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^{Quadruped Robots in Construction Automation: A Comprehensive Review of Applications, Localization, and Site-Level Operations}
Evaluation of Psychoacoustic Machine Learning Assessment Method for Predicting Occupant Well-Being
Evaluation Methods and Sensitivity Analysis of Corrosion Parameters for Eccentrically Loaded Angle Steel Members
Experimental Characterisation of Translucent High Performance Concrete Tiles Incorporating Recycled Glass for Architectural Envelops
Layered Spatial Articulation and Base Spatial Graph: Formalizing Structural Preconditions of Architectural Spatial Analysis

Journal Description

Buildings

Buildings is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on building science, building engineering and architecture published semimonthly online by MDPI. The International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and Construction (CIB) is affiliated with Buildings and its members receive discounts on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within SCIE (Web of Science), Scopus, Ei Compendex, Inspec, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Construction and Building Technology) / CiteScore - Q1 (Architecture)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 15.1 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.9 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Companion Journal: Architecture.
Journal Cluster of Civil Engineering and Built Environment: Acoustics, Architecture, Buildings, CivilEng, Construction Materials, Infrastructures, Intelligent Infrastructure and Construction, NDT and Vibration.

Impact Factor: 3.1 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 3.2 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2075-5309

Latest Articles

35 pages, 29266 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Empirical Study on Assessing Classroom Space Utilization Efficiency in Higher Education Institutions: Indicators, Methodological Advances, and a Comprehensive Analytical Framework—A Case Study of the Zhengxin Building at Harbin Institute of Technology

by Jia Li, Wenrui Zhao and Minghui Xue

Buildings 2026, 16(10), 1929; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16101929 - 12 May 2026

The accelerating pace of technological innovation has exacerbated the spatial misalignment between the static, supply-driven provision of educational facilities and the dynamic, demand-driven patterns of contemporary pedagogical activities. Assessing and quantifying spatial demand and the operational consumption of teaching environments pose critical challenges [...] Read more.

The accelerating pace of technological innovation has exacerbated the spatial misalignment between the static, supply-driven provision of educational facilities and the dynamic, demand-driven patterns of contemporary pedagogical activities. Assessing and quantifying spatial demand and the operational consumption of teaching environments pose critical challenges for facility asset management in higher education. Accordingly, rigorous investigation into the determinants of classroom spatial utilization efficiency and the formulation of evidence-based spatial optimization strategies are essential to advancing the sustainable evolution of campus infrastructure. This study takes the Zhengxin Building at Harbin Institute of Technology as a descriptive case, integrating timetable data with spatial syntax at the building scale. The scheduling data for 2943 courses in the Spring semester of 2023 was selected as the research basis. Using architectural spatial analysis tools—including space syntax theory, statistical correlation methods, and in situ observational surveys—this study extracts spatial attribute variables such as classroom area (A), seating capacity (S), floor level (F), integration (I), and space utilization efficiency metrics as primary quantitative measures. The interrelationships among these variables are examined to elucidate the principal drivers of teaching space performance. The empirical results indicate that the Overall Space Utilization Rate (OSUR) of the Zhengxin Building ranged from 20% to 50% during the study. The key findings include the following: (1) spatial utilization efficiency is positively associated with classroom scale but shows no significant relationship with integration (I); (2) after controlling for classroom type (T), per capita area index (PCAI), and integration (I), floor level (F) no longer exerts a statistically significant influence on utilization outcomes; (3) teaching spaces with higher integration and spatial entropy are more adaptable to heterogeneous instructional and extracurricular uses. The classroom type (T) directly mediates occupancy patterns and activity programming. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Campus of the University: Spatial Evolution, Societal Response, and Design Innovation)

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32 pages, 2519 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Study on the Influence of Out-of-Plane Effects on In-Plane Performance of Composite Slabs

by Cheng-Hao Jiang, Qi-Liang Zhou, Yue-Xin Jiang, Li-Yan Xu and Mu-Xuan Tao

Buildings 2026, 16(10), 1928; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16101928 - 12 May 2026

This study comprised an experimental investigation of the in-plane performance of composite floor slabs under out-of-plane effects. Two composite floor slabs were subjected to pure in-plane loading, and in-plane and out-of-plane coupled loading, respectively. The study analyzed crack patterns, failure modes, and load–displacement [...] Read more.

