Buildings

21 pages, 4869 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Integrating Computer Vision and GIS for Large-Scale Morphological Mapping and Driving Force Analysis of Vernacular Courtyard Dwellings

by Lihua Liang, Xianda Li, Shutong Liu, Zhenhao Guo, Shuo Tang and Baohua Wen

Buildings 2026, 16(6), 1118; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16061118 - 11 Mar 2026

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 1057

Abstract

This study develops and applies an integrated methodology that combines deep learning-based computer vision and spatial statistics to automate the large-scale identification and analysis of morphological features in vernacular courtyard dwellings. Focusing on Liangshuaixiu dwellings in Wu’an, southern Hebei, we trained an HRNetV2 [...] Read more.

This study develops and applies an integrated methodology that combines deep learning-based computer vision and spatial statistics to automate the large-scale identification and analysis of morphological features in vernacular courtyard dwellings. Focusing on Liangshuaixiu dwellings in Wu’an, southern Hebei, we trained an HRNetV2 semantic segmentation model on high-resolution satellite imagery to identify and extract contours for 134,280 courtyard spaces. Core morphological parameters (area, orientation) were calculated and analyzed using GIS spatial statistics and the geographic detector model. The results show that (1) the computer vision pipeline achieved efficient recognition with satisfactory accuracy (~10% mean error); (2) spatial autocorrelation and hotspot analysis revealed distinct regional patterns, including a west–east increase in average courtyard area; and (3) geographic detector analysis demonstrated that courtyard morphology is shaped by complex interactions between natural and socio-economic factors. While average area and orientation were primarily governed by climate (air pressure, wind, temperature) and topography (elevation), diversity and internal variation were strongly influenced by nonlinear interactions, particularly between natural factors (e.g., wind–aspect) and between natural and human factors (e.g., population–climate). This work provides a scalable, data-driven framework for the quantitative spatial analysis of vernacular architectural heritage, advancing the understanding of building morphology as an outcome of coupled human–environment systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence in Architecture and Interior Design)

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19 pages, 14754 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effects of Coconut Shell Ash and Coir Fiber on the Mechanical Properties and Microstructure of Concrete

by Feng Huang, Dehe Peng, Yan Zhao, Guanyu Zhao and Shihua Fu

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1063; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051063 - 7 Mar 2026

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1564

Abstract

The utilization of cement is one of the primary sources of carbon emissions in concrete, driving the search for sustainable alternative materials. Although extensive research has been conducted on the use of agricultural waste as supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), the effects of coconut [...] Read more.

The utilization of cement is one of the primary sources of carbon emissions in concrete, driving the search for sustainable alternative materials. Although extensive research has been conducted on the use of agricultural waste as supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), the effects of coconut shell ash (CSA) and coir fiber (CF) on concrete properties have not been extensively investigated. This study systematically investigates the influence of CSA as a SCM (0–20%) and CF as a reinforcement material (0–0.32%) on the workability, density, compressive strength, flexural strength, splitting tensile strength, and failure modes of concrete, complemented by microstructural mechanism analysis. The cement and CSA were characterized using XRF, XRD, and SEM. The results indicate that the incorporation of both CSA and CF reduces the workability and density of concrete. For concrete with CSA only, the compressive strength decreases by up to 24.7% when the replacement level reaches 20%. However, concrete with 10% CSA still maintains 87.2% of the strength of ordinary concrete, which satisfies the C40 requirement. In contrast, CF incorporation alone improves the mechanical properties, with compressive strength, flexural strength, and splitting tensile strength reaching peak increases of 6.4%, 13.9%, and 7.5%, respectively, when the CF content is 0.24%. Incorporating 0.16% CF into 10% CSA concrete mitigates the strength reduction caused by CSA, achieving compressive, flexural, and splitting tensile strengths of 47.99 MPa, 5.63 MPa, and 3.99 MPa, respectively (95.7%, 98.3%, and 96.4% of the strengths of ordinary concrete). Microstructural analysis reveals that CSA deteriorates the interfacial transition zone (ITZ), while CF compensates for partial strength loss through the bridging effect, although its reinforcement efficiency is influenced by fiber dispersion and ITZ quality. This study provides a theoretical foundation and technical reference for the utilization of coconut shell waste in sustainable concrete. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

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18 pages, 21276 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Impact of Architecture Façade Design on Neurophysiological Stress Using Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy and Heart Rate Variability

by Cleo Valentine, Ian Hosking, Arnold J. Wilkins, Heather Mitcheltree, Cameron Smith, Emilia Butters and Olivier Penacchio

Buildings 2026, 16(4), 885; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040885 - 23 Feb 2026

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1707

Abstract

Within industrialised and emerging industrialised economies people typically spend over 95% in industrialised and emerging industrialised economies typically spend over 95% of their time in built environments, yet the neurophysiological impact of architectural design remains poorly understood. While previous studies link visual patterning [...] Read more.

Within industrialised and emerging industrialised economies people typically spend over 95% in industrialised and emerging industrialised economies typically spend over 95% of their time in built environments, yet the neurophysiological impact of architectural design remains poorly understood. While previous studies link visual patterning to cortical activity, the cortical-to-autonomic stress pathway remains largely unexplored—a key omission given that chronic stress contributes to allostatic overload. This study examined how architectural façade design influences neurophysiological stress through a multimodal approach combining functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to monitor occipital cortical activity with heart rate variability (HRV) as an index of autonomic regulation. Eighteen participants provided HRV data and subjective ratings for nine systematically varied façade images characterised by their deviation with respect to natural statistics, while a subset of twelve completed fNIRS recording due to signal acquisition constraints. Façade identity significantly affected discomfort, complexity, and interest ratings (

p < 0.001

), and deviation from natural statistics predicted all three measures (

p < 0.01

). Façade type also showed a small but significant effect on HRV (

p = 0.003

), although variance was dominated by individual differences. No stimulus-specific occipital fNIRS differences were observed. However, due to the limited sample size, further research is needed to verify this observed result. Whilst global generalisations cannot be drawn due to the small sample size, these pilot research findings indicate that façades deviating from natural image statistics influence perceptual comfort and may modestly modulate autonomic balance. However, the present data does not provide clear evidence of stimulus-specific cortical effects, which, if present, likely remain below the detection thresholds of the current protocol given its methodological constraints. This study highlights methodological hurdles and establishes a scalable framework for linking computational visual metrics to physiological responses, informing future investigations into how architectural features influence human health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)

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30 pages, 1184 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Artificial Intelligence and Building Information Modelling for Sustainable Construction Project Management and Digitalization in Construction

by Ivan Marović, Tomáš Mandičák, Katarína Krajníková, Annamária Behúnová and Peter Mésároš

Buildings 2026, 16(4), 846; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040846 - 20 Feb 2026

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4225

Abstract

The rapid development of digital technologies presents both a challenge and an opportunity for strengthening sustainability in construction project management. Within the broader digitalization agenda, Building Information Modelling (BIM) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) have emerged as key tools for improving environmental and economic [...] Read more.

The rapid development of digital technologies presents both a challenge and an opportunity for strengthening sustainability in construction project management. Within the broader digitalization agenda, Building Information Modelling (BIM) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) have emerged as key tools for improving environmental and economic performance through resource optimization. While traditional methods for optimizing resources, costs, and time remain relevant, the integration of BIM and AI introduces innovative capabilities that support decision-making, process automation, and data-driven sustainability strategies. The aim of this research is to analyze the extent to which BIM and AI are used for sustainable resource optimization in construction and to quantify their potential impact on the optimization of costs, resources, and time in the sector. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among construction companies operating in three European markets, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Croatia. The collected data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, correlation and regression analysis, and statistical hypothesis testing to assess the significance of relationships between technology adoption and sustainability outcomes. The results confirm that BIM adoption is positively correlated with improved sustainability management and optimization practices, with usage levels varying by company size and project scale. In contrast, AI adoption remains at a low level, indicating untapped potential for broader application. These findings contribute to understanding the role of digital tools in driving sustainable transformation in the construction sector and highlight areas for further research and practical deployment. BIM demonstrates particularly strong correlations with cost planning (r = 0.983), resource planning (r = 0.964), and schedule planning (r = 0.867), while AI shows robust associations with cost planning (r = 0.925), schedule planning (r = 0.865), and resource planning (r = 0.809). The findings indicate that maximum effectiveness is achieved when BIM and AI are deployed in a complementary manner under skilled human oversight. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Building Information Modelling in Construction Management)

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29 pages, 50125 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Dual-Stage Graph-Based Association Framework for Cross-View Person Re-Identification in Construction Worker Monitoring

by Dohyeong Kim, Jeehee Lee and Dongmin Lee

Buildings 2026, 16(4), 843; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040843 - 19 Feb 2026

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 851

Abstract

Tracking worker identities across cameras is increasingly important for advanced construction site monitoring, such as safety and productivity monitoring. However, current computer vision-based tracking faces challenges in reliably associating worker identities due to frequent occlusions and extreme viewpoint shifts between aerial and ground [...] Read more.

