Polysaccharides

In this work, redox-responsive chitosan derivatives were prepared by crosslinking with disulfide-bridged dicarboxylic acids. Taking into account that structural variations in diacids can lead to significant differences in properties, especially swelling capacity, this study aimed to evaluate the impact of increasing alkyl chain length and hydrophobicity. Two dicarboxylic acids of different hydrophobic character and chain length were used: dithiodiglycolic acid (DTGA) and dithiopropionic acid (DTPA). The resulting materials were fully characterized. Despite their structural similarity, the derivatives exhibited distinct behaviors: DTGA derivatives formed stable hydrogels, whereas DTPA ones remained compact upon contact with water. These results were confirmed by swelling measurements and oscillatory rheology. The EDC:COOH molar ratio was also evaluated, revealing a strong effect on the degree of crosslinking. Moreover, DTGA systems prepared at a 1:1 ratio showed significantly higher swelling than those synthesized at 3:1. Regarding redox responsiveness, it was assessed by quantifying thiol content before and after reduction with sodium borohydride, and reversibility was assessed through reduction–oxidation cycles. Finally, preliminary experiments evaluated the materials’ ability to incorporate benzalkonium chloride as a model biocide, and their release was tested in the presence of thiosulfate-reducing bacteria, providing initial insight into their behavior in redox-responsive delivery systems. Full article

This study investigates the potential of acetylated xylan as a functional component in coatings for biodegradable paper-based food packaging. Acetylated xylan was synthesized in the laboratory via the reaction of native beechwood xylan with acetic anhydride. Multilayer coatings composed of acetylated xylan, chitosan, and zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) were applied to paper substrates as single and double layers (approximately 5 g/m²) to enhance their barrier and antimicrobial properties. The coated papers were evaluated for mechanical properties, resistance to water, oil, and grease, antimicrobial activity against pathogenic bacteria, and biodegradability in soil. The combination of xylan derivatives with chitosan significantly improved surface hydrophobicity (contact angle ~87°) and achieved complete inhibition (100%) of Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella spp., without compromising biodegradability. Incorporation of ZnO NPs further enhanced both the barrier properties and antimicrobial efficacy, particularly against S. aureus. A high biodegradation rate (~92%) was recorded after 42 days of soil burial. These results demonstrate the suitability of xylan-based multilayer coatings as sustainable alternatives for food packaging applications. Full article

Uncontrolled hemorrhage is a major global health issue, causing high mortality rates in both civilian and military settings. The risk of infection in bleeding wounds highlights the need for effective hemostatic materials. Natural polysaccharides are promising for developing hemostatic microgels, and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) offer antimicrobial benefits. This study aimed to synthesize a novel powdered hemostatic material using spray drying, leveraging chitosan (CHI) and carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) combined with eco-friendly AgNPs that provide antimicrobial properties. AgNPs were synthesized via a green method using CMC as a reducing and stabilizing agent, then characterized by UV-Vis, TEM, FTIR, and DLS. CHI/CMC and CHI/CMC-AgNPs microgels were created using a scalable spray drying technique and then evaluated for their morphological, physical, thermal, swelling, hemostatic, and antimicrobial properties. Characterization showed that AgNPs had monodisperse sizes and a unique UV-Vis peak at 428 nm. CHI/CMC microgels had an irregular spherical shape, with AgNPs slightly increasing their size. CHI/CMC and CHI/CMC-10AgNPs (with 10% v/v AgNPs) demonstrated appropriate swelling capacity and hemocompatibility and reduced coagulation time by 20%. However, CHI/CMC-20AgNPs (with 20% v/v AgNPs) exhibited high hemolysis. Both CHI/CMC-10AgNPs and CHI/CMC-20AgNPs displayed antimicrobial activity. In conclusion, a novel powdered hemostatic micromaterial was successfully developed, exhibiting improved properties and efficacy as a next-generation hemostatic agent. Full article

