Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology

14 pages, 295 KB

Open AccessArticle

Preoperative Clinical Phenotyping for Individualised Rehabilitation in End-Stage Knee Osteoarthritis

by Marisa Coetzee, Amanda Marie Clifford, Diribsa Tsegaya Bedada, Oloff Bergh and Quinette Abegail Louw

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 360; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030360 - 19 Sep 2025

Abstract

Background: Osteoarthritis (OA) of the knee is a highly prevalent and heterogeneous condition. Identifying distinct clinical phenotypes within end-stage knee OA populations may inform tailored preoperative management strategies for individuals awaiting total knee replacement (TKR) surgery. Methods: This cross-sectional study employed exploratory factor [...] Read more.

Background: Osteoarthritis (OA) of the knee is a highly prevalent and heterogeneous condition. Identifying distinct clinical phenotypes within end-stage knee OA populations may inform tailored preoperative management strategies for individuals awaiting total knee replacement (TKR) surgery. Methods: This cross-sectional study employed exploratory factor analysis to identify clinical presentation patterns among patients with knee OA awaiting TKR in South Africa, using modifiable variables including demographic data, physical examination findings, patient-reported outcomes, and functional measures. Results: Three distinct clinical phenotypes emerged: (1) gait and weight—characterised by poor gait mechanics, obesity, and low self-efficacy; (2) central pain—encompassing central sensitisation, depression, and reduced functional performance; and (3) functional factors—reflecting muscular weakness and functional limitations. Conclusions: This study highlights the heterogeneity in clinical presentations among patients with end-stage knee OA awaiting TKR in South Africa. The identified phenotypes suggest a need for tailored, multidisciplinary preoperative interventions incorporating weight management, pain management, psychological support, targeted exercise programs, and behavioural change strategies to optimise post-surgical outcomes and enhance overall care. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Posture, Balance, and Gait: Assessment Techniques and Rehabilitation Strategies)

19 pages, 948 KB

Open AccessArticle

Structural and Functional Asymmetries in Male Basketball Players: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of Body Composition, Bone Status, and Performance

by Dimitrios Pantazis, Dimitrios Balampanos, Alexandra Avloniti, Theodoros Stampoulis, Maria Protopappa, Christos Kokkotis, Konstantinos Chatzichristos, Panagiotis Aggelakis, Maria Emmanouilidou, Nikolaos-Orestis Retzepis, Nikolaos Zaras, Dimitrios Draganidis, Ioannis G. Fatouros, Maria Michalopoulou, Antonis Kambas and Athanasios Chatzinikolaou

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 359; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030359 - 18 Sep 2025

Abstract

Background: Basketball is a high-intensity, multidirectional sport involving frequent jumping, sprinting, and rapid changes of direction, which may expose the musculoskeletal system to varying and potentially asymmetric mechanical demands. The mechanical loading associated with basketball-specific movements may also serve as a consistent osteogenic [...] Read more.

Background: Basketball is a high-intensity, multidirectional sport involving frequent jumping, sprinting, and rapid changes of direction, which may expose the musculoskeletal system to varying and potentially asymmetric mechanical demands. The mechanical loading associated with basketball-specific movements may also serve as a consistent osteogenic stimulus, potentially leading to side-specific adaptations in body composition and bone characteristics. Long-term participation in basketball may lead to functional and structural asymmetries between the lower and upper limbs, potentially increasing the risk of injury and impacting performance. This study aimed to investigate structural and functional asymmetries in male basketball players using body composition, health, and performance-related measures. Methods: Thirty-eight right-handed basketball players (age: 21.1 ± 2.8 years; body mass: 86.2 ± 9.2 kg; height: 1.91 ± 8.3 cm) were assessed in a single testing session. The evaluation included bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), single-leg countermovement rebound jumps (CMRJs), and handgrip strength testing. Results: Significant interlimb differences were observed in lean mass and the phase angle for both the arms and legs. Performance differences favored the left leg in terms of maximum jump height (12.0 ± 17.5%, p = 0.001) and reactive strength index (RSI), whereas the right arm exhibited greater grip strength than the left (6.4 ± 5.9%, p = 0.001). DXA analysis revealed significant asymmetries in bone parameters, including bone mineral density (BMD) of the trochanter (1.81 ± 5.51%, p = 0.031, dz = 0.37), total hip (1.41 ± 4.11%, p = 0.033, dz = 0.36), and total arms (–1.21 ± 2.71%, p = 0.010, dz = 0.43), as well as bone mineral content (BMC) in total arms (–2.16 ± 5.09%, p = 0.012) and total legs (1.71 ± 3.36%, p = 0.002, 0.54). Conclusions: These findings suggest that basketball may induce both functional and structural adaptations, likely due to repetitive unilateral loading and sport-specific movement patterns. However, individual variability and the use of diverse assessment methods may complicate the detection and interpretation of asymmetries. Coaches and practitioners should monitor and address such asymmetries to reduce injury risk and optimize performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Kinesiology and Biomechanics)

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14 pages, 296 KB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Metrics of Anaerobic Power in Professional Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) Fighters

by Jessica Hanflink, Corey A. Peacock, Gabriel J. Sanders and Jose Antonio

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 358; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030358 - 18 Sep 2025

Abstract

Background: Mixed martial arts (MMA) requires athletes to generate repeated bursts of high-intensity effort with minimal recovery time. Despite the sport’s reliance on anaerobic power, there are minimal data assessing pre-competition physiological capacity in MMA fighters. This study aimed to evaluate anaerobic performance [...] Read more.

