Environments — Open Access Journal

Continual increases in the human population and growing concerns related to the energy crisis, food security, disease outbreaks, global warming, and other environmental issues require a sustainable solution from nature. One of the promising resources is cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae. They require simple ingredients to grow and possess a relatively simple genome. Cyanobacteria are known to produce a wide variety of bioactive compounds. In addition, cyanobacteria’s remarkable growth rate enables its potential use in a wide range of applications in the fields of bioenergy, biotechnology, natural products, medicine, agriculture, and the environment. In this review, we have summarized the potential applications of cyanobacteria in different areas of science and development, especially related to their use in producing biofuels and other valuable co-products. We have also discussed the challenges that hinder such development at an industrial level and ways to overcome such obstacles. Full article

Sodium-22 (²²Na, half-life 2.603 years) is a cosmogenic radionuclide mainly produced in the stratosphere by nuclear spallation reactions of cosmic rays on ⁴⁰Ar. Due to the very low concentration levels normally reached in the environment, ²²Na poses no significant radioprotection threats: actually, the effective doses delivered to humans can hardly exceed a few nSv per year, a very negligible value. However, the measurements of this radionuclides can be very interesting for atmospheric circulation and climatic studies. Unfortunately, the difficulty of ²²Na detection, due to its very low concentration levels, has prevented the gathering of large and widespread time series of this radionuclide. In this paper, a method for the retrospective measurements of ²²Na in the atmosphere, starting from the gamma spectra (hyperpure germanium detectors (HPGe) detectors) of wet and dry deposition samples stored in our databases is proposed and validated. The method was applied to spectra samples gathered in the context of the Italian National Radioactivity Monitoring Network (RESORAD) and allowed the detection of the very low atmospheric activity concentration values of ²²Na present at ground level. The results obtained with the new method are discussed and compared for validation with the available experimental values. Finally, some possible applications to environmental studies are also highlighted and suggested. Full article

Sound has the potential to increase biogas yields and enhance wastewater degradation in anaerobic digesters. To assess this potential, two pilot-scale digestion systems were operated, with one exposed to sound at less than 10 kHz and with one acting as a control. Sounds used were sine waves, broadband noise, and orchestral compositions. Weekly biogas production from sound-treated digesters was 18,900 L, more than twice that of the control digester. The sound-treated digesters were primarily exposed to orchestral compositions, because this made cavitational events easier to identify and because harmonic and amplitude shifts in music seem to induce more cavitation. Background recordings from the sound-treated digester were louder and had more cavitational events than those of the control digester, which we ascribe to enhanced microbial growth and the resulting accelerated sludge breakdown. Acoustic cavitation, vibrational energy imparted to wastewater and sludge, and mixing due to a release of bubbles from the sludge may all act in concert to accelerate wastewater degradation and boost biogas production. Full article

Solar ultraviolet radiation may cause acute and chronic health effects on the skin, eyes, and also on the immune system. Actinic keratosis, non-melanoma skin cancers, and malignant melanoma are the main long-term adverse skin effects. In the white population, the most common type of cancer worldwide is skin cancer, and the incidence of this cancer has increased during the last decades. The most important risk factor responsible for this trend seems to be Ultraviolet Radiation (UVR). IARC has classified UVR as being carcinogenic to humans. UV radiation exposure is ubiquitous; to study skin cancer risk, it is important to take into account the fact that UV exposure may occur both for occupational activities but also during vacation or recreational activities. Furthermore, exposure to artificial UVR such as those emitted by artificial devices, classified by IARC as carcinogenic to humans, is also to be considered. Due to the prominent role of UVR, primary prevention of skin cancer is very suitable, because when following specific rules this risk factor can be reduced. The incidence rate of skin cancer is higher in people with fair skin. Outdoor workers exposed to solar UVR are at risk of developing skin cancer, particularly non-melanoma skin cancers, and welders exposed to artificial UVR are at risk of developing ocular melanoma. A specific project on solar UVR risk in outdoor workers in Tuscany, Italy, has shown that outdoor workers had an unsatisfactory sun protection behaviour. The project demonstrates the complexity of studying UVR exposure and recommended the need for prevention programs. Risk increases with increasing ambient solar radiation and with unsafe behaviours in the sun or when using artificial UVR (e.g., sunbeds). Effective prevention strategies have to be adopted both for the outdoor workers and for the general population exposed to UVR. A standardized program of proven efficacy, such as that implemented in Australia, should also be implemented in other countries. All these strategies could contribute to the aim of decreasing the morbidity and mortality of cancers associated with this exposure. The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of UVR exposure risk, particularly occupational risk, and to give some elements to understand the complexity of the relation between UVR exposure and cancer risk, as well as to outline primary prevention measures, focusing also on Italian experiences that could be useful for providing additional elements of knowledge on this topic. Full article

