Buildings

20 pages, 4203 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Study on Seismic Behavior of Novel Prefabricated RC Joints with Welded Cover-Plate Steel Sleeve and Bolted Splice

by Dong-Ping Wu, Kang Rao, Wei Wei, Fei Han and Sheng Peng

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4579; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244579 - 18 Dec 2025

Viewed by 335

Abstract

In order to ensure the structural safety and serviceability of existing reinforced concrete (RC) structures, there is a compelling need to develop efficient techniques for the rapid replacement of damaged RC beams within strong-column–weak-beam structural systems. This study introduces a novel prefabricated RC [...] Read more.

In order to ensure the structural safety and serviceability of existing reinforced concrete (RC) structures, there is a compelling need to develop efficient techniques for the rapid replacement of damaged RC beams within strong-column–weak-beam structural systems. This study introduces a novel prefabricated RC beam with welded cover-plate steel sleeve and bolted splice designed to facilitate accelerated replacement and enhance construction efficiency. The proposed beam is connected to cast-in-place RC columns, forming a prefabricated novel prefabricated RC joint with a welded cover-plate steel sleeve and a bolted splice; this configuration contrasts with conventional monolithic RC joints, which are formed by integrally casting beams and columns. The assembly speed of the prefabricated system markedly surpasses that of its cast-in-place counterpart, and the resulting beam–column system is fully demountable. Finite element simulations of the novel prefabricated RC joint with welded cover-plate steel sleeve and bolted splice, performed using ABAQUS, identified the thickness of the welded end-plate as a pivotal parameter influencing the joint’s mechanical behavior. Accordingly, quasi-static tests were carried out on three novel prefabricated RC joints with welded cover-plate steel sleeves and bolted splices and one cast-in-place RC joint, with the welded end-plate thickness serving as the primary test variable. The failure patterns, hysteretic responses, energy dissipation capacity, ductility, and stiffness degradation were systematically analyzed. Experimental findings indicate that increasing the end-plate thickness effectively improves both the peak load-bearing capacity and the ductility of the joint. All prefabricated specimens exhibited fully developed spindle-shaped hysteresis loops, with ductility coefficients ranging from 3.47 to 3.64 and equivalent viscous damping ratios exceeding 0.13. All critical seismic performance metrics either met or exceeded those of the reference cast-in-place RC joint, affirming the reliability and superior behavior of the proposed novel prefabricated RC joints with welded cover-plate steel sleeves. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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15 pages, 6845 KB

Open AccessArticle

Drop Hammer Impact Test on Concrete Well Walls After Combined Action of Compressive Load and Sulfate Erosion

by Tongxing Guo, Guoqiang Xu, Wei Zhang and Chenggang Shen

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4578; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244578 - 18 Dec 2025

Viewed by 333

Abstract

The long-term safety of concrete shaft walls in deep mines faces severe challenges from the coupled effects of stress, chemical erosion, and dynamic disturbances. This study conducted coupled loading and sulfate erosion tests on concrete and investigated its dynamic response using drop-weight impact [...] Read more.

The long-term safety of concrete shaft walls in deep mines faces severe challenges from the coupled effects of stress, chemical erosion, and dynamic disturbances. This study conducted coupled loading and sulfate erosion tests on concrete and investigated its dynamic response using drop-weight impact tests. The failure modes, impact force time-history curves, and strain time-history curves of concrete under different erosion ages and load levels were analyzed. The SEM observations revealed the microstructure of the concrete. Results indicate that increasing drop height exacerbates specimen failure and elevates peak impact force and strain, while simultaneously shortening the impact duration. Compared to SL20, SL40 exhibited lower peak impact force and higher peak strain under long-term combined loading and sulfate erosion. This reveals that larger loads accelerate internal damage within concrete under erosive conditions. This study provides theoretical and experimental bases for the long-term safety and impact resistance of well wall concrete. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue High-Performance Concrete: Modification Methods, Sustainability, and Multifunctional Applications—2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 4001 KB

Open AccessArticle

Compressive Bearing Capacity Experiment of Brick Walls Under Vertical Loads Considering the Mortar Compaction Process

by Jing Zhang, Fenglai Wang, Shimin Huang, Baojiang Yin and Lele Wu

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4577; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244577 - 18 Dec 2025

Viewed by 208

Abstract

Total floor areas of existing masonry structures in China cover 25 billion square meters. A significant proportion of these structures were classified as Grade C or D following a safety assessment. The compaction of masonry mortar occurs concurrently with an increase in vertical [...] Read more.

Total floor areas of existing masonry structures in China cover 25 billion square meters. A significant proportion of these structures were classified as Grade C or D following a safety assessment. The compaction of masonry mortar occurs concurrently with an increase in vertical loads from upper-story walls and floor slabs. This condition may alter the actual compressive bearing capacity due to the compaction effect on the mortar of ground-floor walls. However, this effect is not addressed in the Chinese Code for Design of Masonry Structures. This study involved designing 12 brick walls using mortar with design strength grades of M2.5, M5, and M7.5, as determined by compressive testing. Each group simulated the ground-floor walls of four-, five-, and six-story masonry structures, considering the combined effects of vertical loads and mortar compaction, respectively. The results showed that, during mortar curing in ground-floor walls, the cracking load and ultimate load capacity of the wall models increased with progressively increasing loads from upper-floor walls and slabs. This is possibly due to the compaction effect on the mortar, which benefits the mortar density and the bonding performance between the mortar and brick. Due to the higher initial porosity and weaker bonding of low-strength mortar, the cracking load capacity of low-strength mortar walls under preloading increased significantly more than was observed in high-strength mortar walls. Conversely, owing to the high correlation between ultimate load and compressive strength, higher mortar strength had a more significant effect on the ultimate loads of the brick wall specimens under preloading. An increase in ultimate load capacity exhibited a linear relationship with the number of structural layers. This study can inform the safety assessment of existing masonry walls. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue High-Performance Concrete: Modification Methods, Sustainability, and Multifunctional Applications—2nd Edition)

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26 pages, 1057 KB

Open AccessArticle

When the Concert Hall Dances with Water: How Does the Architectural Experience of Waterfront Concert Halls Affect User Satisfaction?—A Study Based on 12 Concert Hall Users in China

by Chunyu Zhang, Xiaolong Chen, Hongfeng Zhang, Cora Un In Wong and Longzhu Yao

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4576; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244576 - 18 Dec 2025

Viewed by 309

Abstract

As urban architecture continues to emphasize integration with natural environments, the concept of waterfront buildings and blue–green spaces has been widely applied in the site selection of large urban structures. While existing research has extensively explored architectural types such as waterfront landscapes and [...] Read more.