This study comprised an experimental investigation of the in-plane performance of composite floor slabs under out-of-plane effects. Two composite floor slabs were subjected to pure in-plane loading, and in-plane and out-of-plane coupled loading, respectively. The study analyzed crack patterns, failure modes, and load–displacement curves, and evaluated how out-of-plane effects influenced in-plane performance. The test results indicated that both specimens exhibited a typical shear-tension failure mode, forming diagonal shear cracks. The specimen with out-of-plane loading exhibited a trend for lateral development of the shear cracks. The load–displacement curves of the two specimens showed obvious strength degradation, stiffness degradation, and a pinching effect. By comparing the two specimens, it could be observed that at a small out-of-plane displacement angle, the in-plane ultimate bearing capacity of a specimen was not significantly weakened; however, as the out-of-plane displacement continued to increase, the in-plane bearing capacity of the specimen decayed more rapidly. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Seismic Performance of Steel and Composite Structures)

29 pages, 5607 KB

Open AccessArticle

Interpretable Machine Learning Reveals Synergy-Gain Windows and Dual-Objective Mix-Proportion Boundaries for Compressive Strength and Peak Strain in Hybrid Steel–PVA Fiber-Reinforced Concrete

by Maojun Liu, Junwen Chen and Shengkai Zhou

Buildings 2026, 16(10), 1927; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16101927 - 12 May 2026

Hybrid steel–PVA fiber-reinforced concrete offers promise for enhancing both load-bearing capacity and deformation capacity. However, the coupled effects of fiber parameters and volume-fraction combinations on compressive strength (σc) and peak strain (εc) are still not fully understood. A unified, interpretable, and engineering-oriented quantitative [...] Read more.

Hybrid steel–PVA fiber-reinforced concrete offers promise for enhancing both load-bearing capacity and deformation capacity. However, the coupled effects of fiber parameters and volume-fraction combinations on compressive strength (σc) and peak strain (εc) are still not fully understood. A unified, interpretable, and engineering-oriented quantitative framework is still lacking. This study compiled experimental data from 26 published literature, building a multi-source database consisting of 397 datasets for σc and 203 datasets for εc. Based on this database, a comprehensive analytical framework was proposed, including model prediction, SHAP-based interpretation, Monte Carlo marginalization, synergy-gain window determination, and dual-objective mix-proportion optimization. For σc prediction, LightGBM achieved the highest test-set R² (0.9783), whereas CatBoost showed more robust error control (MAE = 2.7409 MPa). CatBoost was therefore selected as the base model for the subsequent interpretation analysis. For εc prediction, Bayesian-optimized CatBoost achieved the best test performance (R² = 0.9659, MAE = 0.0218, RMSE = 0.0358), while the transfer-learning model reached a comparable accuracy level (R² = 0.9650). SHAP analysis revealed that σc is mainly governed by matrix mix-proportion factors and steel fiber volume fraction, whereas εc is more sensitive to S/B and PVA-related variables. The mean synergy-gain maps generated via Monte Carlo marginalization and two-dimensional grid evaluation further showed clear differences between the two targets. Positive synergy in σc was highly localized. Its maximum mean synergy gain was 4.7949 MPa at (Steel, PVA) = (1.875%, 2.000%). By contrast, εc exhibited a wider positive-synergy region, with a peak value of 0.0141629 at (0.38%, 1.62%). Therefore, the engineering output of this study is not a single optimal mix point. Instead, it is a set of candidate windows for different performance targets, together with boundary-risk identification and priorities for experimental validation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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27 pages, 3673 KB

Open AccessArticle

Intelligent Information Model for Pile Foundation Design: A Research Study

by Zhen Liu, Ziyu Tao, Junjie Yang, Cuiying Zhou, Wei Hu and Chunhui Lan

Buildings 2026, 16(10), 1926; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16101926 - 12 May 2026

Pile foundation is one of the most widely used deep foundation solutions, and the intelligent informatization of its design process holds significant theoretical and practical value. The innovation of this study lies in the construction of a systematic integrated framework for intelligent pile [...] Read more.

Pile foundation is one of the most widely used deep foundation solutions, and the intelligent informatization of its design process holds significant theoretical and practical value. The innovation of this study lies in the construction of a systematic integrated framework for intelligent pile foundation design and 3D visualization. Unlike previous machine learning studies that primarily focus on the predictive accuracy of individual parameters, this framework establishes a “coordinate-driven” parameter generation mechanism, enabling a fully automated workflow from geological feature extraction and implicit design parameter computation to real-time 3D model mapping. We clarified the basic principles of intelligent informatization and constructed a database to conduct a correlation analysis to identify key algorithms. An intelligent calculation model based on random forest was established for predicting core design indicators such as pile length and diameter. By transforming complex nonlinear design logics into data-driven predictive models, the framework significantly reduces the reliance on empirical assumptions and the costs associated with frequent human–computer interaction in traditional design processes. Furthermore, a 3D mapping method is developed using Three.js to achieve real-time coupling of design data and spatial geometric models. The proposed method was applied to a practical engineering case in southern China for verification. The results demonstrate that the framework allows for the rapid formation of data models with reduced manual input while optimizing workflow efficiency and maintaining objective accuracy. This approach provides a closed-loop solution for geotechnical engineering transitioning from digital decision-making to visual presentation, offering high potential for adaptation to other engineering scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)

