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127 Results Found

  • Feature Paper
  • Article
  • Open Access
6 Citations
2,413 Views
22 Pages

24 March 2021

A mechanistic kinetic model of cobalt–hydrogen electrochemical competition for the cobalt removal process in zinc hydrometallurgical was proposed. In addition, to overcome the parameter estimation difficulties arising from the model nonlinearities an...

  • Article
  • Open Access
5 Citations
3,344 Views
13 Pages

Material Removal Characteristic of Laser Cladding Cobalt-Based Alloy in the Photochemical Process

  • Xi Zeng,
  • Zhuo Li,
  • Fengfei Xi,
  • Shiming Ji,
  • Lei Qiu,
  • Meng Shi,
  • Qianqian Zheng and
  • Wenbin Qiu

5 June 2019

Cobalt-based alloy materials, widely used for laser cladding, are difficult to process. To address this problem, and based on the analysis of the physicochemical properties of cobalt and its compounds, a method for removing cobalt-based alloy materia...

  • Article
  • Open Access
4 Citations
2,581 Views
15 Pages

Study on the Micro Removal Process of Inner Surface of Cobalt Chromium Alloy Cardiovascular Stent Tubes

  • Zhuang Song,
  • Yugang Zhao,
  • Zhihao Li,
  • Chen Cao,
  • Guangxin Liu,
  • Qian Liu,
  • Xiajunyu Zhang,
  • Di Dai,
  • Zhilong Zheng and
  • Chuang Zhao
  • + 1 author

23 August 2022

Due to the special manufacturing process of cobalt–chromium alloy cardiovascular stent tubes, there are serious surface defects in their inner walls, which affects the therapeutic effect after implantation. At the same time, the traditional pro...

  • Feature Paper
  • Review
  • Open Access
2 Citations
3,590 Views
37 Pages

16 January 2025

The cobalt manganese oxides, especially the spinels and related (multiphase) materials described with the formula CoxMn3−xO4 (0 < x < 3), are widely used catalysts in a range of processes in significant industrial and environmental areas....

  • Article
  • Open Access
1,964 Views
16 Pages

Applying Chitin Enhanced Diafiltration Process (CEFP) in Removing Cobalt from Synthetic Wastewater

  • Noureddine Elboughdiri,
  • Djamel Ghernaout,
  • Aicha Gasmi,
  • Muhammad Imran Khan and
  • Badia Ghernaout

27 November 2022

This research aims to study the removal of Cobalt (Co) using chitin. The optimum conditions for removing Co were ascertained through batch experiments. This study involves the determination of chitin metal-binding efficiency by using a polymer enhanc...

  • Article
  • Open Access
23 Citations
9,781 Views
11 Pages

5 July 2016

Cobalt is a very important metal which is widely applied in various critical areas, however, it is difficult to recover cobalt from minerals since there is a lack of independent cobalt deposits in nature. This work is to provide a complete process to...

  • Article
  • Open Access
29 Citations
7,873 Views
16 Pages

Zeolite Adsorbents for Selective Removal of Co(II) and Li(I) from Aqueous Solutions

  • Eduardo Díez,
  • Cinthya Redondo,
  • José María Gómez,
  • Ruben Miranda and
  • Araceli Rodríguez

9 January 2023

Cobalt and lithium are critical metals because of its shortage, difficulty of extraction and huge economic impact due to their market value. The purpose of this work is to study their selective removal from aqueous solutions in different conditions u...

  • Review
  • Open Access
2 Citations
4,972 Views
30 Pages

Heavy Metal Pollution and Solutions for Its Control: General Aspects with a Focus on Cobalt Removal and Recovery from Aqueous Systems

  • Tănase Dobre,
  • Gabriela Olimpia Isopencu,
  • Shaalan Bdaiwi Ahmed and
  • Iuliana Mihaela Deleanu

Heavy metal pollution is a worldwide and stringent concern following many decades of industrialization and intensive mining without (in some cases) consideration for environmental protection. This review aims to identify the existing and emerging tec...

