Minerals

24 pages, 8121 KB

Open AccessArticle

Geochemical Characteristics and Geological Significance of Late Cretaceous to Paleocene Intermediate–Acidic Intrusive Rocks in the Qiuwo Area, Southern Margin of the Lhasa Terrane, China

by Min Jia, Fuwei Xie, Yibin Lin, Shuyuan Chen, Yang Yang and Jiancuo Luosang

Minerals 2026, 16(1), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16010063 - 7 Jan 2026

Abstract

The Late Cretaceous to Paleocene magmatic evolution along the southern margin of the Lhasa Terrane records a critical transition from oceanic subduction to continental collision, yet its western segment remains underexplored. This study presents integrated petrographic, zircon U–Pb geochronological, zircon Hf isotopic, whole-rock [...] Read more.

The Late Cretaceous to Paleocene magmatic evolution along the southern margin of the Lhasa Terrane records a critical transition from oceanic subduction to continental collision, yet its western segment remains underexplored. This study presents integrated petrographic, zircon U–Pb geochronological, zircon Hf isotopic, whole-rock geochemical, and Sr–Nd isotopic data for three distinct phases of intermediate to felsic intrusions from the Qiuwo area in the western segment of the southern Lhasa terrane. The results reveal three distinct magmatic pulses: an early granodiorite emplaced at 89.9 ± 0.75 Ma, followed by a diorite crystallizing at 68.6 ± 0.56 Ma, and a late-stage granodiorite forming at 56.75 ± 0.43 Ma. All three rock units are metaluminous to weakly peraluminous (A/CNK < 1.1), sodic (Na₂O > 3.2 wt.%), and dominated by amphibole, with zircon saturation temperatures of 737–786 °C, consistent with I-type granitoid affinity. All units are metaluminous (A/CNK = 0.92–1.00), calc-alkaline to high-K calc-alkaline, and enriched in LILE (K, Th, Rb) while depleted in HFSE (Nb, Ta, P, Ti), with moderate ΣREE (81–130 ppm), elevated (La/Yb)_N (9.3–15.8), and negative Eu anomalies (δEu = 0.70–0.89). The early granodiorite is Na-rich (Na₂O/K₂O = 1.6), whereas the Paleocene granodiorite shows elevated K₂O (3.2 wt.%) and reduced Na₂O/K₂O (~1.0), reflecting progressive crustal thickening and increasing magmatic differentiation. Zr and Hf are relatively enriched, and Sr/Y ratios decrease from 39 to 21, consistent with evolving magmatic conditions from deeper crustal melting in the Late Cretaceous to shallower, more evolved sources in the Paleocene. Zircon Hf isotopes reveal consistently positive εHf(t) values (+10.4 to +4.9), indicating derivation from juvenile basaltic lower crust. Sr–Nd isotopic data further demonstrate a systematic evolution: εNd(t) decreases from +2.7 to −0.1, while (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr)_i increases from 0.7044 to 0.7055, reflecting progressive incorporation of ancient crustal components into the magma source from the early Late Cretaceous to the Paleocene. These findings indicate that the Qiuwo intrusions formed by partial melting of a juvenile basaltic lower crust, with increasing crustal contamination during ascent and emplacement. The temporal progression of magmatism—spanning the waning stages of Neo-Tethyan subduction to the initial India–Eurasia collision (~55 Ma)—supports a model in which slab breakoff and lithospheric delamination triggered decompression melting of the lower crust, while assimilation of older crustal materials intensified as the continental collision progressed. This work provides key geochemical evidence for the transition from arc to post-collisional magmatism in the western Gangdese belt and refines the timing and mechanism of crustal growth in southern Tibet. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Geochemistry and Geochronology)

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23 pages, 7284 KB

Open AccessArticle

Hydration Capacity and Mechanical Properties of Cement Paste Backfill for Metal Mines on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau

by Chi Zhang, Pengjin Liu, Jie Wang, Xiaofei Qiao, Weidong Song, Wenhao Xia, Jianxin Fu and Jie Liu

Minerals 2026, 16(1), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16010062 - 7 Jan 2026

Abstract

The curing temperature is one of the key factors determining the strength of cement paste backfill (CPB). This study investigates the effects of low curing temperatures (5, 10, 15, and 20 °C) on the hydration performance and hydration products of CPB and analyzes [...] Read more.

