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EPCDescriptor: A Multi-Attribute Visual Network Modeling of Housing Energy Performance
Generative AI for Architectural Façade Design: Measuring Perceptual Alignment Across Geographical, Objective, and Affective Descriptors
Sustainable Membrane-Based Acoustic Metamaterials Using Cork and Honeycomb Structures: Experimental and Numerical Characterization
GPT Applications for Construction Safety: A Use Case Analysis

Journal Description

Buildings

Buildings is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on building science, building engineering and architecture published semimonthly online by MDPI. The International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and Construction (CIB) is affiliated with Buildings and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within SCIE (Web of Science), Scopus, Ei Compendex, Inspec, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Construction and Building Technology) / CiteScore - Q1 (Architecture)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 14.9 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.7 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Companion Journal: Architecture.
Journal Cluster of Civil Engineering and Built Environment: Architecture, Buildings, CivilEng, Construction Materials, Infrastructures, Intelligent Infrastructure and Construction, NDT and Vibration.

Impact Factor: 3.1 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 3.2 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2075-5309

Latest Articles

24 pages, 1061 KB

Open AccessArticle

Toward Resilient Construction Supply Chains: Addressing the Truck Driver Shortage Through Strategic Interventions

by Amr AlTalhoni, Osama Abudayyeh, Siddharth Bhandari, Ying Thaviphoke, Shafayet Ahmed, Hexu Liu and Nayeem Hoque

Buildings 2025, 15(21), 3937; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15213937 (registering DOI) - 31 Oct 2025

The construction industry is critically reliant on efficient supply chains to ensure better project management, success, and profitability. This research examined the critical and ongoing challenges within the construction supply chain, with a particular emphasis on the persistent shortage of truck drivers and [...] Read more.

The construction industry is critically reliant on efficient supply chains to ensure better project management, success, and profitability. This research examined the critical and ongoing challenges within the construction supply chain, with a particular emphasis on the persistent shortage of truck drivers and its far-reaching implications for construction logistics. Utilizing a structured multi-phase approach, the research integrated a comprehensive literature review, bibliometric analysis, and an empirical case study involving commercial motor vehicle (CMV) drivers. The literature review established the current state of knowledge on transportation labor shortages. At the same time, the bibliometric analysis revealed four key thematic clusters that collectively define the primary areas influencing construction supply chain performance. The case study reinforced these findings by highlighting key factors contributing to driver shortages, including demographic shifts, challenging working conditions, regulatory barriers, and geopolitical disruptions. The paper concludes with practical implications for industry practitioners, policymakers, and supply chain managers, emphasizing the necessity of integrative operational and strategic responses to build resilient and sustainable construction supply chains and logistics systems, with a specific focus on truck driver shortages. By examining both academic literature and field-based perspectives, this research provides a comprehensive understanding of how labor shortages, particularly in transportation, can destabilize construction supply chains and identifies the most effective measures to support their foundations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Construction Management – Future Innovations, Methods, Techniques and Technologies)

23 pages, 33012 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mapping Spiritual Landscapes: Multiscale Characteristics Analysis of Temples in Ancient Chongqing

by Rongyi Zhou, Lingjia Zhao, Chunlan Du, Hui Xu and Wei He

Buildings 2025, 15(21), 3936; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15213936 (registering DOI) - 31 Oct 2025

The conservation and transmission of cultural heritage are enduring drivers of sustainable development. As a significant form of cultural heritage, temples play a vital role in maintaining urban historical continuity and embodying local culture. This study investigated the landscape roles of temples within [...] Read more.

The conservation and transmission of cultural heritage are enduring drivers of sustainable development. As a significant form of cultural heritage, temples play a vital role in maintaining urban historical continuity and embodying local culture. This study investigated the landscape roles of temples within the ancient city of Chongqing. Drawing primarily on sources such as the “Chongqing Fuzhi Quantu” (Complete Map of Chongqing Prefecture) from the Qing Dynasty, it identifies 79 temples in historical Chongqing. Employing Historical Geographic Information Systems (HGIS), the study reveals the multi-scale distribution characteristics of these temples and their interaction mechanisms with the urban spatial structure. The findings indicate that: (1) The development of Chongqing’s temples is closely linked to the stratification process of urban historical landscapes, serving as historical markers reflecting urban culture; (2) The distribution of temples in Qing-dynasty Chongqing exhibited significant correlations with the mountain-river environment and topography, forming clusters at key urban nodes while demonstrating spatial differentiation based on their attributes; (3) the landscape roles of temples in the ancient Chongqing city by guiding the urban landscape order, shaping city landmarks, and anchoring collective memories. Through the interrelated interactions across multiscale spaces, they collectively shaped the urban imagery. The study aims to provide practical recommendations for urban heritage conservation, cultural tourism, and sustainable development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

19 pages, 7213 KB

Open AccessArticle

Reuse of Solid Bricks in Construction: An Experimental Work

by Erion Luga, Enea Mustafaraj, Emrah Tasdemir, Marco Corradi, Ervis Lika and Erion Periku

Buildings 2025, 15(21), 3935; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15213935 (registering DOI) - 31 Oct 2025

This study experimentally and numerically examines the structural and seismic performance of recycled solid-brick masonry infills and load-bearing walls constructed from demolition materials. Solid bricks recovered from demolished structures were reused as infill in reinforced concrete (RC) frames and as standalone walls. Five [...] Read more.