As urban architecture continues to emphasize integration with natural environments, the concept of waterfront buildings and blue–green spaces has been widely applied in the site selection of large urban structures. While existing research has extensively explored architectural types such as waterfront landscapes and sports venues, systematic studies on waterfront concert halls, as an important category of cultural architecture, remain limited. Specifically, the interaction mechanisms between such halls and their aquatic environments, as well as their impact on users’ psychological satisfaction, have not been thoroughly investigated. This study takes waterfront concert halls as representative cultural buildings and examines 1267 users from 12 typical waterfront concert halls across eight cities in China. A theoretical model was constructed with water visibility, water accessibility, water interactivity, and water integration as independent variables, biophilia and a sense of nature’s presence as parallel mediators, and user satisfaction as the dependent variable. Data were analyzed using covariance based structural equation modeling CB-SEM. The findings reveal that (1) water visibility, water accessibility, and water integration positively influence user satisfaction; (2) biophilia mediates the relationship between water visibility, water accessibility, water interactivity, water integration, and user satisfaction; (3) a sense of nature’s presence also mediates the relationship between these water-related variables and user satisfaction. This study empirically demonstrates the dual pathway psychological mechanism through which water elements influence user satisfaction, providing a new perspective for the design of waterfront cultural architecture. The research suggests that architects can enhance users’ biophilic instincts and sense of nature’s presence through specific design strategies, such as strengthening water visibility, optimizing waterfront circulation, and enriching water interaction experiences. These findings offer theoretical support for shifting contemporary architectural practice from physical space creation to environmental well-being promotion, while also establishing a practical foundation for developing human-centered evaluation systems for built environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)

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21 pages, 898 KB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Urban Well-Being Through Nature-Based Sports Venues: The Parallel and Sequential Mediation of Connectedness to Nature and Place Attachment

by Zhihao Zhang, Wenyue Liu, Linkang Du and Jianguo Qiu

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4575; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244575 - 18 Dec 2025

Viewed by 269

Abstract

Although previous studies have extensively explored the relationship between urban green spaces and residents’ well-being, research on how nature-based sports venues enhance urban well-being through multiple emotional mechanisms remains relatively limited. Drawing on environmental psychology, place attachment theory, and the principles of biophilic [...] Read more.

Although previous studies have extensively explored the relationship between urban green spaces and residents’ well-being, research on how nature-based sports venues enhance urban well-being through multiple emotional mechanisms remains relatively limited. Drawing on environmental psychology, place attachment theory, and the principles of biophilic design, this study constructs a dual-mediation model incorporating Connectedness to Nature (CN) and Place Attachment (PA) to examine the pathways through which natural design features—including Natural Visibility (NV), Spatial Integration (SI), and Human–Nature Interactivity (HNI)—influence individuals’ urban well-being. Using ten representative nature-integrated sports venues in China as research sites, a total of 856 valid questionnaires were collected, and structural equation modeling (SEM) was applied for empirical analysis. The results show that (1) NV, SI, and HNI all exert significant positive effects on CN and PA; (2) CN significantly promotes both PA and Urban Well-being (UWB); (3) PA has a significant positive effect on UWB; and (4) both CN and PA serve as significant mediators between natural design features and UWB, with an evident serial mediation effect from CN to PA. These findings reveal the multilayered psychological mechanisms through which nature-based sports venues enhance residents’ well-being, enrich the theoretical framework of nature-oriented design and urban sustainability, and provide empirical evidence for the health-oriented and emotion-responsive design of urban sports facilities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

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49 pages, 2937 KB

Open AccessArticle

Modular Design of Steel Box Girders: A BIM-Driven Framework Integrating Knowledge Graphs and Data

by Matao Si, Lin Wang, Yanjie Dong, Yulong Chen, Le Tan and Daguang Han

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4574; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244574 - 18 Dec 2025

Viewed by 393

Abstract

Background: Steel box girders are widely employed in bridge engineering due to their excellent mechanical properties and construction convenience, yet their modular design still encounters bottlenecks such as knowledge reuse difficulties and information silos. This study proposes a BIM-driven framework based on knowledge [...] Read more.

Background: Steel box girders are widely employed in bridge engineering due to their excellent mechanical properties and construction convenience, yet their modular design still encounters bottlenecks such as knowledge reuse difficulties and information silos. This study proposes a BIM-driven framework based on knowledge graphs and data fusion. By constructing a professional knowledge graph comprising 85 core entity types and 150 semantic relationships (integrated with over 15,000 knowledge units), systematic management of design knowledge is achieved. The developed BIM reverse modeling technology improves parametric modeling efficiency by 30–40%, while the data fusion mechanism supports over 90% accuracy in design conflict detection. The intelligent decision-making system built upon this framework meets 75% of business scenario requirements while effectively assisting critical decisions such as module selection. Results demonstrate that this framework significantly enhances design collaboration efficiency and intelligence through knowledge structuring and deep data integration. Although some achievements were validated via simulation due to limited field measurement data, the approach demonstrates strong engineering applicability and provides novel technical pathways and methodological support for advancing digital transformation in bridge engineering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)

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27 pages, 18418 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Value-Based Risk Assessment of Water-Related Hazards: The Archaeological Site of the Sanctuary of Asklepios at Epidaurus

by Argyrios Balatsoukas, Androniki Miltiadou-Fezans, Koenraad Van Balen and Evagelos Kazolias

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4573; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244573 - 18 Dec 2025

Viewed by 401

Abstract

The accelerating impacts of climate change present critical challenges to cultural heritage, particularly in the Mediterranean region where hydroclimatic extremes are intensifying. Future estimates for the Sanctuary of Asklepios at Epidaurus, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, suggest more intense precipitation patterns, increased rainfall [...] Read more.

The accelerating impacts of climate change present critical challenges to cultural heritage, particularly in the Mediterranean region where hydroclimatic extremes are intensifying. Future estimates for the Sanctuary of Asklepios at Epidaurus, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, suggest more intense precipitation patterns, increased rainfall intensity and water-induced material degradation. This study aims to identify current and projected climate-related threats to the site and to inform adaptive strategies that safeguard both its physical integrity and its associated heritage values through a value-based approach. Opting for a heritage value-based risk assessment, the study employs a mixed-methods technical approach grounded in the Conceptual Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction of UNISDR and ICCROM’s “ABC Method” for the risk assessment of climatic threats that combines GIS-based hydrological modelling (HAND), field observations and existing material assessments with NARA Grids to link exposure, vulnerability and value loss. Results reveal intensified surface water runoff and localised water inundation threatening key monuments, particularly the Roman Odeion and the central part of the site’s ensemble, while frost-related risks are projected to decline towards 2100. The findings suggest the development of site-specific climate change adaptation that prioritises drainage enhancement, preventive conservation and continuous monitoring to preserve its Outstanding Universal Values under changing climatic conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Resilience of Buildings and Infrastructure Addressing Climate Crisis)

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38 pages, 20552 KB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Performance and Optimization of Window Insulation System for Single-Story Heated Industrial Building Retrofits in the Severe Cold Regions of Northeast China

by Meng Chen and Lin Feng

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4572; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244572 - 18 Dec 2025

Viewed by 240

Abstract

Optimizing window insulation is crucial for reducing heat loss and energy use in industrial buildings in Northeast China’s severe cold regions. Based on six typical building prototypes identified via cluster analysis of field survey data, this study used DesignBuilder (Version 6.1.0.006) to simulate [...] Read more.