27 pages, 4497 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Enhancing Construction Project Resilience Through Emerging Technologies: A Research-to-Practice Framework

by Abubakar S. Mahmoud, Ali Istanbullu, Victor Olabode Otitolaiye and Faris Omer

Buildings 2026, 16(10), 1925; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16101925 - 12 May 2026

This study presents an integrated bibliometric analysis (BA) and systematic literature review (SLR) of construction safety research (CSR) to examine its evolution and emerging technological directions. It aims to move beyond descriptive mapping by linking long-term research trends with recent technological advancements to [...] Read more.

This study presents an integrated bibliometric analysis (BA) and systematic literature review (SLR) of construction safety research (CSR) to examine its evolution and emerging technological directions. It aims to move beyond descriptive mapping by linking long-term research trends with recent technological advancements to provide a structured understanding of how construction safety is transitioning toward data-driven and resilient systems. Utilising the PRISMA-guided approach, 1979 publications were analysed, revealing an average annual growth rate of 18%, driven by increasing safety concerns and the rapid implementation of digital technologies. The findings demonstrate that conventional safety research, centred on hazard identification, safety culture, and management commitment, is gradually being complemented by advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML), extended reality (XR), and digital twins. These technologies enable predictive risk assessment, real-time monitoring, and immersive training, supporting a shift from reactive to proactive safety management. Despite these advancements, critical gaps remain, including limited real-world validation of AI-based systems, insufficient integration of technologies into cohesive frameworks, and underexplored socio-cultural factors influencing adoption. These challenges were addressed by proposing a research-to-practice framework for integrating emerging technologies into construction safety management. The framework incorporates technological, organisational, and human factors to enhance adaptability, risk management, and overall construction project resilience. Additionally, the research contributes to the body of knowledge by providing a comprehensive and analytically grounded framework that bridges the gap between research and practical implementation, while also identifying future research directions to support the development of intelligent, resilient, and adaptive construction safety systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Digital Innovation Framework for Construction Management and Built Environment)

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19 pages, 3410 KB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Regulation of Low-Hydration, Non-Shrinking, High-Strength Grouting Materials: The Synergistic Effect of GGBS and Expansive Agents

by Xiang He, Jingjing He, Li Qian, Lei Gan, Xinchao Ding, Kuangmin Wei and Xi Lu

Buildings 2026, 16(10), 1924; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16101924 - 12 May 2026

In response to the issues of concentrated early-stage hydration heat and significant self-shrinkage in high-strength cementitious grouting materials at low water-to-binder ratios, improvements were achieved by co-blending granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) with calcium sulphatoaluminate (UEA) and magnesium oxide (MEA) expansive agents. The [...] Read more.

In response to the issues of concentrated early-stage hydration heat and significant self-shrinkage in high-strength cementitious grouting materials at low water-to-binder ratios, improvements were achieved by co-blending granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) with calcium sulphatoaluminate (UEA) and magnesium oxide (MEA) expansive agents. The workability, mechanical properties, volumetric stability and hydration heat characteristics of the composite system were systematically investigated, and the underlying mechanisms were elucidated through microscopic analysis methods such as XRD, TG and SEM. The results indicate that GGBS improved the fluidity of the pastes and promoted the development of later-stage strength. At the same time, GGBS delayed the peak of hydration heat release and reduced total heat release. In terms of volume deformation, UEA expanded rapidly and exhibited significant compensatory shrinkage in the early stages. MEA expanded slowly in the early stages and displayed more sustained expansion under wet-curing conditions, but experienced significant shrinkage rebound in the later stages under dry environments. Further research revealed that GGBS inhibited the expansion performance of both types of expansive agents. This is primarily attributed to the consumption of Ca(OH)₂ within the system, which reduced the alkalinity of the liquid phase. GGBS physically restricted the formation and development of expansion products by promoting the densification of the C–S–H gel. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

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38 pages, 8911 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Two-Stage Optimization-Assessment Framework for Climate-Based Glazing Performance Considering Energy Use, Thermal Comfort, and Daylight Glare

by Nurbanu Düzgün Atalay and Şensin Aydın Yağmur

Buildings 2026, 16(10), 1923; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16101923 - 12 May 2026

Window glazing systems play a critical role in building energy performance, particularly in office buildings with large window-to-wall ratios, which introduce complex trade-offs between energy consumption, thermal comfort, and visual comfort. This study develops a two-stage optimization-assessment framework to assess glazing performance across [...] Read more.