Background: Mixed martial arts (MMA) requires athletes to generate repeated bursts of high-intensity effort with minimal recovery time. Despite the sport’s reliance on anaerobic power, there are minimal data assessing pre-competition physiological capacity in MMA fighters. This study aimed to evaluate anaerobic performance using the Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT) and Countermovement Jump (CMJ) in professional MMA athletes, and to examine relationships between performance metrics across weight classes. Methods: Twelve professional male MMA fighters (age 29.00 ± 4.80 years, weight 85.60 ± 13.90 kg) completed both CMJ and WAnT assessments using sensor-integrated devices (Just Jump mat and Wattbike Pro). CMJ height and WAnT variables (peak power, average power, and fatigue index) were measured. Pearson correlations were used to examine the relationships between CMJ and Wingate outputs. Independent t-tests compared performance between lighter (<83.9 kg) and heavier (≥83.9 kg) weight groups. Results: CMJ performance showed significant positive correlations with both average power (r = 0.71, p < 0.001) and peak power (r = 0.61, p = 0.004). Peak power was also positively correlated with fatigue index (r = 0.84, p < 0.001), suggesting greater fatigue in higher power-producing athletes. Finally, the heavier weight group of fighters produced significantly (p = 0.03) more peak power when compared to the lighter weight group. Conclusions: The findings support the use of CMJ and WAnT testing as practical tools for evaluating anaerobic performance in MMA athletes. These assessments can help guide individualized training strategies, particularly when accounting for weight group specific differences in power and fatigue dynamics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Strength, Power, and Endurance in Diverse Athletic Populations)

11 pages, 684 KB

Open AccessArticle

Seasonal Body Composition Changes in Elite Rugby Players: DXA and Anthropometry-Based Comparison of Backs and Forwards

by Blanca Couce, Anel E. Recarey-Rodríguez, Selene Baos, Helios Pareja-Galeano and María Martínez-Ferrán

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 357; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030357 - 18 Sep 2025

Abstract

Background: Body composition analysis in rugby is necessary for profiling athletes for ideal positioning, the establishment of standards and the development of nutritional and training strategies for improvement. This study aimed to assess the body composition of elite rugby players and examine [...] Read more.

Background: Body composition analysis in rugby is necessary for profiling athletes for ideal positioning, the establishment of standards and the development of nutritional and training strategies for improvement. This study aimed to assess the body composition of elite rugby players and examine seasonal variations between backs and forwards using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) and anthropometry. Methods: Thirty-two rugby players (25.97 ± 4.51 years; 93.00 ± 15.39 kg; 181.77 ± 6.27 cm) from First Spanish National league team had their body composition assessed using DXA and anthropometry before and after the season. Results: The main findings indicated that backs exhibited significant increases in total mass, lean mass and fat-free mass, whereas forwards showed and increased only in bone mass. In terms of somatotype, significant changes were observed only in backs, who demonstrated increased mesomorphy and ectomorphy. Within the forwards, front-row players experienced greater increases in LM and FFM compared to other forwards. Conclusions: Rugby players show differences in body composition based on the physical demands of their playing position. These positional differences in body composition are influenced by both training adaptations and genetic predispositions, which ultimately determine the suitability of players for specific roles on the field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Strength Training and Nutrition: Cutting-Edge Strategies for Peak Performance)

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13 pages, 1174 KB

Open AccessBrief Report

Estimation of the External Knee Adduction Moment Using Inertial Measurement Unit Sensors on the Shank and Lower Back: A Pilot Study

by Tomoaki Matsuda, Junichi Watanabe, Tasuku Sotokawa, Toru Shishime and Hiroshi Katoh

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 356; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030356 - 18 Sep 2025

Abstract

Background: The external knee adduction moment (KAM) is an important biomechanical parameter that reflects the load on the medial tibiofemoral compartment during gait. The KAM is typically evaluated using three-dimensional motion analysis (3DMA) systems. The present study aimed to evaluate and validate the [...] Read more.