Optimizing window insulation is crucial for reducing heat loss and energy use in industrial buildings in Northeast China’s severe cold regions. Based on six typical building prototypes identified via cluster analysis of field survey data, this study used DesignBuilder (Version 6.1.0.006) to simulate the influence of key parameters for insulation materials (type, thickness, emissivity) and installation methods (position, air cavity, operation). Simulations reveal that the energy-saving potential is inversely proportional to a building’s existing thermal performance, reaching a maximum of 10.3%. Regarding material selection, results indicate that reducing surface emissivity from 0.92 to 0.05 effectively substitutes for approximately 20 mm of physical insulation thickness. Transparent films prioritize daytime comfort, raising nighttime temperatures by 1.5 °C, whereas opaque panels excel at nighttime insulation with a 2.28 °C increase. Techno-economic analysis identifies low-emissivity foil combined with EPS or XPS as the most cost-effective strategy, achieving rapid payback periods of 0.6–3.2 years. Regarding installation, an external configuration with a 20 mm air cavity and vertical operation was identified as optimal, yielding 1.5–2.0% greater energy savings than an internal setup. This study provides tailored retrofitting strategies for industrial building windows in these regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)

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19 pages, 10902 KB

Open AccessArticle

Indoor Light Environment Comfort Evaluation Method Based on Deep Learning and Evoked Potentials

by Sheng Miao, Sudong Li, Xixin Yang, Hongyu Guan and Xiang Shen

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4571; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244571 - 18 Dec 2025

Viewed by 344

Abstract

The optimal indoor lighting comfort can enhance physical and mental health and improve work efficiency. The traditional methods for evaluating lighting comfort have problems such as limited data analysis and poor subjectivity. To establish objective criteria, this study proposes a novel method combining [...] Read more.

The optimal indoor lighting comfort can enhance physical and mental health and improve work efficiency. The traditional methods for evaluating lighting comfort have problems such as limited data analysis and poor subjectivity. To establish objective criteria, this study proposes a novel method combining deep learning and evoked potentials. This study collected visual evoked potentials across diverse indoor lighting conditions and employed Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) and Gate Recurrent Unit (GRU) recurrent neural networks to classify temporal evoked electroencephalography data. The experimental results show that both LSTM and GRU achieve higher accuracy than the Feedforward Neural Network. Among them, LSTM performs best, reaching an accuracy of 80.16% while maintaining computational efficiency comparable to GRU. Such effective objective evaluation methods provide a scientific basis for optimizing indoor environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Intelligent Applications of Well-Being Spaces Design and Engineering)

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27 pages, 20097 KB

Open AccessArticle

Balancing Heritage and Modernity: A Hierarchical Adaptive Approach in Rome’s Cultural Sports Urban Renewal

by Kai Tang and Angelo Figliola

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4570; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244570 - 18 Dec 2025

Viewed by 403

Abstract

This research proposes a hierarchical adaptive approach to urban renewal that seeks to reconcile heritage preservation with contemporary functional demands in historic urban environments. Focusing on cultural and sports public facilities in the northwestern urban–rural interface of Rome, the research identifies critical mismatches [...] Read more.

This research proposes a hierarchical adaptive approach to urban renewal that seeks to reconcile heritage preservation with contemporary functional demands in historic urban environments. Focusing on cultural and sports public facilities in the northwestern urban–rural interface of Rome, the research identifies critical mismatches between facility typologies, user groups, and mobility patterns, including fragmented connectivity, child-exclusionary environments, and unsafe pedestrian–vehicular interactions. A three-tiered intervention framework is developed, comprising minimal intervention for heritage-preserved structures, semi-intervention for high-use contemporary facilities, and full intervention for generic or underutilized buildings and undeveloped land. Using field surveys, GIS-based spatial analysis, and visualized performance metrics, the study evaluates how vertical functional superposition, independent pedestrian systems, and transitional connectors can enhance spatial legibility, accessibility, and social inclusiveness. The results show that hierarchical adaptive renewal improves pedestrian safety, strengthens functional integration between cultural–sports facilities and adjacent residential areas, and activates underused spaces while maintaining the integrity of Rome’s historic fabric. Beyond the case study, the framework offers a transferable model for other high-density historic cities seeking to balance heritage protection, everyday usability, and sustainable urban development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Studies and Innovative Approaches to Sustainable Communities, Buildings, Cities and Infrastructure)

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24 pages, 5947 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing Performance of Pressure-Independent Control Valve for Hydronic Systems in Buildings

by Beungyong Park, Joowook Kim, Joonki Min and Taeyon Hwang

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4569; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244569 - 18 Dec 2025

Viewed by 325

Abstract

This study proposes the shape of a pressure-independent control valve (PICV) that minimizes the pressure drop to improve the flow performance of PICVs through target value modeling in accordance with the opening rate of the PICV. The model was verified by comparing the [...] Read more.

This study proposes the shape of a pressure-independent control valve (PICV) that minimizes the pressure drop to improve the flow performance of PICVs through target value modeling in accordance with the opening rate of the PICV. The model was verified by comparing the experimental values of the PICV at different opening rates with the flow rate and pressure drop based on computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling, and CFD simulations were performed based on the PICV opening rate and the improved model shape. The comparison between the PICV experimental values and the CFD modeling values indicated a flow rate difference of less than 4.65%, thus proving that the model satisfies the target flow rate. Based on this result, the PICV model was improved so that the minimum absolute pressure was increased and the pressure drop was decreased compared to the existing valve shape. Consequently, the energy requirements of the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning pumps of the building can be reduced, as there is no requirement for pressure drops, allowing the valve to operate without increasing the saturated vapor pressure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling and Simulation of Building Energy System)

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24 pages, 4533 KB

Open AccessArticle

Balancing Thermal Comfort and Energy Efficiency of a Public Building Through Adaptive Setpoint Temperature

by So Hyeon Jeong, Amina Irakoze, Young-A Lee and Kee Han Kim

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4568; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244568 - 18 Dec 2025

Viewed by 371

Abstract

Buildings account for a substantial share of global energy use, with cooling and heating systems contributing significantly to this demand. Conventional fixed setpoint temperatures overlook occupants’ thermal adaptability, often resulting in unnecessary energy consumption. Although adaptive setpoint temperatures have been investigated in residential [...] Read more.