This study experimentally and numerically examines the structural and seismic performance of recycled solid-brick masonry infills and load-bearing walls constructed from demolition materials. Solid bricks recovered from demolished structures were reused as infill in reinforced concrete (RC) frames and as standalone walls. Five full-scale panels, bare, 50% infilled, and 100% infilled frames, were tested under diagonal compression in accordance with ASTM E519-17, simulating in-plane seismic loading. Results showed that fully infilled frames exhibited a 149% increase in diagonal shear strength but a 40% reduction in ductility relative to the bare frame, indicating a trade-off between stiffness and deformation capacity. Finite element simulations using the Concrete Damaged Plasticity (CDP) model reproduced the experimental load–displacement curves with close agreement (within 6–8% in peak load) and captured the main failure patterns. Reusing cleaned demolition bricks reduces the demand for new fired bricks and helps divert construction waste from landfill, contributing to sustainable and circular construction. The findings confirm the potential of recycled masonry for low-carbon and seismic-resilient construction, provided that ductility limitations are appropriately addressed in design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Sustainable Construction: New Trends in Building Renovation, Energy Efficiency and Innovative Materials)

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25 pages, 8076 KB

Open AccessArticle

Predicting the Compressive Strength of Waste Powder Concrete Using Response Surface Methodology and Neural Network Algorithm

by Hany A. Dahish, Mohammed K. Alkharisi, Mohamed A. Abouelnour, Islam N. Fathy, Marwa A. Sadawy and Alaa A. Mahmoud

Buildings 2025, 15(21), 3934; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15213934 (registering DOI) - 31 Oct 2025

The rapid development in building construction has stimulated the replacement of cement in concrete with construction waste materials such as marble waste powder (MWP) and granite waste powder (GWP) to reduce the negative impact of cement production and to save natural resources. Therefore, [...] Read more.

The rapid development in building construction has stimulated the replacement of cement in concrete with construction waste materials such as marble waste powder (MWP) and granite waste powder (GWP) to reduce the negative impact of cement production and to save natural resources. Therefore, the inclusion of these materials in concrete contributes to environmental sustainability by reducing cement consumption and promoting the reuse of industrial waste. The present study employs Response Surface Methodology (RSM) and, for the first time in a comparable context, the Neural Network Algorithm (NNA) as an advanced optimization and predictive tool to evaluate the synergistic effect of using GWP and MWP as partial cement replacements in concrete exposed to elevated temperatures. The study involved four independent variables: replacement level of GWP up to 9%, replacement level of MWP up to 9%, the degree of temperature (T) up to 800 °C, and the exposure duration (D) up to 2 h, while the dependent variable (output) was the compressive strength (CS). The ANOVA results revealed that the quadratic model outperformed the linear model in predicting the CS of concrete. The Quadratic model, derived from RSM, demonstrated superior performance in predicting CS values. However, the NNA model also showed high predictive accuracy (R² = 0.949; RMSE = 1.5297 MPa), effectively capturing the complex and nonlinear relationships among temperature, duration, and the cement replacement levels with GWP and MWP. The optimization results revealed that the maximum compressive strength of 39.4 MPa can be achieved at 8.92% GWP, 1.89% MWP, T of 247 °C, and D of 0.64 h with a desirability of 1. The proposed models provided valuable insights into the synergistic effects of granite and marble waste powders, supporting the design of sustainable, high-performance concrete with reduced environmental footprint and improved resource efficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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13 pages, 1417 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Investigation into the Role of 3D Printing in Residential Buildings: An Emirati Housing Case Study

by Young Ki Kim, Martin Scoppa and Madhar Haddad

Buildings 2025, 15(21), 3933; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15213933 (registering DOI) - 31 Oct 2025

This study examines the potential of 3D printing to improve the energy efficiency of housing in hot arid climates such as the UAE. Using a case study of a typical Emirati residence, twenty-four wall configurations were simulated, varying by material (standard vs. sulfur [...] Read more.