Background: The external knee adduction moment (KAM) is an important biomechanical parameter that reflects the load on the medial tibiofemoral compartment during gait. The KAM is typically evaluated using three-dimensional motion analysis (3DMA) systems. The present study aimed to evaluate and validate the waveform similarity between the KAM estimated using only two inertial measurement units (IMUs) sensors, attached to the shank and lower back (IMU-KAM), as a simpler method and that obtained from a 3DMA system (3DMA-KAM) under different step rate conditions. Methods: Three healthy adult men were included. The gait task involved walking in a straight line over a distance of approximately 10 m at three step rate conditions: 115, 100, and 85 steps/min. Data were collected using a 3DMA system, force plates, and IMUs. The primary outcome measures included the KAM waveforms for 3DMA-KAM and IMU-KAM during the early and late phases of the single-limb support (Early-SLS phase and Late-SLS phase, respectively). The coefficient of multiple correlation (CMC) was used to evaluate the waveform pattern similarity. Results: IMU-KAM demonstrated high similarity to 3DMA-KAM waveforms in the Early-SLS phase under 115 and 100 steps/min, with CMC values ranging from 0.66 to 0.99. However, no clear similarity was observed in the Late-SLS phase. Conclusions: In the Preferred and Reduced conditions, wherein the walking rate exceeded 100 steps/min, the KAM waveform pattern during the Early-SLS phase was accurately estimated using IMU sensors attached to the shank and lower back. The findings of this study suggest the potential of simplified gait analysis using IMUs for evaluating knee joint biomechanics and provide foundational data for future clinical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Posture, Balance, and Gait: Assessment Techniques and Rehabilitation Strategies)

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14 pages, 1761 KB

Open AccessArticle

Muscle Fiber Recruitment Characteristics in Trained Older Adults: An EMG Frequency Analysis During Voluntary Contraction

by Tatsuhiko Matsumoto, Yutaka Takamaru, Chikao Nakayama, Shuji Sawada and Shuichi Machida

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 355; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030355 - 17 Sep 2025

Abstract

Background: Age-related declines in skeletal muscle quality and quantity contribute to frailty and sarcopenia, leading to physical dysfunction in older adults. In particular, the selective atrophy of fast-twitch fibers is closely linked to reduced lower limb strength and increased fall risk. This study [...] Read more.

Background: Age-related declines in skeletal muscle quality and quantity contribute to frailty and sarcopenia, leading to physical dysfunction in older adults. In particular, the selective atrophy of fast-twitch fibers is closely linked to reduced lower limb strength and increased fall risk. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of habitual body weight resistance training on muscle fiber recruitment patterns during maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) and squatting movements using spectral characteristics of surface electromyography (EMG). Methods: Fifty healthy community-dwelling older adults (28 males, 22 females; aged 64–84 years) were categorized into exercise and non-exercise groups based on training habits. Surface EMG signals were recorded from the rectus femoris muscle during MVC, normal squat, half-squat, and squat movements. Power spectral density (PSD) was analyzed using Welch’s method and divided into frequency bands: type I (20–60 Hz), type IIa(1) (60–115 Hz), type IIa(2) (115–170 Hz), and type IIx (170–350 Hz). Results: While statistical significance was limited, the exercise group tended to show higher ratio PSDs in type IIa and IIx bands, and lower PSDs in the type I band during MVC. During half-squats, the non-exercise group exhibited higher contributions above 60 Hz, suggesting inefficient fast-twitch fiber recruitment. Conclusions: Habitual body weight resistance training may influence muscle fiber recruitment patterns in older adults. EMG spectral analysis offers a non-invasive means to detect age- and training-related neuromuscular adaptations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Functional Anatomy and Musculoskeletal System)

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12 pages, 4591 KB

Open AccessArticle

Toward a Better Understanding of Hip Adductor Function: Internal Rotation Capability Revealed by Anatomical and MRI Evaluation

by Kazuhiro Hirano, Kazuo Kinoshita, Atsushi Senoo and Masaru Watanabe

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 354; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030354 - 16 Sep 2025

Abstract

Background: At present, the rotational function of the hip adductor muscle group remains unclear. This study aimed to clarify the rotational function and stabilizing role of the pectineus, adductor longus, and adductor brevis (adductor muscle group) based on anatomical findings and T [...] Read more.

Background: At present, the rotational function of the hip adductor muscle group remains unclear. This study aimed to clarify the rotational function and stabilizing role of the pectineus, adductor longus, and adductor brevis (adductor muscle group) based on anatomical findings and T₂ values (ms) obtained from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). T₂ values are prolonged in tissues with higher water content, and in skeletal muscle, it has been demonstrated that T₂ values increase in proportion to exercise intensity. Methods: Using fixed specimens (n = 6, aged 61–96 years), we observed the three-dimensional arrangement of muscles in the neutral position of the hip joint and observed the extension or shortening of muscles associated with passive maximum internal and external rotation of the hip joint. In addition, we evaluated the activity of the adductor muscle group by T₂ values (ms) from MRI pre- and post-internal rotation (forward step with the left leg) and pre- and post-external rotation (backward step with the left leg) movements of the right hip joint in a standing position (n = 8, healthy adult subjects, mean age 29.1 ± 5.3 years). Results: Regarding functional anatomy, the arrangement of the gluteus minimus and adductor muscle groups was almost parallel across the femoral neck. In the evaluation of adductor muscle group activity using MRI, the percent change in T₂ values (%) of the pectineus was 6.38 ± 1.35 pre- and post-internal rotation and 1.35 ± 0.71 pre- and post-external rotation, whereas that of the adductor longus and brevis was 4.84 ± 1.31 pre- and post-internal rotation and 1.31 ± 0.68 pre- and post-external rotation. The percent change in T₂ values pre- and post-internal rotation exercise was significantly greater than that pre- and post-external rotation exercise in the pectineus, adductor longus, and brevis muscles (p < 0.05). Conclusions: The adductor muscle groups are suggested to contribute to joint stability in the coronal plane and provide joint internal rotation in the standing position. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Feature Papers in Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology)