Buildings account for a substantial share of global energy use, with cooling and heating systems contributing significantly to this demand. Conventional fixed setpoint temperatures overlook occupants’ thermal adaptability, often resulting in unnecessary energy consumption. Although adaptive setpoint temperatures have been investigated in residential and conventional office buildings, their applicability to public buildings, where occupancy is highly variable and indoor–outdoor thermal exchange occurs frequently, remains insufficiently explored. This study examines the performance of an adaptive cooling setpoint strategy in a public building in South Korea through simulation and in situ evaluation. A calibrated simulation model was used to compare cooling energy consumption between fixed and adaptive setpoint temperatures. Simulations indicated an overall 9.0% reduction in cooling energy use, with monthly savings exceeding 11.0% during cooling-dominant months. Validation results confirmed a 7.7% daily energy reduction, while survey results verified that occupant thermal comfort was maintained. The study findings indicate that adaptive thermal comfort-based setpoint temperature control shows promise for effective application in public buildings with similar operational characteristics, improving energy efficiency without compromising occupant comfort. This approach offers a practical pathway for sustainable HVAC operation in buildings with dynamic occupancy and operation features. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Effects of Urban Climate on the Energy Performance and Carbon Emissions of Buildings)

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14 pages, 5720 KB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Performance Improvement of Foam Mortar with Calcined Marl Blended Cement

by Yasemin Akgün

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4567; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244567 - 18 Dec 2025

Viewed by 297

Abstract

The construction sector has a very high share in solving the energy demand of the world and global warming problems. Therefore, it had to increase studies on building materials-based heat storage and thermal insulation. Foam concrete is one of them, but its thermal [...] Read more.

The construction sector has a very high share in solving the energy demand of the world and global warming problems. Therefore, it had to increase studies on building materials-based heat storage and thermal insulation. Foam concrete is one of them, but its thermal and mechanical properties need to be improved. So, in this study, calcined marl was used as a replacement material to evaluate its thermal performance in the production of foam mortars. The aims of this study are to determine the physical, mechanical, and thermal properties of foam mortars produced with blended cements containing calcined marl at 0, 10, 30, and 50% ratios and to obtain novel and optimum design data for the foam concrete market. In conclusion, the optimum calcined marl replacement ratio is up to 30% in terms of both thermal performance and mechanical properties of foam mortars. Due to calcined marl, this study presents a foam mortar design with economic and low-carbon. And, thanks to the mixed designs of foam mortars prepared with blended cement containing novel calcined marl additive, it is observed that they improve the thermal insulation and heat storage ability of foam mortars and provide sufficient strength. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

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21 pages, 1599 KB

Open AccessArticle

Life Cycle Carbon Emissions of GSHP Versus Traditional HVAC System for Residential Building: A Case from Jinan, China

by Jiayi Wang, Ke Zhu, Shulin Wang, Boli Wang, Haochen Lu and Ping Cui

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4566; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244566 - 18 Dec 2025

Viewed by 341

Abstract

The building sector represents a major source of global carbon emissions, with heating and cooling systems being particularly critical contributors, making the evaluation of sustainable low-carbon alternatives an urgent priority. In this study, life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology is used to analyze ground [...] Read more.

The building sector represents a major source of global carbon emissions, with heating and cooling systems being particularly critical contributors, making the evaluation of sustainable low-carbon alternatives an urgent priority. In this study, life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology is used to analyze ground source heat pump (GSHP) systems against traditional heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems based on project data from the city of Jinan and electrical grid characteristics of Northern China. It is specified that the functional unit is providing heating and cooling that maintains the indoor temperature of the building between 18 °C and 26 °C for 20 years. Following ISO 14040 standards, carbon emissions and economic performance across four phases—production, transportation, construction, and operation—over a 20-year life cycle were quantified using actual material inventory data and region-specific carbon emissions factors. The results demonstrate obvious environmental advantages for GSHP systems, which achieve a 51% reduction in life cycle carbon emissions compared to traditional systems based on the current power generation structure. Furthermore, sensitivity analysis shows that as the proportion of renewable energy in the grid increases to meet carbon neutrality targets, the reduction potential can even reach 88%. Economic analysis reveals that despite higher initial investments, GSHP systems achieve favorable performance with a positive 20-year net present value and an acceptable dynamic payback period for the project. This study shows that GSHP systems represent a viable strategy for sustainable building design in northern China, and the substantial carbon reduction potential can be further enhanced through grid decarbonization and renewable energy integration. The implementation of the GSHP system in newly constructed buildings, which require both heating and cooling, in Northern China, can be an effective strategy for advancing carbon neutrality goals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)

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13 pages, 1294 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Timing Polymer Fiber Addition on the Compressive Strength of Adobe Bricks: Towards an Approach Compatible with Sustainable Architecture

by Abdullah Y. Alnahar, Khalid Abolkhair, Hamad A. Albrithen and Abdulrahman A. Altassan

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4565; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244565 - 18 Dec 2025

Viewed by 271

Abstract

In the context of advancing sustainable local building materials, this study evaluates the mechanical impact of polypropylene (PP) fiber reinforcement on adobe bricks, specifically addressing the novel variable of fiber addition timing relative to the traditional 45-day biological fermentation process. Two experimental scenarios [...] Read more.

In the context of advancing sustainable local building materials, this study evaluates the mechanical impact of polypropylene (PP) fiber reinforcement on adobe bricks, specifically addressing the novel variable of fiber addition timing relative to the traditional 45-day biological fermentation process. Two experimental scenarios were investigated: fiber addition before fermentation and fiber addition after fermentation. In the pre-fermentation scenario, the unreinforced control specimen achieved the highest mean compressive strength (1.92 MPa), followed by reduced values of 1.66 MPa (0.25%), 1.60 MPa (0.50%), and 1.55 MPa (1.00%). In the post-fermentation scenario, the control recorded 1.81 MPa, while the PP-reinforced mixtures reached 1.73 MPa (0.25%), 1.65 MPa (0.50%), and 1.77 MPa (1.00%). Across both stages, PP fibers consistently decreased in strength due to weak bonding at the fiber–soil interface, as their hydrophobic nature disrupts the fermentation-derived biopolymer network formed by straw decomposition. Overall, this study highlights the limitations of synthetic fiber reinforcement within biologically stabilized adobe and contributes to the ongoing development of sustainable earthen construction systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Assessment and Strengthening of Masonry Structures)

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26 pages, 6201 KB

Open AccessArticle

Combined Effect of Recycled Tire Steel Fiber and Blast Furnace Slag on the Mechanical Performance of 3D Printable Concrete

by Fatih Eren Akgümüş, Hatice Gizem Şahin, Tuğçe İsafça Kaya and Ali Mardani

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4564; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244564 - 17 Dec 2025

Viewed by 369

Abstract

This study investigated the effects of waste steel fiber and high-volume blast furnace slag (BFS) substitution on the mechanical and physical properties of three-dimensional printable concrete (3DPC) to improve its environmental performance. BFS was substituted for cement at 0%, 25%, 50%, and 75% [...] Read more.

