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Laser Powder Bed-Fused Scalmalloy: Effect of Long Thermal Aging on Hardness and Electrical Conductivity
Non-Ferrous Metal Bioleaching from Pyrometallurgical Copper Slag Using Spent Medium of Different Fungal Species

Journal Description

Metals

Metals is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal published monthly online by MDPI. The Spanish Materials Society (SOCIEMAT) is affiliated with Metals and their members receive discounts on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Inspec, Ei Compendex, CAPlus / SciFinder, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Metallurgy and Metallurgical Engineering) / CiteScore - Q1 (Metals and Alloys)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 18.7 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.7 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Companion journals for Metals include: Compounds, Alloys and Iron.

Impact Factor: 2.5 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 2.8 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2075-4701

Latest Articles

24 pages, 1622 KB

Open AccessArticle

Hierarchical and Robust Intelligent Design System for Aircraft Skin Die Face of Stretch Forming

by Xilei Zhang, Haijiao Kong, Zhen Wang, Yang Wei, Yuqi Liu and Zhibing Zhang

Metals 2026, 16(1), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/met16010094 - 14 Jan 2026

Most aircraft skin components are typical sheet metal components, and stretch forming serves as the primary forming process. The die face is the core foundation for both the finite element simulation and mold trial. Due to the intricate geometric characteristics of aircraft skin [...] Read more.

Most aircraft skin components are typical sheet metal components, and stretch forming serves as the primary forming process. The die face is the core foundation for both the finite element simulation and mold trial. Due to the intricate geometric characteristics of aircraft skin components and iterative revisions caused by stretch forming process adjustments and product design changes, the die face design of aircraft skin components is inherently time-intensive, highly complex, and prone to instability. To address these issues, a Hierarchical and Hybrid Association Method (HHAM) based on a robust updating mechanism and hybrid associations is proposed for the intelligent design system. HHAM can significantly enhance the stability and efficiency of die face design. Specifically, the hierarchical and automatic updating process of HHAM, incorporating robust error handling mechanisms, is the core methodology that guarantees the stability of complex and iterative die face design for aircraft skin. Moreover, the inter-module hybrid association, which integrates parametric modeling and automatic connection techniques, eliminates the instability in die face design updating caused by feature and topology variations. Additionally, robust geometric algorithms for wireframe modeling effectively improve the surface quality and generation success rate of the die face. The intelligent design system developed based on the CATIA platform has been successfully applied in two professional aircraft skin component manufacturing enterprises. Case studies and industrial application practices verify the effectiveness of the proposed system, achieving a 72.7% improvement in design efficiency and a 70.27% reduction in the risk of die face update errors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sheet Metal Forming Processes)

17 pages, 9328 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Cr on Strength and Conductivity Properties of Cu-0.1Zr Alloys After Aging

by Jiao Huang, Jidan Chen, Jinting Pan, Shihao Gao and Lifeng Fan

Metals 2026, 16(1), 93; https://doi.org/10.3390/met16010093 - 14 Jan 2026

The Cu-Cr-Zr alloy is regarded as an optimal material for high-end electronic information industries owing to its high electrical strength, high conductivity, and outstanding softening resistance. Nevertheless, the impacts of Cr content and microstructure evolution on performance enhancement during the processing stage remain [...] Read more.

The Cu-Cr-Zr alloy is regarded as an optimal material for high-end electronic information industries owing to its high electrical strength, high conductivity, and outstanding softening resistance. Nevertheless, the impacts of Cr content and microstructure evolution on performance enhancement during the processing stage remain unclear. In this research, Cu-xCr-0.1Zr alloys with varying Cr contents were fabricated via the thermo-mechanical approach. The microstructure evolution, as well as the mechanical and electrical properties before and after aging were investigated. It was discovered that Cr can mitigate the grain deformation degree of the copper alloy during cold rolling, notably augment the proportion of large-angle grain boundaries, and diminish the dislocation density induced by plastic deformation. As the Cr content increases, the conductivity of the sample declines from 86% IACS (0Cr) to 34.1% IACS (1.8Cr), and the tensile strength rises from 435 MPa (0Cr) to 542 MPa (1.8Cr) after cold rolling; the conductivity decreases from 89.4% IACS (0Cr) to 77.3% IACS (1.8Cr), and the tensile strength increases from 278 MPa to 607 MPa (1.0Cr). Based on the comprehensive outcomes, the aged 1.0Cr sample, with a tensile strength of 607 MPa and a conductivity of 80.9% IACS, satisfies the performance requirements of high-strength and high-conductivity copper alloys. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Microstructure and Performance Mechanisms of Advanced Steels and Alloys (2nd Edition))