Tracking worker identities across cameras is increasingly important for advanced construction site monitoring, such as safety and productivity monitoring. However, current computer vision-based tracking faces challenges in reliably associating worker identities due to frequent occlusions and extreme viewpoint shifts between aerial and ground cameras, resulting in fragmented trajectories and ID switches. This study proposes a Dual-Stage Graph-based Association framework that integrates worker detections across multiple views using complementary Re-identification models and camera-aware adaptive thresholding. The framework synergistically combines TransReID for viewpoint-invariant global features and BPBReID for occlusion-robust part-based features, producing more discriminative representations. Data association leverages a graph-based clustering approach to combine representation features, camera topology, and temporal cues for robust identity maintenance. The first stage enables cross-view clustering while preventing false matches, and the second stage ensures long-term identity stability through EMA-based gallery management. Experiments on two construction sites demonstrate that the proposed framework achieves an HOTA of 39.85% and an IDF1 of 63.58%, outperforming existing baselines while reducing ID switches by 35.0%. Results on the AG-ReID.v2 benchmark demonstrate strong generalization with 90.82% Rank-1 accuracy in aerial-to-CCTV matching. The approach highlights initial feasibility for cross-view multi-camera tracking in construction with potential for extension to more complex industrial environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart and Proactive Construction Safety Combined with AI, IoT, and Big Data)

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23 pages, 762 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Interpreting Life Cycle Assessment Across Architectural Decision Orders: Environmental Conflict, Circularity and Temporal Responsibility

by Anna Bocheńska-Skałecka and Tadeusz Kuczyński

Buildings 2026, 16(4), 811; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040811 - 16 Feb 2026

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 615

Abstract

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is widely applied in building research and practice to quantify environmental impacts, yet its contribution to architectural decision-making remains limited. This paper argues that this limitation is not primarily methodological, but interpretative. LCA results are often presented independently of [...] Read more.

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is widely applied in building research and practice to quantify environmental impacts, yet its contribution to architectural decision-making remains limited. This paper argues that this limitation is not primarily methodological, but interpretative. LCA results are often presented independently of the hierarchy, timing, and reversibility of architectural decisions, obscuring where environmental responsibility can meaningfully be exercised. This study reframes LCA as an interpretative tool for understanding environmental responsibility across successive orders of architectural decision-making. A conceptual framework linking decision hierarchy, reversibility, and the temporal distribution of impacts is developed and examined through six deliberately selected case studies drawn from the peer-reviewed literature. The cases span early geometric and structural decisions, retrofit strategies, operational constraints, regulatory lock-in, and methodological assumptions. The analysis shows that the effectiveness of LCA varies systematically with decision order. At early design stages, LCA can inform highly irreversible choices and shape long-term environmental trajectories. At later stages, its role shifts toward exposing constrained trade-offs, residual conflicts, and limited remaining agency rather than enabling optimisation. By explicitly linking life-cycle impacts to decision hierarchy and time, this paper addresses a conceptual gap in current LCA research and supports more reflective architectural decision-making under uncertainty. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

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31 pages, 11296 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Application of Viscoelastic Dampers for Seismic Retrofitting of Existing Reinforced Concrete Buildings

by Sennan Lee and Chun Jiang

Buildings 2026, 16(4), 738; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040738 - 11 Feb 2026

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 836

Abstract

Passive control systems that provide both stiffness and energy dissipation, such as viscoelastic dampers (VEs), offer a promising strategy for seismic retrofit of existing reinforced concrete (RC) buildings, especially critical facilities that must remain operational during construction. Unlike conventional retrofit methods that require [...] Read more.

Passive control systems that provide both stiffness and energy dissipation, such as viscoelastic dampers (VEs), offer a promising strategy for seismic retrofit of existing reinforced concrete (RC) buildings, especially critical facilities that must remain operational during construction. Unlike conventional retrofit methods that require concrete casting and occupant evacuation, VE-based systems can be installed with shorter construction periods and reduced environmental disturbance. This study experimentally investigates the dynamic behavior of VE material subjected to large shear strain amplitudes of 300% and 400%, the latter exceeding typical design limits, to clarify its performance under severe seismic demands. The test results are used to calibrate a numerical model that represents the stiffness and energy-dissipation characteristics of the VE over this strain range. The calibrated model is then implemented in the seismic retrofit design of a six-story RC hospital building and evaluated through nonlinear structural analyses. The results indicate that the proposed VE retrofit scheme can achieve the targeted performance objectives and demonstrate the feasibility of applying high-strain VE dampers in practical seismic retrofit projects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Vibration Analysis and Control in Civil Engineering)

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31 pages, 7543 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Mechanical Properties and Reproducibility of One-Part Ambient-Cured Slag and Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer Concrete

by Daro Sun, Jessey Lee, Alireza Mohyeddin and Janitha Migunthanna

Buildings 2026, 16(4), 707; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040707 - 9 Feb 2026

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1302

Abstract

The cement industry is a major source of anthropogenic CO₂ emissions due to its energy-intensive production process and calcination of limestone. Producing one ton of cement emits approximately one ton of CO₂, and cement accounts for about 5% to 8% [...] Read more.

The cement industry is a major source of anthropogenic CO₂ emissions due to its energy-intensive production process and calcination of limestone. Producing one ton of cement emits approximately one ton of CO₂, and cement accounts for about 5% to 8% of global CO₂ emissions. In this context, cement-less one-part (“just-add-water”) ambient-cured geopolymer concrete (GPC) has gained attention due to its environmental friendliness and practicality for large-scale cast-in-situ construction. However, field adoption remains limited, mainly due to the scarcity of data on mechanical properties and durability, as well as the lack of widely accepted standards and specifications. This paper is part of the larger research on tensile performance of anchors embedded in GPC. It is well understood that the tensile performance of anchors installed in concrete substrate is largely influenced by their effective embedment depth and the substrate’s mechanical properties, particularly the fracture energy and modulus of elasticity. Therefore, prior to the investigation of the tensile performance of anchors in GPC, it is crucial to understand the mechanical behaviour of the GPC substrate itself. This study examined key parameters that influence the compressive strength of one-part ambient-cured slag/fly ash-based GPC. The alkali content, slag content, water-to-solid (W/S) ratio, and aggregate content were investigated. Additionally, various mechanical properties such as uniaxial tensile strength, splitting tensile strength, elastic modulus, and fracture energy of the hardened GPC are presented. The test results revealed that higher slag and activator content enhanced compressive strength, whereas a higher aggregate content reduced the strength. The strength gain was also attributed to higher alkali content, lower W/S ratio, and increased binder content; however, excessive alkali and an overly low W/S ratio caused rapid setting due to accelerated reaction kinetics. The 7-day compressive strength ranged from 62% to 78% of the 28-day strength, while there was no notable strength gain after 28 days of curing. The developed GPC attained compressive strengths of over 40 MPa at 28 days and 50 MPa at 56 days. The uniaxial tensile strength test demonstrated a ratio of 0.87 relative to splitting tensile strength. The findings also indicated that the aggregate conditions and curing regimes (whether using as-is aggregates with moisture curing or oven-dried aggregates with sealed curing) had no meaningful effect on the mean compressive strength of GPC and its reproducibility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Analysis of Performance in Green Concrete Structures)

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15 pages, 503 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Smart Adaptive Reuse of Vacant Assets for Aging Societies: Integrating IoT-Based Care Systems with Spatial Reconfiguration

by Nahyang Byun and Zoosun Yoon

Buildings 2026, 16(3), 636; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16030636 - 3 Feb 2026

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1063

Abstract

South Korea faces a “twin crisis” of a super-aged society and urban vacancies, yet traditional adaptive reuse focusing on physical renovation fails to address the critical caregiver shortage. To resolve this, the study proposes a “Smart Adaptive Reuse Model” that fuses spatial reconfiguration [...] Read more.

South Korea faces a “twin crisis” of a super-aged society and urban vacancies, yet traditional adaptive reuse focusing on physical renovation fails to address the critical caregiver shortage. To resolve this, the study proposes a “Smart Adaptive Reuse Model” that fuses spatial reconfiguration with IoT-based care technologies. A comparative analysis of Japanese cases was conducted using two datasets: the “physical-centric phase” (dataset A, pre-2015), focused on hardware improvements, and the “tech-enabled phases” (dataset B, 2020–2024), which utilized digital transformation strategies. Results indicate that while early models struggled with the surveillance of blind spots in complex layouts, recent tech-integrated models successfully mitigated these issues and improved workforce efficiency through “data-driven layouts” without major structural changes. Consequently, this research suggests a “Hybrid Retrofit” framework strategy for Korea—minimizing physical intervention while maximizing digital monitoring—and recommends a regulatory sandbox for “Smart Care Infrastructure” to ensure operational sustainability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

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31 pages, 1125 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceSystematic Review

Industrialised Housing Delivery: A Systematic Literature Review and Thematic Synthesis of Uptake, Digital Integration, and P-DfMA Drivers

by Danesh Hedayati, Movahedeh Amirmijani, Shervin Zabeti Targhi, Leva Latifiilkhechi and Pejman Sharafi

Buildings 2026, 16(3), 552; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16030552 - 29 Jan 2026

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2072

Abstract

Industrialised construction (IC) represents a foundational strategy for overcoming entrenched productivity constraints and supply shortfalls in the housing sector. By enabling the mass production and mass customisation of advanced kit-of-parts systems, IC supports more efficient, predictable, scalable, and sustainable building delivery through integrated, [...] Read more.