This study investigated the annual and seasonal variations in nutrient loads (NO₂⁻ + NO₃⁻ and orthophosphate) delivered to the Gulf of Mexico from the Mississippi-Atchafalaya River Basin (MARB) and examined the water quality variations. The results indicate that (1) annually, the mean NO₂⁻ + NO₃⁻ and orthophosphate loads showed a steady increase during 1996–1999, a persistent level during 2000–2007, and a moderate increase during 2008–2016; (2) seasonally, NO₂⁻ + NO₃⁻ and orthophosphate in MARB in spring and summer were higher than those in autumn and winter. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) identified highly significant differences among seasonal loads; and (3) the median value of NO₂⁻ + NO₃⁻ in normal weather conditions were higher than that during and right after the hurricanes, while the median value of orthophosphate loads in normal weather conditions was higher than that during the hurricanes, but higher than that right after hurricanes. The two-sample t-test indicates a significant difference (p < 0.046) in orthophosphate loads before and after Hurricane Katrina. Moreover, it is found that there is a significant (p < 0.01) increase in nutrient loads during normal weather conditions. The results indicate that hurricane seasons can significantly influence the nutrient loads from the MARB to the Gulf of Mexico. Full article

Natural radioactivity might be present in fertilizers above ordinary levels, in particular for ⁴⁰K and for the radionuclides of the ²³⁸U series. A modeling evaluation of the individual effective dose deriving from the use of fertilizers in agriculture is presented here. Dose assessment is useful in the transposition of Directive 2013/59/Euratom, which rules the individual exposure to commodities containing radionuclides of natural origin, such as fertilizers. The following input data have been considered for this study: the amount of fertilizers used in the region of Veneto and in Italy; the utilized agricultural area (to estimate the density of spread fertilizers); and, the average values of activity concentrations in fertilizers for ⁴⁰K and ²³⁸U series radionuclides, derived from scientific literature. The individual effective dose was evaluated while using the Resrad calculation model, making assumptions on the characteristics of the interested soil. This study is focused on the region of Veneto, where the use of fertilizers is higher with respect to the rest of Italy, such providing a more conservative estimate of the individual effective dose to the population. The results show that the estimated individual effective dose values do not exceed few µSv per year. The category that most contributes to the dose is that of compound fertilizers and radon and ⁴⁰K are the most significant radionuclides. Full article

The development of experimental nuclear fusion facilities and the systems connected to them currently involves the operation (or advanced design) of some large plants in the national territory. Devices such as neutron generators and plasma focus systems are also included. The machines developed to test the main components of these systems such as neutral beam generators (Neutral Beam Injector) and the experimental plants for thermonuclear fusion, mainly in the Tokamak configuration (toroidal geometry), are in the list. These applications are characterized by high neutron fluxes of high energy (typically 2.5 and 14 MeV from deuterium-deuterium and deuterium-tritium fusion reactions, respectively). They involve the production of radionuclides in the components of the machines and in the fluids used for targets’ cooling and in the primary containments. In many cases, the atmosphere of the rooms containing these structures is activated and may be affected by the dispersion of powders that are more or less radioactive. The present work addresses the issues mentioned so far, taking into consideration the real cases relating to the devices and the facilities in operation, under construction, and in the advanced design phase. The conclusions highlight the critical aspects related to the management of these types of waste, as well as the low or very low environmental impact, from a radiological point of view, of the examined facilities. Full article

In June 2016, with the aim of ensuring a global improvement in the performance of the Italian System of the Environmental Agencies (SNPA) and its homogeneity on the national territory, an intercomparison circuit (IC) was planned and conducted concerning the measurements of electromagnetic fields associated with Long Term Evolution (LTE) mobile communications, which were very recently introduced at that time. The intercomparison circuit, designed and built according to the criteria of ISO 17043, was organized as part of a consolidated collaboration between the Institute for Environmental Protection and Research (ISPRA) and the Piedmont Regional Agency for Environmental Protection (Arpa Piemonte). The results obtained, preceded by a brief description of the entire process of organization and analysis, are the subject of this work. The IC covered in particular: the narrow band measurement procedures used in the field; the choice of decoding, measurement and extrapolation of the synthesis result; the response of the instrumentation, limited to the models in the field. The site chosen by the organizers, primarily characterized through measurements and theoretical evaluation of the field, is the roof of the Lingotto Building in Turin. A total of 27 groups participated in the circuit: 25 SNPA departments (including the organizers Arpa Piemonte and ISPRA) and 2 private labs. All participants provided the results. The outcome of the comparison was decidedly positive: only 2 participants, for whom a joint assessment of possible causes will also be illustrated (according to ISO 5725:2), achieved significantly different results. Full article