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24 pages, 14631 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influences of (Al, Si) Equi-Molar Co-Addition on Microstructure, Mechanical Properties and Corrosion Resistance of Co-Free Fe-Rich High Entropy Alloys

by Shufeng Xie, Ziming Chen, Chuanming Qiao, Wanwan Sun, Yanzhe Wang, Junyang Zheng, Xiaoyu Wu, Lingjie Chen, Bin Kong, Chen Chen, Kangwei Xu and Jiajia Tian

Metals 2026, 16(1), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/met16010092 - 14 Jan 2026

In this paper, a series of Co-free FeCr_0.6Ni_0.6(AlSi)_x (x = 0, 0.1, 0.12, 0.14, 0.16) high-entropy alloys (HEAs) were designed and fabricated by suction casting, and the effects of equi-molar (Al, Si) co-addition in these Fe-rich Fe-Cr-Ni-based HEAs [...] Read more.

In this paper, a series of Co-free FeCr_0.6Ni_0.6(AlSi)_x (x = 0, 0.1, 0.12, 0.14, 0.16) high-entropy alloys (HEAs) were designed and fabricated by suction casting, and the effects of equi-molar (Al, Si) co-addition in these Fe-rich Fe-Cr-Ni-based HEAs on microstructure, mechanical properties, and corrosion resistance were systematically investigated. It is found that equi-molar (Al, Si) co-addition could cause the phase formation from FCC to FCC + BCC, while the morphologies of the phases change from dendrite-type to sideplate-type. Moreover, trade-off between strength and plasticity occurs with the increase in (Al, Si) co-addition, and the production of ultimate tensile strength and plasticity reaches the highest value when x = 0.12, while there exists a narrow region for x values to realize excellent comprehensive mechanical properties. In addition, similar corrosion resistance in 3.5 wt.% NaCl solution higher than 316L stainless steel could be realized in the HEAs with x = 0.12 and 0.14, while the latter one is slightly lower in pitting corrosion and the width of passive region, which is possibly caused by the increase in the density of phase boundaries. This work provides a novel insight on designing high-performance cost-effective Fe-rich and (Al, Si)-containing (Fe-Cr-Ni)-based HEAs combining high mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Entropic Alloys and Meta-Metals)

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15 pages, 2859 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Investigation into Removing Zinc from the Zinc-Bearing Dusts Using the Cold Briquetting-Direct Reduction Process

by Gen Li, Deqing Zhu, Jian Pan, Congcong Yang and Mingzhou Hou

Metals 2026, 16(1), 91; https://doi.org/10.3390/met16010091 - 14 Jan 2026

This study developed a composite binder cold briquetting-direct reduction process for zinc removal and resource recovery from zinc-containing dust. Through systematic briquetting and reduction experiments, the optimal briquette parameters were identified, and the mechanisms of zinc migration and removal during reduction were discussed. [...] Read more.

This study developed a composite binder cold briquetting-direct reduction process for zinc removal and resource recovery from zinc-containing dust. Through systematic briquetting and reduction experiments, the optimal briquette parameters were identified, and the mechanisms of zinc migration and removal during reduction were discussed. The results showed that under optimized reduction conditions at 1275 °C for 25 min and with 4% carbon content in the briquettes, the process achieved a zinc removal rate of 98.25% and an iron metallization rate of 90.54%, indicating high Zn removal performance under the tested conditions. Notably, compared with briquettes prepared with conventional organic binders (OB1), the composite binder (CB1) briquettes exhibited higher compressive strength while maintaining comparable Zn removal and metallization performance. The CB1 offers both economic advantages and improved mechanical strength, being successfully applied in industrial lines. Moreover, this process offers an industrially applicable route for the efficient treatment and resource utilization of zinc-bearing dust in the steel industry. Full article

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17 pages, 8724 KB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure and Property of the Weld Heat-Affected Zone of T4003 Ferritic Stainless Steel with Different Mo Contents

by Yunlong Duan, Yang Hui, Xuefeng Lu, Jie Sheng and Xingchang Tang

Metals 2026, 16(1), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/met16010090 - 14 Jan 2026

In the present contribution, Hot-rolled and annealed ferritic stainless steel T4003 with three distinct Mo contents (0%, 0.1%, and 0.2%) served as the research subject. Weldability tests were implemented by means of gas metal arc welding. Coupled with microstructural characterization, mechanical property assessments, [...] Read more.