Industrialised construction (IC) represents a foundational strategy for overcoming entrenched productivity constraints and supply shortfalls in the housing sector. By enabling the mass production and mass customisation of advanced kit-of-parts systems, IC supports more efficient, predictable, scalable, and sustainable building delivery through integrated, standardised, and digitally enabled processes. However, adoption remains uneven due to fragmentation across regulatory, organisational, and technological systems. This paper presents a systematic literature review and thematic synthesis of the literature published between 2000 and 2025 to examine performance outcomes, adoption trends, digital integration maturity, and emerging platform-based design for manufacture and assembly (P-DfMA) approaches, and the main drivers. The review shows that significant performance gains are achievable, including notable reductions in construction time and cost variability, along with substantial reductions in material waste, together with measurable improvements in quality, safety, and delivery predictability. However, widespread uptake of IC remains constrained. This is largely driven by regulatory misalignment, rigid and bespoke procurement and delivery models, inconsistent and unstable supply chain capacity, and the lack of standardised components and integrated digital workflows. Building on these insights, this paper examines the key enablers required for sector-wide transformation toward an ecosystem that supports standardised kit-of-parts solutions, digitally driven design-to-production workflows, and aligned policy and procurement frameworks that are capable of delivering scalable and repeatable industrialised housing. The findings provide a consolidated evidence base and identify the key enablers for policymakers, industry stakeholders, and researchers working to move from project-centred delivery models to platform-based, digitally integrated, and industrialised construction systems. We searched Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar, complemented by targeted industry and policy repositories; the searches were last updated on 1 December 2025. After screening, 117 sources were included. The review was not registered, and no review protocol was prepared. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

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23 pages, 5456 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Numerical Modelling and Experimental Validation of FRCM-Reinforced Concrete Beams Using Macro-Modelling Techniques

by María Rodríguez-Marcos, Paula Villanueva-Llaurado, Jaime Fernández-Gómez and Daniel V. Oliveira

Buildings 2026, 16(3), 551; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16030551 - 29 Jan 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1187

Abstract

Fibre reinforced cementitious matrix (FRCM) systems are composite materials that are increasingly used for retrofitting masonry and reinforced concrete structures. Their behaviour does not depend only on the mechanical properties of the fibres and the matrix. Therefore, it is essential to perform tensile [...] Read more.

Fibre reinforced cementitious matrix (FRCM) systems are composite materials that are increasingly used for retrofitting masonry and reinforced concrete structures. Their behaviour does not depend only on the mechanical properties of the fibres and the matrix. Therefore, it is essential to perform tensile tests on FRCM coupons, as well as additional tests to investigate whether the interaction between the FRCM system and the substrate can be considered a perfect bond. The aim of this paper is to numerically simulate the behaviour of concrete beams retrofitted with two FRCM composite systems assuming perfect bond. The results of the numerical simulations were compared with experimental data, and it was observed that the adopted models successfully capture the cracking behaviour of both the concrete and the FRCM, as well as overall structural response of the specimens. The main finding was that the behaviour of concrete beams retrofitted with FRCM can be effectively estimated using a macro-modelling approach in numerical simulations. The ultimate load obtained experimentally is between 2% and 20% higher than the numerical value. This is safe and accurate enough for engineering purposes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Advanced Concrete Materials in Construction)

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20 pages, 5028 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Utilization of Demolition Waste for Concrete Aggregate

by Rita Nemes

Buildings 2026, 16(3), 526; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16030526 - 28 Jan 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1431

Abstract

The construction industry is a major consumer of natural resources and a significant source of CO₂ emissions. Although numerous studies have addressed cement reduction through supplementary materials, the replacement of natural aggregates has received less attention despite its high environmental relevance. Practical [...] Read more.

The construction industry is a major consumer of natural resources and a significant source of CO₂ emissions. Although numerous studies have addressed cement reduction through supplementary materials, the replacement of natural aggregates has received less attention despite its high environmental relevance. Practical application of recycled aggregate concrete remains limited due to complex classification and testing requirements. This study investigates the use of locally crushed construction and demolition waste as aggregate for new structural concrete with minimal on-site preparation. The goal was to maximize recycled material utilization while ensuring adequate performance. Demolition materials from normal- and high-strength concrete, 3D-printed concrete, and fired clay bricks were crushed using jaw and impact crushers, and the entire particle size curve was incorporated into new mixtures. Two compositions were tested: 50% and 75% recycled aggregate combined with natural quartz sand, without increasing cement content. Compressive strength and density were evaluated at 28 and 90 days. High-strength concrete waste provided strengths close to the reference mixture, while normal concrete and brick aggregates resulted in lower but still structural-grade concretes. The strengths achieved ranged between 35 MPa and 73 MPa, which is between 48% and 98% of the reference value, respectively. A linear relationship was found between density and compressive strength, enabling estimation from simple measurements. The results confirm that uncontaminated demolition waste can be efficiently reused on site with limited testing, supporting circular construction and reduced environmental impact. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

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32 pages, 3859 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceSystematic Review

Digital Twin (DT) and Extended Reality (XR) in the Construction Industry: A Systematic Literature Review

by Ina Sthapit and Svetlana Olbina

Buildings 2026, 16(3), 517; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16030517 - 27 Jan 2026

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2380

Abstract

The construction industry is undergoing a rapid digital transformation, with Digital Twins (DTs) and Extended Reality (XR) as two emerging technologies with great potential. Despite their potential, there are several challenges regarding DT and XR use in construction projects, including implementation barriers, interoperability [...] Read more.

The construction industry is undergoing a rapid digital transformation, with Digital Twins (DTs) and Extended Reality (XR) as two emerging technologies with great potential. Despite their potential, there are several challenges regarding DT and XR use in construction projects, including implementation barriers, interoperability issues, system complexity, and a lack of standardized frameworks. This study presents a systematic literature review (SLR) of DT and XR technologies—including Virtual Reality (VR), Augmented Reality (AR), and Mixed Reality (MR)—in the construction industry. The study analyzes 52 peer-reviewed articles identified using the Web of Science database to explore thematic findings. Key findings highlight DT and XR applications for safety training, real-time monitoring, predictive maintenance, lifecycle management, renovation or demolition, scenario risk assessment, and education. The SLR also identifies core enabling technologies such as Building Information Modeling (BIM), Internet of Things (IoT), Big Data, and XR devices, while uncovering persistent challenges including interoperability, high implementation costs, and lack of standardization. The study highlights how integrating DTs and XR can improve construction by making it smarter, safer, and more efficient. It also suggests areas for future research to overcome current challenges and help increase the use of these technologies. The primary contribution of this study lies in deepening the understanding of DT and XR technologies by examining them through the lenses of their benefits as well as drivers for and challenges to their adoption. This enhanced understanding provides a foundation for exploring integrated DT and XR applications to advance innovation and efficiency in the construction sector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Virtual Reality and Mixed Reality in Architecture, Engineering, Construction, and Operation and Maintenance (AECOM) Building Sector)

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20 pages, 4625 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Vertical Ground-Motion Effects in Base-Isolated Buildings: Preliminary Observations from Twin Fixed-Base and Base-Isolated Structures During the 18 March 2025 Potenza Sequence

by Rocco Ditommaso and Felice Carlo Ponzo

Buildings 2026, 16(3), 482; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16030482 - 23 Jan 2026

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1215

Abstract

On 18 March 2025, a moderate earthquake with moment magnitude Mw 4.2 struck the Basilicata region in Southern Italy. The event occurred at 09:01:25 UTC with an epicentre located approximately 4 km northeast of the city of Potenza (PZ). The earthquake was clearly [...] Read more.

On 18 March 2025, a moderate earthquake with moment magnitude Mw 4.2 struck the Basilicata region in Southern Italy. The event occurred at 09:01:25 UTC with an epicentre located approximately 4 km northeast of the city of Potenza (PZ). The earthquake was clearly felt across the urban area and followed by a sequence of low-magnitude aftershocks. A few hours after the main shock, researchers from the University of Basilicata installed a temporary structural monitoring network to check the structural conditions of several buildings located in Potenza. This installation enabled the acquisition of accelerometric recordings of several aftershocks, providing a valuable dataset for preliminary observations on structural seismic response. The monitoring campaign focused on two adjacent twin buildings with similar geometry and structural layout but different seismic design strategies: one conventionally fixed at the base and the other equipped with seismic base isolation made by rubber bearings. Comparative analyses revealed distinct differences in dynamic response. The results highlight the need for refined regulatory tools to address near-epicentral conditions, particularly potential dynamic interactions among the vertical ground-motion component, the vertical vibration frequencies of the superstructure, and floor-system resonance. While not critical for ultimate limit states, these effects may influence comfort and performance in operational and damage limit states. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances and Applications in Structural Vibration Control: 2nd Edition)

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30 pages, 40775 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Dynamic Hygrothermal Analysis for Retrofitting Opaque Envelopes in Humid Climates: From Simulations to Guidelines

by Antonio Cristaudo, Francesco Nicoletti, Cristina Carpino and Roberto Bruno

Buildings 2026, 16(2), 419; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020419 - 19 Jan 2026

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 986

Abstract

This paper introduces the dynamic hygrothermal performances of existing walls in humid climates using the EN ISO 15026 procedure. Water content, mould formation and freezing risk were investigated considering rock wool (RW) and expanded polystyrene (EPS) allocated at different points of two typologies [...] Read more.