This work aims to develop bio-based and biodegradable materials for active food packaging purposes by comparing the properties of avocado seed flour (ASF) and avocado extracted starch (AES). A 36.4% dry basis yield is obtained for the extracted AES from ASF. ASF presents a higher crystallinity, and SEM images show a mixture of starch granules and other materials, whereas AES presents lower ash, protein, and lipid content relative to ASF. To make a comparison between the two, ASF or AES are mixed with glycerol at different concentrations, then twin-screw extruded and injection-molded to develop thermoplastic starch-based materials. The morphological, mechanical, barrier, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and disintegrability properties are evaluated to compare their different compositions. ASF-based films exhibit better barrier properties and a 134% higher intrinsic antioxidant capacity. Conversely, the homogenous nature of AES-based materials results in better interactions with the plasticizer, allowing a wide range of mechanical properties. Moreover, cinnamon essential oil (CEO) was incorporated into the preferred compositions of both ASF and AES to improve antimicrobial properties. Adding a 5% concentration of CEO to samples was sufficient to completely inhibit the growth of P. expansum. These results support waste valorization for developing active packaging materials with high antioxidant and antimicrobial properties without competing for resources with the food industry. Full article

Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) have emerged as sustainable and tunable alternatives to conventional solvents for the extraction of polysaccharides. This review presents a structure-informed framework linking DES composition to polysaccharide solubility, emphasizing the differential responsiveness of amorphous, interfacial, and crystalline domains. Amorphous polysaccharides are efficiently extracted under mild DES conditions, while crystalline polymers often require stronger hydrogen bond acceptors or thermal/mechanical activation. Beyond dissolution, DESs modulate key properties of the extracted polysaccharides, including molecular weight, monomer composition, and bioactivity. Comparative analysis highlights how acidic, basic, or metal-coordinating DESs selectively target distinct polymer classes. Emerging innovations, such as in situ DES formation, mechanochemical systems, and switchable solvents, enhance efficiency and reduce downstream processing demands. Furthermore, the integration of machine learning and COSMO-RS modeling enables predictive solvent design, reducing reliance on empirical screening. By combining mechanistic insight, compositional tailoring, and computational tools, this review provides a scientifically grounded perspective for advancing DES-mediated extraction processes and enabling structure-preserving, application-oriented recovery of polysaccharides in food, pharmaceutical, and biorefinery domains. Full article

Probiotics offer significant health benefits; however, their efficacy is often compromised by low survival rates in stressful conditions. Microencapsulation using modified starches presents a promising strategy to enhance probiotic viability. This study aimed to evaluate microwave-assisted octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA) modification of faba bean starch to provide a protective matrix for the microencapsulation of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG) through spray drying. Starch was extracted from faba beans and hydrolyzed, and a factorial design was employed for OSA esterification (3% w/w) using a conventional microwave (30 or 60 s at power levels of 2 or 10). The starches were characterized, and the most effective treatment was selected for the microencapsulation of LGG, varying the inlet temperature (120 and 140 °C) and flow rate (7 and 12 mL/min) at 30% solids content. Microwaves significantly reduced the processing time for starch esterification. Microwave-assisted OSA modification produced starches with low viscosity (<0.015 Pa·s), high amylose and resistant starch content, and good solubility, making them suitable for probiotic encapsulation. The microencapsulation of LGG resulted in a powder yield of 41–55%, with particle sizes ranging from 5 to 20 µm and survival rates of 81–90%. This study presents an effective method of producing OSA-modified starch from faba beans using microwave energy, demonstrating strong potential for probiotic delivery applications. Full article

Chitosan, a biopolymer with molecular variability, continues to demonstrate promising potential for biomedical and biotechnological applications. In this study, mixtures of β-oligochitosan, with a low molar mass (MM) of 1.5 kDa (CH1), α-oligochitosan, MM = 26.39 kDa (CH2), and α-chitosan, MM = 804.33 kDa (CH3) were analyzed. The tested solutions, chitosan alone and mixtures (CH1:CH2 and CH1:CH3), prepared in different mass ratios (1:1, 2:1, 3:1), were characterized in terms of MM and degree of deacetylation (DDA). The antimicrobial activity on S. aureus, E. coli, and C. parapsilosis was evaluated. The fractional inhibitory concentration index (FICI) was also calculated for mixtures. Using the Brine Shrimp Lethality Assay (BSLA), the in vivo interactions, which involve the internalization of chitosan in the cells, were assessed. The results showed that α-β chitosan mixtures exhibited an in vitro antimicrobial antagonistic effect (FICI > 1) for all samples. In contrast, significantly improved larval survival (%), development, and motility (p < 0.0001), with a close correlation between cellular inclusions and naupliar stages (R = 0.94), were detected in vivo testing. These data support the strategic use of chitosan mixtures with variable characteristics in biotechnological applications, with potential for optimizing intake, biological activity, and controlling cytotoxicity. Full article