The curing temperature is one of the key factors determining the strength of cement paste backfill (CPB). This study investigates the effects of low curing temperatures (5, 10, 15, and 20 °C) on the hydration performance and hydration products of CPB and analyzes their impact on the macroscopic mechanical properties. The experimental results show that when the curing temperature of CPB is low, the reaction activity of cement clinkers such as C₂S and C₃S decreases, and the number of cement particles participating in the hydration reaction resulting in a reduced quantity of hydration products in CPB. At the same time, low-temperature inhibits the polymerization and connection of silicate chains, and short silicate chains remain stable under low temperature conditions, resulting in a decrease in the polymerization degree of CPB. As the curing temperature increases, CPB gradually transitions to brittle behavior, and the cohesion of CPB shows a linear increase trend, while the internal friction angle shows an exponential increase trend. When the curing temperature is low, there are often one or several cracks around the tailing particles, and these weak bonding surfaces lead to a decrease in the strength of CPB. The results of this study will contribute to a better understanding of the hydration behavior of CPB in low curing temperatures. Full article

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41 pages, 3025 KB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrogeochemical Characteristics and Genetic Mechanism of the Shiqian Hot Spring Group in Southwestern China: A Study Based on Water–Rock Interaction

by Jianlong Zhou, Jianyou Chen, Yupei Hao, Zhengshan Chen, Mingzhong Zhou, Chao Li, Pengchi Yang and Yu Ao

Minerals 2026, 16(1), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16010061 - 7 Jan 2026

Abstract

Shiqian County, located within a key geothermal fluids belt in Guizhou Province, China, has abundant underground hot water resources. Therefore, elucidating the hydrogeochemical characteristics and formation mechanisms of thermal mineral water in this area is essential for evaluating and sustainably utilizing regional geothermal [...] Read more.

Shiqian County, located within a key geothermal fluids belt in Guizhou Province, China, has abundant underground hot water resources. Therefore, elucidating the hydrogeochemical characteristics and formation mechanisms of thermal mineral water in this area is essential for evaluating and sustainably utilizing regional geothermal fluids. This study focuses on the Shiqian Hot Spring Group and employs integrated analytical techniques, including rock geochemistry, hydrogeochemistry, isotope hydrology, digital elevation model (DEM) data analysis, remote sensing interpretation, geological surveys, mineral saturation index calculations, and PHREEQC-based inverse hydrogeochemical modeling, to elucidate its hydrogeochemical characteristics and formation mechanisms. The results show that strontium concentrations range from 0.06 to 7.17 mg/L (average 1.65 mg/L) and metasilicic acid concentrations range from 19.46 to 65.51 mg/L (average 33.64 mg/L). Most samples meet the national standards for natural mineral water and are classified as Sr-metasilicic acid type. Isotope analysis indicates that the geothermal water is recharged by meteoric precipitation at elevations between 911 m and 1833 m, mainly from carbonate outcrops and fracture zones on the southwestern slope of Fanjingshan, and discharges south of Shiqian County. The dominant hydrochemical types are HCO₃·SO₄-Ca·Mg and HCO₃-Ca·Mg. Strontium is primarily derived from carbonate rocks and celestite-bearing evaporites, whereas metasilicic acid mainly originates from quartz dissolution along the upstream groundwater flow path. PHREEQC-based inverse modeling indicates that, during localized thermal mineral water runoff in the middle-lower reaches or discharge areas, calcite dissolves while dolomite and quartz tend to precipitate, reflecting calcite dissolution-dominated water–rock interactions and near-saturation conditions for some minerals at late runoff stages. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges of Groundwater Quality Degradation in the Past Decades: Clues from Water–Minerals Interaction, 2nd Edition)

44 pages, 4289 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Stochastic Model Approach for Modeling SAG Mill Production and Power Through Bayesian Networks: A Case Study of the Chilean Copper Mining Industry

by Manuel Saldana, Edelmira Gálvez, Mauricio Sales-Cruz, Eleazar Salinas-Rodríguez, Jonathan Castillo, Alessandro Navarra, Norman Toro, Dayana Arias and Luis A. Cisternas

Minerals 2026, 16(1), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16010060 - 6 Jan 2026

Abstract

Semi-autogenous (SAG) milling represents one of the most energy-intensive and variable stages of copper mineral processing. Traditional deterministic models often fail to capture the nonlinear dependencies and uncertainty inherent in industrial operations such as granulometry, solids percentage in the feeding or hardness. This [...] Read more.

Semi-autogenous (SAG) milling represents one of the most energy-intensive and variable stages of copper mineral processing. Traditional deterministic models often fail to capture the nonlinear dependencies and uncertainty inherent in industrial operations such as granulometry, solids percentage in the feeding or hardness. This work develops and validates a stochastic model based on Discrete Bayesian networks (BNs) to represent the causal relationships governing SAG Production and SAG Power under uncertainty or partial knowledge of explanatory variables. Discretization is adopted for methodological reasons as well as for operational relevance, since SAG plant decisions are typically made using threshold-based categories. Using operational data from a Chilean mining operation, the model fitted integrates expert-guided structure learning (Hill-Climbing with BDeu/BIC scores) and Bayesian parameter estimation with Dirichlet priors. Although validation indicators show high predictive performance (R² ≈ 0.85—0.90, RMSE < 0.5 bin, and micro-AUC ≈ 0.98), the primary purpose of the BN is not exact regression but explainable causal inference and probabilistic scenario evaluation. Sensitivity analysis identified water feed and solids percentage as key drivers of throughput (SAG Production), while rotational speed and pressure governed SAG Power behavior. The BN framework effectively balances accuracy and interpretability, offering an explainable probabilistic representation of SAG dynamics. These results demonstrate the potential of stochastic modeling to enhance process control and support uncertainty-aware decision making. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Machine Learning in Mining, Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy)