In the present contribution, Hot-rolled and annealed ferritic stainless steel T4003 with three distinct Mo contents (0%, 0.1%, and 0.2%) served as the research subject. Weldability tests were implemented by means of gas metal arc welding. Coupled with microstructural characterization, mechanical property assessments, and electrochemical corrosion tests, the regulatory mechanism of Mo on the microstructure and properties of the HAZ was systematically elucidated. Results demonstrate that the influence of Mo content on the evolution of the coarse-grained region structure of heat affected zone becomes significant. The addition of 0.1% Mo refines the grains, increasing the fraction of lath martensite to 70–75% while limiting the maximum width of the coarse-grained zone to 0.64 mm. Meantime, the addition promotes the precipitation of (Nb, Ti, Mo) (C, N) composite carbonitrides, enhancing overall performance through synergistic grain refinement and second-phase strengthening. The sample with 0.1% Mo exhibits an average low-temperature impact energy of 16.3 J at −40 °C, with the highest Vickers hardness in the HAZ, favorable strength–plasticity synergy of the welded joint, and optimal corrosion resistance. The coarse-grained zone of the 0.2% Mo sample is dominated by coarse δ-ferrite and features a larger width, and the HAZ shows inferior mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. The precipitated phases in the 0.2% Mo segregate along the grain boundaries and distribute in a chain-like distribution, exacerbating the deterioration of material properties. These findings provide a technical reference for optimizing the composition design of T4003 ferritic stainless steel and ensuring its safe application in railway freight vehicles. Full article

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17 pages, 12042 KB

Open AccessArticle

Gradient Microstructure of Ag–Cu Metastable Metal-Matrix Composite Processed by Complex Extrusion: A Preliminary Study

by Pavel Lejček, Drahomír Dvorský, Orsolya Molnárová, Filip Průša, Stanislav Habr and Angelina Strakošová

Metals 2026, 16(1), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/met16010089 - 13 Jan 2026

Severe plastic deformation is an effective process to modify materials’ structures. In this work, its new modification entitled channel angular extrusion was applied to a metastable metal-matrix composite consisting of a Ag matrix and spherical Cu particulates. During this process, the rod sample [...] Read more.

Severe plastic deformation is an effective process to modify materials’ structures. In this work, its new modification entitled channel angular extrusion was applied to a metastable metal-matrix composite consisting of a Ag matrix and spherical Cu particulates. During this process, the rod sample deforms in an inhomogeneous way and exhibits a gradient microstructure that is characterized by ellipsoidal Cu particulates at the edge of the sample but elongated and fragmented rectangular ones in the center. In addition to the different shapes, the edge and center of the sheet also differ in preferential orientations: the ⟨110⟩ direction predominates in the center of the sheet, while the ⟨111⟩ direction dominates at the sheet edge. The changed angle of the {111} shear plane relative to the extrusion direction explains these differences. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructure and Characterization of Metal Matrix Composites)

17 pages, 2730 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Artificial Aging Conditions on Mechanical Properties of EN AW 6056 Aluminum Alloy

by Gizem Ay, Mehmet Okan Görtan and Fatih Çağırankaya

Metals 2026, 16(1), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/met16010088 - 13 Jan 2026

The 6xxx series aluminum alloys are preferred in many industrial applications because they can achieve relatively high strength levels through heat treatment. It is known that, as in the case of the EN AW 6056 alloy, the addition of small amounts of copper [...] Read more.

The 6xxx series aluminum alloys are preferred in many industrial applications because they can achieve relatively high strength levels through heat treatment. It is known that, as in the case of the EN AW 6056 alloy, the addition of small amounts of copper to materials in this series can further enhance their mechanical properties. In the current study, the effect of artificial aging conditions on the mechanical properties of EN AW 6056 aluminum alloy has been investigated. The ratio of Mg to Si and Cu content of the alloy were 0.939 and 0.92, respectively. The aging process was conducted at temperatures of 170, 180, and 190 °C, with corresponding aging durations of 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 15, 18, 21, and 24 h. The maximum hardness was obtained in samples aged at 170 °C for 12 h, corresponding to the transition to over-aging condition. In contrast, the highest tensile strength was achieved in samples aged at 190 °C for 4 h, representing the peak-aged condition. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analyses revealed distinct microstructural characteristics for the peak-aged and transition to over-aging conditions. In the peak-aged state, needle-shaped β″ precipitates, lath-like Q′ phases, and L phases with narrow rectangular cross-sections were observed. In contrast, lath-like L precipitates were absent in the transition to over-aging condition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing, Microstructure and Properties of Aluminium Alloys)

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16 pages, 7504 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Y and Ca Micro-Alloying and Citric Acid on the Discharge Behavior of AZ31 Mg Alloys for Mg–Air Batteries

by Shani Abtan Bason and Guy Ben Hamu

Metals 2026, 16(1), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/met16010087 - 13 Jan 2026

This study examined cast AZ31 magnesium alloy and its variant containing micro-alloying elements of Y and Ca (AZXW alloy), evaluating their potential as anode materials in magnesium–air batteries. The AZXW alloy was fabricated via two manufacturing techniques: casting and extrusion. The synergistic influence [...] Read more.

