Kellgren and Lawrence (KL) scale. Methods: This retrospective observational study involved adults with moderate-to-moderately severe knee OA treated at the University Hospital of Catania, Italy. The subjects were divided into three groups and treated with intra-articular injections of HA, PRP-HA, or PBMNCs. The outcome measures assessed were as follows: the Numerical Rating Scale, the Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Arthritis Index, the Timed Up and Go, the International Knee Documentation Committee score, a 10-meter walking test, and the Physical score and the Mental score on the SF-12. This study included a total of 46 adults, 30 females and 16 males, with a mean age of 63.7 ± 10.9 years. Results: HA, PRP-HA, and PBMNCs demonstrated comparable effectiveness for improving the NRS score and all the other outcomes at 6 months. Additionally, PRP-HA and PBMNCs also enhanced knee flexion and the International Knee Documentation Committee score. However, none of the three treatments led to a significant improvement on the 10-meter walking test. No serious adverse effects were reported. Conclusions: In this study, injections of HA, PRP-HA, and PBMNCs all demonstrated positive outcomes for up to 6 months post-treatment in the subjects suffering from knee OA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Functional Anatomy and Musculoskeletal System)

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19 pages, 796 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization and Comparison of Athletic Performance and Change of Direction Deficit Across Youth Futsal Age Groups

by João P. Oliveira, Daniel A. Marinho, Tatiana Sampaio, Sílvio Carvalho, Hugo Martins and Jorge E. Morais

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(2), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10020103 - 25 Mar 2025

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Futsal players need peak strength, functional capacity, speed, and explosive lower-limb power for optimal performance. The aim of this study was to (i) characterize and compare anthropometric characteristics, lower limb strength/power, dynamic balance, linear sprint speed, COD performance, and COD deficit across [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: Futsal players need peak strength, functional capacity, speed, and explosive lower-limb power for optimal performance. The aim of this study was to (i) characterize and compare anthropometric characteristics, lower limb strength/power, dynamic balance, linear sprint speed, COD performance, and COD deficit across young futsal age groups and (ii) identify key predictors of COD deficit. Methods: Thirty-three male futsal players from three age groups (U13, U15, and U17) were tested. Results: All anthropometric variables showed significant group effects with moderate to strong effect sizes, where U17 presented the largest values, followed by U15 and U13. Strength and power variables presented the same trend. The dynamic balance differed significantly across groups. Significant differences between groups with moderate effect sizes were noted in linear sprints (F = 19.54, p < 0.001, η² = 0.57), zigzag (F = 19.54, p = 0.002, η² = 0.35), and COD deficit (F = 19.54, p < 0.001, η² = 0.46). Post hoc tests revealed that U13 and U15 outperformed U17 in the COD deficit (p < 0.002). The COD deficit showed a quadratic relationship with age, initially improving but later declining in older players (p < 0.001). The body mass and the posteromedial relative difference predicted the COD deficit, with the coefficient of determination (R²) explaining 39% of the COD variance. Conclusions: Coaches and practitioners should utilize COD drills to target various movement patterns and account for pubertal timing, as growth can impact performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Performance: Training Strategies to Improve Strength, Speed, and Power)

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15 pages, 294 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of 4 Weeks of High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) on VO₂max, Anaerobic Power, and Specific Performance in Cyclists with Cerebral Palsy

by Cristian A. Lasso-Quilindo, Luz M. Chalapud-Narvaez, Diego C. Garcia-Chaves, Carlos Cristi-Montero and Rodrigo Yañez-Sepulveda

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(2), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10020102 - 24 Mar 2025

Abstract

Background: High-intensity interval training (HIIT) is an effective and efficient method for training Paralympic athletes with cerebral palsy, particularly in intermittent sports and those requiring aerobic and anaerobic capacity, speed, and strength to delay fatigue onset and optimize athletic performance. Objectives: This study [...] Read more.