  • Feature Paper
  • Article
  • Open Access
13 Citations
4,055 Views
15 Pages

Recovery of Cobalt from the Residues of an Industrial Zinc Refinery

  • Laurence Boisvert,
  • Keven Turgeon,
  • Jean-François Boulanger,
  • Claude Bazin and
  • Georges Houlachi

22 November 2020

The electrolytic production of metallic zinc from processing zinc sulfide concentrates generates a residue containing cadmium, copper, and cobalt that need to be removed from the electrolytic zinc solution because they are harmful to the zinc electro...

  • Article
  • Open Access
9 Citations
4,824 Views
11 Pages

17 April 2019

Suppressing the amount of ethylene during storage has been of interest as a method to enhance shelf life of fruit. In this work, ethylene removal by adsorption using cobalt oxide-impregnated nanoporous carbon has been studied. Nanoporous carbon with...

  • Review
  • Open Access
23 Citations
21,847 Views
18 Pages

20 April 2022

Alloys of cobalt chromium have been used for decades to create frameworks for removable partial dentures. While cobalt chromium has multiple advantages, such as strength and light weight, the casting process is laborious and requires special care to...

  • Article
  • Open Access
3 Citations
2,026 Views
7 Pages

25 November 2022

Co-NC catalysts have attracted extensive concerns derived from their high oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) activity, but the catalytic mechanism of Co species with different forms remains controversial. Herein, we prepare Co-NC catalysts with a cobalt...

  • Article
  • Open Access
3 Citations
3,695 Views
20 Pages

Critical minerals (CMs) are pivotal in modern industries, such as telecommunications, defense, medicine, and aerospace, contributing significantly to regional and global economic growth. However, the reliance on external sources for 26 out of 50 iden...

  • Article
  • Open Access
2 Citations
2,424 Views
15 Pages

Nickel and Cobalt Recovery from Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries via Electrodialysis Metathesis

  • Adam Isaksson,
  • Juan Anaya Garzon,
  • Ida Strandkvist and
  • Lena Sundqvist Öqvist

Recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries is important due to the increasing demand for electric vehicles and efforts to realize a circular economy. There is a need to develop environmentally friendly processes for the refining of nickel, cobalt, and...

  • Article
  • Open Access
5 Citations
2,689 Views
17 Pages

Mn2+ Doped Cobalt Oxide and Its Composite with Carbon Nanotubes for Adsorption-Assisted Photocatalytic Applications

  • Muhammad Fida,
  • Shahid Iqbal,
  • Mazloom Shah,
  • Tanzeela Fazal,
  • Bushra Ismail,
  • Hafiz ur Rehman,
  • Foziah F. Al-Fawzan,
  • Eslam B. Elkaeed,
  • Rami Adel Pashameah and
  • Eman Alzahrani
  • + 1 author

16 December 2022

In this study, cobalt oxide (Co3O4), Mn-doped Co3O4 (MDCO), and Mn-doped Co3O4-functionalized carbon nanotube (MDCO-CNTs) were synthesized via the co-precipitation method using cobalt nitrate and manganese nitrate as a cobalt and manganese precursor,...

  • Article
  • Open Access
10 Citations
2,636 Views
27 Pages

30 April 2023

This study evaluated nanocellulose derived from discarded palm leaves for its ability to remove cobalt ions from industrial wastewater. The process involved extracting cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) from date palm leaves through a series of repeated c...

  • Article
  • Open Access
2 Citations
1,536 Views
21 Pages

Removal of Radio and Stable Isotopes of Cobalt and Cesium from Contaminated Aqueous Solutions by Isatin-Derived Ligand

  • Riyam N. Khalaf,
  • Sattar S. Ibrahim,
  • Zeinab A. El-Shafiey,
  • Abeer A. Faheim and
  • Hosam M. Saleh

This study investigated the effectiveness of a ligand known as (2-Mercapyo-phenylimino)-1,3-dihydro-indol-2-one-based ligand, in removing stable/radioactive cesium and cobalt from contaminated wastewater. Several parameters, such as contact duration,...

  • Article
  • Open Access
1 Citations
3,020 Views
13 Pages

Electrolytic Recovery of Metal Cobalt from Waste Catalyst Pickling Solution

  • Yi-Sin Chou,
  • Chin-Hsiang Kan,
  • Nitika Devi and
  • Yong-Song Chen

24 September 2022

Terephthalic acid production plant uses liquid cobalt–manganese bromide as a catalyst. The waste catalyst is burned with exhaust gas and accumulated in fly ash, which is further pickled and impregnated with a sulfuric acid solution. The resulta...