This study examines the potential of 3D printing to improve the energy efficiency of housing in hot arid climates such as the UAE. Using a case study of a typical Emirati residence, twenty-four wall configurations were simulated, varying by material (standard vs. sulfur concrete), thickness (4 cm, 8 cm, 10 cm), and insulation level (0%, 25%, 50%, 100%). Results show that eleven configurations met the U-value requirement, six achieved cooling loads below the benchmark, and twelve reduced overall energy use, with only four meeting all criteria simultaneously. Standard concrete proved more versatile across performance conditions, while sulfur concrete with full insulation achieved the lowest energy consumption, underscoring its potential as a sustainable material. These findings demonstrate the value of 3D printing in advancing the UAE’s green building standards and environmental goals, while offering practical strategies for delivering more energy-efficient housing in hot arid regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Additive Manufacturing and Construction 4.0: 2nd Edition)

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30 pages, 14656 KB

Open AccessArticle

Promoting Health and Well-Being: Environment Design of Rehabilitation Centers for Autistic Children Under the Theory of Restorative Environment

by Yuting Li, Shimin Li, Xiayan Lin, Bingjie Sun and Qi Song

Buildings 2025, 15(21), 3932; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15213932 (registering DOI) - 31 Oct 2025

At present, the design of autism rehabilitation centers in China generally fails to meet the rehabilitation needs of patients, making it difficult to achieve the health and well-being goals of sustainable development. In this context, restorative environment theory, with its potential to improve [...] Read more.

At present, the design of autism rehabilitation centers in China generally fails to meet the rehabilitation needs of patients, making it difficult to achieve the health and well-being goals of sustainable development. In this context, restorative environment theory, with its potential to improve spatial environments and enhance well-being, has gradually become a key driving force in the environmental design process. Therefore, this literature review employs a combined approach of macro-level quantitative and micro-level qualitative research methods based on the Web of Science (WOS) database. First, 5953 relevant literature sources were analyzed to reveal the research background, current status, hot topics, and future development trends of the theory of restorative environment and rehabilitation centers for children with autism. Through keyword network visualization, seven primary clusters were identified: #0 environmental design, #1 burnout, #2 Autism specturn disorder, #3 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, #4 caregiver, #5 domiciliary care, # 6 stroke. These clusters were further synthesized into four core design elements: lifecycle-spanning design, family collaboration and community engagement design, green sustainable environment design, and culturally inclusive and diverse physical and mental development design. Subsequently, a multi-level case analysis was conducted using 24 global autism-friendly design examples to validate the practical applicability of these core elements. Finally, based on the research findings, the discussion section proposes environmental design strategies for autism rehabilitation centers tailored to the Chinese context.These strategies aim to enhance the well-being of children with autism and contribute to the achievement of Sustainable Development Goal 3 (SDG3). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Art and Design for Healing and Wellness in the Built Environment)

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22 pages, 6818 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bending Test and FE Analysis of Novel Grouted Plug-in Connection for Prefabricated Assembled Raft Foundation

by Hongtao Ju, Kai Zhang, Xiaoping Wang, Yu Tang, Xinggang Huo, Wen Jiang, Shizhe He, Tao Li and Xin Tong

Buildings 2025, 15(21), 3931; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15213931 (registering DOI) - 30 Oct 2025

Research on the development of prefabricated foundations has been quite extensive to date, while studies on prefabricated concrete raft foundations and their connection methods remain relatively scarce. This study proposes a novel type of prefabricated raft foundation and its corresponding grouted plug-in connection. [...] Read more.

Research on the development of prefabricated foundations has been quite extensive to date, while studies on prefabricated concrete raft foundations and their connection methods remain relatively scarce. This study proposes a novel type of prefabricated raft foundation and its corresponding grouted plug-in connection. The connection comprises two prefabricated units and achieves connection via steel inserts and grouting in pre-slots, possessing numerous advantages such as convenient construction, fast installation, and high construction quality. To verify the performance of the connection node and the bearing capacity of the foundation, based on the engineering practice of prefabricated raft foundations, this study fabricated a full-scale specimen composed of three prefabricated units of the raft foundation, conducted a stacking load test on it, and carried out finite element analysis afterwards. The main conclusion is that severe flexural failure occurred near the grouted plug-in connection of the prefabricated units when the specimen failed, implying that the node region has sufficient bearing capacity. The ultimate bending moments of the specimen obtained from the experiment and finite element analysis are 736.5 kN·m and 859.5·kN m, respectively, with a difference of 14%, indicating a good agreement between them. Ignoring the effect of the upper steel reinforcements, the calculated section bending capacity of the prefabricated unit is 892.8·kN m; the ultimate bending moment of the test specimen reached 0.83 of the section bending capacity of the prefabricated unit, indicating that the proposed raft foundation and its connection method have good bending bearing capacity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Seismic Response and Resistant Strategies of High-Performance Steel and Steel-Concrete Composite Structures)

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18 pages, 3098 KB

Open AccessArticle

Walking Behavior Modeling in Urban Pedestrian-Only Spaces for Analysing Multiple Factors Influencing Pedestrian Density Distribution

by Shi Sun, Cheng Sun, Ying Liu, Yang Yang and Dagang Qu

Buildings 2025, 15(21), 3930; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15213930 - 30 Oct 2025

Urban pedestrian-only spaces face challenges like inadequate leisure experiences and user discomfort. To enhance spatial conditions, it is crucial to evaluate various influencing factors. Many studies focus on individual elements, missing the benefits of a comprehensive approach. This study aims to propose a [...] Read more.