Surfactants based on polyfluoroalkyl ethers are commonly used in fire-fighting foams on airport platforms, including for training sessions. Because of their persistence into the environment, their toxicity and their bioaccumulation, abnormal amounts can be found in ground and surface water following the operations of airport platforms. As with many other anthropogenic, organic compounds, some concerns are raised about their biodegradation. That is why the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) 301 F protocol was implemented to monitor the oxygen consumption during the biodegradation of a commercial fire-fighting foam. However, a Raman spectroscopic monitoring of the process was also attached to this experimental procedure to evaluate to what extent a polyfluoroalkyl ether disappeared from the environmental matrix. Our approach relies on the use of chemometrics, such as Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Partial Least Squares (PLS), in order to monitor the kinetics of the biodegradation reaction of one fire-fighting foam, Tridol S3B, containing a polyfluoroalkyl ether. This study provided a better appreciation of the partial biodegradation of some polyfluoroalkyl ethers by coupling Raman spectroscopy and chemometrics. This will ultimately facilitate the design of future purification and remediation devices for airport platforms. Full article

Currently, monitoring of persistent organic pollutant (POP) content in various biological and environmental matrixes in the Arctic is an urgent task. The present study focused on the determination of POPs such as: PCB#28, PCB#52, PCB#101, PCB#105, PCB#118, PCB#123, PCB#153, PCB#128, p,p’-DDE, o,p’-DDE, p,p’-DDD, o,p’-DDD, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), cis-nonachlor, trans-nonachlor, cis-chlordane, trans-chlordane, mirex, 1,2,3,5-tetrachlorobenzene and 1,2,4,5-tetrachlorobenzene in fish consumed by the indigenous people of the Nenets Autonomous Okrug (NAO) of the Russian Arctic. Fish samples were analyzed by gas chromatography triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) using the multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) technique. The obtained results show that the major POPs in fish were dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) breakdown products and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) congeners. The ∑PCB₈ in pink salmon, Arctic char, navaga, humpback whitefish and northern pike were 1.54, 1.58, 1.24, 0.72 and 0.32 ng/g (ww), respectively. The main PCB congeners maximum average medium concentrations were 0.68 ng/g (ww) and 0.51 ng/g (ww) of PCB#153 in navaga and PCB#128 in pink salmon, respectively. The main DDT breakdown product was p,p’-DDE. In Arctic char, pink salmon, navaga, humpback whitefish and northern pike, the concentration of p,p’-DDE was 0.58, 1.61, 0.49, 0.63 and 0.08 ng/g (ww), respectively. A moderate positive relationship between ∑PCB₈ and lipid content and a high positive relationship between ∑DDT and lipid content were observed. In fish samples with fat content <0.5% (northern pike, humpback whitefish), the amount of analyzed POPs was 2 or more times lower than that in fish species with fat content >1% (pink salmon, Arctic char). Despite the large number of fish in the diet of indigenous peoples from NAO, no significant risks were identified. Most legacy POP and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) tend to decrease, which can be explained by past national and regional bans and restriction on their use and emission. Full article

A new form of chronic tubulointerstitial kidney disease (CKD) not related to diabetes or hypertension appeared during the past four decades in several peri-equatorial and predominantly agricultural countries. Commonalities include underground stagnation of drinking water with prolonged contact with rocks, harsh climatic conditions with protracted dry seasons, and rampant poverty and malnutrition. In general, the cause is unknown, and the disease is therefore named CKD of unknown aetiology (CKDu). Since it is likely caused by a combination of factors, a better term would be CKD of multifactorial origin (CKDmfo). Middle-aged malnourished men with more than 10 years of exposure to environmental hazards are the most vulnerable. Over 30 factors have been proposed as causative, including agrochemicals and heavy metals, but none has been properly tested nor proven as causative, and unlikely to be the cause of CKDmfo/CKDu. Conditions such as, having favourable climatic patterns, adequate hydration, and less poverty and malnutrition seem to prevent the disease. With the right in vivo conditions, chemical species such as calcium, phosphate, oxalate, and fluoride form intra-renal nanomineral particles initiating the CKDmfo. This article examines the key potential chemical components causing CKDmfo together with the risk factors and vulnerabilities predisposing individuals to this disease. Research findings suggest that in addition to drinking water from stagnant sources that contain high ionic components, more than 10 years of exposure to environmental nephrotoxins and micronutrient malnutrition are needed to contract this fatal disease. Full article