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6 pages, 170 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Editorial for the Special Issue “Advances in the Theory and Technology of Physical Separation”

by Dongfang Lu and Mehdi Safari

Minerals 2026, 16(1), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16010059 - 6 Jan 2026

Abstract

With the continuous consumption of mineral resources, ore grades worldwide are declining, and their increasingly fine-grained, low-grade, mineralogically complex, and highly heterogeneous characteristics have led to a marked rise in the energy consumption and processing costs of mineral separation [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Theory and Technology of Physical Separation)

22 pages, 6138 KB

Open AccessArticle

Extraction of NW-Trending, Ore-Conducting Basement Hidden Faults in Manganese Ore Concentration Area Based on Multi-Source Data in Northeastern Guizhou, China

by Kai Xu, Chonglong Wu, Sui Zhang, Xiaogang Ma, Bingnan Yang and Chunfang Kong

Minerals 2026, 16(1), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16010058 - 6 Jan 2026

Abstract

The Datangpo-type Mn ore deposits in northeastern Guizhou (southern China) are a relatively newly discovered type of sedimentary exhalative manganese ore deposit. Previous three-dimensional geological modeling has revealed an NW-trending trough-like depression that obliquely intersects the ENE-trending Nanhua Rift within the Nanhua System [...] Read more.

The Datangpo-type Mn ore deposits in northeastern Guizhou (southern China) are a relatively newly discovered type of sedimentary exhalative manganese ore deposit. Previous three-dimensional geological modeling has revealed an NW-trending trough-like depression that obliquely intersects the ENE-trending Nanhua Rift within the Nanhua System in this area. This depression likely represents a paleorift that was present before the metallogenetic period; its intersection with the Nanhua Rift corresponds precisely with the area in which a series of super-large and large new-type Mn ore deposits are located. Here, we used remote sensing image processing techniques, along with hierarchical spatial data fusion and mining methods adopted for exploration, to investigate this paleorift. Specifically, Bouguer gravity data were used to obtain middle–lower-crust structural information; aeromagnetic ΔT data were used to obtain middle–upper-crust structural information; and remote sensing and outcrop data coupled with regional geological survey, mineral exploration, and geochemical exploration data were used to obtain near-surface structural information. Combining these data, we determined the control that different deep tectonic frameworks exert on the formation and distribution of Mn ore deposits within the study area. This study proposes a new conceptual method and technical protocol permitting an improved understanding of the material source and mineralization pattern of Mn ore deposits within the study area, while verifying the existence of the NW-trending Tongren Paleorift. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Exploration Methods and Applications)

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18 pages, 13299 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sedimentary Processes and Source-to-Sink System of the Zhuhai Formation in the Southern Steep Slope Zone of the Zhu III Depression Offshore SE China

by Ming Li, Yong Man, Li Wang, Yue Chen, Shouli Xu, Jianxin Zhang and Daojun Zhang

Minerals 2026, 16(1), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16010057 - 6 Jan 2026

Abstract

The Pearl River Mouth Basin is a significant hydrocarbon basin in the northern part of the South China Sea, where deep hydrocarbon exploration has become increasingly important research in recent years. However, the current understanding of the source-to-sink and depositional systems of the [...] Read more.

The Pearl River Mouth Basin is a significant hydrocarbon basin in the northern part of the South China Sea, where deep hydrocarbon exploration has become increasingly important research in recent years. However, the current understanding of the source-to-sink and depositional systems of the Paleogene Zhuhai Formation is still limited, which restricts the exploration and discovery of large-scale sand bodies. Based on core observation, heavy mineral analysis, and well-seismic integrated analysis, this paper clarifies the development of a fan delta-tidal flat depositional and the source-to-sink systems of the Zhuhai Formation. The bedrock in the source region primarily consists of granite, Mesozoic sandstone, and tuff. The source region is divided into five parts (A1–A5), with seven main valleys (V1–V7) developed, supplying sediments to five depositional areas (S1–S5). Additionally, a fault-slope type coupled valley–fan depositional model is established for the study area, revealing the spatiotemporal distribution and main controlling factors of the fan delta system in a steeply dipping boundary fault environment. Catchment area, valley length, and cross-sectional area show a strong positive correlation with sedimentary system scale. Increased elevation difference enhances sediment transport potential energy, while reduced width-to-depth ratio strengthens hydrodynamic forces, promoting sedimentary sand body development and sedimentary system expansion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deep-Time Source-to-Sink in Continental Basins)

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30 pages, 1648 KB

Open AccessReview

From Omics to Applications: How Bioinformatics and Multi-Omics Approaches Are Revolutionizing Metal Bioleaching

by Rosina Nkuna, Nikwando Mohlomi and Tonderayi S. Matambo

Minerals 2026, 16(1), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16010056 - 5 Jan 2026

Abstract

The integration of multi-omics approaches is changing microbial biotechnology towards greater environmental sustainability. This review aims to critically evaluate the application of integrative multi-omics and bioinformatics approaches to elucidate the microbial mechanisms underlying bioleaching, with a particular emphasis on key chemolithoautotrophic bacteria and [...] Read more.