This study aimed to develop synbiotic edible films based on fish gelatin containing Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus GG, evaluating the impact of different prebiotics (inulin and fructooligosaccharides, FOSs) and structuring polysaccharides (pectin and alginate) on their physical, mechanical, thermal properties, cell viability, and in vitro gastrointestinal behavior. Seven film formulations were prepared from fish gelatin solutions (3%, w/v) containing glycerol (30%, w/w, as plasticizer), with the addition of prebiotics (inulin or FOSs, 1:1 w/w to gelatin), either alone or in combination with pectin (1%, w/v) or alginate (0.5%, w/v). Specifically, F1 contained gelatin, glycerol, and L. rhamnosus GG (control); F2 and F5 included inulin or FOSs, respectively; F3 and F6 combined inulin or FOSs with pectin; and F4 and F7 combined inulin or FOSs with alginate. After incorporation of the probiotic, the solutions were cast and dried at 37 °C for 24 h. The incorporation of prebiotics and polysaccharides significantly influenced probiotic viability after film drying (p < 0.05). The control formulation (F1) showed the highest reduction (26.10%), while F4 (inulin + alginate) and F7 (FOS + alginate) exhibited the lowest losses of 10.41% and 10.98%, respectively. These films also demonstrated better performance during simulated digestion, with F7 showing the smallest reduction after 6 h (0.5 log), maintaining 7.0 colony-forming units per gram (CFU g⁻¹), which is considered adequate for functional effects. Physically, the films varied in solubility (27.50% to 41.37%), thickness (0.085 to 0.095 mm), water vapor permeability (WVP) (8.17 to 11.75 g·mm/m²·d·kPa), and moisture content (13.47% to 17.50%). Mechanically, F4 showed the highest tensile strength (24.5 MPa), while F1 had the highest elongation at break (62%). During storage, F7 and F4 showed the lowest viability losses (29.8% and 29.4%, respectively) under refrigeration. Overall, the results indicate that the association of prebiotics with structuring polysaccharides improves stability, cellular protection, and functional performance of the films. Full article

Achieving precise drug release in the colon remains a key objective in therapies for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Natural polysaccharides, including high-amylose starch (HAS) and pectin, offer relevant characteristics for localized drug delivery due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and adaptability. In this work, high-esterified pectin (HEP) was incorporated during the retrogradation of HAS to further form cohesive films without the need for organic solvents or high temperatures. The resulting matrices showed improved mucoadhesive performance, particularly under colonic conditions, where hydrophobic ester groups in HEP enhanced tissue adherence. This feature is critical for prolonged residence time in inflamed mucosa. Variations in HEP content directly influenced matrix density, fluid interaction, and mechanical resistance, without compromising film integrity. The high degree of esterification limited pH-dependent swelling and promoted alternative release mechanisms potentially related to enzymatic degradation. Such behavior contrasts with traditional low-esterified pectin (LEP) systems, suggesting that HEP may act as a structural modifier rather than a neutral excipient. Despite its widespread use in food systems, HEP remains underexplored in pharmaceutical matrices, especially in combination with retrograded starch (RS). The physicochemical and biointerfacial properties observed here underscore their applicability for the rational design of colonic delivery systems and provide a foundation for formulation strategies tailored to chronic intestinal disorders. Full article

Soybean residue, kudzu root residue, astragalus residue and pomegranate peel residue are byproducts of food processing with high yield. In the food processing industry in Northwest China, these waste residues contain a large amount of nutrients and have a large amount of emissions. In this study, cellulose was extracted from four kinds of waste residue and characterized to study its emulsification performance and application effect. The results are as follows: The extracted cellulose had typical cellulose crystal structure and good thermal stability. Among the four kinds of cellulose, the physical, chemical and functional properties of the soybean byproduct were significantly better than those of standard cellulose and other sources of cellulose. The Pickering emulsions fixed by four kinds of cellulose and soybean lecithin have similar properties. The emulsification performance of the immobilized soybean byproduct cellulose Pickering emulsion is the best. Soybean byproduct cellulose was used as an oil substitute for the development of new mayonnaise. The results showed that when 8% soybean byproduct cellulose Pickering emulsion was used to replace vegetable oil, the quality of reduced-fat mayonnaise was better. This soybean byproduct cellulose has potential development and application value in industrial food. Full article

