Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology

29 pages, 1290 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Periodic Assessments and Verbal Feedback on Physical Function and Adherence in Healthy Adults Aged ≥65: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial

by Danai Paleta, George Gioftsos, Stefanos Karanasios, Panagiotis Paletas and Vasiliki Sakellari

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(3), 248; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11030248 (registering DOI) - 25 Jun 2026

Abstract

Background and Objectives: Low participation rates in exercise programs among older adults highlight the need for theory-driven, biopsychosocial interventions that enhance adherence, self-efficacy, and functional outcomes. Grounded in principles of motor learning and behavioral reinforcement within physiotherapy practice, this study aimed to [...] Read more.

Background and Objectives: Low participation rates in exercise programs among older adults highlight the need for theory-driven, biopsychosocial interventions that enhance adherence, self-efficacy, and functional outcomes. Grounded in principles of motor learning and behavioral reinforcement within physiotherapy practice, this study aimed to examine the effect of periodic assessments combined with verbal feedback on functional and psychological outcomes in community-dwelling older adults. Methods: A pilot RCT was conducted involving 54 individuals aged ≥65 years (53 women and 1 man), recruited from senior community centers. Participants were randomly allocated to an intervention group (periodic assessment and verbal feedback; n = 27) or a control group (n = 27). Both groups participated in an identical 12-week structured exercise program, delivered twice weekly, focusing on balance, gait, and lower-limb functional training. An intention-to-treat approach was applied. Data were analyzed using Linear Mixed Models, with statistical significance set at p < 0.05. Results: Significant group × time interactions were observed in favor of the intervention group for key kinesiology-related functional outcomes, including the Short Physical Performance Battery (SPPB; p < 0.001), Timed Up and Go test (TUG; p = 0.011), and Activities-specific Balance Confidence Scale (ABC; p < 0.001). No statistically significant differences were identified between groups for the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire–2 (BREQ-2; p = 0.164) and the Self-Efficacy for Exercise Scale (ESE; p = 0.108), indicating that the primary psychological outcome (ESE) was not confirmed. However, both ESE and BREQ-2 demonstrated significant baseline differences favoring the intervention group, and, therefore, these findings should be interpreted with caution despite statistical adjustment. Conclusions: Periodic assessments followed by verbal feedback appear to selectively improve the functional effectiveness of structured exercise programs in older women, particularly physical performance, functional mobility, and balance confidence, with no significant differential effect on the primary psychological outcome (ESE; group × time interaction: p = 0.108). These findings support assessment-informed and feedback-driven physiotherapy strategies as a promising adjunct to exercise programs in older adults, with potential implications for optimizing functional outcomes within applied kinesiology and rehabilitation contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Physiotherapy Approaches and Functional Outcomes in Neurological and Developmental Disorders)

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20 pages, 1672 KB

Open AccessArticle

Posture and Virtual Reality: How a Head-Mounted Display Affects Postural Stability and Plantar Pressure Parameters in Healthy Population

by Ciro Ivan De Girolamo, Allegra Fullin, Ersilia Vallefuoco, Annunziata Attena, Angela Lucariello, Pasquale Arpaia and Paolo De Blasiis

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(3), 247; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11030247 (registering DOI) - 25 Jun 2026

Abstract

Background: The Postural Control System is affected by sensory inputs in stabilizing posture. The impact of postural receptors can be quantitatively evaluated by baropodometry. The lack of a standardized testing environment can decrease the reliability of baropodometric results. Virtual reality (VR) might [...] Read more.

Background: The Postural Control System is affected by sensory inputs in stabilizing posture. The impact of postural receptors can be quantitatively evaluated by baropodometry. The lack of a standardized testing environment can decrease the reliability of baropodometric results. Virtual reality (VR) might represent a useful standardization tool. This study aimed to investigate the effects of virtual environment on plantar pressure and postural stability parameters by using a Head-Mounted Display (HMD). Methods: 50 healthy young adults underwent a baropodometric exam in upright standing under four conditions: Open Eyes (OE), Closed Eyes (CE), open (HMD-OE) and closed eyes (HMD-CE) conditions while wearing an HMD. Results: a negligible effect of VR on intrasubject variability of plantar pressure and stabilometric parameters. Moreover, no significant differences in the latter ones were found between OE conditions without and with headset (OE vs. HMD-OE), highlighting no impact of VR; instead, a significant increase in body sway was found in the closed eyes condition compared to OE ones with and without headset (CE vs. OE, CE vs. HMD-OE), underlining the effect of visual deprivation, whereas no significant difference was observed between the HMD-CE and OE conditions and a significant decrease in HMD-CE compared to the CE condition, showing the sensory-proprioceptive effect of the HMD. Eventually, no significant differences in plantar pressure parameters were generally found in different conditions. Conclusions: These findings highlighted the specific effect of visual afferents differently from proprioceptive ones by headset use and the absence of the VR impact on postural stability, suggesting a possible role of virtual reality in standardizing instrumental postural exam. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Posture and Neuromuscular Plasticity: Clinical and Instrumental Assessment in Sport and Disease Populations)

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15 pages, 856 KB

Open AccessArticle

Exploratory Analysis of Skeletal Muscle Architecture and Force–Time Strategy Under External Load in Collegiate Basketball Players

by Chieh-Ying Chiang, Tzu-Han Chan, Yi-Cheng Wu and Sung-Kai Lin

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(3), 246; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11030246 (registering DOI) - 24 Jun 2026

Abstract

Objectives: Skeletal muscle architecture (SMA) defines the mechanical limits of force production. However, its associations with force–time strategy under externally loaded conditions have received little research attention. This exploratory study examined associations between vastus lateralis (VL) and lateral gastrocnemius (LG) architecture and [...] Read more.