The integration of multi-omics approaches is changing microbial biotechnology towards greater environmental sustainability. This review aims to critically evaluate the application of integrative multi-omics and bioinformatics approaches to elucidate the microbial mechanisms underlying bioleaching, with a particular emphasis on key chemolithoautotrophic bacteria and filamentous fungi. Scientists can now reveal and understand the complex molecular mechanisms that allow microbes to survive in extreme environments that are rich in metal through the integration of genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics. This review shows how the use of multi-omics approaches reveals the interconnected stress responses in important bioleaching bacteria, such as Acidithiobacillus, and fungi like Trichoderma, establishing a connection between genes and their functions. This comprehensive understanding is achieved through the application of advanced computational technologies. Moreover, this review assesses the bioinformatics pipelines, from genome assembly to differential expression analysis, using tools such as DESeq2, while highlighting how machine learning and metabolic modelling can be used to predict interactions and enhance consortia for practical applications in bioleaching. Challenges such as data complexity and expenses exist; however, the field is on the verge of significant advancements. Emerging technologies, especially single-cell omics and CRISPR-based modifications, offer unmatched accuracy in modifying microbial systems. Ultimately, the combination of advanced omics with complex bioinformatics creates a strong foundation for developing next-generation, high-efficiency microbial strategies for environmental metal recovery from waste. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioleaching of Metals: Current Applications and Future Directions)

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16 pages, 7382 KB

Open AccessArticle

Divergent Responses of Inorganic and Organic Carbon Sinks to Climate Change over the Recent Decades in Lake Yamzhog Yumco, Tibetan Plateau

by Han Zhou, He Chang, Ping Pan, Wu Han, Yinxian Song, Weiwei Sun, Ruyan Li, Jibang Chen, Shuai Li and Xianqiang Meng

Minerals 2026, 16(1), 55; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16010055 - 2 Jan 2026

Abstract

Lake sediments on the Tibetan Plateau serve as crucial carbon sinks in the regional carbon cycles. In recent decades, climate change has triggered significant hydrological changes in many lakes across this region, potentially impacting their carbon-sink functions. Previous studies have predominantly focused on [...] Read more.

Lake sediments on the Tibetan Plateau serve as crucial carbon sinks in the regional carbon cycles. In recent decades, climate change has triggered significant hydrological changes in many lakes across this region, potentially impacting their carbon-sink functions. Previous studies have predominantly focused on the dynamics of organic carbon burial, largely overlooking the contribution of inorganic carbon sinks, and particularly lacking systematic investigation into the carbon burial processes in lakes experiencing water level decline. Therefore, this study examines a sediment core from Lake Yamzhog Yumco, a lake in the southern Tibetan Plateau with a gradually declining water level. The mineralogical and geochemical analyses of both lake and catchment sediments show that the inorganic carbon (carbonates are dominated by aragonite) and organic carbon are primarily authigenic origin. Over the past four decades, the inorganic carbon burial rate (ICBR) in Lake Yamzhog Yumco has been primarily controlled by water level fluctuations and is closely related to hydrochemical processes regulated by regional climate change. In contrast, the increase in the organic carbon burial rate (OCBR) has been co-influenced by both water level changes and regional temperature. During this period, the ICBR reached as high as 186 g m⁻² yr⁻¹, approximately five times the OCBR. This demonstrates that in lakes in semi-arid regions, the sink potential of inorganic carbon significantly exceeds that of organic carbon, highlighting the necessity of incorporating inorganic carbon burial into carbon-sink assessments. This study provides novel perspectives for a deeper understanding of the driving mechanisms behind carbon burial in Tibetan Plateau lakes and offers a scientific basis for accurately assessing and predicting regional carbon-sink potential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Mineral-Based Carbon Capture and Storage)

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19 pages, 6434 KB

Open AccessArticle

Age and Origin of Mafic Dykes in the Mianhuakeng Uranium Deposit, South China: Tectonic and Metallogenic Implications

by Jing Lai, Fujun Zhong, Liang Qiu, Gongjian Li, Wenquan Liu, Haiyang Wang and Fei Xia

Minerals 2026, 16(1), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16010054 - 1 Jan 2026

Abstract

The Mianhuakeng deposit, located within the Zhuguangshan batholith in the Nanling area, is currently recognized as the largest granite-related uranium deposit in China. A portion of the uranium ore bodies is spatially associated with NE-trending mafic veins within the granite. In this study, [...] Read more.