In this work, ethyl cellulose nanoparticles loaded with rosemary extract (RCL-NPs) were synthesized and utilized to reinforce high-density polyethylene (HDPE) packaging bags as a nanotechnological alternative for rabbit meat preservation. The synthesized RCL-NPs were characterized by DLS and for their stability. The analyzed variables of rabbit meat packaged samples included drained liquid, weight loss, color, pH, texture, and hardness. The total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant capacity of rosemary extract were also investigated. The results demonstrated that RCL-NPs were 117.30 nm in size with a negative surface charge (−24.59 mV) and low PDI (0.12). According to the Higuchi model, the release rate of RCL-NPs was sustained from 0 to 24 h. The encapsulation efficiency of the implemented synthesis route was 99.97%. The TPC of rosemary extract was 566.13 ± 1.72 mg GAE/L, whereas their antioxidant activity utilizing the DPPH and FRAP assays was 27.86 ± 0.32 mM Trolox/L and 0.31 mM Trolox/L, respectively. Contrary to control samples, rabbit meat samples conserved in HDPE packaging bags reinforced with RCL-NPs prevent drained liquid and weight loss, while preserving *L (60 ± 2.5–66.10 ± 2.0) and *b (10.67 ± 2.28–11.62 ± 2.39), pH (5.22 ± 0.05–5.80 ± 0.03), and texture (10.37 ± 0.82–0.70 ± 0.50). In the same regard, the developed material conserved the hardness of rabbit meat samples, exhibiting values that ranged from 27.79 ± 7.23 to 27.60 ± 3.05 N during the evaluated period (0–13 days). The retrieved data demonstrate the efficacy of RCL in preserving the quality of rabbit meat when integrated with additional food packaging materials. Full article

In this study, hydrogel dressings based on alginate and carboxymethylcellulose were developed, supplemented with extracts from Tagetes nelsonii, Agave americana, and Aloe vera gel, for the treatment and healing of wounds. For this purpose, the physical and mechanical characterization of the films was carried out using different concentrations of the crosslinker, calcium chloride. Additionally, T. nelsonii was the extract that exhibited the highest antioxidant capacity as well as in vivo wound-healing activity. Subsequently, plant extracts were added, the dressings were characterized, and antibacterial activity was determined by the Kirby–Bauer method against Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The results indicated that the prepared dressings have potential for use in wound treatment and healing, with the dressing containing T. nelsonii extract being the only one with antibacterial activity. Therefore, all of them can be used for acute wounds on body parts such as the palms of the hands, knees, elbows, and soles of the feet. Full article

Wound healing is a complex process, and propolis, a natural resin with antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties, emerges as a promising candidate for its treatment. This systematic review analyzed 26 studies on propolis-functionalized biomaterials. Great diversity was observed in materials and incorporation techniques, including direct blending, surface coating, and nanoencapsulation. Mostly based on polysaccharides like chitosan, pectin, and bacterial cellulose, these formulations showed biocompatibility, biodegradability, and promoted inflammation reduction and tissue repair. In vitro assays confirmed high biocompatibility (>80% cell viability) and antimicrobial activity, while in vivo studies validated regenerative benefits. Despite their potential, marked heterogeneity in propolis composition (intrinsically variable due to its botanical and geographical origin, and processing methods), coupled with diverse concentrations used and the lack of standardization in assessment methods and results reporting, significantly limits cross-study comparability and reproducibility. Overcoming these challenges requires promoting greater standardization in extraction, characterization, and evaluation protocols, including chemical fingerprinting and more detailed and consistent reporting of findings. Despite these limitations, propolis–polysaccharide systems hold strong clinical potential, with further standardization and well-designed preclinical studies being essential for their effective translation, especially in chronic wound management. Full article