Objectives: Skeletal muscle architecture (SMA) defines the mechanical limits of force production. However, its associations with force–time strategy under externally loaded conditions have received little research attention. This exploratory study examined associations between vastus lateralis (VL) and lateral gastrocnemius (LG) architecture and force–time strategy, jump-height retention, and stretch–shortening cycle (SSC) transfer-efficiency in collegiate basketball players. Methods: Seventeen collegiate male basketball players completed B-mode ultrasonographic assessment of VL and LG architecture, including muscle thickness, pennation angle (PA), and fascicle length. Athletes performed the squat jump (SJ), loaded squat jump (LSJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), and loaded countermovement jump (LCMJ) on force platforms, with a 20 kg external load applied for loaded conditions. Loaded retention, defined as the percentage of jump height preserved under load, was proposed as a unified construct. Pearson’s correlations were calculated, with Benjamini–Hochberg false discovery rate (FDR) corrections applied within predefined functional groups and pooled across morphology-sensitive correlations. Results: LG PA showed a large negative association with LCMJ rate of force development (r = −0.68 [−0.87, −0.30]) and a large positive association with LCMJ time to peak force (r = 0.68 [0.29, 0.87]), both surviving within-group FDR correction. VL PA was associated with eccentric acceleration time and concentric time across jump conditions (r = 0.52 to 0.61), interpreted as exploratory. Transfer-efficiency indices showed no significant associations with SMA, except for the LCMJ/LSJ concentric time ratio, which showed a moderate negative association with LG PA (r = −0.49 [−0.79, −0.01]). Conclusions: Resting muscle architecture was associated with the temporal and rate characteristics of force expression under load, rather than with the gross preservation of jump height. Integrating architectural assessment with loaded force–time profiling warrants further investigation as a means of characterizing individual force-development strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Morphology and Human Functional Anatomy as the Foundation of Personalised Neuromusculoskeletal Model)

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27 pages, 1481 KB

Open AccessReview

Optimizing Athletic Performance: A Systems Framework for Adaptive Training, Load Management, and Decision-Making

by Dan Cristian Mănescu, Cristina Filip, Cristina Ionela Nae and Rela Valentina Ciomag

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(3), 245; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11030245 (registering DOI) - 23 Jun 2026

Abstract

Although athlete monitoring can quantify training exposure and athlete status with increasing detail, conversion into daily training decisions remains inconsistent. This structured narrative review synthesizes evidence on training load, neuromuscular readiness, recovery, fatigue interpretation, measurement reliability, applied decision-making, and proposes the LOAD-R framework: [...] Read more.

Although athlete monitoring can quantify training exposure and athlete status with increasing detail, conversion into daily training decisions remains inconsistent. This structured narrative review synthesizes evidence on training load, neuromuscular readiness, recovery, fatigue interpretation, measurement reliability, applied decision-making, and proposes the LOAD-R framework: a systems model linking Load, Organism response, Adaptive state, Decision, and Re-evaluation. A transparent non-PRISMA strategy was used because the aim was conceptual integration and framework development rather than effect-size pooling. Evidence was organized around field-applicable monitoring domains and their decision value. LOAD-R builds on existing monitoring approaches by organizing single indicators, fixed thresholds, and dashboard alerts into an explicit interpretation-to-action sequence. It classifies athlete state into adaptive, functional-overload, underloaded, uncertain, or maladaptive zones, each linked to progress, maintain, modify, deload, or recover decisions. The framework also provides implementation levels and testable predictions. By framing monitoring as adaptive decision support rather than passive data collection, LOAD-R may improve decision consistency, reduce maladaptive training responses, and enhance the practical value of athlete monitoring in applied sport settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of JFMK: Advances in Athletic Training and Human Performance)

18 pages, 314 KB

Open AccessArticle

Developmental Differences in Morphological Predictors of Power, Change-of-Direction Speed, and Reactive Agility in Youth Male Basketball Players

by Sousana Symeonidou, Afroditi Lola, Georgia Stavropoulou, Anastasios Dalkiranis, Marios Bismpos and Eleni Bassa

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(2), 244; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11020244 (registering DOI) - 21 Jun 2026

Abstract

Background: Morphological characteristics influence physical performance in youth basketball, but their effects may differ by developmental stage. This study compared the predictive role of morphological variables on motor performance between U13 and U15 male players. Methods: Male youth basketball players ( [...] Read more.