This study investigated the effects of waste steel fiber and high-volume blast furnace slag (BFS) substitution on the mechanical and physical properties of three-dimensional printable concrete (3DPC) to improve its environmental performance. BFS was substituted for cement at 0%, 25%, 50%, and 75% by volume. Waste steel fibers were added to the mixtures at three lengths (5, 10, and 15 mm) and two volumetric ratios (0.5% and 1.0%). Twenty-eight mixtures were optimized based on extrudability, buildability, and shape stability criteria. Parameters such as compressive and flexural strength, surface moisture content, and drying shrinkage were evaluated. The results showed that using up to 0.5% waste steel fibers increased compressive strength by up to 23%, but decreased it to a level of 1%. Fiber reinforcement improved the flexural strength of all blends by up to 53% at both ages, regardless of fiber ratio or length. Increasing the BFS substitution rate generally increased surface moisture however, this value decreased in mixtures containing 75% BFS and silica fume. Furthermore, using steel fibers and in-creasing fiber length significantly improved the drying shrinkage performance of the mixtures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D-Printed Technology in Buildings)

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30 pages, 5730 KB

Open AccessArticle

Blockchain-Based Platform for Secure Second-Hand Housing Trade: Requirement Identification, Functions Analysis, and Prototype Development

by Yi-Hsin Lin, Zhicong Hou, Jun Zhang, Xingyu Tao, Jack C. P. Cheng and Heng Li

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4563; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244563 - 17 Dec 2025

Viewed by 420

Abstract

Most current second-hand housing sales, contract signing, and other processes require the participation of intermediaries. However, suppose the intermediary refuses to disclose all information to the parties involved in the transactions. In that case, this traditional model can lead to weak supervision and [...] Read more.

Most current second-hand housing sales, contract signing, and other processes require the participation of intermediaries. However, suppose the intermediary refuses to disclose all information to the parties involved in the transactions. In that case, this traditional model can lead to weak supervision and punishment, adverse selection, moral hazards, and weak contract enforcement. Blockchain technology can not only secure the information intermediaries share, encouraging them to disclose information, but can also generate irreversible records of housing transactions for data traceability. Therefore, this study aims to develop a framework based on blockchain technology for the trading of second-hand housing. In this study, a second-hand housing online trading framework (SHHOTF) based on smart contract development is proposed for the second-hand housing business process, aiming to promote second-hand housing transactions. The contributions of this study lie in (1) determining the framework requirements, (2) proposing the functional module of a framework based on the blockchain and designing a complete business process, (3) developing an architecture for integrating blockchain and second-hand housing transaction processes, and developing technical components that support the framework functions, and (4) demonstrating the use case in Britain, analyzing the effectiveness and innovation of the framework. Furthermore, the framework demonstrated a 24% increase in transaction speed compared to the traditional Ethereum public network. The proposed process is highly adaptable within the current second-hand housing domain, and the developed framework can serve as a reference for introducing blockchain technology into other industries or application scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue BIM and Smart Technologies in Building Design, Construction, and Lifecycle Management)

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16 pages, 4346 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Analysis of Finite Element and Discrete Element Methods for the Deformation and Failure of Embankment Slope

by Jian Gong, Yongwei Li, Yangqing Liu, Qiaoming Guo, Haibin Ding, Lihua Li, Yu Huang and Weiwei Chen

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4562; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244562 - 17 Dec 2025

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Abstract

The finite element method (FEM) and discrete element method (DEM) have been widely applied to analyze the deformation and failure processes of embankment slopes. Although both methods can produce promising results, the choice between them has long remained unresolved. In this study, a [...] Read more.

The finite element method (FEM) and discrete element method (DEM) have been widely applied to analyze the deformation and failure processes of embankment slopes. Although both methods can produce promising results, the choice between them has long remained unresolved. In this study, a failure case of a granite residual soil (GRS) embankment was analyzed. FEM and DEM models were established to simulate the instability process of this embankment slope, and the applicability of both methods to GRS embankments was then evaluated. The main conclusions are as follows: (1) Geotechnical parameters of GRS were determined through laboratory testing, and FEM and DEM models were developed to reproduce the deformation and failure behavior of the embankment slope subjected to rainfall and vehicle loading. (2) Similar rainfall infiltration patterns were obtained from both FEM and DEM simulations; however, significant differences in deformation were observed. The FEM-predicted deformation was 0.075 m after rainfall, indicating that the embankment remained stable. In contrast, the DEM-predicted deformation reached 1.4 m, indicating that the embankment slope had already become unstable. (3) The DEM simulation closely reproduced the failure of the GRS embankment slope observed in the field. It realistically captures the process of particle disintegration in GRS caused by rainfall infiltration, as well as the subsequent slope collapse. Therefore, DEM can be regarded as the most appropriate approach for modeling the instability of GRS embankment slopes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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25 pages, 3313 KB

Open AccessArticle

Indoor Environment Improvement and Energy-Saving Effects of Light Shelf System with Integrated Radiant Heating and Cooling Panel

by Beomseok Go, Kyu-Nam Rhee, Joowook Kim and Taeyon Hwang

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4561; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244561 - 17 Dec 2025

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Abstract

Achieving good daylighting while maintaining thermal comfort and reducing perimeter energy use is a key challenge in low-energy office buildings. This study developed a thermally activated light shelf (TALS) system that integrates multiple functions into a conventional light shelf. The top surface blocks [...] Read more.

Achieving good daylighting while maintaining thermal comfort and reducing perimeter energy use is a key challenge in low-energy office buildings. This study developed a thermally activated light shelf (TALS) system that integrates multiple functions into a conventional light shelf. The top surface blocks excessive perimeter light and reflects daylight deeper into the room, while the bottom surface operates as a radiant heating and cooling panel using circulating warm or cool water. To evaluate the system, full-scale empirical experiments were conducted in a mock-up test bed with two identical office-like cells under the same boundary conditions; one cell was equipped with TALS and the other served as a reference. Indoor thermal environment indices and heating and cooling energy use were monitored during winter and summer. The TALS room achieved ISO 7730 Category A comfort more frequently, with Category A cumulative duration approximately 3.4 times longer in winter and 7.8 times longer in summer compared with the non-TALS room. In addition, heating and cooling energy were reduced by about 39.2% and 7.7%, respectively. These promising results are based on a single prototype and climate, and further studies are needed to optimize TALS capacity and window-related heat loss. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sustainable Lighting for Health and Comfort in the Built Environment)

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26 pages, 4342 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Study on the Damage Mechanism of Hybrid-Fiber-Reinforced Desert Sand Recycled Concrete Under Freeze–Thaw Cycles

by Yanlin Guan, Yaqiang Yang, Mohamed F. M. Fahmy, Yizhong Tan, Daochuan Zhou, Jianzhe Shi, Shanshan Yu and Chaoming Shen

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4560; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244560 - 17 Dec 2025

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Abstract

With the continuous growth of the demand for concrete in infrastructure construction, natural aggregate resources have become increasingly scarce. The preparation of concrete using desert sand and recycled aggregates has emerged as an effective approach to achieving the sustainable development of building materials. [...] Read more.