This paper introduces the dynamic hygrothermal performances of existing walls in humid climates using the EN ISO 15026 procedure. Water content, mould formation and freezing risk were investigated considering rock wool (RW) and expanded polystyrene (EPS) allocated at different points of two typologies of existing walls requiring renovation. Results show that RW is recommended for insulation on the external side, whereas EPS is more suitable for the internal side. A freezing risk occurs in massive walls insulated internally with RW in severe winter climates. Mould formation appears in the initial phases on the renovated side, driven by the built-in humidity of the new layers. Wall thermal transmittance shows large fluctuations, especially in lightweight structures renovated with EPS, reaching an increase of over 22% at the beginning of the heating period, driven by EPS water content peaks of 1.9 kg/m² in cold climates when installed on the external side, achieved in a stabilized regime and independently from the wall’s technical solution. Outcomes confirm transient hygrothermal analysis as the recommended approach to evaluate the component behaviour over a long-term projection, facilitating sizing in the design phase and ensuring compliance with regulations for retrofitted elements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Energy Efficiency and Life-Cycle Assessment of Phase Change Materials for Thermal Energy Storage Applications)

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33 pages, 326 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Intelligent Risk Identification in Construction Projects: A Case Study of an AI-Based Framework

by Kristijan Vilibić, Zvonko Sigmund and Ivica Završki

Buildings 2026, 16(2), 409; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020409 - 19 Jan 2026

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3072

Abstract

Risk management in large-scale construction projects is a critical yet complex process influenced by financial, safety, environmental, scheduling, and regulatory uncertainties. Effective risk management contributes directly to project optimization by minimizing disruptions, controlling costs, and enhancing decision-making efficiency. Early identification and mitigation of [...] Read more.

Risk management in large-scale construction projects is a critical yet complex process influenced by financial, safety, environmental, scheduling, and regulatory uncertainties. Effective risk management contributes directly to project optimization by minimizing disruptions, controlling costs, and enhancing decision-making efficiency. Early identification and mitigation of risks allow resources to be allocated where they have the greatest effect, thereby optimizing overall project outcomes. However, conventional methods such as expert judgment and probabilistic modeling often struggle to process extensive datasets and complex interdependencies among risk factors. This study explores the potential of an AI-based framework for risk identification, utilizing artificial intelligence to analyze project documentation and generate a preliminary set of identified risks. The proposed methodology is implemented on the ‘Trg pravde’ judicial infrastructure project in Zagreb, Croatia, applying AI models (GPT-5, Gemini 2.5, Sonnet 4.5) to identify phase-specific risks throughout the project lifecycle. The approach aims to improve the efficiency of risk identification, reduce human bias, and align with established project management methodologies such as PM². Initial findings suggest that the use of AI may broaden the range of identified risks and support more structured risk analysis, indicating its potential value as a complementary tool in risk management processes. However, human expertise remains crucial for prioritization, contextual interpretation, and mitigation. The study demonstrates that AI augments, rather than replaces, traditional risk management practices, enabling more proactive and data-driven decision-making in construction projects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applying Artificial Intelligence in Construction Management)

30 pages, 10980 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Fatigue Assessment of Weathering Steel Welded Joints Based on Fracture Mechanics and Machine Learning

by Jianxing Du, Han Su and Jinsheng Du

Buildings 2026, 16(2), 399; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020399 - 18 Jan 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1226

Abstract

To improve the computational efficiency of complex fatigue assessments, this study proposes a framework that integrates high-fidelity finite element analysis (FEA)with ensemble learning for evaluating the fatigue performance of weathering steel welded joints. First, a three-dimensional crack propagation model for cruciform fillet welds [...] Read more.

To improve the computational efficiency of complex fatigue assessments, this study proposes a framework that integrates high-fidelity finite element analysis (FEA)with ensemble learning for evaluating the fatigue performance of weathering steel welded joints. First, a three-dimensional crack propagation model for cruciform fillet welds was developed on the ABAQUS-FRANC3D platform, with a validation error of less than 20%. Subsequently, a large-scale parametric analysis was conducted. The results indicate that as the stress amplitude increases from 67.5 MPa to 99 MPa, the fatigue life decreases to 40.29% of the baseline value. When the stress amplitude reaches 180 MPa, the fatigue life drops sharply to 14.28% of the baseline. Within the stress ratio range of 0.1 to 0.7, increasing the initial crack size from 0.075 mm to 0.5 mm reduces the fatigue life to between 85.78% and 86.48% of the baseline. Edge cracks, influenced by stress concentration, exhibit approximately 15.2% shorter fatigue life compared to central cracks, while the maximum variation in fatigue life due to crack geometry is only 10.25%. Second, an Extremely Randomized Trees surrogate model constructed based on the simulation data demonstrates excellent performance. Finally, by integrating this model with Paris’s law, the developed prediction framework achieves high consistency with numerical simulation results, with all predicted values falling within the two-standard-deviation interval. This data-driven approach can effectively replace computationally intensive finite element analysis, enabling efficient structural safety assessments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on the Structural Mechanics of Steel–Concrete Composite Structures)

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34 pages, 4044 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Modular Chain-of-Thought (CoT) for LLM-Based Conceptual Construction Cost Estimation

by Prashnna Ghimire, Kyungki Kim, Terry Stentz and Tirthankar Roy

Buildings 2026, 16(2), 396; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020396 - 18 Jan 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2522

Abstract

The traditional cost estimation process in construction involves extracting information from diverse data sources and relying on human intuition and judgment, making it time-intensive and error-prone. While recent advancements in large language models offer opportunities to automate these processes, their effectiveness in cost [...] Read more.

The traditional cost estimation process in construction involves extracting information from diverse data sources and relying on human intuition and judgment, making it time-intensive and error-prone. While recent advancements in large language models offer opportunities to automate these processes, their effectiveness in cost estimation tasks remains underexplored. Prior studies have investigated LLM applications in construction, but there is a lack of studies that have systematically evaluated their performance in cost estimation or proposed a framework for systematic evaluations of their performance in cost estimation and ways to enhance their accuracy and reliability through prompt engineering. This study evaluates the performance of pre-trained LLMs (GPT-4o, LLaMA 3.2, Gemini 2.0, and Claude 3.5 Sonnet) for conceptual cost estimation, comparing zero-shot prompting with a modular chain-of-thought framework. The results indicate that zero-shot prompting produced incomplete responses with an average confidence score of 1.91 (64%), whereas the CoT framework improved accuracy to 2.52 (84%) and achieved significant gains across BLEU, ROUGE-L, METEOR, content overlap, and semantic similarity metrics. The proposed modular CoT framework enhances structured reasoning, contextual alignment, and reliability in estimation workflows. This study contributes by developing a conceptual cost estimation framework for LLMs, benchmarking baseline model performance, and demonstrating how structured prompting improves estimation accuracy. This offers a scalable foundation for integrating AI into construction cost estimation workflows. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Knowledge Management in the Building and Construction Industry)

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26 pages, 5961 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

An Experimental Study on the Performance of L-Shaped CFSTs Connected by Double-Corrugated Steel Plates Under Axial Compression

by Yuqing Yang, Fanchang Kong and Zaigen Mu

Buildings 2026, 16(2), 379; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020379 - 16 Jan 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 642

Abstract

Special-shaped, concrete-filled steel tubes (SCFSTs) enhance the space efficiency of residential structures and improve aesthetics by avoiding exposed columns. However, the flat steel-plate connection sections are susceptible to local buckling. To mitigate this, corrugated steel plates are incorporated to enhance the local buckling [...] Read more.

Special-shaped, concrete-filled steel tubes (SCFSTs) enhance the space efficiency of residential structures and improve aesthetics by avoiding exposed columns. However, the flat steel-plate connection sections are susceptible to local buckling. To mitigate this, corrugated steel plates are incorporated to enhance the local buckling resistance of the structure. This study examines the axial-compression performance and damage characteristics of SCFSTs connected by double-corrugated steel plates (DCP-SCFST) through full-scale static-loading tests. A finite element analysis explores the impact of column height, corrugated plate thickness, material strength, and connection length on the load-carrying capacity of DCP-SCFSTs. The study also presents the sectional strength and design method for these structures. The results indicate that the DCP-SCFSTs exhibit high bearing capacity and ductility under axial compression. The corrugated plates effectively restrain the concrete, markedly improving the buckling behavior of the connection section. Moreover, the corrugation wave size does not significantly affect the bearing capacity, whereas increasing the corrugated plate’s thickness enhances both the bearing capacity and ductility. This is attributed to the indirect confinement effect of corrugated plates. Additionally, the paper proposes design methods for sectional strength and overall stability, offering accurate formulas that offer valuable reference for the design of concrete-filled, corrugated plate members. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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32 pages, 7384 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Unlocking Rooftop Cooling Potential: An Experimental Investigation of the Thermal Behavior of Cool Roof and Green Roof as Retrofitting Strategies in Hot–Humid Climate

by Tengfei Zhao, Kwong Fai Fong and Tin Tai Chow

Buildings 2026, 16(2), 365; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020365 - 15 Jan 2026

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1568

Abstract

Cool roof and green roof have been acknowledged as effective heat mitigation strategies for fighting against the urban heat island (UHI). However, empirical data in hot–humid climate are still insufficient. Experimental conventional, cool and green roofs (three types) were established to comprehensively investigate [...] Read more.