Urban pedestrian-only spaces face challenges like inadequate leisure experiences and user discomfort. To enhance spatial conditions, it is crucial to evaluate various influencing factors. Many studies focus on individual elements, missing the benefits of a comprehensive approach. This study aims to propose a pedestrian behavior prediction model that establishes the relationship between multiple spatial factors and pedestrian distribution. We introduce a two-layer simulation framework for pedestrian dynamics, comprising a tactic layer responsible for path planning and an operational layer for velocity prediction based on the social force model. This framework enhances prediction accuracy, achieving a 46.3% improvement over the conventional model. Moreover, it underscores the importance of a holistic approach, emphasizing the need to consider group dynamics and random behaviors in pedestrian modeling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architecture and Landscape Architecture)

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22 pages, 6133 KB

Open AccessArticle

Applying the Enhanced Free Cooling Concept: A Case Study on Reducing Mechanical Cooling Demand

by Emese Béni, Szabolcs Józsa and Gábor L. Szabó

Buildings 2025, 15(21), 3929; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15213929 - 30 Oct 2025

Increasingly stringent energy directives of the European Union, combined with rising cooling demands due to climate change, urge the investigation of energy-efficient cooling solutions. Free cooling offers a viable approach to reducing energy consumption. However, its effectiveness and applicability across different building types [...] Read more.

Increasingly stringent energy directives of the European Union, combined with rising cooling demands due to climate change, urge the investigation of energy-efficient cooling solutions. Free cooling offers a viable approach to reducing energy consumption. However, its effectiveness and applicability across different building types remain insufficiently established. This study aims to minimise mechanical cooling energy demand through the implementation of enhanced free cooling (EFC) as an operational control strategy in office, residential, and small commercial buildings. The introduction of the efficiency of EFC (η_fc) supports this analysis by quantifying how effectively EFC exploits free cooling potential in defined thermal and mechanical conditions based on an analytical approach supported by simplified simulations (in Microsoft Excel). The case study indicates that the east-oriented office building with a 40% glazing ratio achieves the highest cooling energy savings (49.63%) on the target summer day. For the residential building, savings are lower (37.78%) but more stable across the hot and the extremely hot days. The results further show that the influence of building orientation diminishes as external temperature increases, while higher glazing ratios stabilise η_fc across the examined thermal conditions. Analysis of the connection between air exchange rate and mechanical cooling energy savings identifies a critical resistance point (n_opt), defined as the ventilation rate beyond which no further cooling energy savings occur. The results enable practical applications in building operation and support both improved energy efficiency and the advancement of sustainable HVAC design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)

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76 pages, 6458 KB

Open AccessReview

Computational and Experimental Insights into Blast Response and Failure Mechanisms of Square, Rectangular and Circular Reinforced Concrete Columns: A State-of-the-Art Review

by S. M. Anas, Rayeh Nasr Al-Dala’ien, Mohammed Benzerara and Mohammed Jalal Al-Ezzi

Buildings 2025, 15(21), 3928; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15213928 - 30 Oct 2025

Blast damage to structural members poses serious risks to both buildings and people, making it important to understand how these elements behave under extreme loads. Columns in reinforced concrete (RC) structures are especially critical, as their sudden failure can trigger progressive collapse, unlike [...] Read more.

Blast damage to structural members poses serious risks to both buildings and people, making it important to understand how these elements behave under extreme loads. Columns in reinforced concrete (RC) structures are especially critical, as their sudden failure can trigger progressive collapse, unlike beams or slabs that have more redundancy. This state-of-the-art review brings together the current knowledge of the blast response of RC columns, focusing on their failure patterns, dynamic behavior, and key loading mechanisms. The studies covered include experiments, high-fidelity numerical simulations, emerging machine learning approaches, and analytical models for columns of different shapes (square, rectangular, circular) and strengthening methods, such as fiber reinforcement, steel-concrete composite confinement, and advanced retrofitting. Composite columns are also reviewed to compare their hybrid confinement and energy-absorption advantages over conventional RC members. Over forty specific studies on RC columns were analyzed, comparing the results based on geometry, reinforcement detailing, materials, and blast conditions. Both near-field and contact detonations were examined, along with factors like axial load, standoff distance, and confinement. This review shows that RC columns respond very differently to blasts depending on their shape and reinforcement. Square, rectangular, and circular sections fail in distinct ways. Use of ultra-high-performance concrete, steel fibers, steel-concrete composite, and fiber-reinforced polymer retrofits greatly improves peak and residual load capacity. Ultra-high-performance concrete can retain a significantly higher fraction of axial load (often >70%) after strong blasts, compared to ~40% in conventional high-strength RC under similar conditions. Larger sections, closer stirrups, higher transverse reinforcement, and good confinement reduce spalling, shear failure, and mid-height displacement. Fiber-reinforced polymer and steel-fiber wraps typically improve residual strength by 10–15%, while composite columns with steel cores remain stiff and absorb more energy post-blast. Advanced finite element simulations and machine learning models now predict displacements, damage, and residual capacity more accurately than older methods. However, gaps remain. Current design codes of practice simplify blast loads and often do not account for localized damage, near-field effects, complex boundary conditions, or pre-existing structural weaknesses. Further research is needed on cost-effective, durable, and practical retrofitting strategies using advanced materials. This review stands apart from conventional literature reviews by combining experimental results, numerical analysis, and data-driven insights. It offers a clear, quantitative, and comparative view of RC column behavior under blast loading, identifies key knowledge gaps, and points the way for future design improvements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