Background: High-intensity interval training (HIIT) is an effective and efficient method for training Paralympic athletes with cerebral palsy, particularly in intermittent sports and those requiring aerobic and anaerobic capacity, speed, and strength to delay fatigue onset and optimize athletic performance. Objectives: This study aimed to analyze the effects of four weeks of HIIT on the estimated VO₂max, anaerobic power, and athletic performance in cyclists with cerebral palsy. Materials and Methods: This quasi-experimental study included three male athletes (Athletes A, B, and C) with cerebral palsy from the Paracycling Departmental Commission of Cauca, Colombia. The estimated VO₂max was assessed using an incremental test on a cycling ergometer. Anaerobic power was measured using the 30 s long Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT_30 s. Specific performance was evaluated with an individual time trial of 14 km for class T1 and 20 km for class T2. HIIT training was performed on a cycling ergometer over four weeks (two sessions per week). The training intensity was based on watts (W) measured in the incremental test for long HIIT sessions and in the WAnT_30 s test for short HIIT sessions. The training load was monitored through heart rate (HR) responses and the subjective perceived exertion (RPE) at the end of the training. Results: After the HIIT intervention, percentage changes in the estimated VO₂max were observed in Athlete A (+7%) and Athlete C (+9.4%). In the WAnT_30 s, there were increases in the maximal and mean power in Athlete A (>31%, 282.3 vs. 370.4 W), Athlete B (>15%, 272.5 vs. 312.6 W), and Athlete C (>9%, 473.7 vs. 516.2 W). Individual time trial performance improved, with reduced completion times for Athlete A (−6.7%, 2492 vs. 2325 s), Athlete B (−3.7%, 2486 vs. 2390 s), and Athlete C (−3.7%, 2775 vs. 2674 s). Conclusions: This study found that eight sessions of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) over a four-week period had a positive effect on the estimated VO₂max in Athletes A and C. Moreover, all three paracyclists demonstrated improvements in their maximal and average power output during the 30 s Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT_30 s), as well as enhanced performance in the time trial test. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applied Sport Physiology and Performance—4th Edition)

16 pages, 1012 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Posture Status Differences Between Preschool Boys and Girls

by Anida Kapo-Gurda, Amin Efendić, Indira Mahmutović, Siniša Kovač, Husnija Kajmović, Safet Kapo and Jožef Šimenko

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(2), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10020101 - 24 Mar 2025

Abstract

Background/Objectives: The preschool period plays an essential role in shaping a child’s overall development, which influences physical, emotional, social, and cognitive growth. At this stage, establishing proper postural habits is essential, as it can have lasting effects on health, well-being, helps to [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: The preschool period plays an essential role in shaping a child’s overall development, which influences physical, emotional, social, and cognitive growth. At this stage, establishing proper postural habits is essential, as it can have lasting effects on health, well-being, helps to prevent future issues, and supports overall development. Therefore, the present work aims to determine the differences in postural status between boys and girls of preschool age. Methods: The sample of participants consisted of 92 children (n = 46 boys and n = 46 girls); the average age for girls was 5.41 ± 0.30 years and for boys it was 5.53 ± 0.31 years. Data were collected using licensed state-of-the-art diagnostic equipment, Contemplas 3D Posture Compact, using 16 variables to assess postural status with a Mann–Whitney U test. Results: The results of this study indicate that boys have more pronounced deformities in the following variables: shoulder displacement (p = 0.047), pelvic obliquity (p = 0.000), sag. distance cervical spine–sacrum (p = 0.029), sag. distance thoracic spine–sacrum (SDTS) (p = 0.016), and sag. distance lumbar spine–sacrum (SDLS) (p = 0.005). Conclusions: This study confirmed gender differences in postural characteristics in preschool children. Boys showed a greater tendency towards postural deviations, indicating the necessity for specific interventions and programs to improve their posture. On the basis of the results of this research, it is recommended to carry out cross-cultural research that would enable the comparison of results among children from different environments and cultural contexts in order to determine possible differences and particularities in the development of postural characteristics. Future research should include larger and more diverse samples of participants, including children from rural and urban areas, in order to ensure the representativeness and generalizability of the results. In addition, conducting a longitudinal study that would monitor the postural characteristics of children through different developmental stages is suggested, aiming to identify critical periods for intervention and to determine, more precisely, development trends within the context of gender differences. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Kinanthropometry: Techniques and Applications in Sports and Health)

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