The Mianhuakeng deposit, located within the Zhuguangshan batholith in the Nanling area, is currently recognized as the largest granite-related uranium deposit in China. A portion of the uranium ore bodies is spatially associated with NE-trending mafic veins within the granite. In this study, the field investigation, zircon U-Pb dating, S and Pb isotope analysis, and whole-rock geochemical analysis were conducted on these mafic veins to explore their crystallization age, petrogenesis, tectonic setting, and relationships with uranium mineralization. The weighted mean result of zircon U-Pb is 189 ± 3 Ma, suggesting that the mafic dyke was crystallized during the Early Jurassic. The whole-rock geochemistry and isotopes exhibit characteristics of intraplate basalts, suggesting that the mafic dykes originate from an enriched mantle source consisting of garnet–spinel lherzolite, with an estimated partial melting of 1%–5%. Mafic magmas underwent low-degree contamination from the lower crust during upwelling, induced by the extension of the lithosphere during the Early Jurassic. The analyses of pyrite sulfur isotopes in mafic samples vary between −2.9‰ and 1.8‰, significantly different from that of pyrite (−14.4‰ to −7.8‰) formed during the uranium mineralization. Furthermore, the ages of the pitchblende of 127–54 Ma are much younger than the crystallization ages of mafic dykes, indicating that the mafic magmas did not contribute to the uranium mineralization of Mianhuakeng deposit during magmatism. However, the abundant reducing minerals (e.g., pyrite, hornblende, and Fe²⁺-bearing minerals) in the mafic dykes can act as a redox barrier, reducing mobile U⁶⁺ to immobile U⁴⁺ during fluid–rock interaction, thereby facilitating uranium precipitation from the hydrothermal ore-forming fluids. The secondary fractures created by the intrusion of mafic magma probably provided favorable pathways for the movement of hydrothermal fluids. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Deposits)

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16 pages, 5349 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bauxite Identification and Grade Prediction from Well Logs Using XGBoost: A Case Study from Shanxi Province, China

by Shangqing Zhang, Jingwen Xue, Yanhai Liu, Junwei Lin, Jihua Zhou, Jun Zhao, Yingbo Zhang, Jiyuan Li and Fenghua Zhao

Minerals 2026, 16(1), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16010053 - 31 Dec 2025

Abstract

The foundation of successful mineral exploration is precise bauxite horizon demarcation and grade estimation. Although core analysis is the industry standard method, it is costly, labor-intensive, and has a relatively low processing capacity. To overcome these limitations, this study constructed an Extreme Gradient [...] Read more.

The foundation of successful mineral exploration is precise bauxite horizon demarcation and grade estimation. Although core analysis is the industry standard method, it is costly, labor-intensive, and has a relatively low processing capacity. To overcome these limitations, this study constructed an Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) classifier based on the logging parameters of natural gamma logging (GR), natural gamma spectroscopy logging (GGL), three-lateral logging (LL3), and compensated density logging (CDN) in order to achieve the automation of ore layer identification and grade prediction. The karst-type bauxite in Lvliang, Shanxi, was used to validate the research. The model was trained using the data from four wells in Shenjiazhuang. The trained model was directly applied to a blind well in Xingxian without parameter adjustment. Strong cross-site generalization was demonstrated by horizon recognition, which achieved 98.18% accuracy, 96.62% precision, 91.49% recall, and an F1 score of 93.99%. Based on the Al/Si ratio (A/S) and the content of Al₂O₃, the grade prediction classifies the samples into three grades: high-, medium-, and low-grade. The Mean Absolute Errors (MAEs) for the prediction of high- and medium-grade subsets of Al₂O₃ were 0.906 and 1.643, respectively, and those for A/S were 1.224 and 1.146, respectively. And the coefficient of determination (R²) for each grade level was greater than 0.8. These results support XGBoost’s field applicability and resilience for intelligent bauxite exploration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Exploration Methods and Applications)

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17 pages, 3147 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Approach for Ceramic Ball Media Formulation in Wet Ball Mills

by Yuqing Li, Ningning Liao, Caibin Wu, Jiemei Ye, Yue Cheng, Ruien Tao, Yongfei Ning and Yiwei Cheng

Minerals 2026, 16(1), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16010052 - 31 Dec 2025

Abstract

Ceramic balls, as an emerging grinding medium, require a systematic method for optimizing their size distribution in wet ball mills. This study proposes an innovative approach that integrates Duan’s semi-theoretical ball diameter formula with breakage statistical mechanics to determine the optimal ceramic ball [...] Read more.