21 pages, 6401 KB

Open AccessArticle

SBS-Modified Asphalt Accelerated Swelling Technology and Performance Evaluation

by Zhifeng Lv, Zeran Yin, Jianghai Lin, Xiaohui Bu, Jiahao Yang and Chuanfeng Zheng

Buildings 2025, 15(21), 3927; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15213927 - 30 Oct 2025

The slow swelling rate of styrene–butadiene–styrene (SBS) in asphalt prolongs the modification process and increases energy consumption. This study proposes a novel method using benzoyl peroxide (BPO) and benzoyl methane (BPA) to accelerate SBS swelling through a radical initiation–capture mechanism. BPO generates free [...] Read more.

The slow swelling rate of styrene–butadiene–styrene (SBS) in asphalt prolongs the modification process and increases energy consumption. This study proposes a novel method using benzoyl peroxide (BPO) and benzoyl methane (BPA) to accelerate SBS swelling through a radical initiation–capture mechanism. BPO generates free radicals that relax the SBS network, while BPA captures excess radicals, maintaining system stability. Molecular dynamics simulations based on the COMPASS II force field were used to analyse diffusion, radius of gyration, and solubility parameters, revealing that BPO/BPA improved SBS–asphalt compatibility and increased the diffusion coefficient by 76%. Macroscopic viscosity tests confirmed that the swelling time decreased by 40% and equilibrium viscosity increased by 39% compared with the conventional process. The modified asphalt also exhibited enhanced high- and low-temperature performance and ageing resistance. This simple and efficient synergistic technique provides a promising approach for the rapid preparation of SBS-modified asphalt and offers practical potential for industrial production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Design, Green Construction, and Innovation)

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25 pages, 2577 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Design-Oriented Unified Equation for the Torsion Constant of Non-Prismatic (Linearly Tapered) Rectangular Beams

by Mereen Hassan Fahmi Rasheed, Bahman Omar Taha and Mohamed M. Arbili

Buildings 2025, 15(21), 3926; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15213926 - 30 Oct 2025

This study presents a unified, design-oriented equation for the torsion constant J of linearly tapered, non-prismatic rectangular members, covering two canonical geometries: (i) singly tapered bars, in which only the depth varies linearly along the longitudinal axis, and (ii) doubly tapered bars, in [...] Read more.

This study presents a unified, design-oriented equation for the torsion constant J of linearly tapered, non-prismatic rectangular members, covering two canonical geometries: (i) singly tapered bars, in which only the depth varies linearly along the longitudinal axis, and (ii) doubly tapered bars, in which both width and depth vary linearly. The formulation provides the spatial variation J(x) and enables evaluation of the associated shear stress distribution and angle of twist. Accuracy is assessed against classical elasticity solutions—Prandtl’s membrane analogy, single- and double-Fourier series solutions—as well as independent finite element analyses, demonstrating close agreement over a broad parametric range. A dimensionless coefficient

\emptyset (x) = J (x) / (b_{2}^{3} h_{2})

is introduced to elucidate trends:

\emptyset

approaches 1/3 in the prismatic, very-narrow limit

(λ_{h} = λ_{b} = 1, α \approx 0)

, consistent with the exact solution;

\emptyset

increases with increasing taper ratios in depth and width (

λ_{h}, λ_{b}

) and decreases with increasing cross-sectional aspect ratio α. The proposed equation consolidates the treatment of tapered rectangular members into a single, practical framework, offering a computationally efficient tool for preliminary sizing and detailed design verification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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27 pages, 7061 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of the Influence of Different Color Glass on Cementitious Mortar Properties

by Leonardo Caniato Martioli, Maria Eduarda Almeida Gomes, Cézar Augusto Casagrande, Marcelo Henrique F. Medeiros and Lidiane Fernanda Jochem

Buildings 2025, 15(21), 3925; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15213925 - 30 Oct 2025

The growing generation of solid waste, driven by urbanization and industrialization, represents one of today’s greatest environmental challenges. The construction industry can play a key role in this scenario by incorporating recycling and waste reuse practices. Glass, a fully recyclable material, is still [...] Read more.