Window glazing systems play a critical role in building energy performance, particularly in office buildings with large window-to-wall ratios, which introduce complex trade-offs between energy consumption, thermal comfort, and visual comfort. This study develops a two-stage optimization-assessment framework to assess glazing performance across six climate regions defined by the TS 825 standard in Türkiye. In the first stage, a genetic algorithm-based multi-objective optimization approach was employed to minimize annual energy consumption (heating, cooling, and daylight-linked lighting) and thermal discomfort hours. In the second stage, the resulting Pareto-optimal solutions were further evaluated and ranked according to spatial disturbing glare (sDG) performance using annual glare simulations. The results show that energy-optimal solutions are not necessarily visually acceptable, highlighting the limitations of single-criterion approaches. While static low-e glazing provides competitive energy performance under several climate conditions, it may lead to increased glare risk, particularly at high window-to-wall ratios and in sun-exposed orientations. Dynamic glazing systems, although not consistently superior in energy terms, offer a more balanced performance when glare is considered, especially in colder climates. These findings emphasize the need for a climate-based, multi-criteria, and integrated approach to glazing selection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)

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24 pages, 6892 KB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling Ultra-High-Density Exposure and Evacuation Dynamics in a High-Density Urban Plaza: An Agent-Based Simulation Study of Guangzhou Huacheng Plaza

by Rui Liang, Zhenyu Lei, Zhenhao Wen, Wensha Wang, Xichuan Zheng and Liu Chen

Buildings 2026, 16(10), 1922; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16101922 - 12 May 2026

High-density urban plazas hosting multi-session public events often experience pulsed inflows, prolonged crowd retention, and localized bottleneck congestion, creating crowd-safety risks that cannot be fully captured by static capacity or total evacuation time alone. This study develops an agent-based simulation framework to evaluate [...] Read more.

High-density urban plazas hosting multi-session public events often experience pulsed inflows, prolonged crowd retention, and localized bottleneck congestion, creating crowd-safety risks that cannot be fully captured by static capacity or total evacuation time alone. This study develops an agent-based simulation framework to evaluate ultra-high-density exposure and evacuation dynamics in Guangzhou Huacheng Plaza during the International Light Festival. The model was constructed in AnyLogic using site-layout data, event organization records, official attendance information, historical event timelines, and publicly available video observations. Two scenarios were examined: normal dynamic entry–exit operation under different inter-performance intervals, and overload-triggered evacuation under alternative spatial management strategies. Model calibration and event-process validation were conducted by comparing simulated congestion hotspots, key event timing, delayed dispersal patterns, and evacuation-duration ranges with historical observations and documented event records. The results show that extending the inter-performance interval from 90 min to 120 min reduced the overload duration from 75 min to 5 min and decreased cumulative ultra-high-density exposure from 25.62 to 13.93. Under overload evacuation, zonal guidance mainly improved early-stage crowd redistribution, whereas increased exit capacity produced a stronger reduction in total evacuation time and sustained congestion. Total evacuation time decreased from 185 min in the baseline condition to 160 min under the combined strategy, while effective discharge capacity increased from 231.12 to 338.28 pedestrians/min. These findings indicate that crowd safety in open urban plazas depends not only on total attendance, but also on event pacing, bottleneck recovery time, and effective discharge capacity. The proposed exposure-oriented framework provides a quantitative basis for evaluating crowd accumulation and evacuation strategies in high-density open public spaces. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

35 pages, 1227 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Physics-Constrained Surrogate Model for Multi-Hazard Collapse Assessment of Buildings Under Post-Fire Concurrent Wind-Earthquake Loading

by Ahmed Elgammal, Yasmin Ali, Amir Shirkhani and Pedro Martinez-Vazquez

Buildings 2026, 16(10), 1921; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16101921 - 12 May 2026

Conventional structural design frameworks assess natural hazards as statistically independent phenomena, a practice that can lead to significant underestimation of risk for structures subjected to sequential or concurrent hazards. The generation of probabilistic fragility functions under such cascading loads, particularly for post-fire seismic [...] Read more.

Conventional structural design frameworks assess natural hazards as statistically independent phenomena, a practice that can lead to significant underestimation of risk for structures subjected to sequential or concurrent hazards. The generation of probabilistic fragility functions under such cascading loads, particularly for post-fire seismic events, presents a computational barrier for standard non-linear dynamic analysis. To address this barrier, this study introduces a comprehensive computational framework centered on a physics-constrained neural network (PCNN) to serve as a high-fidelity surrogate model. The framework first uses a non-linear 12-degree-of-freedom structural model to generate a baseline dataset of collapse times under post-fire, concurrent wind-earthquake loading via the computationally efficient endurance time (ET) method, confirming that wind effects are negligible under ambient conditions and that the framework correctly identifies this hazard hierarchy without prior labeling, while fire and seismic parameters dominate. This dataset is subsequently used to train the PCNN, which is validated to achieve exceptional predictive accuracy (