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19 pages, 1150 KB

Open AccessArticle

Low-Intensity Virtual Reality Exercise for Caregivers of People with Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Pilot Study

by Maria Grazia Maggio, Raffaela Maione, Silvia Migale, Antonino Lombardo Facciale, Luca Pergolizzi, Piero Buonasera, Bartolo Fonti, Mirjam Bonanno, Giulia Pistorino, Paolo De Pasquale and Rocco Salvatore Calabrò

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 353; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030353 - 16 Sep 2025

Abstract

Background: Informal caregivers of individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) experience high levels of psychological and physical stress, with limited access to supportive interventions and time constraints. Virtual Reality (VR) technologies may provide brief and accessible opportunities to support caregiver well-being, particularly during [...] Read more.

Background: Informal caregivers of individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) experience high levels of psychological and physical stress, with limited access to supportive interventions and time constraints. Virtual Reality (VR) technologies may provide brief and accessible opportunities to support caregiver well-being, particularly during waiting periods in clinical settings. This pilot study aimed to explore the potential of a semi-immersive VR intervention to enhance psychological well-being in informal caregivers. Methods: This non-randomized pilot study investigated the effects of a semi-immersive VR-based physical training program (K-HERO^®) on psychological well-being and coping strategies in informal caregivers. Participants were recruited from January to May 2025 at the IRCCS Centro Neurolesi “Bonino-Pulejo” (Messina, Italy), and the intervention was delivered individually in a dedicated room within the rehabilitation facility, while caregivers accompanied their relatives to treatment sessions. Ten caregivers completed six sessions (30–40 min each). The study was conducted in accordance with TREND reporting guidelines. Pre- and post-intervention assessments included the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), COPE Inventory, Caregiver Burden Inventory (CBI), and International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ). Visual Analog Scales and instrumental data from the VR system were used to monitor physical performance and user experience. Non-parametric statistics were applied. Results: Significant reductions were observed in avoidance (p = 0.033) and social support-based (p = 0.023) coping strategies. Differences emerged based on caregiver-patient relationships: parental caregivers showed increased anxiety, while offspring caregivers showed improvements. The intervention was well tolerated, with high usability and no adverse events reported. Conclusions: A short, structured, VR-based intervention delivered during clinical waiting periods may effectively reduce maladaptive coping strategies and support emotional well-being in informal caregivers. These findings highlight the potential of brief digital interventions in real-world care contexts. Larger randomized studies are needed to validate these preliminary findings and personalize interventions to different caregiver profiles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cutting-Edge Technology in Exercise Science: From Performance to Health Applications)

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10 pages, 232 KB

Open AccessBrief Report

Exploring the Impact of Pickleball for Improving Mood in First-Year University Students—A Pilot Study in Japan

by Max Nghiem Lee, Michael Benjamin Fung and Goichi Hagiwara

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 352; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030352 - 14 Sep 2025

Abstract

Background: Pickleball has gained global popularity as a socially engaging and accessible sport, but little is known about its short-term psychological effects on younger populations, particularly university students. This pilot study examines whether participation in a pickleball class during a university course [...] Read more.

Background: Pickleball has gained global popularity as a socially engaging and accessible sport, but little is known about its short-term psychological effects on younger populations, particularly university students. This pilot study examines whether participation in a pickleball class during a university course produces immediate mood improvements among Japanese first-year students. Methods: A total of 106 sports science students (75 men and 31 women; M = 18.44, SD = 0.55) participated in a 100 min pickleball tournament. Mood states were measured pre- and post-activity using a Two-Dimensional Mood Scale (TDMS) to assess vitality, stability, pleasure, and arousal. A mixed-design ANOVA (time × gender) was used for analysis. Results: A significant main effect of time was found for vitality (F(1,103) = 4.97, p = 0.028, η² = 0.046), indicating improved vitality after participation. Other mood indices showed positive but non-significant trends (pleasure: p = 0.127; arousal: p = 0.067; stability: p = 0.812). No significant main effects of gender or time × gender interactions were observed. Qualitative responses supported these findings, with 64% of participants describing the activity as “fun” or “good” and 24% referencing social themes such as “cooperation” and “exchange”. Conclusions: Short-term participation in pickleball during a university class improved vitality and fostered social enjoyment among first-year students, with broadly similar benefits for men and women. As a pilot study, the findings highlight pickleball’s potential as a low-barrier, socially interactive activity to support students’ mental health in educational settings, although future studies with diverse samples and controlled designs are needed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physical Activity for Optimal Health: 2nd Edition)

15 pages, 659 KB

Open AccessArticle

Recovery After an Official Soccer Match: An Analysis of Markers of Muscle Damage and Oxidative Stress, and Endocrine, Neuromuscular and Perceptual Responses

by Diego Marqués-Jiménez, Miguel Ramirez-Jimenez, José M. Izquierdo, José Losa-Reyna, Domingo Machuca Calvo, Jorge López-López and Daniel Castillo

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 351; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030351 - 13 Sep 2025

Abstract

Objectives: This study analysed the recovery process after an official soccer match by monitoring changes in markers of muscle damage and oxidative stress, and endocrine, neuromuscular, and perceptual responses. Methods: This repeated-measures observational study included thirteen male amateur soccer players. Blood [...] Read more.