This study examined cast AZ31 magnesium alloy and its variant containing micro-alloying elements of Y and Ca (AZXW alloy), evaluating their potential as anode materials in magnesium–air batteries. The AZXW alloy was fabricated via two manufacturing techniques: casting and extrusion. The synergistic influence of Y and Ca, in conjunction with the production procedure, on the microstructure, electrochemical characteristics, and anodic discharge behavior of the examined alloys was investigated. The addition of Y and Ca results in the formation of secondary phases that affect grain size, particle size, and distribution, as well as the electrochemical performance and discharge properties of the Mg–air battery constructed for this study, over 24 h or until fully discharged. This work demonstrates the potential to enhance discharge performance and electrochemical behavior by adjusting the aqueous electrolyte solution in the battery through the incorporation of Citric Acid (C.A) at varying concentrations. The incorporation of citric acid into the aqueous electrolyte improves battery stability and specific energy as long as citric acid is present in the solution. Magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)₂) begins to form on the anode surface as its concentration progressively decreases due to complexation with dissolved magnesium ions. This diminishes the effective anode area over time, ultimately resulting in the distinctive “knee-type” collapse characteristic of electrolytes containing citric acid. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances and Challenges in Corrosion of Alloys and Protection Systems)

21 pages, 5506 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Aggressive Environments and Processing Orientation on the Mechanical Performance of L-PBF 316L Stainless Steel

by Najib Abu-warda, Javier Bedmar, Sonia García-Rodríguez, Belén Torres and Joaquin Rams

Metals 2026, 16(1), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/met16010086 - 13 Jan 2026

This study addresses the limited understanding of how build orientation and aggressive environments jointly affect the mechanical reliability of L-PBF 316L stainless steel. Specimens were fabricated in vertical, edge, and flat orientations and exposed for 360 h to 1 M H₂SO [...] Read more.

This study addresses the limited understanding of how build orientation and aggressive environments jointly affect the mechanical reliability of L-PBF 316L stainless steel. Specimens were fabricated in vertical, edge, and flat orientations and exposed for 360 h to 1 M H₂SO₄, 3.5 wt.% NaCl, and dry air oxidation at 800 °C. Tensile tests and microstructural analyses revealed strong anisotropy: edge and flat builds showed higher tensile and yield strength, while vertical builds exhibited greater ductility. Aqueous environments caused surface degradation and moderate strength loss, most severe in vertical samples. High-temperature oxidation induced σ-phase precipitation, increasing tensile strength (~20%) but reducing ductility and yield strength. These findings highlight the critical role of building orientation and service conditions in ensuring long-term performance of L-PBF 316L stainless steel. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Powder-Based Additive Manufacturing of Metals)

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17 pages, 3839 KB

Open AccessArticle

Characteristics of Steel Slag and Properties of High-Temperature Reconstructed Steel Slag

by Zhiqiang Xu and Xiaojun Hu

Metals 2026, 16(1), 85; https://doi.org/10.3390/met16010085 - 13 Jan 2026

The chemical composition, mineral composition, and mineral distribution characteristics of steel slag were characterized through petrographic analysis, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and particle size analysis. Limestone, silica, and silicomanganese slag were blended with converter steel slag to fabricate a reconstructed steel slag. Through burden [...] Read more.

The chemical composition, mineral composition, and mineral distribution characteristics of steel slag were characterized through petrographic analysis, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and particle size analysis. Limestone, silica, and silicomanganese slag were blended with converter steel slag to fabricate a reconstructed steel slag. Through burden calculation, the chemical composition ratio of this reconstructed steel slag approximated the silicate phase region. The high-temperature reconstruction process outside the furnace was simulated through reheating. The composition, structure, and cementitious characteristics of the reconstructed steel slag were investigated through X-ray diffraction (XRD), FactSage software (FactSage version 7.0 (GTT-Technologies, Aachen, Germany, 2015))analysis, scanning electron microscopy–energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM–EDS) analysis, setting time determination, compressive strength measurement, and thermodynamic computation. The findings indicated that the primary mineral compositions of the reconstructed steel slag were predominantly silicates, such as Ca₃Al₂O₆, Ca₂SiO₄, Ca₂MgSi₂O₇, Ca₂Al(AlSiO₇), Ca₂(SiO₄), and FeAlMgO₄. In comparison with the original steel slag, these compositions underwent substantial alterations. The α′-C₂S phase appears at 1100 K and gradually transforms into α-C₂S at 1650 K. The liquid phase begins to precipitate at approximately 1550 K. Spinel exists in the temperature range from 1300 to 1700 K, and Ca₃MgSi₂O₈ melts into the liquid phase at 1400 K. As the temperature increases to 1600 K, the minerals C₂AF, Ca₂Fe₂O₅, and Ca₂Al₂O₅ gradually melt into the liquid phase. Melilite melts into the liquid phase at 1700 K. It was observed that the initial and final setting times of the reconstructed steel slag exhibited reductions of 7 and 43 min, respectively, in comparison to those of the original steel slag. In comparison with steel slag, the compressive strength of the reconstructed steel slag exhibited an increase of 0.6 MPa at the 3-day strength stage, 1.6 MPa at the 7-day strength stage, and 3.4 MPa at the 28-day strength stage. The reduction in setting time and the enhancement in compressive strength verified the improved cementitious activity of the reconstructed steel slag. Thermodynamic calculations of the principal reactions of the reconstructed steel slag at elevated temperatures verified that the primary reaction at 1748 K is thermodynamically favorable. Full article