  • Article
  • Open Access
17 Citations
14,472 Views
27 Pages

19 November 2021

A research study was conducted to establish the effect of the presence of sodium bis-2-ethyl-hexyl-sulfosuccinate (DOSS) surfactant on the size, shape, and magnetic properties of cobalt ferrite nanoparticles, and also on their ability to remove anion...

  • Article
  • Open Access
59 Citations
6,244 Views
15 Pages

Factorial Design and Optimization of Landfill Leachate Treatment Using Tannin-Based Natural Coagulant

  • Tawfiq J. H. Banch,
  • Marlia M. Hanafiah,
  • Abbas F. M. Alkarkhi and
  • Salem S. Abu Amr

14 August 2019

In this study, tannin-based natural coagulant was used to treat stabilized landfill leachate. Tannin modified with amino group was utilized for the treatment process. Central composite design (CCD) was used to investigate and optimize the effect of t...

  • Article
  • Open Access
1,848 Views
11 Pages

In times of increasing demand for resources, processing various waste materials is becoming more economically and ecologically viable. Red mud is a waste material that originates from the bauxite process, also known as the Bayer process. Red mud, due...

  • Article
  • Open Access
3 Citations
1,253 Views
20 Pages

Optimized Ammonia Leaching and Energy-Efficient Stripping for Lithium and Cobalt Recovery from Spent LiCoO2 Cathodes

  • Aisulu Batkal,
  • Kaster Kamunur,
  • Lyazzat Mussapyrova,
  • Bagdatgul Milikhat and
  • Rashid Nadirov

20 June 2025

This study investigates the optimization of an ammonia-based leaching process for the recovery of lithium and cobalt from spent LiCoO2 cathodes, coupled with an energy-efficient ammonia stripping approach. Kinetic analysis revealed that both lithium...

  • Article
  • Open Access
837 Views
14 Pages

Amine-Functionalized Maghemite Nanoflowers for Efficient Magnetic Removal of Heavy-Metal-Adsorbed Algae

  • Tímea Fóris,
  • Péter Koska,
  • Ágnes Maria Ilosvai,
  • Kitti Gráczer,
  • Ferenc Kristály,
  • Lajos Daróczi,
  • Miklós Nagy,
  • Béla Viskolcz and
  • László Vanyorek

15 October 2025

This study aimed to clarify the interactions between cobalt-adsorbed Chlorella vulgaris cells and amine-functionalized maghemite nanoparticles, focusing on nanoparticle adsorption to the algal surface and the subsequent magnetic sedimentation of the...

  • Article
  • Open Access
17 Citations
3,204 Views
12 Pages

Effect of Substrates on Femtosecond Laser Pulse-Induced Reductive Sintering of Cobalt Oxide Nanoparticles

  • Mizue Mizoshiri,
  • Kyohei Yoshidomi,
  • Namsrai Darkhanbaatar,
  • Evgenia M. Khairullina and
  • Ilya I. Tumkin

10 December 2021

Direct writing of cobalt/cobalt oxide composites has attracted attention for its potential use in catalysts and detectors in microsensors. In this study, cobalt-based composite patterns were selectively formed on glass, polyethylene naphthalate (PEN)...

  • Article
  • Open Access
23 Citations
2,565 Views
26 Pages

Eco-Friendly Recycling of Lithium Batteries for Extraction of High-Purity Metals

  • Gamal M. A. Mahran,
  • Mohamed A. Gado,
  • Wael M. Fathy and
  • Amr B. ElDeeb

28 June 2023

The significant increase in lithium batteries consumption produces a significant quantity of discarded lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). On the one hand, the shortage of high-grade ores leads to the necessity of processing low-grade ores, which contain a...

  • Article
  • Open Access
1 Citations
1,025 Views
38 Pages

Development of Technology for Processing Pyrite–Cobalt Concentrates to Obtain Pigments of the Composition Fe2O3 and Fe3O4

  • Tatyana Chepushtanova,
  • Aliya Altmyshbayeva,
  • Yerik Merkibayev,
  • Kulzira Mamyrbayeva,
  • Zhanat Yespenova and
  • Brajendra Mishra

7 August 2025

This paper presents the results of a study on the development of a processing technology for pyrite–cobalt concentrates to obtain iron oxide pigments (Fe2O3 and Fe3O4) via high-temperature hydrolysis. It was found that, in a single operation, t...