Cool roof and green roof have been acknowledged as effective heat mitigation strategies for fighting against the urban heat island (UHI). However, empirical data in hot–humid climate are still insufficient. Experimental conventional, cool and green roofs (three types) were established to comprehensively investigate the thermal performances in Hong Kong under typical summer conditions, as retrofitting strategies for an office building. The holistic vertical thermal behavior was investigated. The comparative cooling potentials were assessed. The results reveal a “vertical thermal sequence” in peak temperatures of each substrate layer for the conventional, cool and green roofs on a sunny day. However, local reversion in the thermal sequence may occur on a rainy day. Green roof-plot C (GR_C) demonstrates the highest thermal damping effect, followed by plot B (GR_B), A (GR_A) and the cool roof (CR) in summer. On a sunny day, the thermal dampening effectiveness of the substrates in the three green roofs is consistent: drainage > soil > water reservoir > root barrier. The holistic vertical thermal profiling was constructed in a high-rise office context in Hong Kong. The diurnal temperature profiles indicate all roof systems could effectively attenuate the temperature fluctuations. The daily maximum surface temperature reduction (SDMR) was introduced for cooling potential characterization of the cool roof and green roofs with multiple vegetation types. On a sunny day, the cool roof and green roofs all showed significant cooling potential. SDMR on the concrete tile of the best performing system was GR_C (26 °C), followed by GR_B (22.4 °C), GR_A (20.7 °C) and CR (13.3 °C), respectively. The SDMR on the ceiling ranked as GR_C, GR_B, GR_A and CR, with 2.9 °C, 2.4 °C, 2.1 °C and 2.1 °C, separately. On a rainy day, the cooling effect was still present but greatly diminished. A critical insight of a “warming effect at the ceiling” of the green roof was revealed. This research offers critical insights for unlocking rooftop cooling potential, endorsing cool roof and green roof as pivotal solutions for sustainable urban environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)

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24 pages, 4812 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Sustainable Value Assessment of Textile Industrial Heritage Along the Longhai Railway (Guanzhong Section) from a Linear Heritage Perspective

by Panpan Liu, Yi Liu, Yuxin Zhang, Xingchen Lai and Hiroatsu Fukuda

Buildings 2026, 16(2), 281; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020281 - 9 Jan 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1155

Abstract

The adaptive reuse of industrial heritage is increasingly recognized as an effective low-carbon strategy that reduces resource consumption, lowers embodied carbon emissions, and supports sustainable urban transitions. Developing appropriate reuse strategies, however, requires a robust understanding of heritage value. As material evidence of [...] Read more.

The adaptive reuse of industrial heritage is increasingly recognized as an effective low-carbon strategy that reduces resource consumption, lowers embodied carbon emissions, and supports sustainable urban transitions. Developing appropriate reuse strategies, however, requires a robust understanding of heritage value. As material evidence of China’s modern industrialization, railway-associated industrial heritage possesses the characteristics of linear cultural heritage. Yet systematic and multi-scalar value assessments from a linear heritage perspective remain limited. Focusing on the Guanzhong Section of the Longhai Railway—one of the most representative industrial development axes in Northwest China—this study establishes a two-level value assessment framework and conducts a comprehensive evaluation of fourteen textile industrial heritage units. At the individual level, five dimensions—historical significance, architectural features, structural integrity, authenticity, and rarity—were assessed through field investigation, and type-specific weights were introduced to correct structural imbalances between quantity and value across building categories. At the unit level, the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) was employed to determine the weights of spatial–functional integrity, process completeness, railway connectivity, industrial landscape characteristics, and the integrated individual-level value. The results show that factory workshops and warehouses consistently exhibit the highest value, whereas structures and residential buildings, despite their numerical dominance, contribute relatively little. Spatially, a clear west–east gradient emerges: high-value units cluster in Baoji and Xi’an, medium-value units in Xianyang, and low-value units mainly in Weinan and surrounding counties. The findings indicate that textile industrial heritage along the Guanzhong Section forms a railway-linked linear cultural heritage system rather than isolated sites. The proposed evaluation framework not only supports heritage identification and conservation planning but also provides a theoretical basis for promoting low-carbon adaptive reuse of existing industrial buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Neutral Pathways for Urban Building Design)

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25 pages, 3479 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Structural Performance of Reinforced Concrete Affected by Plastic Materials

by Ramzi Abduallah, Jose Castro, Halil Sezen and Lisa Burris

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 229; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010229 - 4 Jan 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1584

Abstract

This novel study provides new experimental evidence and a detailed comparative analysis of how various types of plastic materials influence concrete performance. Six widely used plastic materials were examined for their impact on the flexural strength of reinforced concrete (RC) beams, as well [...] Read more.

This novel study provides new experimental evidence and a detailed comparative analysis of how various types of plastic materials influence concrete performance. Six widely used plastic materials were examined for their impact on the flexural strength of reinforced concrete (RC) beams, as well as the compressive strength, elastic modulus, and durability of concrete specimens. In the experimental program, 10% of the natural fine aggregate was replaced with particles of polyethylene terephthalate (PET), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), low-density polyethylene (LDPE), polypropylene (PP), and polystyrene (PS). A simplified life cycle assessment (LCA) model was included to compare the greenhouse gas emissions (measured as CO₂-e) from managing plastic waste. The new experimental data indicate that, overall, incorporation of plastic waste materials into concrete has modest adverse effects, suggesting the viability of the resulting product as a sustainable material alternative. Flexural tests on RC beams showed that the addition of plastic particles has no adverse effects on flexural behavior under the specific test conditions. Furthermore, durability assessments using ultrasonic pulse velocity and electrical resistivity tests confirmed that plastic-modified concrete performs comparably to conventional mixes. LCA revealed that, with strategic improvements in recycling technology and logistics, using plastic waste in concrete can become an environmentally friendly option, helping to reduce the carbon footprint. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Challenges of and Research Trends in the Durability, Corrosion, and Cracking of Reinforced Concrete)

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28 pages, 3100 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Linking Health, Comfort and Indoor Environmental Quality in Classrooms with Mechanical Ventilation or Window Airing: A Controlled Observational Study

by Susanna Bordin, Renate Weisböck-Erdheim, Sebastian Hummel, Barbara Fixl, Jonathan Griener, Arno Dentel and Arnulf Josef Hartl

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010217 - 3 Jan 2026

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1468

Abstract

Effective classroom ventilation is essential for indoor environmental quality (IEQ), comfort and health of schoolchildren, who spend substantial time indoors. This controlled observational study compared manual window airing (WA) with decentralized mechanical ventilation (DV) in six classrooms of two elementary schools during the [...] Read more.

Effective classroom ventilation is essential for indoor environmental quality (IEQ), comfort and health of schoolchildren, who spend substantial time indoors. This controlled observational study compared manual window airing (WA) with decentralized mechanical ventilation (DV) in six classrooms of two elementary schools during the winter infection period. Symptoms of upper respiratory tract infections, salivary biomarkers, well-being, perceived comfort, and classroom-level IEQ were assessed through questionnaires, saliva samples and long-term monitoring. Ninety-eight schoolchildren participated (64 WA, 34 DV). Symptom-based outcomes of the WURSS-K questionnaire showed consistently lower illness burden in group DV, with several parameters reaching statistical significance and an absolute risk reduction of 7.8%. Salivary immunoglobulin A (sIgA) concentrations were also significantly lower in group DV (approximately 39–59%, p ≤ 0.01). Sensitivity analyses showed positive associations of CO₂ and PM_2.5 with sIgA and indicated that PM_2.5 exposure accounted for group differences. Comfort perceptions mirrored measured IEQ: DV classrooms exhibited warmer, more stable thermal conditions, lower CO₂ and PM_2.5, and slightly better thermal and draught-related impressions. Overall, decentralized mechanical ventilation supported favorable IEQ and comfort and may influence mucosal immune activity through reduced particulate exposure, complementing the observed reduction in symptom burden. A multidimensional approach integrating medical outcomes with continuous IEQ monitoring proved valuable and should be expanded in larger, balanced cohort studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Thermal Environment: Improving Indoor Comfort by Optimizing Ventilation Systems)

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25 pages, 6739 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Current Possibilities of Using BIM Models for Compiling Cost Estimates in the Design Phase of Residential Buildings

by Stanislav Vitásek and Daniel Macek

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010203 - 2 Jan 2026

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2696

Abstract

This article focuses primarily on the current possibilities of using data and information from BIM models to estimate costs using identified methods and pricing systems for apartment buildings with different construction technologies. The authors analyse buildings with a built-up space of 3600–5300 m [...] Read more.