Solvent-exchange-induced in situ forming gel (ISG) refers to a drug delivery system that transforms from a solution state into a gel or solid matrix upon administration into the body and exposure to physiological aqueous fluid. This study investigates the molecular behavior and phase inversion process of cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB)-based in situ forming gel (ISG) formulations containing moxifloxacin (Mx) or benzydamine HCl (Bz) as model drugs dissolved in N-methyl pyrrolidone (NMP) using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and density functional theory (DFT) calculations. The simulations reveal a solvent exchange mechanism, where the diffusion of water molecules replaces NMP, driving the formation of the CAB matrix. Bz exhibited faster diffusion and a more uniform distribution compared to Mx, which aggregated into clusters due to its larger molecular size. The analysis of the root mean square deviation (RMSD) and radius of gyration confirmed the faster diffusion of Bz, which adopted a more extended conformation, while Mx remained compact. The phase transformation was driven by the disruption of CAB-NMP hydrogen bonds, while CAB–water interactions remained limited, suggesting that CAB does not dissolve in water, facilitating matrix formation. The molecular configuration revealed that drug–CAB interactions were primarily governed by hydrophobic forces and van der Waals interactions rather than hydrogen bonding, controlling the release mechanism of both compounds. DFT calculations and electrostatic potential (ESP) maps illustrated that the acetyl group of CAB played a key role in drug–polymer interactions and that differences in CAB substitution degrees influenced the stability of drug-CAB complexes. Formation energy calculations indicated that Mx-CAB complexes were more stable than Bz-CAB complexes, resulting in a more prolonged release of Mx compared to Bz. Overall, this study provides valuable insights into the molecular behavior of CAB-based Mx-, Bz-ISG formulations. Full article

In agriculture, the use of fructans has gained relevance due to their ability to improve plant immunity and resistance to pathogens. However, many studies use high-purity fructans, which makes their application more expensive. In this work, the efficacy of two agave fructans, one food grade from Agave tequilana Weber var. Azul (FT) and the other obtained by semi-craft extraction from A. cupreata (FC) were evaluated in comparison with reagent-grade inulin from dahlia tubers. The effectiveness of their defense response against Phytophthora capsici infection in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) was analyzed by evaluating defense mechanisms, including lignin deposition, hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) accumulation, and β-1,3-glucanase and peroxidase activity. The results indicated that foliar application of both fructans showed protection against infection, reducing disease incidence and severity. FT fructans at lower concentration (0.5 g/L) showed the highest protection, followed by FC, while dahlia inulin showed lower effectiveness. An early and progressive accumulation of H₂O₂ was observed in fructan-treated plants, in contrast to the late increase in untreated infected plants. Also, peroxidase activity was higher in the fructan treatments, suggesting a more efficient defense response. Although lignin deposition was not directly correlated with protection against P. capsici, fructans showed potential as resistance inducers. Given their low cost, easy extraction, and zero environmental impact, agave fructans represent a viable alternative for crop protection in sustainable agricultural systems. This study opens the door to their validation in the field and their application in other economically important crops, contributing to biological control strategies with less dependence on agrochemicals. Full article

This study explored the functional and pharmaceutical properties of native and modified starches derived from rice bean (Vigna umbellata) using physical (pregelatinization) and chemical (phosphorylation, carboxymethylation) modifications. Native starch (NRBS) exhibited a 27.5% amylose content. Modifications significantly influenced physicochemical characteristics. Swelling power increased from 12.25 g/g in NRBS to 16.34 g/g (pregelatinized, PGRBS) and 18.91 g/g (carboxymethylated, CMRBS), while solubility reached 53.12% in CMRBS. X-ray diffraction study estimated degrees of crystallinity of 26.5%, 19.4%, 22.8%, and 14.5% for NRBS, PGRBS, phosphate crosslinked (CLRBS), and CMRBS, respectively. Oil absorption capacity was highest in CMRBS (1.67 g/g), while its free swelling capacity reached 6.12 g/g at 37 °C. In vitro digestibility showed resistant starch (RS) contents of 11.31%, 5.49%, 17.38%, and 21.65% for NRBS, PGRBS, CLRBS, and CMRBS, respectively. Flowability and compressibility analysis demonstrated that CLRBS had the best flow (Carr’s Index: 12.16%, Hausner ratio: 1.14), while CMRBS exhibited superior tablet hardness across compression forces. These findings highlight rice bean starch, particularly in its modified forms, as a sustainable and multifunctional excipient and ingredient for food and pharmaceutical applications. Full article