The growing generation of solid waste, driven by urbanization and industrialization, represents one of today’s greatest environmental challenges. The construction industry can play a key role in this scenario by incorporating recycling and waste reuse practices. Glass, a fully recyclable material, is still largely disposed of in landfills. A promising alternative is the use of ground glass in cementitious materials, partially or completely replacing cement or aggregates. Thus, in this paper, the effect of partially replacing Portland cement with ground glass of different colors including green, blue, transparent, amber, and colorful (all colors used mixed) in proportions of 15 and 35% in mortars was evaluated. The ground glasses were characterized by laser granulometry and chemical analysis. The properties of the mortars were then evaluated in the fresh and hardened state (apparent specific gravity, mechanical strength, water absorption, and open porosity). Regarding workability, the highest improvement observed was 6.8% for the 35% colored glass series compared to the reference series. In terms of entrapped air, there was an increase of up to 18.8% in the 35% green glass series. At 28 days of hydration, the 15% colored glass series obtained a 33% increase in flexural strength compared to the REF series. In the microstructure, it was found that a 15% glass presence was sufficient to reduce the portlandite index from 16.04 to 13.53, while a 35% glass presence was sufficient to reduce it to 7.51% portlandite, equivalent to a 54% reduction, suggesting significant potential for the reaction of the finer glass fractions with portlandite. This study suggests that the use of glass waste in a cementitious matrix can provide an environmentally appropriate alternative for recycling this material, contributing to a sustainable application and increased recycling rates of glass waste. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Utilization of Recycled Aggregates and Waste in Sustainable Concrete Materials)

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22 pages, 6357 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cyclic Behavior of Steel Frames Equipped with Partial-Connected Crossing-Stiffened Corrugated Steel Plate Shear Walls

by Yuntian Su, Hong Zheng, Yang Wu, Xiaoming Ma, Liqiang Jiang, Yanghang Shi, Guangping Li, Liyi Wang and Ming Liu

Buildings 2025, 15(21), 3924; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15213924 - 30 Oct 2025

In order to protect the boundary columns once tension region form on shear walls subjected to seismic loads, a new shear wall system constructed by partial-connected crossing-stiffened corrugated steel plate shear walls (PCCSWs) is proposed and investigated. Numerical modeling of the PCCSWs was [...] Read more.

In order to protect the boundary columns once tension region form on shear walls subjected to seismic loads, a new shear wall system constructed by partial-connected crossing-stiffened corrugated steel plate shear walls (PCCSWs) is proposed and investigated. Numerical modeling of the PCCSWs was conducted and validated by a similar test on single-span two-story corrugated steel plate shear wall test specimen. Some key parameters, such as material properties, height-to-thickness ratio, wave length, and width of the crossing stiffeners, were then investigated through parametric analyses, and the results of PCCSWs were compared to the results of other types of steel shear walls. And a theoretical mechanical model was developed for predicting the ultimate capacity of the PCCSWs taking basis of the parametric results. Several findings can be concluded: (1) The finite element method (FEM) simulates buckling modes and the buckling positions of corrugated steel plates and boundary columns precisely, with the errors of initial stiffness and ultimate shear resistance being less than 10%, which proves the feasibility of the FEM. (2) The optimal values on such key parameters were the height-to-thickness ratio of 510~680 at the center, wave lengths of 360~480 mm, and varying widths of crossing stiffeners which are 64.41~136.89. (3) The relative errors between the theoretical and the numerical results were within 14.17%, and most of the variations were less than 10%, indicating the effectiveness of the developed mechanical model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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20 pages, 4893 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Near-Fault Pulse-like Ground Motions upon Seismic Performance of Large-Span Concrete-Filled Steel Tubular Arch Bridges

by Jun Shi, Kai Zhang, Haoqi Shi, Dan Ye, Hongtao He and Maojun Yuan

Buildings 2025, 15(21), 3923; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15213923 - 30 Oct 2025

This study aims to explore the seismic performance of large-span concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) arch bridges under near-fault pulse-like ground motions (PLGMs). Firstly, a deck-type CFST arch bridge located in a high-intensity seismic zone is studied. Three typical near-fault ground motions (NFGMs), namely, [...] Read more.

This study aims to explore the seismic performance of large-span concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) arch bridges under near-fault pulse-like ground motions (PLGMs). Firstly, a deck-type CFST arch bridge located in a high-intensity seismic zone is studied. Three typical near-fault ground motions (NFGMs), namely, forward-directivity pulses, fling-step pulses, and nonpulse ground motions, are chosen for analysis. The effects of pulse characteristics on the seismic responses of the large-span arch bridge are investigated using the nonlinear dynamic time-history analysis method. Subsequently, the near-fault PLGMs are synthesized using the record-decomposition incorporation method, which takes into account the pulse type, seismic source, and site characteristics. The validity of the proposed synthesis method is evaluated from three perspectives: the time and frequency domains of ground motions and dynamic responses of the structure. Finally, the effects of the pulse type, fault distance, moment magnitude, and pulse superposition effect on dynamic responses of the large-span arch bridge are thoroughly studied. The results indicate that the arch bridge exhibits the most pronounced dynamic response to fling-step pulses and moderate responses to forward-directivity pulses, with nonpulse ground motions inducing the weakest response. The three pulse models accurately capture the essential characteristics of NFGMs. Moreover, the synthesized NFGMs, based on the same pulse type, show a high degree of consistency with the actual ground motion results. The dynamic responses are positively correlated with the number of pulse waveforms and the moment magnitude and negatively correlated with the fault distance. The dynamic response is most significant when the peak values of the two types of pulse records coincide. The pulse superposition effect dramatically affects dynamic responses of the arch bridge, so it needs to be fully taken into account in the seismic design of arch bridges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic New Developments in Intelligent Construction and Operation of Infrastructures)