Objectives: This study analysed the recovery process after an official soccer match by monitoring changes in markers of muscle damage and oxidative stress, and endocrine, neuromuscular, and perceptual responses. Methods: This repeated-measures observational study included thirteen male amateur soccer players. Blood biomarkers, neuromuscular performance in countermovement jump, and perceived wellness were measured at four time-points: the morning of the match-day, immediately post-, and 24 h and 48 h post-match. Results: Except for CK, which remained elevated at 48 h post-match, lactate dehydrogenase, C-reactive protein, uric acid, testosterone, cortisol, and testosterone to cortisol ratio returned to baseline between 24 h and 48 h post-match (p < 0.05). Jump height was significantly decreased at 24 h and 48 h post-match, while peak rate of force development and other countermovement jump time-based metrics (i.e., time to take off, time to peak force, reactive strength index modified, flight time to contraction time ratio) were impaired immediately after the match and recovered earlier (p < 0.05). Peak values for perceived fatigue and delayed onset muscle soreness were observed immediately post- and at 24 h post-match, respectively (p < 0.05). Conclusions: While certain physiological, neuromuscular, and perceptual changes may return to baseline levels within 24 h or 48 h post-match, amateur soccer players still manifest exercise-induced muscle damage symptoms and can be considered fatigued after a 48 h recovery period. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Muscle Stress and Damage in Sport and Exercise)

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14 pages, 445 KB

Open AccessArticle

Notational Analysis of the Final Matches of the 2023 IBA Women’s World Boxing Championships

by Francesca Martusciello, Andrea Perazzetti, Arben Kaçurri, Marco Consolati and Antonio Tessitore

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 350; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030350 - 12 Sep 2025

Abstract

Background: Recently, elite women’s boxing has undergone significant structural and regulatory changes, including the adoption of the 3 × 3-min-bout format and expanded Olympic categories. Despite increased female participation, scientific literature remains predominantly focused on male athletes. This study aimed to identify the [...] Read more.

Background: Recently, elite women’s boxing has undergone significant structural and regulatory changes, including the adoption of the 3 × 3-min-bout format and expanded Olympic categories. Despite increased female participation, scientific literature remains predominantly focused on male athletes. This study aimed to identify the technical and tactical actions that distinguish winner from loser boxers in elite amateur women’s boxing by analysing the final matches of the 2023 IBA Women’s World Boxing Championships. Methods: Twelve final bouts (one per weight-category) were analysed using a customised notational framework based on the offensive–defensive interaction cycle. A total of 1323 offensive and 1456 defensive actions were recorded and categorised using Kinovea (0.9.5 release) software and an Excel dashboard. Offensive Effectiveness Ratio (OER) and Defensive Effectiveness Ratio (DER) were calculated, and Chi-square tests with standardised residuals were applied to detect associations between action types and bout outcomes. Results: Winners performed fewer offensive actions (n = 635) than losers (n = 688) but demonstrated significantly higher OER across all rounds (W: 0.39-0.38-0.39; L: 0.26-0.28-0.29). Winners landed more punches to the head and made greater use of rear-hand hooks and uppercuts. Pivoting and shifting back, particularly when followed by counterattacks, were significantly associated with winners (p < 0.001). Conversely, parrying and single counterpunches were linked to losing outcomes. DER values suggested superior defensive efficiency among winners. Conclusions: Winner boxers showed superior technical effectiveness, selective use of single and rear-hand punches and used more dynamic defensive strategies. These findings support using notational analysis in high-performance coaching and emphasise the need for more research on elite female combat athletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Athletic Training and Human Performance)

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11 pages, 616 KB

Open AccessArticle

Acute Blood Pressure Changes Following Resistance Exercise in Adults with Hypertension

by Luis A. Benavides-Roca, Germán Parra and Antonio R. Zamunér

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 349; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030349 - 12 Sep 2025

Abstract

Objective: This study aimed to determine the acute effects of specific exercises, commonly used in resistance training programs, performed at two intensities (low and high) with equal volume, on blood pressure in individuals with pharmacologically controlled hypertension. Methods: A crossover clinical [...] Read more.

Objective: This study aimed to determine the acute effects of specific exercises, commonly used in resistance training programs, performed at two intensities (low and high) with equal volume, on blood pressure in individuals with pharmacologically controlled hypertension. Methods: A crossover clinical trial was conducted with 26 participants with hypertension, each completing two resistance training sessions, one low-intensity and one high-intensity, including squats, rows, deadlifts, and bench presses. The exercise intensity for the first session was randomly assigned, and blood pressure was measured using an automated device before and immediately after each exercise. Comparisons between baseline and post-exercise values were analyzed, with a significance level set at 5%. Results: The results showed that systolic blood pressure (SBP) increased during squats, rows, and deadlifts compared to baseline, with the deadlift producing the highest values. For diastolic blood pressure (DBP), no significant differences were observed from baseline, but the squat and deadlift elicited higher values than the rows and bench press. Additionally, high-intensity training resulted in lower DBP values compared to the low-intensity protocol. Conclusion: Resistance exercise increases SBP regardless of intensity, with the squat and deadlift producing the most significant changes, while high-intensity training leads to lower DBP values than low-intensity protocols in the studied participants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Exercise for Health Promotion)