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15 pages, 2593 KB

Open AccessArticle

Zirconium Phosphate Supported on Biochar for Effective Recovery of Rare Earth Elements from Tailwater: A Case Study of La³⁺

by Ning Zheng, Chenliang Peng, Xia Zhu, Weichang Kong and Yang Yang

Metals 2026, 16(1), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/met16010084 - 13 Jan 2026

The efficient recovery of rare earth elements (REEs) from low-concentration mine tailwater is crucial for resource sustainability. In this study, a novel composite adsorbent, sesame stalk biochar-supported zirconium phosphate (sBC/ZrP), was synthesized for the selective adsorption and recovery of La³⁺ as a [...] Read more.

The efficient recovery of rare earth elements (REEs) from low-concentration mine tailwater is crucial for resource sustainability. In this study, a novel composite adsorbent, sesame stalk biochar-supported zirconium phosphate (sBC/ZrP), was synthesized for the selective adsorption and recovery of La³⁺ as a representative REE. The material was characterized using SEM-EDS, BET, XRD, FTIR, and XPS. Batch adsorption experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of pH, coexisting ions, and the adsorption kinetics and thermodynamics. The results showed that sBC/ZrP exhibited a high adsorption capacity (up to 185.83 mg/g at 35 °C for 4 h) and strong selectivity for La³⁺, particularly in the presence of common competing cations, although Al³⁺ demonstrated significant interference. The adsorption process followed pseudo-second-order kinetics and the Langmuir isotherm model, indicating monolayer chemisorption, and was determined to be spontaneous and endothermic. The material maintained over 90% adsorption efficiency after five consecutive adsorption–desorption cycles. The mechanism primarily involved complexation of La³⁺ with the P-OH and Zr-O groups on the composite. This work demonstrates that sBC/ZrP is a highly efficient, stable, and reusable adsorbent with significant potential for the recovery of REEs from mining tailwater. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Recycling of Valuable Metals—2nd Edition)

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14 pages, 1933 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Annealing Treatment on Precipitation Behavior of α-Al(MnCr)Si Phases in Al–Mg–Si–Mn Alloy

by Yuxi Chen, He Jin, Haotian Liu, Zhongwen Wang, Xiaoyu Li, Qiangbing Liu, Youcheng Zhang, Zihao Li, Yunhao Wang and Chunyan Ban

Metals 2026, 16(1), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/met16010083 - 12 Jan 2026

Micro-segregation of solute elements is inevitable during the casting process of Al–Mg–Si alloys, significantly influencing the precipitation behavior of dispersed phases during subsequent heat treatment, ultimately influencing alloy performance. Mn and Si are typical positive segregation elements and the principal constituents of the [...] Read more.

Micro-segregation of solute elements is inevitable during the casting process of Al–Mg–Si alloys, significantly influencing the precipitation behavior of dispersed phases during subsequent heat treatment, ultimately influencing alloy performance. Mn and Si are typical positive segregation elements and the principal constituents of the dispersed phases in aluminum alloys, and their diffusion behavior directly affects the precipitation of nano-scale α-Al(MnCr)Si phases within grains during subsequent annealing. This study systematically investigates the effects of different annealing conditions (430 °C × 12 h and 530 °C × 12 h) on the precipitation behavior of α-Al(MnCr)Si phases in the Al–Mg–Si–Mn alloy. After annealing at 430 °C, the relatively low diffusion rate promoted the dispersed precipitation of α-Al(MnCr)Si phases as high-density, nano-scale particles within grains. In contrast, annealing at 530 °C substantially enhanced the elements diffusion, accelerating both nucleation and growth of α-Al(MnCr)Si phases and inducing notable Ostwald ripening, resulting in larger α-Al(MnCr)Si phases with a lower number density within grains. This study indicates that the control of annealing parameters can effectively tailor the size, distribution, and number density of nano-scale α-Al(MnCr)Si phases. The findings provide critical theoretical and practical guidance for optimizing annealing processes in Al-Mg-Si-Mn alloys. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solidification and Microstructure of Metallic Alloys)

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17 pages, 5783 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Electrochemical Behavior at a Room and High Temperature at 700 °C Corrosion of Austenite, Ferrite, and Duplex Stainless Steels

by Dohyung Kim and Byung-Hyun Shin

Metals 2026, 16(1), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/met16010082 - 12 Jan 2026

The stainless-steel phase of austenite, ferrite, and duplex was affected by the high temperature corrosion. So, the study of corrosion behavior in high temperatures at 700 °C is important because it is connected to life and maintenance. Various stainless steels (AISI no. 409 [...] Read more.