Ceramic balls, as an emerging grinding medium, require a systematic method for optimizing their size distribution in wet ball mills. This study proposes an innovative approach that integrates Duan’s semi-theoretical ball diameter formula with breakage statistical mechanics to determine the optimal ceramic ball size distribution. The ideal ball diameters for grinding 2.36–3.0 mm, 1.18–2.36 mm, 0.60–1.18 mm, and 0.30–0.60 mm tungsten ore were identified as 55 mm, 50 mm, 35 mm, and 20 mm, respectively. Subsequently, the optimal ball size distribution was formulated as CB3: Ø55 mm:Ø50 mm:Ø35 mm:Ø20 mm = 30%:40%:20%:10%. Comparative sieve analysis and discrete element method (DEM) simulations confirmed that the CB3 distribution yields the highest proportion of qualified particles, the most favorable collision frequency, and the greatest kinetic energy among all tested configurations. The proposed method demonstrates both accuracy and practicality, providing a theoretical foundation for the industrial application of ceramic ball grinding systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Advances in Comminution: From Crushing to Grinding Optimization)

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37 pages, 4734 KB

Open AccessReview

Leaching of Rhenium from Secondary Resources: A Review of Advances, Challenges, and Process Optimisation

by Ignacio Castillo, Mauricio Mura, Edelmira Gálvez, Felipe M. Galleguillos-Madrid, Eleazar Salinas-Rodríguez, Jonathan Castillo, Williams Leiva, Alvaro Soliz, Sandra Gallegos and Norman Toro

Minerals 2026, 16(1), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16010051 - 31 Dec 2025

Abstract

Rhenium is one of the rarest and most strategically important metals, indispensable in high-temperature superalloys and platinum–rhenium catalysts used across the aerospace and petrochemical industries. Owing to its limited primary reserves, recovering rhenium from secondary sources, such as spent catalysts, superalloy residues, and [...] Read more.

Rhenium is one of the rarest and most strategically important metals, indispensable in high-temperature superalloys and platinum–rhenium catalysts used across the aerospace and petrochemical industries. Owing to its limited primary reserves, recovering rhenium from secondary sources, such as spent catalysts, superalloy residues, and metallurgical dusts, has become vital to ensuring supply security. This review examines technological developments between 1998 and 2025, focusing on how operational parameters, including temperature, leaching time, reagent concentration, and solid-to-liquid ratio, govern dissolution kinetics and overall process efficiency. Comparative evaluation of hydrometallurgical, alkaline, and hybrid processes indicates that modern systems can achieve recovery rates exceeding 98% through selective oxidation, alkaline activation, or combined pyro and hydrometallurgical mechanisms. Acid–chlorine leaching facilitates rapid, low-temperature dissolution; alkaline sintering stabilises rhenium as soluble perrhenates; and hybrid smelting routes enable the concurrent separation of rhenium and osmium. Sustainable aqueous systems employing nitric and ammonium media have also demonstrated near-complete recovery at ambient temperature under closed-loop recycling conditions. Collectively, these findings highlight a technological transition from energy-intensive, acid-based pathways towards low-impact, recyclable, and digitally optimised hydrometallurgical processes. The integration of selective oxidants, phase engineering, circular reagent management, and artificial intelligence-assisted modelling is defining the next generation of rhenium recovery, combining high extraction yields with reduced environmental impact and alignment with global sustainability goals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations in Hydrometallurgy: Traditional and Emerging Approaches for Sustainable Metal Recovery)

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21 pages, 3774 KB

Open AccessArticle

Gold Deposit Ontology Guides Large Language Model to Transform Text into Knowledge Graphs for Gold Deposits

by Jinhao Zhu, Yueying Wang, Wanying Tong, Shengmiao Li, Mingguo Wang and Chengbin Wang

Minerals 2026, 16(1), 50; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16010050 - 31 Dec 2025

Abstract

The rise of artificial intelligence has led to the emergence of geoscience knowledge graphs (GeoKG) as effective tools for organizing and representing complex knowledge. The growing complexity of geoscience data calls for innovative strategies for structuring and interpreting extensive information. Conventional knowledge extraction [...] Read more.

The rise of artificial intelligence has led to the emergence of geoscience knowledge graphs (GeoKG) as effective tools for organizing and representing complex knowledge. The growing complexity of geoscience data calls for innovative strategies for structuring and interpreting extensive information. Conventional knowledge extraction methods often rely on manual annotation and deep learning techniques, which can be costly and inefficient. Herein, we leverage a large language model (LLM) to address the challenges of knowledge extraction and fusion in creating a knowledge graph focused on gold deposits. First, we developed an ontology explicitly designed for gold deposits, drawing on insights from geological experts. Next, we formulate a prompt to guide the LLM to accurately extract geological entities and their semantic relationships in accordance with the knowledge graph schema. Subsequently, we conducted geological entity alignment and integration to construct the gold deposit knowledge graph, which encompasses over 3738 entities and 3900 semantic relationships. Finally, we identified an optimal configuration balancing F1-score and computational cost through comparative experiments on locally deployed models with varying parameters. Our findings demonstrate that an LLM can effectively capture long-range contextual relationships to identify geological entities and their semantic connections, demonstrating strong performance in handling diverse expressions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Exploration and Assessment of Mineral Resources: Theories, Methods and Achievements, 2nd Edition)

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14 pages, 5337 KB

Open AccessArticle

Geochemical Anomaly Detection via Supervised Learning: Insights from Interpretable Techniques for a Case Study in Pangxidong Area, South China

by Qing Chen, Shuai Zhang and Yongzhang Zhou

Minerals 2026, 16(1), 49; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16010049 - 31 Dec 2025

Abstract

Machine learning (ML) algorithms are widely applied across various fields due to their ability to extract high-level features from large training datasets. However, their use in geochemical prospecting and mineral exploration remains limited because mineralization—a rare geological event—often results in insufficient training samples [...] Read more.