With the continuous growth of the demand for concrete in infrastructure construction, natural aggregate resources have become increasingly scarce. The preparation of concrete using desert sand and recycled aggregates has emerged as an effective approach to achieving the sustainable development of building materials. However, desert sand recycled concrete still confronts critical durability-related challenges when exposed to freeze–thaw conditions. We examined how hybrid fibers (steel fibers and hybrid PP fibers) affect the mechanical performance and freeze–thaw durability of desert sand recycled aggregate concrete, along with the underlying mechanisms. Mechanical properties (compressive, splitting tensile, flexural strength) and freeze–thaw damage indicators (mass loss, dynamic elastic modulus) were tested. The findings indicated that at a 30% desert sand replacement ratio, the concrete achieved optimal initial mechanical properties. For the hybrid fibers group (F0.15-S0.5) with 0.15% hybrid PP fibers and 0.5% steel fibers incorporated, relative to the control group, its compressive strength rose by 31.6%, while mechanical property loss was notably mitigated after 125 freeze–thaw cycles. Freeze–thaw damage models based on the exponential function and the Aas-Jakobsen function were established. Microscopic analysis indicated that the fibers effectively suppressed crack propagation and interfacial transition zone (ITZ) damage. This research offers critical experimental evidence and theoretical frameworks for the application of fiber-reinforced desert sand recycled concrete in cold-climate regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Latest Research on Building Materials and Structures)

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19 pages, 5186 KB

Open AccessArticle

Seismic Behavior of Beam-Connected Precast Walls with Innovative Concealed Steel Bracings: Experimental Insights and Numerical Study

by Yongguo Zhong, Zhimin Yu, Zejia Zhou, Jianzhong Lin and Peng Wang

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4559; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244559 - 17 Dec 2025

Viewed by 299

Abstract

In order to improve the seismic performance of traditional precast lightweight walls, a new precast concrete wall with beam connection and embedded steel support is proposed in this study. Six 2/3-scale specimens were designed for a quasi-static cyclic loading test, and a numerical [...] Read more.

In order to improve the seismic performance of traditional precast lightweight walls, a new precast concrete wall with beam connection and embedded steel support is proposed in this study. Six 2/3-scale specimens were designed for a quasi-static cyclic loading test, and a numerical study was carried out. Key variables include shear span ratio (0.8–1.6), wall thickness (120–200 mm), concrete strength (C25–C40), and concealed column configuration. The experimental results reveal three distinct failure modes, specifically, brace buckling, weld fracture at the lower joints, and bolt shear failure. The system shows excellent ductility (displacement ductility coefficient μ = 3.2–4.1) and energy dissipation capacity (equivalent viscous damping ratio ξ = 0.28–0.35), and its performance is 30–40% higher than that of traditional reinforced concrete walls and close to that of steel plate shear walls. The shear span ratio is reduced by 50%, the shear bearing capacity is increased by 16%, but the peak displacement is halved, and the peak load of concealed column is increased by 57%. The finite element analysis verified the experimental trends and emphasized that the shear capacity can be increased by 12–18% by widening the steel brace (relative to thickening) under the condition of constant steel volume. The results demonstrate that BIM-driven design is very important for solving connection conflicts and ensuring constructability. Parameter research shows that when the concrete strength is greater than C30, the yield load increases by 15–20%, but the influence on the ultimate bearing capacity is minimal. These findings provide an operational guide for the implementation of high-performance prefabricated walls in earthquake-resistant steel structures, and balance the details of constructability through support, connection, and BIM. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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17 pages, 4245 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Biophilic Therapeutic Framework for Ageing Well in Care Settings

by Carolyn Thomas, Yangang Xing, Andrew Knight and David J. Brown

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4558; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244558 - 17 Dec 2025

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Abstract

Access to nature is fundamental to human health and wellbeing, yet opportunities for direct and frequent engagement with natural environments are often restricted for individuals in the 80+ age category, particularly those in care settings or living in remote locations. There is therefore [...] Read more.

Access to nature is fundamental to human health and wellbeing, yet opportunities for direct and frequent engagement with natural environments are often restricted for individuals in the 80+ age category, particularly those in care settings or living in remote locations. There is therefore an urgent need to enhance nature connections in care settings and provide personalised, restorative experiences that reflect individuals preferred natural features. This prefeasibility pilot study developed a framework to inform the design of therapeutic care settings, grounded in the principles of biophilic neuroarchitecture and designed to support ageing well. Conducted over six months in two care environments, the study applied the biophilic pattern of Complexity and Order to simulate Natural Analogues within immersive virtual settings. Mixed methods combining wearable sensor data and self-reported wellbeing measures were used to assess psychophysiological, emotional, and cognitive responses among participants aged 80 and above. Findings revealed that VR content aligned with individual nature preferences elicited higher levels of engagement, relaxation, and positive affect. This study demonstrates the potential for implementing biophilic design applications to develop therapeutic care settings which promote wellbeing and healthy ageing, particularly where access to real nature is infrequent or limited. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Harmonizing Nature and Mind: Biophilic and Neuroarchitecture Synergies for Intelligent Buildings Enhancing Human Well-Being)

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29 pages, 1525 KB

Open AccessArticle

Unity and Variety in Architecture: Investigation from Elements to Compositions in Aesthetic Preferences

by Shaokang Chen, Yanfeng Hu, Yimin Wang, Yile Chen, Allan Whitfield, Safia Najwa Suhaimi and Zuriawati Ahmad Zahari

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4557; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244557 - 17 Dec 2025

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Abstract

Beyond utilitarian purpose, architecture possesses profound aesthetic value, serving not only as structures to inhabit but as spaces to be perceived, interpreted, and appreciated. Unity and variety are among the predictors that influence aesthetics, traditionally viewed as oppositional but jointly predictive of aesthetic [...] Read more.

Beyond utilitarian purpose, architecture possesses profound aesthetic value, serving not only as structures to inhabit but as spaces to be perceived, interpreted, and appreciated. Unity and variety are among the predictors that influence aesthetics, traditionally viewed as oppositional but jointly predictive of aesthetic preference. The present research investigates how unity and variety jointly predict aesthetic preference in the domain of Chinese carved windows and how these relationships change from isolated elements to window–background compositions. Two quasi-experimental studies were conducted. Study 1 asked participants to rate ten digitally rendered Chinese windows on unity, variety, and aesthetic preference. Study 2 used the same ten windows embedded in either a stylistically congruent Chinese background or an incongruent Western background. Across both studies (N = 797), results showed that unity and variety were negatively correlated yet both positively associated with aesthetic preference, with unity exerting the stronger predictive influence. The trade-off between unity and variety decreased once windows were placed in backgrounds, and stylistically incongruent Western backgrounds reliably suppressed perceived unity and inflated perceived variety. The findings are consistent with the Unity-in-Variety principle and highlight how architectural context influences unity–variety judgments. The studies provide strategies toward a more nuanced, architecture-specific understanding of unity and variety in aesthetic preference. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

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46 pages, 7479 KB

Open AccessReview

Performance-Driven Generative Design in Buildings: A Systematic Review

by Yiyang Huang, Zhenhui Zhang, Ping Su, Tingting Li, Yucan Zhang, Xiaoxu He and Huawei Li

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4556; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244556 - 17 Dec 2025

Viewed by 757

Abstract

Buildings are under increasing pressure to address decarbonization and climate adaptation, which is pushing design practice from post hoc performance checks to performance-driven generative design (PDGD). This review maps the current state of PDGD in buildings and proposes an engineering-oriented framework that links [...] Read more.