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20 pages, 6383 KB

Open AccessArticle

Post-Earthquake Damage Detection and Safety Assessment of the Ceiling Panoramic Area in Large Public Buildings Using Image Stitching

by Lichen Wang, Yapeng Liang and Shihao Yan

Buildings 2025, 15(21), 3922; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15213922 - 30 Oct 2025

With the development of artificial intelligence, intelligent assessment methods have been applied in post-earthquake emergency rescue. These methods enable rapid and accurate identification and localization of earthquake-induced damage to ceilings in large public buildings, which often serve as emergency shelters. However, in practical [...] Read more.

With the development of artificial intelligence, intelligent assessment methods have been applied in post-earthquake emergency rescue. These methods enable rapid and accurate identification and localization of earthquake-induced damage to ceilings in large public buildings, which often serve as emergency shelters. However, in practical applications, challenges remain: damage recognition accuracy is low when using wide-field distant shots, while close-up local shots are unsuitable for identifying panoramic regional damage. As a result, high-precision intelligent safety assessment of the entire ceiling area cannot be achieved. Therefore, this study proposes a panoramic image stitching method based on SIFT feature point detection and registration, optimized by the RANSAC algorithm, to generate high-resolution, wide-angle panoramic images of ceilings in large public buildings. The BRISQUE values of the stitched images range between 20 and 30, indicating good stitching quality. Subsequently, by integrating damage recognition and image stitching techniques, a safety assessment test was conducted on 227 stitched images of earthquake-induced ceiling damage captured in real scenes, using evaluation indicators such as damage type and severity quantification. The safety assessment achieved an overall accuracy of 98.7%, demonstrating the effectiveness of ceiling damage detection technology based on image stitching. This technology enables intelligent post-earthquake safety assessment of ceilings in large public buildings across the entire area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Structure Health Monitoring and Damage Detection)

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22 pages, 8456 KB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Study on the Impact Resistance Performance of RC Walls Protected by Honeycomb Sandwich Panels

by Ran Yang, Yong Guo, Tao Zhang, Rui Zhang, Kedong Wang, Dan Song and Jigang Zhang

Buildings 2025, 15(21), 3921; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15213921 - 30 Oct 2025

Reinforced concrete walls (RC walls) are widely used in transportation, building structures, and civil air defence engineering. RC walls are vulnerable to low-velocity impact, such as the fall of components caused by earthquakes or explosions, for example, and the impact from road objects, [...] Read more.

Reinforced concrete walls (RC walls) are widely used in transportation, building structures, and civil air defence engineering. RC walls are vulnerable to low-velocity impact, such as the fall of components caused by earthquakes or explosions, for example, and the impact from road objects, such as vehicles, during their service life. When subjected to instantaneous high-energy impact, RC walls at key positions are prone to severe damage, which can further lead to structural collapse. Therefore, it is necessary to consider improving the impact resistance of key RC walls in a structure. Using a porous honeycomb structure with excellent energy absorption performance to provide impact protection for key RC walls is an effective way to reduce the damage of RC walls and thereby enhance the impact resistance of a structure. Therefore, based on the author’s previous series of experimental and numerical studies on the impact resistance of RC walls, as well as the high-mass pendulum impact experimental study on the honeycomb sandwich panel composite RC wall (HSP-RC wall), this paper adopts a multi-scale modelling method in micro-mechanics and macro-mechanics to establish a pendulum impact finite element model (FEM) for the HSP-RC wall. The representative volume element (RVE) and periodic boundary condition (PBC) are used to calculate the elastic property parameters of the honeycomb, which guide the establishment of the FEMs for the HSP-RC wall. The FEMs can avoid the computational difficulty caused by refined simulation, analyse the impact damage of the HSP-RC walls more accurately, quantify the impact protection effect of the honeycomb sandwich panel, and thus facilitate the parametric analysis of the impact resistance of HSP-RC walls with different honeycomb panel structural parameters in subsequent studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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24 pages, 3813 KB

Open AccessArticle

VMD-SSA-LSTM-Based Cooling, Heating Load Forecasting, and Day-Ahead Coordinated Optimization for Park-Level Integrated Energy Systems

by Lintao Zheng, Dawei Li, Zezheng Zhou and Lihua Zhao

Buildings 2025, 15(21), 3920; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15213920 (registering DOI) - 30 Oct 2025

Park-level integrated energy systems (IESs) are increasingly challenged by rapid electrification and higher penetration of renewable energy, which exacerbate source–load imbalances and scheduling uncertainty. This study proposes a unified framework that couples high-accuracy cooling and heating load forecasting with day-ahead coordinated optimization for [...] Read more.