Machine learning (ML) algorithms are widely applied across various fields due to their ability to extract high-level features from large training datasets. However, their use in geochemical prospecting and mineral exploration remains limited because mineralization—a rare geological event—often results in insufficient training samples for supervised ML. Generating adequate training data is thus essential for applying supervised ML in this domain. In this study, we augmented training samples by utilizing adjacent samples centered around known mineral deposits and then employed random forest (RF) modeling to identify multivariate geochemical anomalies associated with mineralization. To evaluate the robustness of data augmentation and gain insights into the geochemical survey data, we applied interpretable ML techniques—feature importance and partial dependence plots (PDPs)—to clarify the data processing within mineral prospectivity mapping. The proposed methodology was tested in the Pangxidong Area, South China. The identified geochemical anomalies show strong spatial correlation with known mineral deposits, while feature importance rankings and PDPs validate the effectiveness of the proposed methodology. This practice enhances the applicability of supervised ML in geochemical prospecting and mineral exploration as well as the application of interpretable techniques for understanding data processing of multi-geoinformation. Full article

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31 pages, 30685 KB

Open AccessArticle

Orbital-Scale Climate Control on Facies Architecture and Reservoir Heterogeneity: Evidence from the Eocene Fourth Member of the Shahejie Formation, Bonan Depression, China

by Shahab Aman e Room, Liqiang Zhang, Yiming Yan, Waqar Ahmad, Paulo Joaquim Nota and Aamir Khan

Minerals 2026, 16(1), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16010048 - 31 Dec 2025

Abstract

The Eocene fourth member of the Shahejie formation (Es4x) in the Bonan Depression, Bohai Bay Basin, records syn-rift sedimentation under alternating arid and humid climates. It provides insight into how orbital-scale climatic fluctuations influenced tectonics, facies patterns, and reservoir distribution. This study integrates [...] Read more.

The Eocene fourth member of the Shahejie formation (Es4x) in the Bonan Depression, Bohai Bay Basin, records syn-rift sedimentation under alternating arid and humid climates. It provides insight into how orbital-scale climatic fluctuations influenced tectonics, facies patterns, and reservoir distribution. This study integrates 406 m of core data, 92 thin sections, 450 km² of 3D seismic data, and multiple geochemical proxies, leading to the recognition of five facies associations (LFA): (1) alluvial fans, (2) braided rivers, (3) floodplain mudstones, (4) fan deltas, and (5) saline lacustrine evaporites. Three major depositional cycles are defined within the Es4x. Seismic reflections, well-log patterns, and thickness trends suggest that these cycles represent fourth-order lake-level fluctuations (0.8–1.1 Myr) rather than short 21-kyr precession rhythms. This implies long-term climate and tectonic modulation, likely linked to eccentricity-scale monsoon variability. Hyperarid phases are marked by Sr/Ba > 4, δ¹⁸O > +4‰, and thick evaporite accumulations. In contrast, Sr/Ba < 1 and δ¹⁸O < −8‰ reflect humid conditions with larger lakes and enhanced fluvial input. During wet periods, rivers produced sand bodies nearly 40 times thicker than in dry intervals. Reservoir quality is highest in braided-river sandstones (LFA 2) with 12%–19% porosity, preserved by chlorite coatings that limit quartz cement. Fan-delta sands (LFA 4) have <8% porosity due to calcite cementation, though fractures (10–50 mm) improve permeability. Floodplain mudstones (LFA 3) and evaporites (LFA 5) act as seals. This work presents a predictive depositional and reservoir model for arid–humid rift systems and highlights braided-river targets as promising exploration zones in climate-sensitive basins worldwide. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Geochemistry and Geochronology)

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20 pages, 11894 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Biomass-Derived Reductant for Nitric Acid Dissolution of Manganiferous Iron Ore: Comparative Assessment of Organic Reductants

by Soner Top, Mahmut Altiner, Huseyin Vapur, Sait Kursunoglu and Srecko Stopic

Minerals 2026, 16(1), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16010047 - 31 Dec 2025

Abstract

This study investigates the selective dissolution of manganese from a manganiferous iron ore using nitric acid (HNO₃) in the presence of various organic reductants. A series of leaching experiments was performed to evaluate the effects of temperature, reductant type, and leaching [...] Read more.