Buildings are under increasing pressure to address decarbonization and climate adaptation, which is pushing design practice from post hoc performance checks to performance-driven generative design (PDGD). This review maps the current state of PDGD in buildings and proposes an engineering-oriented framework that links research methods to deployable workflows. Using a PRISMA-based systematic search, we identify 153 core studies and code them along five dimensions: design objects and scales, objectives and metrics, algorithms and tools, workflows, and data and validation. The corpus shows a strong focus on facades, envelopes, and single-building massing, dominated by energy, daylight and thermal comfort objectives, and a widespread reliance on parametric platforms connected to performance simulation software with multi-objective optimization. From this evidence we extract three typical workflow routes: parametric evolutionary multi-objective optimization, surrogate or Bayesian optimization, and data- or model-driven generation. Persistent weaknesses include fragmented metric conventions, limited cross-case or field validation, and risks to reproducibility. In response, we propose a harmonized objective–metric system, an evidence pyramid for PDGD, and a reproducibility checklist with practical guidance, which together aim to make PDGD workflows more comparable, auditable, and transferable for design practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)

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22 pages, 13983 KB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Studies for the Application of the Methodology for Volume Loss of Cohesionless (Loose) Soils (V_L_,LSR) and the Additional Settlement (S_max) During Shield Tunneling

by Armen Z. Ter-Martirosyan, Ilnaz I. Mustakhimov and Ivan A. Tikhoniuk

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4555; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244555 - 17 Dec 2025

Viewed by 319

Abstract

This paper presents results of numerical modeling of tunneling using mechanized tunnel boring machines (TBMs) based on a methodology for determining the volume loss cohesionless (loose) soils, denoted as V_L_,LSR, for shallow tunnels in dispersive soils to estimate surface [...] Read more.

This paper presents results of numerical modeling of tunneling using mechanized tunnel boring machines (TBMs) based on a methodology for determining the volume loss cohesionless (loose) soils, denoted as V_L_,LSR, for shallow tunnels in dispersive soils to estimate surface and foundation on settlement natural ground. Existing methods for estimating ground surface and structural settlements have significant drawbacks, caused by several factors, including the complexity of determining volume loss using the proposed methodologies, a limited number of empirical parameters describing the technological features of TBM operations, the absence of methods in Russian regulatory documentation for determining volume loss in tunnels with diameters of 6 m or more, among other issues. The study aims to validate a previously developed method for estimating V_L_,LSR and an empirical equation for predicting surface settlements, S_max, to assess additional settlements induced by tunneling. The proposed volume loss methodology and the modified S_max expression from Peck R.B. (1969), derived from monitoring data, are used in empirical calculations and numerical modeling of surface and building settlements during TBM tunneling. Validation results include back-analysis of geotechnical “tunnel–ground–structure” interaction models, comparisons of additional settlements from design calculations and field monitoring data, as well as comparisons with existing empirical relationships and relevant regulatory documents, followed by recommendations for their integrated application. The validated methods demonstrate good agreement with observed monitoring data, while providing sufficient engineering safety margins, confirming the applicability of the V_L,LSR and the modified S_max expression by Peck R.B. (1969) for predicting settlements of tunneling and identifying directions for further research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Building Foundation Engineering and Underground Structures)

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28 pages, 14023 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Typically Canyon Hilly Terrain on the Spatial Wind Field of Heritage Sites: A Case Study of Xumishan Grottoes, China

by Hao Li, Yajun Lv, Pingan Ni, Shanshan Yao, Duo Zhang, Genyu Xu, Ping Chen, Ziyi Wang, Chu Li, Shaowei Zhang and Zengfeng Yan

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4554; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244554 - 17 Dec 2025

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Abstract

The canyon hilly terrain of northwestern China significantly influences wind field characteristics within the grotto zone, consequently affecting the degree of wind erosion on grotto heritage. In the present study, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) numerical simulations were employed to investigate the effects of [...] Read more.

The canyon hilly terrain of northwestern China significantly influences wind field characteristics within the grotto zone, consequently affecting the degree of wind erosion on grotto heritage. In the present study, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) numerical simulations were employed to investigate the effects of mountain length, slope, and spacing on the wind field characteristics of a typically canyon hilly terrain, with the Xumishan Grottoes as a case study. The results show a significant wind speed acceleration at canyon entrances and summits. Variations in mountain length and slope non-linearly affect wind field distribution, with wind speeds at the side and summit stabilizing when the mountain length exceeds three times the mountain height (L ≥ 3H). Based on the simulation results, an improved acceleration ratio formula incorporating mountain length, slope, and spacing was proposed, which demonstrated a discrepancy of only 9.05% compared with the field-validated CFD results for Cave 5 at Xumishan. This study elucidates the wind field formation mechanisms in canyon hilly terrain and provides a scientific basis for addressing the stone carving erosion of grotto heritage, contributing to the advancement of preventive conservation strategies for grottoes in complex terrains. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

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30 pages, 7505 KB

Open AccessArticle

Metakaolin-Enhanced Laterite Rock Aggregate Concrete: Strength Optimization and Sustainable Cement Replacement

by Udeme Udo Imoh, Muayad Habashneh, Sophia Chukwufumnanya Kaine, Adewumi John Babafemi, Rauf Hassan and Majid Movahedi Rad

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4553; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244553 - 17 Dec 2025

Viewed by 490

Abstract

The growing demand for concrete in tropical regions faces two unresolved challenges: the high carbon footprint of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and limited understanding of how supplementary cementitious materials affect the mechanical performance of laterite rock aggregates concrete. Although metakaolin (MK) is a [...] Read more.