Nowadays, the use of materials from renewable resources, such as agricultural waste and forest residues, has increased. In this work, industrial waste recovered from a recycled paper/cardboard company was mechanically refined to obtain ligno-cellulosic microfibers (LCMFs). The obtained LCMFs were well characterized and chemically modified in situ together with natural rubber through silanization. The effect of in situ silanizated LCMFs, by using (3-triethoxysilylpropyl) tetrasulfide (Si69) as a silane coupling agent, on natural rubber (NR) compound properties was studied. The NR compound with silanizated LCMFs at 2.5 phr of Si69 (NR MF Si2) increased NR stiffness significantly. For example, the 300% modulus of NR MF Si2 was around 9 units higher than that of NR. The physical–mechanical properties, crosslink density, curing behavior, infrared spectroscopy, and microscopy of the compounds were studied to confirm the in situ silanization of the microfibers and its reinforcement effect on the NR matrix. The storage modulus (E′) obtained from Dynamic Mechanical Analysis suggested that the silanizated samples presented an uneven crosslinking, but it was enough to stiffen the NR chains. Full article

Starch particles (SPs) were extracted from underutilized wild yam (Dioscorea remotiflora) tubers using two methods: (1) acid hydrolysis (AH) alone and (2) acid hydrolysis assisted by ultrasound (AH-US). The SPs were chemically modified through esterification (using acetic anhydride [AA] and lauroyl chloride [LC]) and crosslinking (with citric acid [CA] and sodium hexametaphosphate [SHMP]). They were subsequently characterized by their yield, amylose content, and structural and physical properties. The yield of particles was 17.5–19.7%, and the residual amylose content was 2.8–3.2%. Particle sizes ranged from 0.46 to 0.55 µm, which exhibited mono-modal and bi-modal distributions for AH and AH-US treatments, respectively. Following chemical modification, yield notably increased, especially with substitution by LC (33.6–36.5%) and CA (32.6–38.7%). Modified SPs exhibited bi-modal particle distributions with micro- and nanoparticles and variable peak intensities depending on the chemical compound used. Unmodified SPs displayed irregular morphologies, showing disruptions (AH) or aggregation (AH-US). Chemical substitutions altered morphologies, leading to amorphous surfaces (CA: AH), clustering (LC), or fragmentation into smaller particles (SHMP) under AH-US treatment. FT-IR analysis indicated a decrease in hydroxyl groups’ peak area (A(-OH)), confirming the substitution of these groups in the starch structure. Crosslinking with CA resulted in the highest degree of substitution (AH: 0.43; AH-US: 0.44) and melting enthalpy (ΔH_f: 343.0 J/g for AH-US), revealing stronger interactions between SPs from both methods. These findings demonstrate that the extraction treatment of D. remotiflora SPs and the type of chemical modifier significantly influence the properties of SPs, underscoring their potential applications as natural biocarriers. Full article

This study aims to investigate the differences in the effects of spraying and immersing methods on edible coatings for halved and pitted plums. Earlier studies have shown that these biodegradable packaging materials can preserve the quality and safety of fruits for an extended shelf life. Halved and pitted plums (variety Stanley) were treated with chitosan and rosehip oil edible coating emulsions by spraying and immersing methods. The treated series were analyzed by physical, physicochemical, microbiological, and sensorial methods during refrigerated storage for nine days, until the onset of microbiological spoilage. At the beginning of the storage, there was a visible difference between the differently treated samples. The untreated series showed the fastest browning. The emulsion-sprayed samples presented the least changes in color, shape, and volume. A weaker effect of the immersion technique can be explained by a deep standing of the fruits in a treating solution or emulsion. Some of the immersed samples have an aqueous texture and received a smaller sensory rating. The advantages and disadvantages of the methods need further investigation, but on a production scale, spraying can guarantee uniform batches. In laboratory circumstances, immersion is an easier method that does not need expensive and difficult-to-use equipment and gives good results. Full article