R^{2} =

0.991), performing on par with a state-of-the-art Random Forest model while enforcing physical constraints. A feature importance analysis confirmed that structural collapse is dominated by fire intensity (≈55%) and initial structural period (≈45%). The validated PCNN is then applied to demonstrate the framework’s capability, rapidly generating fragility curves that quantify the catastrophic effect of fire on seismic resilience. This analysis reveals that a severe 800 °C localized fire reduces the structure’s median collapse capacity by 94.7%, thereby establishing the proposed framework as a successful template for tackling complex, non-linear problems in multi-hazard engineering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reliability and Risk Assessment of Building Structures)

30 pages, 1648 KB

Open AccessArticle

Age-Friendly Residential Environments for Empty-Nest Seniors in Urban China: A Built Environment Framework for Aging Suitability and Perceived Independence

by Xiaokang Liu, Hong Li and Wumin Ouyang

Buildings 2026, 16(10), 1920; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16101920 - 12 May 2026

Constructing age-friendly residential environments is essential for supporting aging in place among the growing population of urban empty-nest older adults in China. Grounded in person–environment fit theory, this study developed and validated a multidimensional Aging-Suitability Index (ASI) to examine how residential environmental factors [...] Read more.

Constructing age-friendly residential environments is essential for supporting aging in place among the growing population of urban empty-nest older adults in China. Grounded in person–environment fit theory, this study developed and validated a multidimensional Aging-Suitability Index (ASI) to examine how residential environmental factors shape housing suitability and perceived independence. In this study, “aging suitability” refers to the degree of fit between residential environments and older adults’ needs for safety, functionality, accessibility, social support, and technological support, with the central aim of enabling aging in place and independent living. Questionnaire data were collected from 753 urban empty-nest older adults across 19 provinces in China and analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). The structural model showed strong explanatory power (R² = 0.754). The results revealed a clear hierarchy of environmental influences. Safety facilities and physical design were the strongest direct predictors of residential aging suitability, indicating that risk reduction and ergonomically appropriate spatial design constitute the foundation of age-friendly housing. Although accessibility showed a smaller direct effect, it exerted a significant indirect effect through perceived independence, with 67.35% of its total effect mediated through this pathway, highlighting the importance of barrier-free design in maintaining autonomy. Social support and smart technology also contributed positively as complementary resources that strengthened person–environment fit. These findings suggest that age-friendly housing interventions should move beyond fragmented modifications toward integrated residential renewal strategies that prioritize safety and physical design, improve accessibility to support independent living, and combine community support with age-friendly technologies. This study provides empirical evidence to inform built-environment decision-making in the design and renewal of housing for older adults in rapidly aging urban contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Age-Friendly Built Environment and Sustainable Architectural Design)

64 pages, 11660 KB

Open AccessArticle

Human Resource Planning for Building Construction Processes Through the Integration of BIM and Line of Balance

by Santiago Olaya, Camilo Tibaná, Omar Sánchez, Karen Castañeda and Kevin Torres

Buildings 2026, 16(10), 1919; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16101919 - 12 May 2026

Construction projects depend heavily on manual labor; however, workforce productivity is frequently constrained by poor planning and communication. This paper proposes a methodological framework that combines Building Information Modeling (BIM) with the Lines of Balance (LOB) technique to estimate, allocate, and visually coordinate [...] Read more.

Construction projects depend heavily on manual labor; however, workforce productivity is frequently constrained by poor planning and communication. This paper proposes a methodological framework that combines Building Information Modeling (BIM) with the Lines of Balance (LOB) technique to estimate, allocate, and visually coordinate crews in repetitive building work. Using a Design Science Research approach, the study draws on a systematic review of 29 eligible studies that identified 23 processes for human resource planning and allocation. These processes are structured into five planning categories: scope and duration, structuring and quantification, resource estimation and allocation, schedule baseline, and cost baseline. BIM support is operationalized through seven high-utility BIM applications identified by expert assessment (RUI > 0.75), including phase planning, scheduling, site utilization planning, and cost estimation. The framework connects model-based quantity takeoff and productivity assumptions with LOB-based sequencing and crew assignment. This integration enables early detection of spatiotemporal overlaps and workload imbalances through consistent BIM–LOB visualization. The method was implemented and calibrated in two residential case studies (one covering 295 m² over 3 months and the other 3660 m² over 22 months), resulting in workforce plans comprising 10 workers across five crews and 72 workers across nine crews. An evaluation involving 31 professionals indicates a high perceived utility, particularly in reducing errors in quantity and productivity estimation (RUI = 0.90) and crew quantification (RUI = 0.88). Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)

29 pages, 6902 KB

Open AccessArticle

Interpreting Failure-Related Load Transition in Static Tests of PHC Pipe Piles Using a Work-Based Abrupt Change Method

by Ligang Cao, Xiaoyan Zhao, Di Zhu and Bo Yang

Buildings 2026, 16(10), 1918; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16101918 - 12 May 2026

This study proposes a work-based interpretation procedure, hereafter referred to as the IDEA method, for identifying the failure-related transition load in monotonic static load tests of pre-stressed high-strength concrete pipe piles. The method was examined using nine full-scale axial compression tests from a [...] Read more.