The stainless-steel phase of austenite, ferrite, and duplex was affected by the high temperature corrosion. So, the study of corrosion behavior in high temperatures at 700 °C is important because it is connected to life and maintenance. Various stainless steels (AISI no. 409 L, 430 L, 304L, 316L, 2205, 2507) are used to identify the most suitable material for high-temperature SOFC applications. The study was checked to surface, microstructure, and corrosion behavior after corrosion at 700 °C during 120 h. The surface and microstructure are checked using FE-SEM and XRD. The electrochemical behavior and corrosion behavior are checked for open circuit potential, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and potentiodynamic polarization test by a potentiostat. The potentiodynamic polarization results revealed that the pitting potential (E_pit) varied significantly depending on the material, with values of 0.21 V for AISI 304L and 1.14 V for AISI 2507. The breakdown behavior of the passive film exhibited material-dependent characteristics, which were found to be consistent with the observed trends in high-temperature corrosion. Full article

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30 pages, 10360 KB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Study of Constructal Design Applied to Perforated Thin Plates Under Elasto-Plastic Buckling Due to Combined Loading

by Guilherme Ribeiro Baumgardt, Raí Lima Vieira, Elizaldo Domingues dos Santos, Luiz Alberto Oliveira Rocha, Thiago da Silveira and Liércio André Isoldi

Metals 2026, 16(1), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/met16010081 - 11 Jan 2026

Thin plates are widely used and can be subjected to combined loads that trigger elasto-plastic buckling. Often, these plates are perforated, which significantly changes their mechanical response. This study investigates six perforation geometries (elliptical, longitudinal hexagonal, transverse hexagonal, longitudinal oblong, transverse oblong, and [...] Read more.

Thin plates are widely used and can be subjected to combined loads that trigger elasto-plastic buckling. Often, these plates are perforated, which significantly changes their mechanical response. This study investigates six perforation geometries (elliptical, longitudinal hexagonal, transverse hexagonal, longitudinal oblong, transverse oblong, and rectangular) and their influence on the ultimate buckling stress of perforated plates under biaxial compression and lateral pressure. Three plates with a distinct width b and length a ratio (b/a) and five unperforated plate volume and perforation volume ratios (ϕ) are analyzed using finite element analysis in ANSYS^®, combined with Constructal Design, Exhaustive Search, and the Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to an Ideal (TOPSIS). Perforation geometry is shown to be a decisive parameter: elliptical perforations are the most efficient, limiting strength loss in rectangular plates with b/a = 1/3 and ϕ = 0.025 to about 6%, while oblong perforations cause reductions of up to 14%. In square plates (b/a = 1), elliptical perforations preserve more than 98% of the original strength for ϕ ≤ 0.05 and over 90% at ϕ = 0.20. TOPSIS results highlight configurations that balance small reductions in ultimate buckling stress with up to 23% lower maximum deflection, providing practical design guidelines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Forming Behaviour and Plasticity of Metallic Alloys)

31 pages, 6125 KB

Open AccessArticle

The ESTPHAD Concept: An Optimised Set of Simplified Equations to Estimate the Equilibrium Liquidus and Solidus Temperatures, Partition Ratios and Liquidus Slopes for Quick Access to Equilibrium Data in Solidification Software Part III: Ternary Eutectic-Type Equilibrium Phase Diagram

by Gergely Kőrösy, András Roósz, Ádám Végh and Tamás Mende

Metals 2026, 16(1), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/met16010080 - 11 Jan 2026

The liquidus and solidus temperatures, the initial temperature of the solidification of binary eutectics, and the partition ratios of the solid solution at the Al corner of the ternary eutectic-type Al-Si-Cu alloy system were calculated using the thermodynamically based ESTPHAD method. It is [...] Read more.