This article focuses primarily on the current possibilities of using data and information from BIM models to estimate costs using identified methods and pricing systems for apartment buildings with different construction technologies. The authors analyse buildings with a built-up space of 3600–5300 m³, representing hundreds of projects currently available on the market. The applied methods include Pricing of Buildings Using a Spreadsheet Program, IFC-Supported Pricing Software, Pricing of Buildings in Design Software, and Pricing of Buildings Using a Design/Construction Library to compile cost estimates in the Czech URS, German Baupreislexikon, and British Spon’s Architects’ and Builders’ Price Book pricing systems. The usability of the BIM model with respect to the selected pricing system, construction technology, and methods ranges from 50% to 85%, with labour intensity ranging from 64 to 159 h. The key aspects for a wider application of BIM models include the completion of standardization at the level of graphic and non-graphic requirements related to the intended use of the data and information. The average cost per cubic metre of built-up space is EUR 469 in the Czech Republic, EUR 617 in Germany, and EUR 671 in Great Britain. This study brings new and distinctive insights compared to previous research by providing specific values for labour intensity and extractability, defining the limits of BIM use for cost estimation, and proposing recommendations to increase the applicability of the obtained data in practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Digital Innovation Framework for Construction Management and Built Environment)

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30 pages, 1535 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Evolution of Colorimetry in 3D-Printed Samples Exposed to External Weather Conditions, Used in Smart Façades

by Dan-Radu Baraboi, Gabriel Năstase, Răzvan Sima and Alexandru Șerban

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 197; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010197 - 1 Jan 2026

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1407

Abstract

The successful deployment of 3D printing in outdoor applications is contingent upon the selection of materials capable of withstanding the degrading effects of weather. This study evaluates the colorimetric performance of various 3D-printed polymers exposed to natural weathering conditions in Brasov, Romania, from [...] Read more.

The successful deployment of 3D printing in outdoor applications is contingent upon the selection of materials capable of withstanding the degrading effects of weather. This study evaluates the colorimetric performance of various 3D-printed polymers exposed to natural weathering conditions in Brasov, Romania, from November 2024 to March 2025. Color changes were monitored through spectrophotometry using a PCE-XXM 20 color meter, and data were recorded in the LAB color space. The results indicate substantial differences in color stability among the tested materials, with some exhibiting unacceptable levels of fading and discoloration. These findings have significant implications for the design and implementation of outdoor 3D-printed products in climates analogous to that of Brasov, underscoring the importance of selecting materials with demonstrated resistance to weathering and color change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D-Printed Technology in Buildings)

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26 pages, 8457 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Low Cyclic Fatigue Properties and Cyclic Constitutive Modeling of SS275 Steel for Seismic Applications

by Hubdar Hussain and Dong-keon Kim

Buildings 2025, 15(21), 3997; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15213997 - 5 Nov 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1696

Abstract

Steel energy dissipation devices are integral to seismic design, as they help reduce structural deformations during strong earthquakes by absorbing and dissipating energy through large inelastic deformations. This research provides new insights into the cyclic behavior and constitutive modeling of carbon steel SS275, [...] Read more.

Steel energy dissipation devices are integral to seismic design, as they help reduce structural deformations during strong earthquakes by absorbing and dissipating energy through large inelastic deformations. This research provides new insights into the cyclic behavior and constitutive modeling of carbon steel SS275, a domestically manufactured material in Korea specifically used for seismic energy dissipation applications. To characterize its mechanical response, monotonic and strain-controlled cyclic loading tests are conducted on nine machined coupons. The cyclic tests are performed under constant strain amplitudes ranging from ±0.5% to ±3.0%. Experimental strain–life data obtained at these amplitudes are used to determine the Coffin–Manson parameters, while the cyclic stress–strain relationship is defined using the Ramberg–Osgood equation. Furthermore, material parameters for the Chaboche nonlinear hardening model are extracted from the experimental results and validated through finite element simulations of coupon tests in ABAQUS, ensuring close agreement with the measured cyclic response. Following the coupon-level analysis, a member-scale test is performed on a buckling-restrained brace (BRB) fabricated from SS275 steel. The calibrated Chaboche parameters are then applied in numerical simulations of the BRB, and the results are compared with experimental data to assess the model’s predictive capability for seismic performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Seismic Performance of Seismic-Resilient Structures)

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33 pages, 8857 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Multi-Stage Framework Combining Experimental Testing, Numerical Calibration, and AI Surrogates for Composite Panel Characterization

by Marcello Fulgione, Simone Palladino, Luca Esposito, Sina Sarfarazi and Mariano Modano

Buildings 2025, 15(21), 3900; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15213900 - 28 Oct 2025

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 1665

Abstract

Composite modular panels are increasingly used in modern buildings, yet their layered behavior makes mechanical characterization and modeling difficult. This study presents a novel hybrid framework that integrates analytical, numerical, and AI-driven approaches for the mechanical characterization of composite panels. The system combines [...] Read more.

Composite modular panels are increasingly used in modern buildings, yet their layered behavior makes mechanical characterization and modeling difficult. This study presents a novel hybrid framework that integrates analytical, numerical, and AI-driven approaches for the mechanical characterization of composite panels. The system combines a layered concrete configuration with embedded steel reinforcement, and its performance was evaluated through experimental testing, analytical formulation, finite element simulations, and artificial intelligence techniques. Full-scale bending and shear tests were conducted and results in terms of displacements were compared with in silico simulations. The equivalent elastic modulus and thickness were suggested via a closed-form analytical procedure and validated numerically, showing less than 3% deviation from experiments. These equivalent parameters were used to simulate the dynamic response of a two-storey prototype building under harmonic excitation, with simulated modal periods differing by less than 10% from experimental data. To generalize the method, a parametric dataset of 218 panel configurations was generated by varying material and geometric properties. Machine learning models including Artificial Neural Network, Random Forest, Gradient Boosting, and Extra Trees were trained on this dataset, achieving R² > 0.98 for both targets. A graphical user interface was developed to integrate the trained models into an engineering tool for fast prediction of equivalent properties. The proposed methodology provides a unified and computationally efficient approach that combines physical accuracy with practical usability, enabling rapid design and optimization of composite panel structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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43 pages, 1498 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Barriers and Drivers in the Construction Industry: Impacts of Industry 4.0 Enabling Technologies on Sustainability 4.0

by Luiz André Lima de Souza, Fagner José Coutinho de Melo, Eryka Fernanda Miranda Sobral, Djalma Silva Guimarães Junior, Tatyane Veras de Queiroz Ferreira da Cruz, Alexandre Duarte Gusmão, Carolina Gusmão and Kalinny Patrícia Vaz Lafayette

Buildings 2025, 15(20), 3760; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15203760 - 18 Oct 2025

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5136

Abstract

The civil construction sector is crucial to global economic development, influencing GDP and driving innovation with Industry 4.0 technologies such as BIM and IoT. However, how these technologies can be effectively aligned with the principles of Sustainability 4.0 within the framework of Construction [...] Read more.

The civil construction sector is crucial to global economic development, influencing GDP and driving innovation with Industry 4.0 technologies such as BIM and IoT. However, how these technologies can be effectively aligned with the principles of Sustainability 4.0 within the framework of Construction 4.0 remains unclear. This paper aims to identify the barriers and drivers related to the impact of adopting Industry 4.0 enabling technologies on Sustainability 4.0 in the construction sector. To achieve this, we conducted a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) using articles from the Web of Science and Scopus databases, focusing on the period from 2021 to 2025. The methodology applied enabled a comprehensive analysis of 50 articles, highlighting challenges, barriers, and potential facilitators in the adoption of Sustainability 4.0 practices. Among the key findings, advanced technologies such as BIM and IoT have shown positive impacts on sustainability dimensions, like reducing energy consumption; yet, practical implementation still encounters significant barriers, including high costs and insufficient public policies. Only 30% of the reviewed articles discuss adoption in less developed regions, indicating geographical disparity in the application of these technologies. The paper provides valuable insights for managers and policymakers on overcoming existing barriers, emphasizing the importance of innovative business models and the need for cultural and educational adaptation. The study suggests that, with a collaborative approach and adequate support policies, Industry 4.0 technologies can transform sustainable practices in civil construction, fostering a more balanced and environmentally responsible economy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)

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17 pages, 2172 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Brain Booster Buildings: Modelling Stair Use as a Daily Booster of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor

by Mohamed Hesham Khalil and Koen Steemers

Buildings 2025, 15(20), 3730; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15203730 - 16 Oct 2025

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2422

Abstract

This paper establishes the Brain Booster Buildings framework, the first model to demonstrate how daily stair use can elevate brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a vital molecule for lifelong neurogenesis and brain health in humans. Through a novel framework of the associations between metabolic [...] Read more.