  • Article
  • Open Access
75 Citations
5,128 Views
24 Pages

Comparative Study of CoFe2O4 Nanoparticles and CoFe2O4-Chitosan Composite for Congo Red and Methyl Orange Removal by Adsorption

  • Claudia Maria Simonescu,
  • Alina Tătăruş,
  • Daniela Cristina Culiţă,
  • Nicolae Stănică,
  • Ioana Alexandra Ionescu,
  • Bogdan Butoi and
  • Ana-Maria Banici

12 March 2021

(1) Background: A comparative research study to remove Congo Red (CR) and Methyl Orange (MO) from single and binary solutions by adsorption onto cobalt ferrite (CoFe2O4) and cobalt ferrite–chitosan composite (CoFe2O4-Chit) prepared by a simple coprec...

  • Article
  • Open Access
2 Citations
2,143 Views
18 Pages

Towards Using MMO Anodes in Zinc Electrorefining: Mn Removal by Simulated Plant Off-Gas

  • Masoomeh Askarian,
  • Fariba Mousavi,
  • Roozbeh Mollaabbasi,
  • Elyse Benguerel,
  • Carl Brown,
  • Georges Houlachi and
  • Houshang Alamdari

30 September 2023

Implementing mixed metal oxide (MMO) anodes in zinc electrowinning is highly desired due to the considerable reduction in electrical energy consumption. However, the presence of manganese in the electrolyte is a major obstacle for implementing MMO an...

  • Article
  • Open Access
5 Citations
3,419 Views
14 Pages

3 June 2020

The leaching of industrial polycrystalline diamond (PCD) blanks in aqua regia at atmospheric pressure between 60 °C and 80 °C was performed using an ultrasound to improve the rate of cobalt removal in order to be able to reuse very expensive...

  • Article
  • Open Access
1 Citations
1,632 Views
16 Pages

19 October 2023

The purpose of this study was to determine whether the chemical compositions of Alnico alloys had any effects on the electrical discharge machining (EDM) performance and the surface finish. This article compares the behavior of three different Alnico...

  • Article
  • Open Access
5 Citations
6,043 Views
13 Pages

Catalysts with Cerium in a Membrane Reactor for the Removal of Formaldehyde Pollutant from Water Effluents

  • Mirella Gutiérrez-Arzaluz,
  • Luis Noreña-Franco,
  • Saúl Ángel-Cuevas,
  • Violeta Mugica-Álvarez and
  • Miguel Torres-Rodríguez

We report the synthesis of cerium oxide, cobalt oxide, mixed cerium, and cobalt oxides and a Ce–Co/Al2O3 membrane, which are employed as catalysts for the catalytic wet oxidation (CWO) reaction process and the removal of formaldehyde from industrial...

  • Article
  • Open Access
18 Citations
4,069 Views
11 Pages

Formation of Biochar Nanocomposite Materials Based on CoFe2O4 for Purification of Aqueous Solutions from Chromium Compounds (VI)

  • Nina Shabelskaya,
  • Marina Egorova,
  • Asatullo Radjabov,
  • Marina Burachevskaya,
  • Ilya Lobzenko,
  • Tatiana Minkina and
  • Svetlana Sushkova

28 December 2022

The paper proposes a simple one-stage synthesis of organic-inorganic composite materials based on oxide compounds of iron (III) and cobalt (II) with a developed surface. The process of cobalt(II) ferrite (CoFe2O4) structure formation on the biochar s...

  • Article
  • Open Access
9 Citations
3,394 Views
16 Pages

Analytical Determination of Cephalosporin Antibiotics Using Coordination Polymer Based on Cobalt Terephthalate as a Sorbent

  • Maria A. Chernomorova,
  • Marina S. Myakinina,
  • Vladimir A. Zhinzhilo and
  • Igor E. Uflyand

20 January 2023

In this work, a coordination polymer based on cobalt terephthalate was obtained and characterized by elemental analysis, infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction analysis, and scanning electron microscopy. The coordination polymer was tested as a sor...