The liquidus and solidus temperatures, the initial temperature of the solidification of binary eutectics, and the partition ratios of the solid solution at the Al corner of the ternary eutectic-type Al-Si-Cu alloy system were calculated using the thermodynamically based ESTPHAD method. It is shown that these data can be calculated from the liquidus and solidus data of the two binary equilibrium phase diagrams (first estimation), the binary phase diagram and the eutectic valleys in the ternary system (second estimation), as well as the binary phase diagram, the eutectic valleys, and one (third estimation) and more (fourth estimation) liquidus and solidus temperatures of the ternary equilibrium phase diagram with varying precisions. A database calculated with Thermo-Calc software (version 4.1.0.4995), was used for the calculations. Full article

13 pages, 3650 KB

Open AccessArticle

Formation Mechanisms of Chilled Layer on the Perimeter of Superalloy Seed

by Yangpi Deng, Dexin Ma, Jianhui Wei, Yunxing Zhao, Lv Li, Bowen Cheng and Fuze Xu

Metals 2026, 16(1), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/met16010079 - 11 Jan 2026

The seeding technique is the only way to precisely control the crystal orientation of single-crystal superalloy castings. However, an inevitable assembly gap exists between the seed and the mold cavity in practice, whose role in defect formation remains insufficiently understood. To elucidate the [...] Read more.

The seeding technique is the only way to precisely control the crystal orientation of single-crystal superalloy castings. However, an inevitable assembly gap exists between the seed and the mold cavity in practice, whose role in defect formation remains insufficiently understood. To elucidate the mechanism and impact of this gap, superalloy seeds were machined to different extents, aiming to create varying gaps with the mold. After the seeding experiment, the chilled layers formed on the perimeter of the pre-processed seeds were detected, exhibiting two distinct microstructural zones: a eutectic aggregation region at the bottom and an equiaxed grain at the top. The thicker the layer, the more pronounced the differences in microstructure between these two regions. This can be explained by the fact that during preheating, the γ/γ′ eutectic-rich interdendritic region (enriched with Al + Ti + Ta) in the original seed melted first due to its lower melting point. The molten fluid flowed downward into the gap, solidifying rapidly into the chilled layer. The leading portion of the fluid, melting from the interdendritic zone, formed the eutectic zone in the lower part of the chilled layer. The subsequently poured charge alloy melt (non-enriched with Al + Ti + Ta) generated the upper equiaxed zone with only a little γ/γ′ eutectic. These equiaxed grains in the chilled layer subsequently grew upward and potentially developed into stray grains of the casting. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Progress of Crystal in Metallic Materials)

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14 pages, 4978 KB

Open AccessArticle

Pressure Dependence of Pure Zirconium Liquid–Solid Phase Transition

by Lin Lang, Zhiyuan Xu, Kun Qian, Chang Li and Zhuoliang Yu

Metals 2026, 16(1), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/met16010078 - 10 Jan 2026

Molecular dynamics simulations were conducted at a cooling rate of 1.0 × 10¹¹ K/s to investigate the solidification mechanism of zirconium (Zr) under high pressure. Three distinct pressure-dependent regimes are identified: crystallization into a body-centered cubic (BCC) phase below 27.5 GPa, vitrification [...] Read more.

Molecular dynamics simulations were conducted at a cooling rate of 1.0 × 10¹¹ K/s to investigate the solidification mechanism of zirconium (Zr) under high pressure. Three distinct pressure-dependent regimes are identified: crystallization into a body-centered cubic (BCC) phase below 27.5 GPa, vitrification between 27.5 and 65 GPa, and crystallization into an A15 phase above 65 GPa. The volume change during crystallization is found to reverse at critical pressures of 5 and 103 GPa, and anomalous behavior is observed at the phase boundaries: at 27.5 and 65 GPa, the volume varies continuously despite a sharp drop in potential energy, whereas at 65 GPa, the volume decreases abruptly while the energy changes smoothly. Structural analysis indicates that evolution in the low-pressure regime is governed by atomic configurations extending to the second-neighbor shell, while at high pressures, nearest-neighbor interactions become dominant. This work clarifies the microstructure–pressure relationship during metallic solidification, providing insights into controlling phase transitions under extreme conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phase Transformations in Metals and Alloys)

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23 pages, 6977 KB

Open AccessArticle

Ti₂AlNb Sheet Pulse Current-Assisted Flexible Granular Medium Forming of Box-Shaped Components

by Shengwei Su, Yan Xu, Cheng Jiang, Mingyu Ding, Yifeng Dai, Xinhuan Lou and Shaosong Jiang

Metals 2026, 16(1), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/met16010077 - 9 Jan 2026

Pulse current-assisted flexible granular medium forming is a promising approach for manufacturing complex thin-walled components from difficult-to-deform Ti₂AlNb-based alloys. In this study, the electro-thermo-mechanical deformation behavior of Ti₂AlNb sheets is investigated through pulse current-assisted uniaxial tensile tests, microstructural characterization, [...] Read more.