This paper establishes the Brain Booster Buildings framework, the first model to demonstrate how daily stair use can elevate brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a vital molecule for lifelong neurogenesis and brain health in humans. Through a novel framework of the associations between metabolic equivalents (METs) data and BDNF response studies, we establish that stairs are generally higher in METs than any indoor activity. We further explain how architectural parameters (riser height, floor number, pace) predictably modulate exercise intensity during stair use. We identify two implementable patterns: moderate-intensity continuous use (≥20 min, 1–3 floors) and high-intensity interval training (6 min, carrying loads while using stairs in a building with three floors or less, or using stairs in a building with ≥3 floors, load-free). Based on BDNF responses to comparable exercise intensities, 6 min of high-intensity stair climbing is predicted to increase serum BDNF by up to 40%. Since people spend ~90% of their time indoors while neurogenesis declines fourfold throughout the adult lifespan, affecting mood, stress resilience, and memory, vertical architecture emerges as a vital, accessible, and cost-effective infrastructure that boosts BDNF for neurogenesis, plasticity, and brain health. We conducted scenario-based modelling using the Brain Booster Buildings framework to estimate how the use of stairs in residential, office, educational, hospital, and commercial buildings may boost BDNF levels based on established intensity–BDNF relationships. The framework provides architects, policymakers, and clinicians with evidence-based estimated specifications to use buildings as daily brain boosters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue BioCognitive Architectural Design)

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26 pages, 6872 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Biophilic Façades: The Potentiality of Bioreceptive Concrete

by Ronaldas Jakubovskis

Buildings 2025, 15(20), 3646; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15203646 - 10 Oct 2025

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3844

Abstract

The growth of microorganisms and lower plants on building walls may respond the central principle of the biophilic design: sustained engagement with nature. As such, bioreceptive concrete has great potential to increase the biodiversity in our cities. In addition, by actively participating in [...] Read more.

The growth of microorganisms and lower plants on building walls may respond the central principle of the biophilic design: sustained engagement with nature. As such, bioreceptive concrete has great potential to increase the biodiversity in our cities. In addition, by actively participating in the carbon and nitrogen cycles, biologically active, bioreceptive concrete has the potential to reduce the building’s environmental impact considerably. In the present study, we analyze the biological growth on concrete and critically review the current research approaches in the bioreceptivity evaluation. The uncontrolled and unaesthetic growth of fungal colonies, poor long-term survivability of the laboratory-developed biofilms, and a lack of field applications were identified among the major factors that hinder the practical application of bioreceptive concrete in the building envelope. Our ongoing field tests have shown that concrete’s controlled and aesthetically pleasant greening may be achieved in several years. We argue that such nature-integrated solutions would emphasize the beauty of the aging buildings while offering clear, practical benefits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nature-Based Solutions to Mitigate the Effects of Urban Heat Islands and Urban Flooding)

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17 pages, 1475 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceSystematic Review

Exploring Neuroscientific Approaches to Architecture: Design Strategies of the Built Environment for Improving Human Performance

by Erminia Attaianese, Morena Barilà and Mariangela Perillo

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3524; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193524 - 1 Oct 2025

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 9732

Abstract

Since the 1960s, theories on the relationship between people and their environment have explored how elements of the built environment may directly or indirectly influence human behavior. In this context, neuroarchitecture is emerging as an interdisciplinary field that integrates neuroscience, architecture, environmental psychology, [...] Read more.

Since the 1960s, theories on the relationship between people and their environment have explored how elements of the built environment may directly or indirectly influence human behavior. In this context, neuroarchitecture is emerging as an interdisciplinary field that integrates neuroscience, architecture, environmental psychology, and cognitive science, with the aim of providing empirical evidence on how architectural spaces affect the human brain. This study investigates the potential of neuroarchitecture to inform environmental design by clarifying its current conceptual framework, examining its practical applications, and identifying the context in which it is being implemented. Beginning with an in-depth analysis of the definition of neuroarchitecture, its theoretical foundations, and the range of interpretations within the academic community, the study then offers a critical review of its practical applications across various design fields. By presenting a comprehensive overview of this emerging discipline, the study also summarizes the measurement techniques commonly employed in related research and critically evaluates design criteria based on observed human responses. Ultimately, neuroarchitecture represents a promising avenue for creating environments that deliberately enhance psychological and physiological well-being, paving the way toward truly human-centered design. Nevertheless, neuroarchitecture is still an emerging experimental field, which entails significant limitations. The experiments conducted are still limited to virtual reality and controlled experimental contexts. In addition, small and heterogeneous population samples have been tested, without considering human variability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human-Centric Architectural Design: Neuroarchitecture as a New Tool to Shape Futureproof Inclusive Buildings)

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22 pages, 4204 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Eco-Friendly Flame-Retardant Construction Composites Based on Bio-Based TPU, Recycled Rice Husk, and Ammonium Polyphosphate

by Chen-Feng Kuan, Chane-Yuan Yang, Hsu-Chiang Kuan, Min-Chin Chung and Yeng-Fong Shih

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3420; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183420 - 22 Sep 2025

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2782

Abstract

This study explores the use of agricultural waste rice husk powder (RH) as a sustainable alternative to the petrochemical-derived carbon source, pentaerythritol (PER), in expandable flame retardants. RH is combined with halogen-free ammonium polyphosphate (APP), which serves as both an acid and a [...] Read more.

This study explores the use of agricultural waste rice husk powder (RH) as a sustainable alternative to the petrochemical-derived carbon source, pentaerythritol (PER), in expandable flame retardants. RH is combined with halogen-free ammonium polyphosphate (APP), which serves as both an acid and a gas source. The resulting APP/RH system is incorporated into bio-based thermoplastic polyurethane (Biobased TPU) to prepare a halogen-free, flame-retardant composite material consistent with circular economy principles and environmental sustainability. The optimal APP-to-RH ratio in bio-based TPU was determined to be 2:1, with the best flame-retardant performance observed in the composite containing 20 wt% APP/RH. This formulation achieved a limiting oxygen index (LOI) of 27% and a UL-94 V-0 rating, indicating excellent flame resistance. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) showed a significant increase in char residue—from 0.51 wt% in pure TPU to 26.1 wt%—demonstrating improved thermal stability. Further characterization using cone calorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis–Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (TGA-FTIR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and Raman spectroscopy confirmed that the addition of APP/RH significantly enhances the flame-retardant properties of the TPU composite. Consequently, the application of TPU in construction materials can be advanced through improved fire safety performance and alignment with sustainability goals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

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44 pages, 4769 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Porosity and Permeability in Construction Materials as Key Parameters for Their Durability and Performance: A Review

by Almudena Ortiz-Marqués, Pablo Caldevilla, Eryk Goldmann, Małgorzata Safuta, María Fernández-Raga and Marcin Górski

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3422; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183422 - 22 Sep 2025

Cited by 59 | Viewed by 8702

Abstract

This review provides a comprehensive examination of porosity and permeability as key parameters governing the durability and performance of construction materials, including natural stone, mortar, concrete, and other cementitious composites. It highlights the pivotal role of pore structure in transport phenomena and degradation [...] Read more.

This review provides a comprehensive examination of porosity and permeability as key parameters governing the durability and performance of construction materials, including natural stone, mortar, concrete, and other cementitious composites. It highlights the pivotal role of pore structure in transport phenomena and degradation mechanisms, examining how the variations in pore architecture, encompassing total vs. effective porosity, pore size distribution, and pore connectivity, dictate a material’s response to environmental stressors. A comparative evaluation of advanced pore characterization techniques is presented, including helium pycnometry, mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP), nitrogen adsorption (BET/BJH), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) relaxometry, and imaging methods such as optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and X-ray micro-computed tomography (micro-CT). Furthermore, it assesses how these porosity and permeability characteristics influence durability-related processes like freeze–thaw cycling, chloride ingress, sulphate attack, and carbonation. Case studies are discussed in which various additives have been employed to refine the pore structure of cement-based materials, and pervious concrete is highlighted as an example where deliberately high porosity and permeability confer functional benefits (e.g., enhanced drainage). Overall, these insights underscore the importance of tailoring porosity and permeability in material design to enhance durability and sustainability in construction engineering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Solutions: Harnessing Nanotechnology, Smart Materials, and Photocatalysis for Enhanced Durability and Sustainability)

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24 pages, 7075 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Assessment of Solar Radiation Datasets for Building Energy Simulation

by Angélica S. Walsh García, Ana Paula de Almeida Rocha, Olga de Castro Vilela and Nathan Mendes

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3337; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183337 - 15 Sep 2025

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4132

Abstract

Accurate solar radiation data are essential for reliable building energy simulations, particularly for policy making. However, uncertainty in solar input, especially in regions with limited ground-based measurements, can significantly affect simulation outcomes. This study investigates the impact of different solar radiation datasets on [...] Read more.

Accurate solar radiation data are essential for reliable building energy simulations, particularly for policy making. However, uncertainty in solar input, especially in regions with limited ground-based measurements, can significantly affect simulation outcomes. This study investigates the impact of different solar radiation datasets on building energy performance simulations across two climatically distinct years, 2015 and 2024, in a subtropical urban environment. Solar inputs from ERA5, CAMS, and NASA POWER were compared against a regional reference from the Brazilian National Institute for Space Research (INPE). In addition to energy simulations, the datasets were evaluated using statistical metrics including root mean square error (RMSE), mean bias error (MBE), and Pearson correlation. NASA POWER showed the best agreement with ground data and yielded simulation results that were reasonably aligned with observed cooling loads and thermal comfort in both years, with slight overestimations in cooling demand and overheating hours. CAMS maintained consistent performance across both years and produced the lowest cooling and overheating estimates, slightly underestimating results while closely matching monthly trends. ERA5 exhibited the largest positive bias in solar input, particularly in DNI, leading to substantial overestimation of cooling demand, up to 34% in 2024, especially during heatwaves. These discrepancies highlight the sensitivity of energy simulations to solar input selection and the importance of using validated high-quality datasets to ensure reliable modeling under increasing climate variability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Sustainable Energy Performance of Green Buildings)

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54 pages, 5072 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Comparative Analysis of Autogenous and Microbial-Based Calcite Precipitation in Concrete: State-of-the-Art Review

by David O. Owolabi, Mehdi Shokouhian, Izhar Ahmad, Marshell Jenkins and Gabrielle Lynn McLemore

Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3289; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183289 - 11 Sep 2025

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3848

Abstract

Cracks in concrete are a persistent issue that compromises structural durability, increases maintenance costs, and poses environmental challenges. Self-healing concrete has emerged as a promising innovation to address these concerns by autonomously sealing cracks and restoring integrity. This review focuses on two primary [...] Read more.