This study proposes a work-based interpretation procedure, hereafter referred to as the IDEA method, for identifying the failure-related transition load in monotonic static load tests of pre-stressed high-strength concrete pipe piles. The method was examined using nine full-scale axial compression tests from a site in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, China. Cumulative work was reconstructed from the measured load settlement curves, and an incremental work response indicator was fitted with a one-break continuous segmented-regression model. The breakpoint was taken as the IDEA estimate, while bootstrap confidence intervals and delta BIC were used to evaluate numerical stability and model support. For the present nine piles, IDEA showed close agreement with the code-interpreted reference loads and yielded the lowest MAPE among the five Q-s interpretation methods considered, whereas the Davisson method showed slightly lower COV and RMSE. Additional perturbation analyses indicated low sensitivity to moderate settlement noise but clear sensitivity to sparse loading records and missing pre-failure points. A preliminary external application to 10 published pile cases showed generally favorable agreement with reference loads reinterpreted from digitized external Q-s curves using a uniform abrupt-settlement criterion. Because the original settlement–time records of the external cases were unavailable, the external assessment is treated as a curve-based transferability check rather than a strictly code-certified validation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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20 pages, 1571 KB

Open AccessArticle

Construction Safety Risk Identification and Coupling Analysis Based on Data Mining

by Guozong Zhang, Dexin Yang and Yuan Sun

Buildings 2026, 16(10), 1917; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16101917 - 12 May 2026

Frequent accidents in the construction sector arise from the dynamic coupling of multiple risk factors, while conventional single-factor approaches fail to capture the underlying complexity. Drawing on 702 accident investigation reports, this study develops an intelligent, data-driven framework that integrates large language model–based [...] Read more.

Frequent accidents in the construction sector arise from the dynamic coupling of multiple risk factors, while conventional single-factor approaches fail to capture the underlying complexity. Drawing on 702 accident investigation reports, this study develops an intelligent, data-driven framework that integrates large language model–based risk identification with association rule mining to systematically uncover risk factors and their coupling patterns. A DeepSeek-based model is employed to extract risk factors from unstructured text, followed by cosine similarity–based optimization to refine factor representations. The FP-Growth algorithm is then applied to identify strong association rules among risk factors. The results reveal that deficiencies in the management dimension account for 68.30% of all identified risks, with inadequate safety education and training emerging as the central hub in the risk coupling network, which is further corroborated by complex network analysis. Moreover, a cascading transmission pathway is identified, whereby environmental deficiencies induce weakened safety awareness, which in turn leads to unsafe behaviors. These findings further demonstrate the nonlinear amplification effects arising from concurrent management failures. By establishing a transformation pathway from unstructured textual data to structured risk knowledge, this study provides a robust, data-driven foundation for precise risk identification and systematic prevention in construction safety management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)

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24 pages, 9296 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrating Drilling Parameters and Face Images for Tunnel Rock Mass Classification Using a Hybrid Random Forest and MambaVision Model

by Peng Yang, Qiang Zhao, Bentie Zhang, Dong Zhou and Lu Lv

Buildings 2026, 16(10), 1916; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16101916 - 12 May 2026

Tunnel construction requires accurate and timely classification of surrounding rock masses to ensure safety and guide excavation. This research addresses the limitations of conventional methods and unimodal intelligent approaches by proposing a novel hybrid deep model, Random-Mamba, that integrates drilling parameters and digital [...] Read more.

Tunnel construction requires accurate and timely classification of surrounding rock masses to ensure safety and guide excavation. This research addresses the limitations of conventional methods and unimodal intelligent approaches by proposing a novel hybrid deep model, Random-Mamba, that integrates drilling parameters and digital images for enhanced classification performance. A dataset of 3361 synchronized samples was constructed, containing six drilling parameters, digital face images, and expert-classified rock mass grades. The model employs a dual-branch architecture: a Random Forest processes the drilling parameters, and a MambaVision network extracts visual features, with a multilayer perceptron performing the fusion. The proposed model achieved an overall accuracy of 92.12% and a macro-F1 score of 91.66%, outperforming the most comparable hybrid model by 2.61% in accuracy. It demonstrated particularly high precision in identifying Class III rock with an F_1-score of 93.2%. Ablation and comparative experiments confirmed its superiority over both single-modality models, such as SVM and ResNet, and other hybrid architectures, like Random-Swin. SHAP-based sensitivity analysis further revealed that feed speed was the most influential drilling parameter for classification. The effective fusion of complementary mechanical and visual data provides a robust and practical solution for real-time rock mass assessment in tunneling engineering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)