Background: Morphological characteristics influence physical performance in youth basketball, but their effects may differ by developmental stage. This study compared the predictive role of morphological variables on motor performance between U13 and U15 male players. Methods: Male youth basketball players (N = 89) were assigned to U13 and U15 groups. Morphological variables included height, body mass, body fat percentage, and fat-free mass (FFM). Motor tests evaluated squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), 10 m and 20 m sprints, T-test, Y-test and Stop-and-Go change-of-direction speed and reactive agility (RA). Pearson correlations and multiple linear regressions assessed relationships and predictive effects. Results: In U13 players, several morphological variables correlated with performance: height and FFM were positively related to jumping and sprinting, while body fat was negatively associated with most measures (p < 0.05). Regression models explained substantial variance in sprint (ranging up to _AdjR² = 0.44) and jump performance (ranging up to _AdjR² = 0.32), though individual predictors were not always significant (p > 0.05). In U15 players, fewer associations emerged as body fat remained a significant negative predictor of jumping and agility, and greater body mass was associated with improved sprint performance (p < 0.05). No significant morphological predictors were found for RA in either group (p > 0.05). Conclusions: Morphological traits exert a stronger, multifactorial influence on performance in younger athletes, whereas body composition and particularly body fat are more influential in older adolescents. These results underscore the need to consider the developmental stage when assessing and training male youth basketball players. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Kinanthropometry: Techniques and Applications in Sports and Health, 2nd Edition)

13 pages, 491 KB

Open AccessArticle

Body Composition Profile of World-Class Male Water Polo Players in Relation to Position

by Milivoj Dopsaj, Athanasios A. Dalamitros, Klara Šiljeg, Andrea Perazzetti, Antonio Tessitore and Alexandros Nikolopoulos

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(2), 243; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11020243 (registering DOI) - 20 Jun 2026

Abstract

Background and Objectives: Water polo (WP) is a high-intensity, intermittent aquatic team sport that has been extensively investigated within sports science. While contemporary literature has examined the body composition and morphological characteristics of elite and international WP players, this study aimed to [...] Read more.

Background and Objectives: Water polo (WP) is a high-intensity, intermittent aquatic team sport that has been extensively investigated within sports science. While contemporary literature has examined the body composition and morphological characteristics of elite and international WP players, this study aimed to define the general body composition profile of world-class WP players and determine position-specific differences. Methods: The study involved 72 national team players from Serbia, Croatia, Greece, and Italy who participated in the Olympic Games, World Championships, or European Championships. Participants’ body composition was measured using the InBody 720 multichannel bioimpedance method. Ten different variables were examined to assess body structure regarding contractile and ballast components. Results: MANOVA revealed statistically significant differences in body composition across playing positions (Wilks’ lambda = 0.239, p < 0.000, η²_p = 0.402). The variables that had the greatest impact on the difference were: body mass, body fat and body mass index with the 47.0, 44.4, and 43.7% of explained total variance of the impact on the differences (p = 0.000), respectively. Conclusions: world-class WP players assigned to different playing positions differ significantly in body composition. These positional profiles should be considered in talent identification, selection procedures, training, and nutritional strategies to optimize performance models, considering the future evolution of the game at the highest competitive level. Coaches could use this information to initially select players for different specific positions based on anthropometric and body composition criteria. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Athletic Training and Human Performance)

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19 pages, 641 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Internal Load and External Load in Senior Football Players: Differences Between Competitive Levels

by Diogo Tereso, José M. Gamonales, Víctor Hernández-Beltrán and Rui Paulo

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(2), 242; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11020242 - 19 Jun 2026

Abstract

Background: Football is an intermittent sport characterized by high physical and physiological demands, which may be influenced by the competitive level. Understanding differences in match load is fundamental for optimizing training planning, fatigue management, and athlete performance and injury prevention. This study aimed [...] Read more.

Background: Football is an intermittent sport characterized by high physical and physiological demands, which may be influenced by the competitive level. Understanding differences in match load is fundamental for optimizing training planning, fatigue management, and athlete performance and injury prevention. This study aimed to evaluate and compare external and internal load in senior football players in Portugal across five distinct competitive levels. Methods: Wimu Pro^TM (Hudl, Lincoln, NE, USA) and Garmin Heart Rate bands (Garmin International Inc., Olathe, KS, USA) were used to quantify and evaluate the external and internal load of the players. A total of 96 athletes were assessed, with ages ranging from 19 to 36 years (mean: 24.28 ± 4.72), who were divided into five competition levels (1st Division (n = 19), 2nd Division (n = 21), 3rd Division (n = 14), 4th Division (n = 20), and Regional Division (n = 22). Results: Significant differences were observed between competitive levels across several external load variables (p > 0.001). The 3rd Division and 4th Division showed higher values in variables associated with reactive and high-intensity actions (p < 0.001; effect size: 0.287), whereas the 2nd Division exhibited a more controlled load profile. Regarding internal load, significant differences were only observed in average heart rate during the second half (p = 0.043; effect size: 0.085), indicating distinct capacities to maintain physiological intensity under fatigue. Conclusions: It can be concluded that competitive level influences load profiles in football, although the differences do not follow a linear pattern. External and internal loads demonstrate greater discriminatory capacity between competitive levels than internal load. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Performance Analysis and Monitoring in Sport and Exercise: Bridging the Research–Practice Gap)

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13 pages, 3261 KB

Open AccessReview

Lateral Femoral Neck and Peritrochanteric Fractures: Anatomical Classifications and Pre-Operative Reduction Techniques—A Narrative Review

by Giacomo Capece, Gerardo Giudice, Ruggiero Giliberti, Pierluigi Di Cosmo, Giuseppe Pizzi, Luca Lepore, Rosario Junior Sagliocco, Francesco Cuozzo, Emidio Di Gialleonardo and Michele Gison

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(2), 241; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11020241 - 17 Jun 2026

Abstract

Lateral femoral neck and peritrochanteric fractures are common and clinically challenging injuries, particularly in the elderly population, with significant implications for morbidity, mortality, and functional recovery. Traditional classification systems are widely used to guide treatment, yet their reproducibility and clinical applicability remain debated. [...] Read more.