Review of the existing bibliography shows that the direction and magnitude of the long-term trends of UV irradiance, and their main drivers, vary significantly throughout Europe. Analysis of total ozone and spectral UV data recorded at four European stations during 1996–2017 reveals that long-term changes in UV are mainly driven by changes in aerosols, cloudiness, and surface albedo, while changes in total ozone play a less significant role. The variability of UV irradiance is large throughout Italy due to the complex topography and large latitudinal extension of the country. Analysis of the spectral UV records of the urban site of Rome, and the alpine site of Aosta reveals that differences between the two sites follow the annual cycle of the differences in cloudiness and surface albedo. Comparisons between the noon UV index measured at the ground at the same stations and the corresponding estimates from the Deutscher Wetterdienst (DWD) forecast model and the ozone monitoring instrument (OMI)/Aura observations reveal differences of up to 6 units between individual measurements, which are likely due to the different spatial resolution of the different datasets, and average differences of 0.5–1 unit, possibly related to the use of climatological surface albedo and aerosol optical properties in the retrieval algorithms. Full article

Sea fishing is one of the sectors with the highest risk of illness and work-related accidents. The purpose of the study is to evaluate the exposure of fishing workers to three major risks: biomechanical overload, noise, and whole-body vibrations. We used common methods and measurement tools in the field: observational video analysis, questionnaires, and direct measurement. Noise and vibrations levels were measured aboard five boats belonging to the main fishing communities of Southern Italy. The random sample consisted of 310 workers, of whom 108 agreed to complete a questionnaire to collect data on the perception of occupational risk and self-perception of health conditions. We found that fishermen had a high prevalence of osteoarticular pathologies (42%) and that the biomechanical overload risk is mainly related to handling manual loads. Furthermore, the results indicate that the levels of weekly noise exposure exceed the exposure limit value of 87 decibel A (dBA) for fishing workers, and that the most noisiest area is the engine room. Exposure levels to whole-body vibrations were below <0.5 m/s². Knowledge on occupational hazards and health effects in the fisheries sector should be used to develop ship technology, raise awareness of the correct use of personal protective equipment, and improve health surveillance of these workers. Full article

Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) is one of the main issues in weather radar community. Data quality and post-processing algorithm, such as quantitative precipitation estimation and hydrometeor classification, are often affected by interferences. C-band radars share their operational frequency band with Radio Local Area Network (RLAN) and Wireless Area Network (WLAN), which may cause harmful interferences in radar systems. Nowadays, in northwestern Italy, the X-band weather radar managed by Arpa Piemonte is also receiving interfering signals. This work aims to introduce the RFIs phenomena affecting both C-band and X-band weather radars in Piemonte region, Italy. A preliminary method to detect the interfering sources at C-band is discussed, cross-checking data available in the regional database of electromagnetic sources and in-field measurements. A six-day measurement campaign was performed using the X-band radar as receiving antenna to collect an extensive dataset of interfering signals. The polarimetric features of the acquired RFI dataset are presented. The X-band RFIs show a day–night pattern, likely caused by human-related activities. The growth of wireless telecommunication systems, such as HiperLAN in northwestern Italy, and the continuous demand of electromagnetic spectrum portions make the understanding of electromagnetic interferences in weather radars the primary concern to ensure the data quality. Full article

The increasing spread of invasive plants has become a critical driver of global environmental change. Once established, invasive species are often impossible to eradicate. Therefore, predicting the spread has become a key element in fighting invasive species. In this study, we examined the efficiency of a logistic regression model as a tool to identify the spatial occurrence of an invasive plant species. We used Eragrostis curvula (Weeping Lovegrass) as the dependent variable. The independent variables included temperature, precipitation, soil types, and the road network. We randomly selected 68 georeferenced points to test the goodness of fit of the logistic regression model to predict the presence of E. curvula. We validated the model by selecting an additional 68 random points. Results showed that the probability to successfully predict the presence of E. Curvula was 82.35%. The overall predictive accuracy of the model for the presence or absence of E. Curvula was 80.88%. Additional tests including the Chi-square test, the Hosmer–Lemeshow (HL) test, and the area under the curve (AUC) values, all indicated that the model was the best fit. Our results showed that E. curvula was associated with the identified variables. This study suggests that the logistic regression model can be a useful tool in the identification of invasive species in New Jersey. Full article