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19 pages, 777 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of a 24-Week Workplace Physical Activity Program on Oxidative Stress Markers, Metabolic Health, and Physical Fitness: A Pilot Study in a Real-World Academic Setting

by Gabriele Maisto, Maria Scatigna, Simona Delle Monache, Maria Francesca Coppolino, Lorenzo Pugliese, Anna Maria Sponta, Loreta Tobia, Elio Tolli, Pierfrancesco Zito, Valerio Bonavolontà, Leila Fabiani, Chiara Tuccella and Maria Giulia Vinciguerra

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 348; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030348 - 12 Sep 2025

Abstract

Background: Previous studies showed that workplace physical activity programs (WPAPs) could improve general health among employees. However, there is a lack of correlation between oxidative redox status and the metabolic and physical fitness (PF) of workers. The objective of the study was [...] Read more.

Background: Previous studies showed that workplace physical activity programs (WPAPs) could improve general health among employees. However, there is a lack of correlation between oxidative redox status and the metabolic and physical fitness (PF) of workers. The objective of the study was to evaluate the improvements of a 24-week combined circuit training and mobility training program on PF, oxidative redox status, and metabolic parameters on healthy academic employees. Methods: Twenty-six university employees (52.8 ± 11.5 years) followed a 24-week WPAP composed of two circuit training sessions and one mobility training session per week. PF components were assessed through one leg stand, shoulder/neck mobility, handgrip, dynamic sit-up, jump and reach, and 2-Minute step test (2MST). Oxidative stress and antioxidant potential were evaluated through derived-Reactive Oxygen Metabolites (d-ROM) and biological antioxidant potential (BAP) tests, respectively. Metabolic measurements included total cholesterol, LDL-C, HDL-C, triglycerides, and fasting plasma glucose. All assessments were conducted at baseline and after 24 weeks. Results: D-ROM values increased significantly likely due to an acute adaptive response to exercise and a stable BAP/d-ROM ratio was maintained. At baseline, subjects with higher 2MST scores showed a better BAP/d-ROM ratio compared to those with lower 2MST scores, which was also associated with normal weight status (p < 0.05), healthy values of triglycerides (p < 0.01), and LDL-C (p < 0.01). Excluding statin-treated subjects, an intriguing shift toward a condition of enhanced antioxidant capacity was observed. Conclusions: Overall, the 24-week WPAP improved metabolic health and maintained redox balance, despite increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Statin supplementation may have hidden antioxidant adaptations to physical exercise, an intriguing observation that warrants further studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sports Medicine and Public Health)

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10 pages, 882 KB

Open AccessArticle

Post-Activation Performance Enhancement of Lower Limb with Variable Resistance Back Squat at Different Depths

by Choon Yeow Ng and Danny Lum

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 347; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030347 - 11 Sep 2025

Abstract

Background: This study compared the acute effect of performing quarter (QS) and parallel (PS) squat with variable resistance (VR) on countermovement jump (CMJ) performance. Methods: Fifteen resistance trained athletes (age: 27.0 ± 3.7 years, bodyweight: 68.4 ± 7.7 kg, height: 169.7 ± 6.9 [...] Read more.

Background: This study compared the acute effect of performing quarter (QS) and parallel (PS) squat with variable resistance (VR) on countermovement jump (CMJ) performance. Methods: Fifteen resistance trained athletes (age: 27.0 ± 3.7 years, bodyweight: 68.4 ± 7.7 kg, height: 169.7 ± 6.9 cm) performed either the QS or PS to induce post-activation performance enhancement on two separate occasions. During each session, participants performed three repetitions of baseline CMJ prior to performing three repetitions of either QS or PS at their three-repetition maximum load. Participants then performed the post-test CMJ after a five-minute recovery period. Results: Both conditions resulted in increased jump height (QS: p < 0.001, g = 0.19, PS: p < 0.001, g = 0.35). Countermovement depth and time to take-off were significantly decreased in QS (p < 0.001, g = 0.63 and p = 0.005, g = 0.30, respectively) but significantly increased in PS (p = 0.027, g = 0.39 and p < 0.001, g = 0.36, respectively). Mean propulsion force was significantly increased in QS (p < 0.001, g = 0.23) but significantly decreased in PS (p = 0.083, g = 0.13). PS resulted in greater change in jump height (p < 0.001, g = 1.34) and time to take-off (p = 0.005, g = 1.25), while QS resulted in greater change in countermovement depth (p < 0.001, g = 2.33) and mean propulsion force (p < 0.001, g = 1.67). Conclusions: The results showed that performing PS and QS with VR was effective in enhancing CMJ height. However, the two conditions resulted in participants adopting different jump strategies when performing the post-test CMJ. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Kinesiology and Biomechanics)

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10 pages, 783 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Metabolic and Pulmonary Variables Between Real-Life and Mixed Reality Pickleball

by Setareh Zarei, Matahn Blank, Jamaal Bovell, Dustin W. Davis, Jacob Baca, Michael W. H. Wong, Brett Abarbanel and James W. Navalta

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 346; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030346 - 11 Sep 2025

Abstract

Background: Pickleball is one of the fastest growing sports, and the use of virtual reality is also fast growing. Because the physiological responses in real life (IRL) vs. virtual reality are unknown, the purpose of this research was to compare heart rate, metabolic [...] Read more.