Lateral femoral neck and peritrochanteric fractures are common and clinically challenging injuries, particularly in the elderly population, with significant implications for morbidity, mortality, and functional recovery. Traditional classification systems are widely used to guide treatment, yet their reproducibility and clinical applicability remain debated. Increasing attention has been directed toward trabecular architecture and its role in fracture behavior and reduction strategies. This review aims to summarize current evidence on classification systems, trabecular-based fracture patterns, pre-operative reduction techniques, and fixation strategies. A narrative review was conducted using PubMed/MEDLINE, Embase, and Scopus databases up to May 2026. Original studies, reviews, and biomechanical investigations focusing on proximal femur fracture classification, reliability, trabecular alignment, reduction techniques, and fixation methods were included. Data were qualitatively analyzed, with emphasis on interobserver reliability, biomechanical implications, and clinical outcomes. Conventional classification systems, including anatomical, Evans–Jensen, and AO/OTA frameworks, demonstrated variable and generally moderate reproducibility, with reported interobserver agreement ranging from approximately κ = 0.30 to 0.60. Emerging evidence highlights the importance of trabecular architecture, distinguishing intradigital fractures—confined within trabecular pathways and relatively stable—from extradigital fractures, which disrupt load-bearing structures and are associated with increased mechanical instability and higher failure rates. Biomechanical and clinical studies indicate that inadequate reduction with trabecular misalignment significantly increases the risk of varus collapse and implant cut-out. Reduction strategies tailored to fracture pattern, such as internal rotation for intradigital fractures and external or combined maneuvers for extradigital patterns, improve alignment and load transfer. In terms of fixation, dynamic hip screws remain effective in stable fractures, whereas cephalomedullary nails demonstrate superior performance in unstable patterns, with lower reoperation rates reported (approximately 5–8% vs. 10–15%). Management of lateral femoral neck and peritrochanteric fractures should extend beyond traditional classification systems to incorporate trabecular biomechanics. Restoration of trabecular alignment, alongside established parameters such as neck–shaft angle and tip–apex distance, is critical for optimizing outcomes. Further prospective studies are needed to validate trabecular-based classifications and standardize reduction strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Horizons in Orthopaedic Surgery: Innovations, Outcomes, and Complication Management)

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17 pages, 1508 KB

Open AccessArticle

How Much Is Enough: A Randomized Non-Inferiority Trial Comparing Three Bodyweight Training Protocols

by Joshua J. Aube, Peter J. Mendolia, Kristi L. Storoschuk, Ely Wyman, Mason D. Peberdy, John J. Wu, Nia Simpson-Stairs, Paul A. Swinton and Brendon J. Gurd

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(2), 240; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11020240 - 17 Jun 2026

Abstract

Purpose: The current study tested the hypothesis that a bodyweight training (BWT) protocol with a higher weekly time commitment and training volume would produce greater improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness compared to lower time commitment/volume BWT protocols. Methods: Fifty-eight (n = 21 males; [...] Read more.

Purpose: The current study tested the hypothesis that a bodyweight training (BWT) protocol with a higher weekly time commitment and training volume would produce greater improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness compared to lower time commitment/volume BWT protocols. Methods: Fifty-eight (n = 21 males; n = 37 females) recreationally active, healthy, young adults were randomized to either a 16 (TAB, n = 20), 27 (5BX, n = 19), or 90 min/week (AMRAP, n = 19) BWT protocol for 6 weeks. Peak work rate (WRpeak) was measured pre- and post-intervention using a cycle ergometer graded exercise test. VO₂peak was estimated (eVO₂peak) using a simple linear regression of WRpeak and VO₂peak generated from a previous study (n = 26; 13M/13F). Results: TAB and 5BX yielded non-inferior improvements in eVO₂peak. The 95% confidence intervals of the mean difference in change did not cross our non-inferiority margin of −2.6 mL/kg/min (TAB—AMRAP = 95% CI = −1.16 to 2.07; 5BX—AMRAP 95% CI = −0.29 to 2.89). Conclusions: Our results suggest that 16 and 27 min/week of minimalist BWT yields non-inferior improvements in CRF compared to 90 min/week and provides evidence supporting the efficacy of low-volume BWT protocols compared to higher volume protocols. The study was registered on Open Science Framework on 29 May 2023 (OSF registration). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of JFMK: Advances in Athletic Training and Human Performance)

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19 pages, 1814 KB

Open AccessArticle

Biological Augmentation of Reamed Intramedullary Nailing for Aseptic Tibial Shaft Nonunion: An Exploratory Multicenter Retrospective Comparative Cohort Study

by Michele Coviello, Luigi Meccariello, Giuseppe Rovere, Vincenzo Caiaffa, Giuseppe Rollo, Francesco Liuzza, Mario Ronga, Francesco Ippolito, Amarildo Smakaj, Maria Lucia Mancini, Antonio Colella and Giuseppe Maccagnano

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(2), 239; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11020239 - 16 Jun 2026

Abstract

Background: Despite stable fixation, aseptic tibial shaft nonunion represents a severe orthopedic complication. Teriparatide and adipose-derived stem-cell augmentation have been proposed as biological supports, but comparative clinical evidence remains limited. This study explored whether adding adjuvant therapies to reamed intramedullary nailing was [...] Read more.