  • Article
  • Open Access
21 Citations
9,533 Views
22 Pages

26 February 2022

Copper-cobalt deposits in the Central African Copperbelt belong to the Sediment-Hosted Stratiform Copper (SHSC) type and are situated in the Neoproterozoic Katanga Supergroup. This paper describes in detail the geology, geochemistry and hydrometallur...

  • Article
  • Open Access
79 Citations
13,126 Views
22 Pages

14 January 2021

The bottleneck of recycling chains for spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is the recovery of valuable metals from the black matter that remains after dismantling and deactivation in pre‑treatment processes, which has to be treated in a subsequent ste...

  • Article
  • Open Access
20 Citations
2,765 Views
15 Pages

Evaluation of Ni-Doped Tricobalt Tetroxide with Reduced Graphene Oxide: Structural, Photocatalysis, and Antibacterial Response

  • João Otávio Donizette Malafatti,
  • Ailton José Moreira,
  • Elaine Cristina Paris,
  • Leydi Julieta Cardenas Flechas,
  • Otávio Augusto Poli Pereira and
  • Miryam Rincón Joya

9 October 2022

Cobalt oxide (Co3O4) nanoparticles were successfully prepared by sol–gel and hydrothermal methods for antibacterial and photocatalytic applications with the addition of 1%, 4% nickel (Ni), and reduced graphene oxide (rGO). The structural and mo...

  • Article
  • Open Access
16 Citations
5,747 Views
19 Pages

Selective Sulfation Roasting for Cobalt and Lithium Extraction from Industrial LCO-Rich Spent Black Mass

  • Jayasree Biswas,
  • Sofia Ulmala,
  • Xingbang Wan,
  • Jere Partinen,
  • Mari Lundström and
  • Ari Jokilaakso

10 February 2023

The extraction of cobalt from secondary resources has become crucial, as cobalt has been identified as a strategically important and critical raw material due to the high risks of supply chain disruptions. In this work, selective sulfation roasting w...

  • Article
  • Open Access
534 Views
17 Pages

Preparation of Perovskite-Type LaCoO3 and Its Catalytic Degradation of Formaldehyde in Wastewater

  • Qingguo Ma,
  • Qin Gao,
  • Shancheng Li,
  • Tianying Li,
  • Zhiqian Fan,
  • Binglong Mu and
  • Yike Zhang

5 November 2025

Removing toxic formaldehyde (HCHO) from environmental water is crucial for human health and the ecosystem. Perovskite-type Lanthanum cobalt oxide (LaCoO3) has achieved great success in a wide range of catalytic processes; however, this concept has be...

  • Article
  • Open Access
7 Citations
6,049 Views
10 Pages

18 October 2017

We investigated the preparation of CMB (cobalt-manganese-bromide) and CMA (cobalt-manganese-acetate) liquid catalysts as petroleum liquid catalysts by simultaneously recovering Co and Mn from spent Li-ion battery cathode material. To prepare the liqu...

  • Article
  • Open Access
35 Citations
4,028 Views
16 Pages

29 April 2021

From the wide range of engineering materials traditional Stellite 6 (cobalt alloy) exhibits excellent resistance to cavitation erosion (CE). Nonetheless, the influence of ion implantation of cobalt alloys on the CE behaviour has not been completely c...

  • Article
  • Open Access
32 Citations
5,026 Views
17 Pages

17 July 2022

In this work, an efficient cage-core peroxymonosulfate (PMS) catalyst was synthesized by applying an electrospinning–calcination process to the cobalt–zeolitic imidazole framework (ZIF-67) crystals for the catalytic degradation of dimethy...

  • Article
  • Open Access
3 Citations
1,588 Views
22 Pages

27 July 2024

Two commercial montmorillonites, namely montmorillonite K10 (MK10) and montmorillonite pillared with aluminum (MPil) were impregnated with cobalt(II) and/or iron(II) acetates by incipient wetness impregnation and used to activate peroxymonosulfate (P...