Background: Pickleball is one of the fastest growing sports, and the use of virtual reality is also fast growing. Because the physiological responses in real life (IRL) vs. virtual reality are unknown, the purpose of this research was to compare heart rate, metabolic and pulmonary measures IRL vs. mixed reality (MR) during pickleball activity. Methods: Eleven adult participants were outfitted with a portable metabolic unit, heart rate monitor, and virtual reality headsets. Participants played simulated pickleball for 5 min IRL and 5 min in MR. Dependent variables included average heart rate (HR [beats per minute (bpm)], ventilation (VE [L/min]), tidal volume (VT [L]), respiratory frequency (Rf [breaths per min]), respiratory exchange ratio (RER), percent of calories from fat (FAT%), percent of calories from carbohydrate (CHO%), energy expenditure (EE [kilocalorie (kcal]), and VO₂ (mL/kg/min). Data were analyzed using paired t-tests with significance accepted at p < 0.05. Effect size measurements were determined by interpretation of small (d = 0.2), medium (d = 0.5), and large (d = 0.8). Results: All metabolic and pulmonary variables except for FAT% were higher during IRL when compared with MR with effect sizes ranging from median to large. Conclusions: The results of this study provide evidence that playing pickleball IRL results in greater physiological responses in comparison to MR. Since MR demands less exertion and substrate use than IRL this result can be beneficial for training purposes with the added potential of reduced injury. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Physiology of Training—2nd Edition)

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11 pages, 2915 KB

Open AccessArticle

Electromyographic Analysis of Back Muscle Activation During Lat Pulldown Exercise: Effects of Grip Variations and Forearm Orientation

by Andrea Buonsenso, Domenico Di Fonza, Gloria Di Claudio, Massimiliano Carangelo, Marco Centorbi, Alessandra di Cagno, Giuseppe Calcagno and Giovanni Fiorilli

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 345; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030345 - 11 Sep 2025

Abstract

Objectives: The lat pulldown machine is one of the most versatile pieces of equipment for back strengthening, allowing variations in grip and load. However, there are significant gaps in the literature regarding the relationship between exercise modality and specific muscle activation. Methods [...] Read more.

Objectives: The lat pulldown machine is one of the most versatile pieces of equipment for back strengthening, allowing variations in grip and load. However, there are significant gaps in the literature regarding the relationship between exercise modality and specific muscle activation. Methods: This study examined the electromyographic (EMG) activity of major back muscles during seven lat pulldown exercise variants that differed in grip type, width, and trunk inclination. Forty male subjects, with at least 5 years of resistance training experience, performed five repetitions of lat pulldown exercise using 70% of their repetition maximum. Prior to the surface EMG analysis, maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) tests were performed for each muscle group analysed, specifically the latissimus dorsi, posterior deltoid, brachial biceps, middle and lower trapezium, and infraspinatus. The normalised root mean square of the EMG (NrmsEMG) activity for each muscle was recorded during full, concentric, and eccentric movements. Results: Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) showed no significant difference in the NrmsEMG muscle activation across the different lat pulldown exercise variations (all p > 0.05). A significant difference was found in the posterior deltoid where the wide-pronated grip with a 30° trunk inclination showed greater EMG activation compared to the wide pronated grip (p = 0.011) and wide neutral grip (p = 0.017). Conclusions: These findings suggest that grip variations may not significantly alter latissimus dorsi recruitment, challenging the assumption that grip effectiveness targets this muscle. The results highlight the need for individualised approaches to exercise selection, given the variability in muscle activation patterns observed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanical Analysis in Physical Activity and Sports—2nd Edition)

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14 pages, 1044 KB

Open AccessArticle

Protective Gear Negatively Impacts Police Officer Mobility, Stability, and Power Generation

by Katherine A. Frick, Philip J. Agostinelli, Frances K. Neal, Nicholas C. Bordonie, C. Brooks Mobley and JoEllen M. Sefton

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 344; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030344 - 9 Sep 2025

Abstract

Background: Protective gear is a critical part of the police officer uniform. The required protective gear weighs over 9 kg and is rigid and bulky, creating deficits in physical performance essential for completing officer’s daily tasks and increasing risk of injury. Understanding the [...] Read more.