Background: Despite stable fixation, aseptic tibial shaft nonunion represents a severe orthopedic complication. Teriparatide and adipose-derived stem-cell augmentation have been proposed as biological supports, but comparative clinical evidence remains limited. This study explored whether adding adjuvant therapies to reamed intramedullary nailing was associated with faster healing than nailing alone. Methods: We retrospectively reviewed 43 adults with aseptic tibial shaft nonunion treated at three level I trauma centers between 2017 and 2020. Patients underwent reamed intramedullary nailing alone (n = 15), nailing plus teriparatide (n = 15), or nailing plus adipose-derived stem-cell augmentation (n = 13). Group allocation was nonrandom and based on contraindications and patient acceptance; results were therefore interpreted as exploratory. Outcomes included time to tricortical radiographic healing, pain, radiographic healing scores over time, complications, ASAMI classification, and SF-12. Results: Baseline demographic and fracture characteristics were comparable across groups. Time to tricortical radiographic healing was shorter in the teriparatide group (87.46 ± 6.34 days) and the adipose-derived stem-cell group (86.41 ± 5.67 days) than in the nailing-alone group (99.71 ± 4.29 days; p = 0.034). Pain, complication rates, ASAMI outcomes, and quality-of-life recovery did not differ significantly among groups at final follow-up. Conclusions: In this exploratory multicenter retrospective cohort, teriparatide and adipose-derived stem-cell augmentation were associated with shorter radiographic healing time after reamed intramedullary nailing for aseptic tibial shaft nonunion, but not with superior long-term functional outcomes. Because no comparator group treated with standard graft-based biological augmentation was included, the findings should be interpreted cautiously. Larger prospective studies or randomized controlled trials comparing these strategies with established graft-based approaches are needed to validate the present data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Functional Anatomy and Musculoskeletal System)

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17 pages, 1491 KB

Open AccessArticle

Functional Differences Across Playing Roles in Volleyball: A Sensor-Based Assessment

by Juri Taborri, Mauro Strippoli, Luca Molinaro and Stefano Rossi

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(2), 238; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11020238 (registering DOI) - 13 Jun 2026

Abstract

Objectives: Volleyball playing positions are associated with different functional demands. This study compared postural control, jump performance, and upper-limb mobility across playing roles in competitive male volleyball players. Methods: Fifty male volleyball players competing in the Italian Serie C championship were [...] Read more.

Objectives: Volleyball playing positions are associated with different functional demands. This study compared postural control, jump performance, and upper-limb mobility across playing roles in competitive male volleyball players. Methods: Fifty male volleyball players competing in the Italian Serie C championship were equally distributed across five roles: middle blockers (MB), liberos (LIB), opposite hitters (OH), setters (SET), and outside hitters (HIT). Using a wearable inertial sensor, athletes performed bipodalic balance tasks with eyes open and closed, dominant- and non-dominant-leg single-leg balance, squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), and bilateral upper-limb flexion and extension tests. Results: Significant role-related differences emerged in balance and jump performance. In bipodalic balance, the eyes-open condition showed a mixed pattern, with HIT displaying the largest ellipse area and SET showing the highest path-related values, whereas in the eyes-closed condition, HIT showed the highest values across all stabilometric parameters. In the single-leg stance, OH showed the largest postural excursions on the dominant side, while LIB stood out on the non-dominant side. In jump tests, MB showed the best vertical performance in both SJ and CMJ, whereas LIB and SET generally showed the lowest outputs. Temporal differences also emerged across roles. Upper-limb mobility was similar across roles in flexion, while extension showed a role-specific pattern, with SET displaying greater ROM than LIB, HIT, and OH. Conclusions: Volleyball roles are associated with distinct functional profiles in balance, jump mechanics, and upper-limb mobility. This integrated assessment may support more specific training, monitoring, and injury-prevention strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable Technology and Movement Analysis in Athletic Performance and Rehabilitation)

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14 pages, 686 KB

Open AccessArticle

Associations Between Isokinetic Knee Strength at Different Angular Velocities and Explosive Jump Performance in Young Female Athletes: A Pilot Study

by Daniela Falat Leütterová and Jaroslav Sučka

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(2), 237; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11020237 - 13 Jun 2026

Abstract

Background: Isokinetic strength of the knee joint represents a significant determinant of athletic performance and injury prevention; however, its relationship with explosive performance in young female athletes remains insufficiently explored. The aim of the study was to analyze the relationships between isokinetic strength [...] Read more.