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18 pages, 4188 KB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Investigation of Ground Surface Settlement Induced by Dewatering and Excavation of Deep Foundation Pits in Water-Rich Sandy Strata

by Yanjian Xu, Qiyun Wang and Yanan Liao

Buildings 2026, 16(10), 1915; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16101915 - 12 May 2026

Given the challenges posed by high groundwater levels, thick sand layers, and strong permeability in water-rich sandy strata, cut-off walls often fail to fully isolate the hydraulic connection between the inside and outside of a foundation pit. As a result, dewatering inside the [...] Read more.

Given the challenges posed by high groundwater levels, thick sand layers, and strong permeability in water-rich sandy strata, cut-off walls often fail to fully isolate the hydraulic connection between the inside and outside of a foundation pit. As a result, dewatering inside the pit—especially from confined aquifers—can cause significant external groundwater drawdown and subsequent ground settlement. Using a deep excavation conducted in Xiamen as a case study, this study developed a two-dimensional hydro-mechanical coupled finite element model to systematically investigate the effects of various dewatering scenarios and soil permeability coefficients on surface settlement around the pit, and to reveal settlement patterns induced by dewatering and excavation in such strata. Field monitoring data were incorporated to validate the numerical model, ensuring accuracy and reliability. Key findings include the following: (1) Dewatering contributes to over 76% of the total settlement at each stage, with confined drawdown being the dominant factor, implying that dewatering optimization should take priority over controlling excavation rate. (2) Under confined dewatering, the settlement influence zone extends beyond 80 m, far exceeding the extension caused by excavation alone; thus, monitoring and protection ranges must be adjusted dynamically. (3) The horizontal permeability of sand shows a nonlinear positive correlation with settlement, and this sensitivity grows with depth, highlighting the need for accurate permeability determination and stricter controls in deep excavations within water-rich sand layers. From an engineering perspective, these findings underscore the importance of prioritizing confined aquifer dewatering management, dynamically expanding settlement monitoring zones, and rigorously characterizing permeability profiles to mitigate excessive ground settlement and protect adjacent infrastructure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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29 pages, 12843 KB

Open AccessArticle

Resilience Analysis of a Large-Span Stadium Under Typhoon-Induced Wind Hazards

by Lixin Wang, Jianfu Lin, Sijian Lin, Zihan Zhou, Yangjin Yuan, Jiaxin Zhang and Yuxuan Lin

Buildings 2026, 16(10), 1914; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16101914 - 12 May 2026

Large-span stadium roofs in coastal regions are highly vulnerable to typhoon-induced wind damage, and their post-event performance depends on both structural safety and functionality recovery. This study proposes a probabilistic framework to assess typhoon-induced damage, functionality degradation, recovery, and resilience of a large-span [...] Read more.

Large-span stadium roofs in coastal regions are highly vulnerable to typhoon-induced wind damage, and their post-event performance depends on both structural safety and functionality recovery. This study proposes a probabilistic framework to assess typhoon-induced damage, functionality degradation, recovery, and resilience of a large-span stadium roof system in Shenzhen, China. Progressive damage to the roof cover and the roof-supporting structure is evaluated by combining wind tunnel pressure data and structural analysis. The results show that the roof cover shows greater vulnerability than the supporting structure, with slight damage emerging at around 30 m/s, whereas structural damage requires higher wind speeds. A functionality-based recovery model is further developed by considering repair preparation, repair duration, and repair sequence constraints. The building generally exhibits a high resilience level, with a mean resilience index of 0.9550 and a median of 0.9589. The initial overall building functionality loss increases from about 7% under TY conditions to 20% under STY and 60% under Super TY, while the recovery duration increases by about 2–3 times and 5–6 times relative to the TY case, respectively. The proposed framework provides a practical basis for resilience-oriented performance assessment of large-span roof structures under typhoon hazards. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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28 pages, 4152 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Evaluation of a Narrative Augmented Reality Game for Historic Architectural Districts

by Jiajia Zhao, Yulin Yan and Ru Zhang

Buildings 2026, 16(10), 1913; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16101913 - 12 May 2026

With the rapid development of digital technologies, augmented reality (AR) has created new possibilities for the presentation and dissemination of cultural heritage. However, conventional digital guide systems in historic districts are typically dominated by static information delivery, lacking interactivity and user engagement, which [...] Read more.