In the kinetic evaluation of chemical degradation data, degradation models are fitted to the data by varying degradation model parameters to obtain the best possible fit. Today, constant variance of the deviations of the observed data from the model is frequently assumed (error model “constant variance”). Allowing for a different variance for each observed variable (“variance by variable”) has been shown to be a useful refinement. On the other hand, experience gained in analytical chemistry shows that the absolute magnitude of the analytical error often increases with the magnitude of the observed value, which can be explained by an error component which is proportional to the true value. Therefore, kinetic evaluations of chemical degradation data using a two-component error model with a constant component (absolute error) and a component increasing with the observed values (relative error) are newly proposed here as a third possibility. In order to check which of the three error models is most adequate, they have been used in the evaluation of datasets obtained from pesticide evaluation dossiers published by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). For quantitative comparisons of the fits, the Akaike information criterion (AIC) was used, as the commonly used error level defined by the FOrum for the Coordination of pesticide fate models and their USe(FOCUS) is based on the assumption of constant variance. A set of fitting routines was developed within the mkin software package that allow for robust fitting of all three error models. Comparisons using parent only degradation datasets, as well as datasets with the formation and decline of transformation products showed that in many cases, the two-component error model proposed here provides the most adequate description of the error structure. While it was confirmed that the variance by variable error model often provides an improved representation of the error structure in kinetic fits with metabolites, it could be shown that in many cases, the two-component error model leads to a further improvement. In addition, it can be applied to parent only fits, potentially improving the accuracy of the fit towards the end of the decline curve, where concentration levels are lower. Full article

Groundwater is an important source of water for drinking, agriculture, and other household purposes, but high population growth, industrialization, and lack of oversight on environmental policies and implementation have not only degraded the quality but also stressed the quantity of this precious source of water. Many options existed, but this study evaluated, classified, and mapped the quality of groundwater used for potable consumption with a simple approach in an urban area (Peshawar valley) of Pakistan. More than 100 groundwater samples were collected and analyzed for physio-chemical parameters in a laboratory. Hierarchal clustering analysis (HCA) and classification and regression tree (CART) analysis were sequentially applied to produce potential clusters/groups (groundwater quality classes), extract the threshold values of the clusters, classify and map the groundwater quality data into meaningful classes, and identify the most critical parameters in the classification. The HCA produced six distinct potential clusters. We found a high correlation of electrical conductivity with $totalhardness$ ( $R^2=0.72$ ), $alkalinity$ ( $R^2=0.59$ ) and $chloride\left(R^2=0.64\right)$ , and, $totalhardness$ with $chloride$ ( $R^2$ = 0.62), and $alkalinity$ ( $R^2$ = 0.51). The CART analysis conclusively identified the threshold values of the six classes and showed that $totalhardness$ was the most critical parameter in the classification. The majority of the groundwater was either with worse quality or good quality, and only a few areas had the worst groundwater quality. This study presents a simple tool for the classification of groundwater quality based on several aesthetic constituents and can assist decision makers develop and support policies and/or regulations to manage groundwater resources. Full article

Thermal baths are the main touristic attraction of Ourense (Galicia, Spain). Therefore, protecting and potentializing the resources related to this type of tourism is essential for the province. Most of these resources are located by the banks or nearby rivers, which makes them particularly susceptible to flooding, a very common phenomenon throughout the province. In this context, vulnerability analysis, and particularly flooding damage evaluation, are of utmost importance to this area. Considering this scenario, the present study consists of a preliminary analysis of a historical-heritage tourism resource’s vulnerability to flooding. To this end, the study examines the visitation patterns to the Aquis Querquennis complex (Bande, Ourense, Spain), which is located by the banks of the As Conchas reservoir, and the water levels of said reservoir. The complex is a touristic resource with great historical value. Apart from the thermal baths, it encompasses a military campsite and a hostel. The Roman complex attracts a constant tourist flow, which has a positive socioeconomic impact to the area. The analysis showed that there is a correlation between the number of visits and flooding patterns. Increased levels of water are a hinderance for those willing to access the attraction. Consequently, there is a negative relationship between water level and number of visitors. Full article