The growing demand for concrete in tropical regions faces two unresolved challenges: the high carbon footprint of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and limited understanding of how supplementary cementitious materials affect the mechanical performance of laterite rock aggregates concrete. Although metakaolin (MK) is a highly reactive pozzolan, its combined use with laterite rock aggregates concrete and its influence on strength development and microstructure have not been sufficiently clarified. This study investigates the mechanical behavior and sustainability potential of laterite rock aggregate concrete in which OPC is partially replaced by MK at 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% by weight. All mixes were prepared at a constant water–binder ratio of 0.50 and tested for workability, compressive strength, split-tensile strength, and flexural strength at 7, 14, and 28 days, with and without a polycarboxylate-based superplasticizer. The results show that MK significantly enhances the mechanical performance of laterite rock concrete, with an optimum at 10% replacement: the 28-day compressive strength increased from 35.6 MPa (control) to 53.9 MPa in the superplasticized mix, accompanied by corresponding gains in tensile and flexural strengths. SEM–EDS analyses revealed microstructural densification, reduced portlandite, and a refined interfacial transition zone, explaining the improved strength and cracking resistance. From an environmental perspective, a 10% MK replacement corresponds to an approximate 10% reduction in clinker-related CO₂ emissions, while the use of locally available laterite rock reduces the dependence on quarried granite and transportation impacts. The findings demonstrate that MK-modified laterite rock concrete is a viable and eco-efficient option for structural applications in tropical regions. The study concludes that MK-enhanced laterite rock aggregate concrete can deliver higher structural performance and improved sustainability without altering conventional mix design and curing practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

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16 pages, 3410 KB

Open AccessArticle

Parametric Detailed Design for Complex Spatially Bending-Torsion Steel Members Based on the Grasshopper Platform

by Huan Wang, Jingtao Wang, Junfeng Zhang and Jianquan Lin

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4552; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244552 - 17 Dec 2025

Viewed by 268

Abstract

The proliferation of free-form architecture necessitates efficient detailing methods for complex spatially bending-torsion steel members. Current approaches suffer from low modeling efficiency, inaccurate surface fitting, and limited capabilities for variable-section generation and plate unfolding. This study presents a comprehensive parametric detailing module developed [...] Read more.

The proliferation of free-form architecture necessitates efficient detailing methods for complex spatially bending-torsion steel members. Current approaches suffer from low modeling efficiency, inaccurate surface fitting, and limited capabilities for variable-section generation and plate unfolding. This study presents a comprehensive parametric detailing module developed within the Grasshopper (GH) platform to overcome these challenges. The core innovations include (1) a data structure that integrally describes member axes, cross-sections, and unfolding information; (2) an algorithm that automatically generates interpolation points based on curvature variation to ensure axis smoothness; (3) the use of architectural surface normals as member torsion vectors, eliminating manual control point placement; and (4) integrated alignment and unfolding functions for fabrication-ready outputs. In an engineering case study, the module reduced modeling time by approximately 70% compared to conventional methods while achieving a root-mean-square deviation of less than 2 mm between the fitted and target surfaces. The system enables rapid generation of 3D models and 2D fabrication drawings for complex bending-torsion members, significantly enhancing detailing efficiency and precision. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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18 pages, 9508 KB

Open AccessArticle

Low-Temperature Synthesis of EPEG-Based Superplasticizers: Kinetic Optimization and Structure–Property Relationships

by Jingbin Yang, Shuang Zou, Haijing Yang and Zhenping Sun

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4551; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244551 - 17 Dec 2025

Viewed by 361

Abstract

Conventional synthesis of polycarboxylate superplasticizers (PCEs) typically relies on high-temperature processes, posing challenges for sustainable production. Ethylene glycol monovinyl polyethylene glycol ether (EPEG), characterized by the high reactivity of its vinyloxy double bond, offers a promising sustainable alternative for low-temperature synthesis. This study [...] Read more.

Conventional synthesis of polycarboxylate superplasticizers (PCEs) typically relies on high-temperature processes, posing challenges for sustainable production. Ethylene glycol monovinyl polyethylene glycol ether (EPEG), characterized by the high reactivity of its vinyloxy double bond, offers a promising sustainable alternative for low-temperature synthesis. This study systematically investigates the aqueous free radical copolymerization of EPEG and acrylic acid, identifying a reaction temperature of 20 °C as the kinetic optimum that achieves a macromonomer conversion rate exceeding 95% under ambient conditions. Through the variation in five key process parameters, a clear “synthesis–structure–property” relationship was established, revealing that the weight-average molecular weight (M_w) acts as the pivotal regulator of performance. High-M_w PCEs exhibited superior initial dispersion driven by strong electrostatic repulsion and high adsorption but suffered from poor slump retention due to the rapid depletion of free polymers. Conversely, low-M_w variants, regulated by chain transfer agent dosage, significantly reduced the pore solution surface tension, thereby enhancing wetting ability and workability retention. The optimal synthesis conditions (20 °C, 4:1 acid-to-ether ratio, 2.5% initiator, 1.5% chain transfer agent) yielded PCEs with an ideal balance between initial dispersion and retention. Furthermore, the synthesis demonstrated excellent process robustness with a broad dosing window (>60 min). These findings provide a vital theoretical basis for the robust and low-temperature industrial production of EPEG-based PCEs for sustainable infrastructure materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Trends and Prospects in Cementitious Material)

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14 pages, 1735 KB

Open AccessArticle

Economic Aspects of Demolition: Challenges and Prospects—A Case Study in the Municipality of Caivano (Campania, Italy)

by Daniela Menna, Fabrizio Battisti, Chiara Chioccarelli, Fabiana Forte and Giorgio Frunzio

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4550; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244550 - 17 Dec 2025

Viewed by 622

Abstract

The end-of-life phase of a building, which includes demolition and waste disposal, represents a crucial aspect of sustainable construction. In Europe, construction and demolition (C&D) waste accounts for approximately 40% of the total waste generated in the EU, making its management a global [...] Read more.

The end-of-life phase of a building, which includes demolition and waste disposal, represents a crucial aspect of sustainable construction. In Europe, construction and demolition (C&D) waste accounts for approximately 40% of the total waste generated in the EU, making its management a global challenge. The EU Construction & Demolition Waste Management Protocol (2024) emphasizes the importance of evaluating, before proceeding with the demolition of a building, whether renovation could be a more efficient solution, considering economic, environmental, and technical aspects. From an economic perspective, demolition costs vary depending on several factors, including project size, structural complexity, techniques employed (conventional or non-conventional), materials to be removed, and local regulations. In addition to the direct costs of the intervention, it is essential to consider indirect impacts, such as the management of construction and demolition (C&D) waste, the removal of hazardous substances, and potential environmental damage to be mitigated. This study analyzes a case located in Italy, in the municipality of Caivano (Metropolitan City of Naples, in Campania region), concerning a building that required energy efficiency improvements and seismic upgrades. The decision to demolish and rebuild proved to be economically more advantageous than renovation, while also allowing a 35% increase in volume, enabling the creation of a greater number of housing units. Through the analysis of this real case study, the aim is to highlight how investments in demolition, if properly planned, designed, assessed, and managed, can effectively contribute to building redevelopment, supporting the transition towards a sustainable construction model in line with the principles of the circular economy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainability in Buildings: New Trends in the Management of Construction and Demolition Waste, 3rd Edition)

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