This study investigates the selective dissolution of manganese from a manganiferous iron ore using nitric acid (HNO₃) in the presence of various organic reductants. A series of leaching experiments was performed to evaluate the effects of temperature, reductant type, and leaching time on Mn recovery, with particular emphasis on biomass (horse dung) and tartaric acid as novel reducing agents. The dissolution behaviour of Fe, Mn, Mg, Ca, and Al was systematically examined, revealing that Mn extraction was strongly enhanced in the presence of reductants, while Fe dissolution remained below 10% under all conditions. The maximum Mn dissolution exceeded 90% at 90 °C using biomass and reached nearly 85%–90% with tartaric acid at elevated temperatures. Kinetic studies were conducted by applying reaction order models and the shrinking core model. The results indicated that Mn dissolution in HNO₃ medium is predominantly controlled by surface chemical reaction, with Arrhenius analysis yielding activation energies of 27.74 kJ/mol for biomass and 21.26 kJ/mol for tartaric acid. These relatively low values confirm the efficiency of organic reductants in facilitating Mn reduction and dissolution. To sum up, comparison of reductant efficiency revealed that, at the lowest concentrations, the dissolution of Mn followed the sequence glucose > sucrose > oxalic acid > tartaric acid > maleic acid > biomass > citric acid > acetic acid. At the highest concentrations, the trend shifted, with citric acid emerging as the most effective, followed by tartaric acid > oxalic acid > glucose > sucrose > maleic acid > biomass > acetic acid. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations in Hydrometallurgy: Traditional and Emerging Approaches for Sustainable Metal Recovery)

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17 pages, 2498 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Modified Ceramic Waste Incorporating Nanosilica Addition for Concrete Utilization

by Nevin Karamahmut Mermer

Minerals 2026, 16(1), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16010046 - 31 Dec 2025

Abstract

The construction sector is progressively prioritizing environmental norms owing to its substantial role in carbon emissions from clinker manufacture. Industrial waste materials are increasingly used as alternative constituents in cement-based systems, garnering interest as a sustainable strategy. Ceramic waste powder (CWP), produced in [...] Read more.

The construction sector is progressively prioritizing environmental norms owing to its substantial role in carbon emissions from clinker manufacture. Industrial waste materials are increasingly used as alternative constituents in cement-based systems, garnering interest as a sustainable strategy. Ceramic waste powder (CWP), produced in substantial quantities with enduring properties, offers a viable alternative. Nonetheless, its elevated water absorption presents issues, requiring modification procedures such as hydrophobization and the use of nanosilica to enhance performance. This study assessed CWP in both raw and modified forms (ground and hydrophobized) as a partial aggregate replacement in concrete. A silane-derived chemical was employed for hydrophobization, with varying amounts of nanosilica. Recent mortar testing encompassed setting time, flow, and density. Durability was evaluated using capillary water absorption, and flexural and compressive strengths were quantified at 2, 7, and 28 days. Mineralogical and microstructural investigations were conducted utilizing XRD and FTIR to monitor hydration phases and reaction processes. Results indicated that unmodified CWP containing up to 1% (wt) nanosilica enhanced mechanical strength; however, elevated nanosilica concentrations diminished early strength. Hydrophobized CWP samples demonstrated improved early strength with nanosilica levels up to 0.5% (wt), but strength diminished at elevated concentrations. Microstructural analysis confirmed reduced portlandite levels and increased C–S–H production, thereby validating the progress of hydration. The regulated and altered application of CWP with nanosilica can improve mechanical performance and durability while promoting ecological sustainability in cement-based systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue From Clay Minerals to Ceramics: Progress and Challenges)

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21 pages, 3734 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of the Flotation Effect of 2-(Octylthio)Aniline Collector Compared with Xanthate During the Flotation of Several Sulfide Ores

by Jia Zhao, Labone L. Godirilwe, Kazutoshi Haga, Manabu Yamada, Seunggwan Hong and Atsushi Shibayama

Minerals 2026, 16(1), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16010045 - 31 Dec 2025

Abstract

The flotation effect of the new collector, 2-octylthio(aniline) (2-OA), on two types of sulfide ores under various conditions was investigated and compared with that of the conventional collector, potassium amyl xanthate (PAX). Collector 2-OA showed better floatability in copper sulfide ore flotation, and [...] Read more.

The flotation effect of the new collector, 2-octylthio(aniline) (2-OA), on two types of sulfide ores under various conditions was investigated and compared with that of the conventional collector, potassium amyl xanthate (PAX). Collector 2-OA showed better floatability in copper sulfide ore flotation, and the copper grade could be enriched up to 1.5 times the original ore during the secondary flotation of copper sulfide ore. Compared to PAX, 2-OA demonstrated a stronger ability to collect copper than iron. Furthermore, in the flotation of gold sulfide ore, a 13% higher gold recovery was achieved with 2-OA than with PAX. Surface chemical analysis showed that 2-OA altered the surface charge of minerals and formed Cu–S and Cu–N bonds on the chalcopyrite surface. The adsorption capacity of 2-OA exceeded that of PAX, thereby enhancing the flotation effect. Overall, 2-OA exhibits better flotation performance and potentially serves as an efficient collector for sulfide ore flotation. Full article

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