Background: Protective gear is a critical part of the police officer uniform. The required protective gear weighs over 9 kg and is rigid and bulky, creating deficits in physical performance essential for completing officer’s daily tasks and increasing risk of injury. Understanding the impedance the protective gear causes and how physical factors such as body composition increase this effect is critical to the safety and survival of the police officer. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of protective gear on officer capabilities. Methods: Officers completed an 11-point assessment in two conditions: athletic attire (No Gear) and uniform + protective equipment (Gear). Results: Differences in power output (p < 0.001; p = 0.118), balance (p < 0.001; p = 0.771), functional movement (p = 0.002; p = 0.018), and flexibility (p < 0.001) were found between the two conditions. Conclusions: Decreased on-duty performance can affect officer safety and success. These results indicate the need for continued improvement of police officer safety equipment to ensure mobility and safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tactical Athlete Health and Performance)

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14 pages, 921 KB

Open AccessArticle

Acute Effects of Isometric Contraction Distribution on Jump Performance in Volleyball Players

by Jonatan Helbin, Dawid Gawel, Artur Terbalyan, Michal Wilk, Michal Krzysztofik, Danny Lum and Jakub Jarosz

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 343; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030343 - 9 Sep 2025

Abstract

Objectives: This study evaluated how different distributions of isometric conditioning activity (ICA) durations affect countermovement jump (CMJ) performance in highly trained male volleyball players compared to a control condition (CTRL). Methods: Twelve participants performed CTRL and three ICA protocols in a half-back squat: [...] Read more.

Objectives: This study evaluated how different distributions of isometric conditioning activity (ICA) durations affect countermovement jump (CMJ) performance in highly trained male volleyball players compared to a control condition (CTRL). Methods: Twelve participants performed CTRL and three ICA protocols in a half-back squat: 9 s (3 × 1 × 3 s), 27 s (3 × 3 × 3 s), and 45 s (3 × 5 × 3 s). CMJ height was measured before and at 3, 6, 9, and 12 min post ICA. Results: A two-way repeated measures ANOVA showed significant main effects of time (F = 3.820; p = 0.009) and condition (F = 6.451; p = 0.001), with no significant interaction (F = 1.484; p = 0.138). Post hoc analysis indicated significant CMJ height increases at 9 min [mean difference (MD) = 5.1 ± 0.6 cm; p = 0.045] and 12 min (MD = 6.0 ± 1.4 cm; p = 0.010) post ICA. Moreover, CMJ height was significantly greater in the 27 s (MD = 10.0 ± 0.6 cm; p = 0.002) and 45 s (MD = 7.3 ± 2.0 cm; p = 0.035) conditions compared to the 9 s protocol. Conclusions: Incorporating ICAs of 9 s or 45 s into warm-up routines can enhance CMJ performance, although these durations may elicit different neuromuscular adaptations and movement strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Post-Activation Performance Enhancement: 2nd Edition)

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13 pages, 632 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Aerobic Capacity on Mechanical Variables in Track Sprinters and Middle-Distance Runners: A Comparative Study

by Nikolaos P. Belechris, Gregory C. Bogdanis, Elias Zacharogiannis, Athanasios Tsoukos and Giorgos Paradisis

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(3), 342; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10030342 - 9 Sep 2025

Abstract

Background: This study examined the impact of aerobic capacity on force–velocity (F–v) variables and repeated-sprint (RS) performance in male national-level sprinters (SPRs, n = 8; 177.0 ± 4.3 cm; 74.0 ± 5.0 kg; maximal oxygen uptake [VO₂max]: 55.4 ± 3.0 mL/kg/min) [...] Read more.

Background: This study examined the impact of aerobic capacity on force–velocity (F–v) variables and repeated-sprint (RS) performance in male national-level sprinters (SPRs, n = 8; 177.0 ± 4.3 cm; 74.0 ± 5.0 kg; maximal oxygen uptake [VO₂max]: 55.4 ± 3.0 mL/kg/min) and middle-distance runners (MDRs; n = 8; 179.0 ± 5.1 cm; 67.2 ± 5.0 kg; VO₂max: 64.3 ± 3.3 mL/kg/min). Method: Participants underwent assessments of aerobic capacity, mechanical F-v profiling in sprinting 2 × 60 m with full recovery, and a 10 × 60 m repeated-sprint test with 30 s recovery. Results: MDRs exhibited significantly higher VO₂max (p < 0.001) and speed at VO₂max (vVO₂max, p < 0.001), while SPRs demonstrated greater anaerobic speed reserve (ASR, p < 0.001), maximal theoretical horizontal force (F₀, p = 0.012), and power output (P_max, p < 0.01). During the RS test, SPRs displayed a 16.6% performance decrement (p = 0.002) and failed to complete all sprints with voluntary withdrawal after 5–8 sprints due to exhaustion, whereas MDRs maintained consistent performance. SPRs exhibited a larger decrease in v₀ compared to MDRs (p < 0.01), whereas no differences were observed on F₀ (p = 0.519) and P_max (p = 0.758). Blood lactate accumulation was higher in SPRs (p < 0.001). Multiple linear regression analysis on the pooled sample identified vVO₂max (p = 0.003) and not ASR (p = 0.482) as a key predictor of fatigue resistance. Conclusions: These findings underscore the critical role of aerobic capacity in sustaining RS performance. Aerobic capacity, specifically vVO₂max, emerged as the primary determinant of fatigue resistance during repeated sprints, underscoring its critical role in sustaining RS performance over mechanical variables such as v₀ but not F₀ and P_max. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Athletic Training and Human Performance)

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Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology

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