With the rapid development of digital technologies, augmented reality (AR) has created new possibilities for the presentation and dissemination of cultural heritage. However, conventional digital guide systems in historic districts are typically dominated by static information delivery, lacking interactivity and user engagement, which limits their effectiveness in enhancing public understanding of historic architectural environments and related cultural knowledge. To address this limitation, this study focuses on historic architectural districts and proposes a narrative-based AR cultural exploration approach embedded in real architectural space. The Hubu Mountain historic architectural district in Xuzhou, China, was selected as the case study. First, grounded theory was employed to systematically analyze the cultural resources of the district and extract key cultural narrative elements. Based on these elements, a design framework for a narrative AR cultural exploration system was constructed. Subsequently, a mobile AR interactive system was developed using the Unity 2022.3 LTS and Vuforia Engine 10. A total of 80 participants were recruited and randomly assigned to either an experimental or a control group. Cultural knowledge tests, an immersive experience scale, and a dissemination intention scale were used to evaluate the outcomes, and the collected data were analyzed statistically. The results indicate that, compared with a conventional text–image guide condition, the narrative AR exploration condition significantly improved participants’ cultural cognition and dissemination intention. Specifically, the experimental group achieved significantly higher post-test scores in cultural knowledge than the control group, and a significant between-group difference was also observed in dissemination intention. In terms of immersive experience, although the experimental group reported higher mean scores than the control group, the difference did not reach statistical significance, showing only a possible improving trend. These findings suggest that an integrated narrative AR cultural exploration condition can enhance public understanding of historic architectural districts and strengthen the communication potential of heritage experiences in real built environments. This study provides a digital interpretation approach for historic architectural districts and offers empirical support for the use of AR-based interactive systems in architectural heritage communication and public engagement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

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26 pages, 51184 KB

Open AccessArticle

Coupling Optimization of Urban Spatial Morphology and Wind Environment Based on a Complex Network Model

by Peng Cao, Caiyuan Zhao and Shaobo Jiang

Buildings 2026, 16(10), 1912; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16101912 - 12 May 2026

Against the backdrop of global warming and rapid urbanization, high-density central urban areas in valley cities face exacerbated ventilation deterioration and reduced pedestrian-level wind comfort due to topographic constraints and intensive development. This study investigates the coupling mechanism between spatial morphology and wind [...] Read more.

Against the backdrop of global warming and rapid urbanization, high-density central urban areas in valley cities face exacerbated ventilation deterioration and reduced pedestrian-level wind comfort due to topographic constraints and intensive development. This study investigates the coupling mechanism between spatial morphology and wind environment in Lanzhou’s Xiguan Cross area using a complex network model, CFD numerical simulation, and statistical analysis. A ventilation resistance surface was constructed using circuit theory and ArcGIS 10.8 to identify ventilation corridors. PHOENICS was used to simulate summer pedestrian-level (1.5 m) wind fields, while SPSS 2025 was employed for regression analysis of building density, enclosure degree, and dispersion degree against the mean wind velocity ratio. Results indicate: (1) wind velocities are higher at the periphery and lower in the interior; (2) building density and enclosure degree have a highly significant negative impact on the wind velocity ratio, whereas dispersion degree has a significant positive impact, with influence intensity ranked as enclosure degree > building density > dispersion degree. Based on these findings, three differentiated morphological optimization strategies are proposed and validated through simulation, effectively increasing the proportion of comfortable wind zones. This study provides a scientific basis for improving urban microclimate and pedestrian comfort through urban design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate-Responsive Architectural and Urban Design)

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17 pages, 5664 KB

Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Sun et al. Web Crippling Behaviour of 7075-T6 and AA-6086 High-Strength Aluminium Alloy Channel Sections Under End-Two-Flange and Interior-Two-Flange Loading. Buildings 2023, 13, 1823

by Gang Sun, Xiao-Yong Sun and Jian-Hang Fu

Buildings 2026, 16(10), 1911; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16101911 - 12 May 2026

To enhance the clarity and readability of the article, several tables, figures, and corresponding texts have been revised or added [...] Full article

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1 pages, 117 KB

Open AccessRetraction

RETRACTED: Sun et al. Effect of Web Perforations on the Web Buckling Resistance of 7075-T6 and AA-6086 High-Strength Aluminium Alloy C-Shaped Members Under End-Two-Flange Loading Case. Buildings 2023, 13, 1951

by Xiaoyong Sun, Jianhang Fu and Gang Sun

Buildings 2026, 16(10), 1910; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16101910 - 12 May 2026

The journal retracts the article “Effect of Web Perforations on the Web Buckling Resistance of 7075-T6 and AA-6086 High-Strength Aluminium Alloy C-Shaped Members under End-Two-Flange Loading Case” [...] Full article

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