Background: Isokinetic strength of the knee joint represents a significant determinant of athletic performance and injury prevention; however, its relationship with explosive performance in young female athletes remains insufficiently explored. The aim of the study was to analyze the relationships between isokinetic strength of the knee joint at different angular velocities and explosive jumping performance in young female athletes. Methods: The research sample consisted of 13 young female athletes enrolled in sport-oriented educational programs specializing in athletics. Explosive lower-limb power was assessed using performance tests for countermovement jump (CMJ), countermovement jump free arms (CMJ FAs) and squat jump (SJ) administered with the Chronojump system. Isokinetic strength of the knee flexors and extensors was assessed using the Humac Norm dynamometer in the concentric mode at angular velocities of 60°/s, 180°/s, and 300°/s. Peak torque, the ipsilateral H:Q ratio, and bilateral asymmetries were evaluated. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used to analyze the relationships between the investigated parameters. Results: The strongest relationships with explosive performance were observed for hamstring strength at an angular velocity of 180°/s, where significant high correlations were identified with performance in the CMJ (r = 0.693), CMJ FA (r = 0.754), and SJ (r = 0.713). In contrast, quadriceps strength demonstrated predominantly low to moderate associations with jumping performance, while no significant correlations were confirmed at an angular velocity of 300°/s. Bilateral asymmetries of the knee extensors and flexors were generally low, ranging approximately between 7 and 10%, whereas the values of the ipsilateral H:Q ratio were within the physiological range of approximately 50–55%. Conclusions: The results suggest that the ability to generate force at higher contraction velocities, particularly in the hamstrings, is significantly associated with explosive performance in young female athletes. At the same time, isokinetic strength assessment appears to be an appropriate tool for evaluating muscular strength, muscle balance, and potential asymmetries in youth sports. However, explosive performance cannot be explained solely by the level of maximal muscular strength, but rather by a complex interaction of neuromuscular and biomechanical factors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Approaches in Monitoring Individual Sports)

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16 pages, 1453 KB

Open AccessArticle

Between Aesthetics and Health: Disordered Eating, Exercise Addiction, and Body Image in Competitive Bodybuilders

by Federica Moro, Irene Cruccolini, Mario Mauro, Natascia Rinaldo, Emanuela Gualdi-Russo, Luciana Zaccagni and Stefania Toselli

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(2), 236; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11020236 - 13 Jun 2026

Abstract

Objectives: To examine disordered eating behaviors, orthorexic tendencies, binge-eating episodes, attitudes toward exercise, perceived hormone-related symptoms and body image perception among competitive bodybuilders across different levels of competitive experience. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, 60 competitive bodybuilders (29 men, 31 women) [...] Read more.

Objectives: To examine disordered eating behaviors, orthorexic tendencies, binge-eating episodes, attitudes toward exercise, perceived hormone-related symptoms and body image perception among competitive bodybuilders across different levels of competitive experience. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, 60 competitive bodybuilders (29 men, 31 women) completed an anonymous online questionnaire. The survey evaluated demographic characteristics, coaching and training management, phase-specific symptoms (such as libido, sleep, eating behaviors, and menstrual alterations), orthorexic tendencies, exercise addiction, and body-image perception. Results: Both sexes reported reduced libido, increased hunger, and sleep disturbances, along with frequent weight monitoring and common binge-eating episodes. Moreover, females frequently reported menstrual irregularities. ORTO-15 scores indicated a potential risk of orthorexia nervosa, while EAI-3 scores suggested a risk of exercise addiction in novice females and advanced males, with differences in mood regulation and guilt across sex and experience. Males showed higher perceived and ideal muscle mass, whereas females reported higher perceived body fat and a preference for leaner physiques. Conclusions: Competitive bodybuilders of both sexes exhibit post-competition binge eating, mood- and appearance-driven exercise behaviors, and pronounced body-image concerns. Screening, education on energy availability, structured post-competition support, and health-focused coaching are recommended to prevent the progression from sport-specific practices to clinical pathology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Kinanthropometry: Techniques and Applications in Sports and Health, 2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 1299 KB

Open AccessArticle

Acute Autonomic and Perceptual Responses to Resistance Training Performed With and Without Blood Flow Restriction

by Paulo H. da Silva Steiger, Tiago A. F. Almeida, Danilo A. Massini, Gabriel de Souza Zanini, David Michel de Oliveira, Víctor Hernández-Beltrán, José M. Gamonales, Mário C. Espada, Dalton M. Pessôa Filho and Anderson Geremias Macedo

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(2), 235; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11020235 - 12 Jun 2026

Abstract

Objectives: This study aimed to compare the acute effects of high-intensity resistance training (HIRT), low-intensity resistance training (LIRT), and low-intensity resistance training with blood flow restriction (LIRT-BFR) on heart rate variability (HRV), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), total load (kg), and number of [...] Read more.

Objectives: This study aimed to compare the acute effects of high-intensity resistance training (HIRT), low-intensity resistance training (LIRT), and low-intensity resistance training with blood flow restriction (LIRT-BFR) on heart rate variability (HRV), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), total load (kg), and number of repetitions in young trained men. Methods: Thirteen volunteers (21.5 ± 1.6 years; 178.2 ± 8.0 cm; 75.7 ± 8.0 kg) performed three training sessions with six upper- and lower-limb exercises in repetition-to-failure mode. HIRT was performed at 70% 1RM, four sets and 90 s of rest; LIRT at 30% 1RM, four sets and 30 s of rest; and LIRT-BFR at 30% 1RM, four sets, 30 s of rest, and cuff pressure at 80 mmHg. The rest interval between training sessions was 72 h. Results: Total load was higher during LIRT compared with LIRT-BFR (p < 0.05), with no significant difference compared with HIRT (p > 0.05). The number of repetitions was greater in LIRT than in HIRT (p < 0.05), with no significant difference compared with LIRT-BFR (p > 0.05). RPE was lower in LIRT compared with HIRT and LIRT-BFR (p < 0.05). Time-domain parameters SDNN significantly decreased across all protocols (p < 0.001), whereas RMSSD showed no differences. Frequency-domain components (LFnu, HFnu, and LF/HF) showed no significant differences. Conclusions: LIRT elicited lower perceived exertion compared with HIRT and LIRT-BFR and higher repetition performance, whereas LIRT-BFR, despite showing similar autonomic responses, produced greater perceptual stress, resembling that of HIRT. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physical Activity for Optimal Health: 2nd Edition)