Park-level integrated energy systems (IESs) are increasingly challenged by rapid electrification and higher penetration of renewable energy, which exacerbate source–load imbalances and scheduling uncertainty. This study proposes a unified framework that couples high-accuracy cooling and heating load forecasting with day-ahead coordinated optimization for an office park in Tianjin. The forecasting module employs correlation-based feature selection and variational mode decomposition (VMD) to capture multi-scale dynamics, and a sparrow search algorithm (SSA)-driven long short-term memory network (LSTM), with hyperparameters globally tuned by root mean square error to improve generalization and robustness. The scheduling module performs day-ahead optimization across source, grid, load, and storage to minimize either (i) the standard deviation (SD) of purchased power to reduce grid impact, or (ii) the total operating cost (OC) to achieve economic performance. On the case dataset, the proposed method achieves mean absolute percentage errors (MAPEs) of 8.32% for cooling and 5.80% for heating, outperforming several baselines and validating the benefits of multi-scale decomposition combined with intelligent hyperparameter searching. Embedding forecasts into day-ahead scheduling substantially reduces external purchases: on representative days, forecast-driven optimization lowers the SD of purchased electricity from 29.6% to 88.1% across heating and cooling seasons; seasonally, OCs decrease from 6.4% to 15.1% in heating and 3.8% to 11.6% in cooling. Overall, the framework enhances grid friendliness, peak–valley coordination, and the stability, flexibility, and low-carbon economics of park-level IESs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)

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24 pages, 17571 KB

Open AccessArticle

Towards Greener 3D Printing: A Performance Evaluation of Silica Fume-Modified Low-Carbon Concrete

by James Bradshaw, Swathi Balasubramanian, Wen Si, Mehran Khan and Ciaran McNally

Buildings 2025, 15(21), 3919; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15213919 - 30 Oct 2025

This study investigates the durability challenges of 3D-printed concrete (3DPC) and examines the effect of silica fume (SF) on its performance, focusing on mechanical properties and selected durability tests as key indicators of mix suitability for 3D printing applications. Five low-carbon mixes were [...] Read more.

This study investigates the durability challenges of 3D-printed concrete (3DPC) and examines the effect of silica fume (SF) on its performance, focusing on mechanical properties and selected durability tests as key indicators of mix suitability for 3D printing applications. Five low-carbon mixes were prepared with 50% GGBS replacement and varying silica fume contents (2.5–10%), and were evaluated through slump, compressive strength, rapid chloride migration, and accelerated carbonation tests. The addition of GGBS reduced the concrete’s shape retention, but incorporating silica fume improved flow behaviour, resulting in a more stable mix. The inclusion of GGBS and silica fume initially reduced 1-day strength but led to significant gains by 28 days, with the 5% SF low-carbon mix achieving the highest compressive strength. The low-carbon mixes showed superior chloride resistance, further enhanced by silica fume, though their carbonation resistance decreased with GGBS and SF addition. Overall, the 5% SF low-carbon mix demonstrated the best balance of strength, chloride resistance, and carbon reduction, despite minor trade-offs in early strength and carbonation resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

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34 pages, 1431 KB

Open AccessArticle

Horizontal Building Interaction as an Element of Neighborhood Energy-Oriented Refurbishment

by Luisa Bergmann

Buildings 2025, 15(21), 3918; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15213918 - 30 Oct 2025

The building sector has a significant impact on the environment due to its high resource and energy usage. The refurbishment of the building stock is a measure for reducing emissions. In this context, the neighborhood scale is becoming increasingly important as the level [...] Read more.

The building sector has a significant impact on the environment due to its high resource and energy usage. The refurbishment of the building stock is a measure for reducing emissions. In this context, the neighborhood scale is becoming increasingly important as the level at which urban redevelopment takes place. This study contributes a new perspective and data on the scientific debate on the importance of the neighborhood as a level of action in the transformation of the building sector. It combines horizontal building interaction and a practical refurbishment approach, aiming to reduce material use and balance energy demands. Using scenario modeling, the material savings are calculated for the first time by analyzing five refurbishment scenarios of a synthetic neighborhood. The scenario, modeled with horizontal building interaction, is identified as the favorable compromise among all scenarios when considering material demand and energy efficiency. This is achieved through re-thinking energy-oriented refurbishments and optimizing the usage of locally produced renewable energy sources. The results are embedded into the scientific debate, including the works on the balance of embodied and operational energy in the construction sector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)

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