  • Feature Paper
  • Article
  • Open Access
1,287 Views
20 Pages

Carbon-Coated Magnetic Catalysts for Enhanced Degradation of Nitrophenols: Stability and Efficiency in Catalytic Wet Peroxide Oxidation

  • Arthur P. Baldo,
  • Ana Júlia B. Bezerra,
  • Adriano S. Silva,
  • Ana Paula Ferreira,
  • Fernanda F. Roman,
  • Ihsan Çaha,
  • Manuel Bañobre-López,
  • Francis Leonard Deepak and
  • Helder T. Gomes

11 April 2025

Nitrophenols are persistent organic pollutants that pose serious environmental and health risks due to their toxic and lipophilic nature. Their persistence arises from strong aromatic stability and resistance to biodegradation, while their lipophilic...

  • Feature Paper
  • Article
  • Open Access
27 Citations
6,845 Views
13 Pages

Hydrometallurgical Recovery of Cobalt(II) from Spent Industrial Catalysts

  • Zuzanna Wiecka,
  • Martyna Rzelewska-Piekut,
  • Ryszard Cierpiszewski,
  • Katarzyna Staszak and
  • Magdalena Regel-Rosocka

1 January 2020

The work presents studies on the application of hydrometallurgical recovery of cobalt(II) from solutions after leaching spent industrial catalysts used in process of hydrodesulfurization. A four-stage process was proposed, which consists of: leaching...

  • Article
  • Open Access
2,358 Views
17 Pages

1 September 2025

This study investigates Fenton-based processes for textile dye degradation, focusing on Direct Red 28 (DR28), Reactive Blue 19 (RB19), and Reactive Black 5 (RBk5). Results reveal varying effectiveness of catalyst–radical combinations, with copp...

  • Article
  • Open Access
9 Citations
2,323 Views
16 Pages

CoFe2O4@HaP as Magnetic Heterostructures for Sustainable Wastewater Treatment

  • Raluca-Ștefania Dănilă,
  • Ioan Dumitru,
  • Maria Ignat and
  • Aurel Pui

24 March 2023

The aim of this study was to synthesize a CoFe2O4@HaP nanocomposite (HaP-Hydroxyapatite) through the coprecipitation method in aqueous solution, with the purpose of using it in adsorption processes for the removal of Congo Red dye from aqueous soluti...

  • Article
  • Open Access
11 Citations
4,218 Views
18 Pages

18 February 2020

Sulfite and heavy metals are crucial pollutants in the slurry produced by flue gas desulfurization. In this study, a novel cobalt-based activated carbon fiber (Co-ACFs) catalyst-adsorbent was synthesized using an impregnation method; this bifunctiona...

  • Article
  • Open Access
10 Citations
5,283 Views
14 Pages

Fit and Retention of Cobalt–Chromium Removable Partial Denture Frameworks Fabricated with Selective Laser Melting

  • Stefan Rues,
  • Akinori Tasaka,
  • Isabella Fleckenstein,
  • Shuichiro Yamashita,
  • Peter Rammelsberg,
  • Sophia Boehm and
  • Franz Sebastian Schwindling

Purpose: To evaluate fit and retention of cobalt–chromium removable partial denture (RPD) frameworks fabricated with selective laser melting (SLM). Methods: Three types of framework for clasp-retained RPDs were virtually designed and fabricated...

  • Proceeding Paper
  • Open Access
848 Views
9 Pages

Transition Metal-Doped Cobalt Oxyhydroxide Catalysts with Enhanced Peroxymonosulfate Activation for Dye Decolorization

  • Rina Yamamoto,
  • Hideyuki Katsumata,
  • Ikki Tateishi,
  • Mai Furukawa and
  • Satoshi Kaneco

Sulfate radical-based advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are effective for removing organic pollutants from wastewater. In this study, transition metal-doped cobalt oxyhydroxide (CoOOH) was synthesized as an efficient peroxymonosulfate (PMS) activat...

  • Article
  • Open Access
26 Citations
4,471 Views
18 Pages

Waste Bricks Applied as Removal Agent of Basic Blue 41 from Aqueous Solutions: Base Treatment and Their Regeneration Efficiency

  • Fethi Kooli,
  • Yan Liu,
  • Mostafa Abboudi,
  • Hicham Oudghiri Hassani,
  • Souad Rakass,
  • Sheikh Muhammad Ibrahim and
  • Fahd Al Wadaani

24 March 2019

Waste brick materials were applied as removal materials of basic blue 41 (BB-41) from artificially contaminated water. They were characterized by different techniques prior their use. A series of removal tests were carried out at different conditions...

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