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6 pages, 206 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Special Issue “Perspectives and Challenges in Sports Medicine for Combat Sports”

by Robert Trybulski

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(2), 234; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11020234 - 9 Jun 2026

Abstract

Combat sports occupy a distinctive position within sports medicine [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Perspectives and Challenges in Sports Medicine for Combat Sports)

17 pages, 606 KB

Open AccessReview

Timing Matters: Early Versus Delayed Rehabilitation After Total Knee Arthroplasty and Its Impact on Functional Recovery—A Systematic Review

by Félix Menéndez-Vega, Sandra Núñez-Rodríguez, Jerónimo Javier González-Bernal, Jessica Fernández-Solana, Pedro Aparicio de Águeda and Mirian Santamaría-Peláez

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(2), 233; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11020233 - 9 Jun 2026

Abstract

Background: Total knee arthroplasty (TKA) is widely used to treat advanced knee osteoarthritis, yet the optimal timing for initiating postoperative rehabilitation remains unclear, particularly regarding its impact on short- and long-term functional outcomes. Objective: This study aimed to systematically review and compare earlier [...] Read more.

Background: Total knee arthroplasty (TKA) is widely used to treat advanced knee osteoarthritis, yet the optimal timing for initiating postoperative rehabilitation remains unclear, particularly regarding its impact on short- and long-term functional outcomes. Objective: This study aimed to systematically review and compare earlier versus later initiation of structured postoperative rehabilitation following primary TKA according to the timing definitions used in the available literature of structured postoperative rehabilitation after primary TKA and its effects on functional recovery. Methods: Electronic searches were performed in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect between January and February 2025. Studies were limited to human participants, published in English or Spanish from 2010 onwards. Eligible studies compared early versus delayed rehabilitation following primary TKA and reported at least one predefined outcome related to pain, patient-reported functional measures, range of motion, muscle strength, performance-based functional tests, or hospital length of stay. Study selection was performed independently by two reviewers, and methodological quality was assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute critical appraisal tools. Results: A total of 662 records were identified, of which five studies (three randomized controlled trials, one prospective observational study, and one retrospective cohort study), including 185 participants, met the inclusion criteria. Early rehabilitation (typically initiated within the first postoperative hours to days) was associated with reductions in hospital length of stay ranging from approximately 1 to 2 days, lower early postoperative pain scores, greater short-term knee flexion gains, and improved early muscle strength compared with delayed rehabilitation protocols. However, no consistent differences were observed in medium- and long-term patient-reported functional outcomes across studies. No increase in postoperative complications was reported. Conclusions: Early initiation of rehabilitation after TKA appears safe and may enhance short-term recovery outcomes. However, no consistent long-term functional differences were observed between earlier and later rehabilitation initiation across the included studies. Further high-quality research with standardized definitions and long-term follow-up is required. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Hip and Knee Arthroplasty)

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15 pages, 2431 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Unilateral, Asymmetric and Traditional Bilateral Resistance Training in Untrained Women: A Pilot and Proof-of-Concept Study

by Atle Hole Saeterbakken, Terese Berger Henriksen, Benedikte Soeviknes Gideonsen, Vidar Andersen, Nicolay Stien, Goran Paulsen and Tom Erik Jorung Solstad

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(2), 232; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11020232 - 8 Jun 2026

Abstract

Background: Both unilateral and asymmetric loading have been used to increase training specificity and create over-load in a target limb to reduce inter-limb asymmetries. The aim of the study was to compare the effects of conducting either unilateral- or asymmetric-loaded resistance training with [...] Read more.

Background: Both unilateral and asymmetric loading have been used to increase training specificity and create over-load in a target limb to reduce inter-limb asymmetries. The aim of the study was to compare the effects of conducting either unilateral- or asymmetric-loaded resistance training with traditional bilateral resistance training on maximal dynamic and isometric strength in untrained women. Methods: Thirty-four women not conducting regular resistance training were randomized into unilateral (UNI), bilateral (BIL) or asymmetric (ASY) upper-body resistance training (2–3·wk⁻¹, 10 wk, 24 sessions in total). UNI conducted all exercises unilaterally (one arm at a time), BIL conducted all exercises bilaterally (both arms), and ASY added 10% of the total load to the non-dominant side. Maximal strength was tested in chest press, seated row (1-RM and MVC in both), and pallof press (only MVC). Results: At post-test, BIL demonstrated greater bilateral 1 RM strength than ASY (p = 0.017, d = 1.25) in chest press, while UNI demonstrated greater 1 RM strength in the dominant side than ASY (p = 0.006, d = 1.45). For the other strength tests, no differences were found between groups in chest press (p = 0.068–0.481), seated row (p = 0.091–0.591) or MVC peak force for both chest press and seated row (p > 0.05). All groups demonstrated pre–post improvements for all measurements in chest press (p < 0.05) and seated row (p < 0.05), but only ASY demonstrated improvements in pallof press on the non-dominant side. Conclusions: Compared to traditional bilateral training, unilateral resistance training did not result in similar effects on dynamic or isometric strength. Asymmetric resistance training demonstrated a lower change in chest press strength on the bilateral and dominant sides compared to the other groups. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of JFMK: Advances in Athletic Training and Human Performance)