Pulse current-assisted flexible granular medium forming is a promising approach for manufacturing complex thin-walled components from difficult-to-deform Ti₂AlNb-based alloys. In this study, the electro-thermo-mechanical deformation behavior of Ti₂AlNb sheets is investigated through pulse current-assisted uniaxial tensile tests, microstructural characterization, and finite element simulations. The influences of pulse current intensity and strain rate on flow behavior, fracture characteristics, and phase evolution are clarified, and an effective forming window is identified. Numerical simulations are employed to analyze the role of granular medium friction in material flow and wall thickness distribution, providing guidance for forming box-shaped components. The results demonstrate that forming at approximately 950 °C with a strain rate of 0.001 s⁻¹ reduces deformation resistance, while enhanced tangential interaction between the granular medium and the sheet improves wall thickness uniformity. This study provides a feasible processing route and practical guidelines for the fabrication of complex Ti₂AlNb sheet components. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Metal Casting, Forming and Heat Treatment)

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17 pages, 2919 KB

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Enhancing Hydrogen Embrittlement Resistance of Al–Zn–Mg–Cu Alloys via Si Microalloying and Optimized Heat Treatment

by Huijun Shi, Ruian Hu, Yi Lu, Shengping Wen, Wu Wei, Xiaolan Wu, Kunyuan Gao, Hui Huang and Zuoren Nie

Metals 2026, 16(1), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/met16010076 - 9 Jan 2026

7xxx series aluminum alloys are critical structural materials in aerospace applications, but their susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement (HE) poses significant challenges to service safety and durability. The effects of Si, Er, and Zr microalloying, combined with optimized heat treatments on the HE resistance [...] Read more.

7xxx series aluminum alloys are critical structural materials in aerospace applications, but their susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement (HE) poses significant challenges to service safety and durability. The effects of Si, Er, and Zr microalloying, combined with optimized heat treatments on the HE resistance of Al–Zn–Mg–Cu alloys, were systematically investigated using transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and mechanical testing. Three alloys—1# (AlZnMgCuZr), 2# (AlZnMgCuErZr), and 3# (AlZnMgCuSiErZr)—were subjected to single-stage or two-stage homogenization, followed by solution treatments at 470 °C/2 h and 540 °C/1 h, and peak aging at 125 °C. The hydrogen charging experiment was conducted by first applying a modified acrylic resin coating to protect the gripping sections of the specimen, followed by a tensile test. Results demonstrate that alloy 3# with Si addition exhibited the lowest RA_loss, followed by the 2# alloy, which effectively improved the alloys’ hydrogen embrittlement behavior. Compared with the solution in 470 °C/2 h, the 540 °C/1 h solution treatment enabled complete dissolution of Mg₂Si phases, promoting homogeneous precipitation and peak hardness comparable to alloy 2#. Two-stage homogenization significantly enhanced the number density and refinement of L₁₂-structured Al₃(Er,Zr) nanoprecipitates. Silicon further accelerated the precipitation kinetics, leading to more Al₃(Er,Zr) nanoprecipitates, finely dispersed T′/η′ phases, and lath-shaped GPB-II zones. The GPB-II zones effectively trapped hydrogen, thereby improving HE resistance. This work provides a viable strategy for enhancing the reliability of high-strength aluminum alloys in hydrogen-containing environments. Full article

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13 pages, 2957 KB

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Experimental Study on the Removal of Copper Cyanide from Simulated Cyanide Leaching Gold Wastewater by Flocculation Flotation

by Chenhao Zhang, Dongxia Feng, Meng Dong, Heng Zhang, Xujie Wen, Yuanbin Liu and Wang Cai

Metals 2026, 16(1), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/met16010075 - 9 Jan 2026

The removal of copper–cyanide complexes from cyanide gold leaching tail water poses a significant challenge, as they are difficult to eliminate and risk causing secondary pollution. This study developed a synergistic flocculation–flotation process using the bio-collector sodium cocoyl glycinate (SCG) and the coagulant [...] Read more.

The removal of copper–cyanide complexes from cyanide gold leaching tail water poses a significant challenge, as they are difficult to eliminate and risk causing secondary pollution. This study developed a synergistic flocculation–flotation process using the bio-collector sodium cocoyl glycinate (SCG) and the coagulant polyferric sulfate (PFS) for purification. Simulated wastewater, prepared based on actual gold mine effluent, was treated under optimized conditions of reagent dosage, a solution pH of 6–10, and a flotation time of 1–5 min, achieving high removal efficiencies of 96.48% for copper and 94.68% for total cyanide. Mechanistic studies via FT-IR, Zeta potential, and XPS revealed that Fe³⁺ from PFS formed Fe-CN complexes with both free and copper-complexed cyanide. Simultaneously, copper ions coordinated with SCG to generate a hydrophobic Fe-CN-Cu-SCG ternary complex, which was subsequently removed by adsorption onto air bubbles via the hydrophobic chains of SCG. This work provides a novel, efficient, and mechanistically clear strategy for the advanced treatment of cyanide-containing tailing water with a gold content of 0.021 mg/L. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sustainable Utilization of Metals: Recovery and Recycling)

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