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17 pages, 287 KB

Open AccessArticle

Glycemic Risk Across Exercise Modalities in Adults with Type 1 Diabetes Using Continuous Glucose Monitoring and Wearable Sensors: A Prospective Cohort Study

by Dimna Zoila Alfaro Quezada, Paul César Velásquez Porras, Alicia Olinda Neyra Aranda, Henri Emmanuel López Gómez, Roberto Carlos Dávila-Morán, Vilma Luz Aparicio-Salas, Zoraida Loaiza-Ortiz, Lupe Marilu Huanca Rojas, Digmer Pablo Riquez Livia, Lindomira Castro Llaja and Liliana Inés Romero Núñez

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(2), 231; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11020231 - 8 Jun 2026

Abstract

Background: Exercise provides important health benefits for adults with type 1 diabetes; however, it remains associated with substantial glycemic instability that may vary according to exercise modality, intensity, duration, and clinical context. Continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) and wearable sensors offer an opportunity [...] Read more.

Background: Exercise provides important health benefits for adults with type 1 diabetes; however, it remains associated with substantial glycemic instability that may vary according to exercise modality, intensity, duration, and clinical context. Continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) and wearable sensors offer an opportunity to characterize exercise-related glycemic responses under real-world conditions, yet prospective free-living data remain limited. Objective: This study aimed to evaluate glycemic risk across exercise modalities in adults with type 1 diabetes using CGM and wearable sensors in a real-world prospective cohort. Methods: This prospective cohort study was conducted under free-living conditions in 120 adults with type 1 diabetes. Participants were followed during habitual exercise using CGM, wearable sensor data, and session-level exercise classification. A total of 1568 valid exercise sessions were analyzed and categorized as aerobic, resistance, interval-based, or mixed exercise. The primary outcomes were immediate glucose change and time below range during exercise and within 6 h post-exercise. Secondary outcomes included severe biochemical hypoglycemia, time in range, time above range, glycemic variability, delayed hypoglycemia, nocturnal hypoglycemia, and rescue carbohydrate intake. Results: Glycemic risk differed across exercise modalities. Aerobic exercise was associated with the greatest immediate glucose decline, the highest time below range, the highest frequency of delayed post-exercise hypoglycemia, and the greatest need for rescue carbohydrate intake. Resistance exercise showed the most favorable acute glycemic profile, whereas interval-based and mixed exercise showed intermediate patterns. The associations between exercise modality and glycemic risk were modified by pre-exercise glucose level, time of day, and insulin delivery modality. Sensitivity analyses were consistent with the primary findings. Conclusions: In adults with type 1 diabetes monitored under real-world conditions, glycemic risk varies meaningfully across exercise modalities and is further shaped by clinically relevant contextual factors. These findings support a more individualized interpretation of exercise-related glycemic responses using CGM and wearable-derived data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physical Activity and Exercise for the Management of Diabetes)

14 pages, 1504 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bone Mass and Sexual Dimorphism in Clarke’s Angle: A Multivariate Regression Approach to the Medial Longitudinal Arch in University Students

by Donalds Steven Guali, Victor Manuel Piamba Ome, Armando Monterrosa-Quintero, Boryi A. Becerra-Patiño, Luis Gabriel Rangel Caballero and Adrián De la Rosa

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(2), 230; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11020230 - 6 Jun 2026

Abstract

Background: Flattening of the medial longitudinal arch is traditionally attributed to excess body weight and Body Mass Index (BMI). However, controversy exists regarding whether adiposity or skeletal structure drives this biomechanical alteration, and which podometric index best detects it. Methods: A cross-sectional study [...] Read more.

Background: Flattening of the medial longitudinal arch is traditionally attributed to excess body weight and Body Mass Index (BMI). However, controversy exists regarding whether adiposity or skeletal structure drives this biomechanical alteration, and which podometric index best detects it. Methods: A cross-sectional study evaluated 99 healthy university students (50 males, 49 females). Body composition was assessed via a four-component model. Plantar footprints were captured using 4K digital podoscopy and analyzed with five morphometric indices. Arch predictors were identified using multivariate regression models (Elastic Net regression) and Generalized Additive Models (GAMs). Results: Only Clarke’s Angle detected significant sexual dimorphism, showing structurally higher arches in females (50.28° ± 7.14) than in males (41.82° ± 11.20; p < 0.001). Multivariate analysis revealed bone mass as the dominant structural predictor, exerting a non-linear negative association with the arch profile, which stabilizes beyond 12 kg. BMI was not a significant predictor, whereas body fat percentage showed a modest positive association. Conclusions: Plantar arch morphology is strongly associated with skeletal load (anthropometrically estimated bone mass) rather than adiposity or BMI. Within this specific cohort, Clarke’s Angle emerged as a highly sensitive instrument for characterizing sexual dimorphism. Clinical assessments diagnosing functional flatfoot should prioritize underlying bone structure over BMI, particularly when evaluating a healthy and physically active university population. Future studies incorporating DXA or radiographic validation are needed to confirm these anthropometric findings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Functional Anatomy and Musculoskeletal System)

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Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology

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