Cracks in concrete are a persistent issue that compromises structural durability, increases maintenance costs, and poses environmental challenges. Self-healing concrete has emerged as a promising innovation to address these concerns by autonomously sealing cracks and restoring integrity. This review focuses on two primary healing mechanisms: autogenous healing and microbial-induced calcite precipitation (MICP), the latter involving the biomineralization activity of bacteria, such as Bacillus subtilis and Sporosarcina pasteurii (formerly known as B. pasteurii). This review explores the selection, survivability, and activity of these microbes within the alkaline concrete environment. Additionally, the review highlights the role of fiber-reinforced cementitious composites (FRCCs), including high-performance fiber-reinforced cement composites (HPFRCCs) and engineered cement composites (ECCs), in enhancing crack control and enabling more effective microbial healing. The hybridization of natural and synthetic fibers contributes to both improved mechanical properties and crack width regulation, key factors in facilitating bacterial calcite precipitation. This review synthesizes current findings on self-healing efficiency, fiber compatibility, and the scalability of bacterial healing in concrete. It also evaluates critical parameters, such as healing agent integration, long-term performance, and testing methodologies, including both destructive and non-destructive techniques. By identifying existing knowledge gaps and performance barriers, this review offers insights for advancing sustainable, fiber-assisted microbial self-healing concrete for resilient infrastructure applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Properties and Durability of Concrete Materials and Structures)

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29 pages, 7183 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Exploring Urban Spatial Quality Through Street View Imagery and Human Perception Analysis

by Yonghao Li, Jialin Lu, Yuan Meng, Yiwen Luo and Juan Ren

Buildings 2025, 15(17), 3116; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15173116 - 31 Aug 2025

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5406

Abstract

Amid the global challenges of rapid urbanization, understanding how micro-scale spatial features shape human perception is critical for advancing livable cities. This study pro-poses a data-driven framework that integrates street view imagery, deep learning-based semantic segmentation, and machine learning interpretation models including SHAP [...] Read more.

Amid the global challenges of rapid urbanization, understanding how micro-scale spatial features shape human perception is critical for advancing livable cities. This study pro-poses a data-driven framework that integrates street view imagery, deep learning-based semantic segmentation, and machine learning interpretation models including SHAP analysis to explore the relationship between urban spatial characteristics and subjective perceptions. A total of 12,604 street-level images from Xi’an, China, were analyzed to ex-tract seven spatial indicators. These indicators were then linked with perceptual data across six emotional dimensions derived from the Place Pulse 2.0 dataset. The analysis revealed that natural elements significantly enhance perceived comfort and aesthetics, while high-density built environments can suppress perceived safety and liveliness. Spatial clustering further identified three urban typologies—traditional, transitional, and modern—with distinct perceptual signatures. These findings offer scalable and transferable insights for perception-informed urban design and renewal, particularly in dense urban settings worldwide. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational Design for Low-Carbon and Climate-Responsive Architecture and Urban Environments)

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62 pages, 8154 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Assessment of Phase Change Materials Incorporation into Construction Commodities for Sustainable and Energy-Efficient Building Applications

by Ihsan Ur Rahman, Oronzio Manca, Bernardo Buonomo, Meriem Bounib, Shafi Ur Rehman, Hala Salhab, Antonio Caggiano and Sergio Nardini

Buildings 2025, 15(17), 3109; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15173109 - 29 Aug 2025

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2478

Abstract

The significant energy consumption and contribution to greenhouse gas emissions by the construction sector need careful attention to explore innovative sustainable solutions for improving the energy efficiency and thermal comfort of building envelopes. The integration of phase-change materials (PCMs) into building commodities is [...] Read more.

The significant energy consumption and contribution to greenhouse gas emissions by the construction sector need careful attention to explore innovative sustainable solutions for improving the energy efficiency and thermal comfort of building envelopes. The integration of phase-change materials (PCMs) into building commodities is a favorable technology for minimizing energy consumption and enhancing thermal performance. This review paper covers the impact of PCM incorporation into construction materials, such as walls, roofs, and glazing units. Additionally, it examines different embedding techniques like direct incorporation, immersion, macro and micro-encapsulation, and form and shape-stable PCM. Factors affecting the thermal performance of PCM-integrated buildings, including melting temperature, thickness, position, volumetric change, vapor pressure, density, optical properties, latent heat, thermal conductivity, chemical stability, and climate conditions, are elaborated. Furthermore, the latest experimental and numerical simulations, as well as modeling techniques, evident from case studies, are investigated. Ultimately, the advantages of PCM integration, including energy savings, peak load reduction, improvement in interior comfort, and reduced heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning dependence, are explained alongside the limitations. Finally, the recent progress and future potential of PCM-integrated construction materials are discussed, focusing on innovations in this field, addressing the status of policies in line with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, and outlining research potential for the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)

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51 pages, 4640 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Opportunities for Supplementary Cementitious Materials from Natural Sources and Industrial Byproducts: Literature Insights and Supply Assessment

by Somayeh Nassiri, Ali Azhar Butt, Ali Zarei, Souvik Roy, Iyanuoluwa Filani, Gandhar Abhay Pandit, Angel Mateos, Md Mostofa Haider and John T. Harvey

Buildings 2025, 15(17), 3099; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15173099 - 28 Aug 2025

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 6208

Abstract

This paper reviews various emerging alternative SCMs derived from minerals and biomass sources, industrial byproducts, and underutilized waste streams. The paper compiles and evaluates physicochemical properties, reaction mechanisms in cementitious systems, resource availability, supply chain dynamics, technology readiness, the impact on concrete performance, [...] Read more.

This paper reviews various emerging alternative SCMs derived from minerals and biomass sources, industrial byproducts, and underutilized waste streams. The paper compiles and evaluates physicochemical properties, reaction mechanisms in cementitious systems, resource availability, supply chain dynamics, technology readiness, the impact on concrete performance, and environmental and cost factors for each candidate SCM. Specifically, the review examines wood ash from bioenergy plants, volcanic and sedimentary natural pozzolans, and construction and demolition waste. This includes recycled concrete fines, asphalt plants’ rock dust (baghouse fines), aggregate production fines, and post-consumer waste, particularly municipal solid waste incinerator ash and wastewater sludge ash. Additionally, the paper explores innovative additives such as cellulose and chitin nanomaterials and calcium–silicate–hydrate nanoseeds to address challenges of slower strength development and rheological changes. The key contribution of this review is a multifactor framework for assessing alternative SCMs, emphasizing availability, supply chain, market readiness, and environmental performance, combined with an engineering performance review. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Composite Materials in Construction)

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26 pages, 17806 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Cross-Material Damage Detection and Analysis for Architectural Heritage Images

by Qingman Yu, Xin Yuan and Lingyu Xu

Buildings 2025, 15(17), 3100; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15173100 - 28 Aug 2025

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2078

Abstract

This study addresses the strategic requirements for cultural heritage preservation as specified, alongside the needs of high-quality urban-rural development. It highlights the inefficiency, subjectivity, and lack of intelligence in traditional manual detection methods used in architectural heritage preservation. Consequently, this research explores intelligent [...] Read more.

This study addresses the strategic requirements for cultural heritage preservation as specified, alongside the needs of high-quality urban-rural development. It highlights the inefficiency, subjectivity, and lack of intelligence in traditional manual detection methods used in architectural heritage preservation. Consequently, this research explores intelligent damage detection and quantitative analysis through image detection technology based on artificial intelligence. Firstly, a cross-material classification standard for architectural remnants is developed to facilitate data annotation in image detection techniques. Secondly, a dense object detection algorithm specifically designed for architectural images is proposed to address challenges such as boundary ambiguity and high-density damage in architectural heritage. This algorithm effectively facilitates intelligent detection and quantitative analysis of architectural heritage damage. On this basis, multiple datasets for architectural heritage damage detection are compiled and constructed on-site. Experimental results obtained from these datasets demonstrate that the proposed method surpasses comparative approaches across various metrics, including average precision, thus confirming its feasibility and effectiveness. Additionally, a software application for intelligent damage detection and quantitative analysis of architectural heritage images is developed, providing novel insights and support for the field of architectural heritage preservation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Analysis, Conservation, and Refurbishment Methods of Heritage Architecture Based on Modern Technology)

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19 pages, 4875 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Insights into People’s Perceptions Towards Urban Public Spaces Through Analysis of Social Media Reviews: A Case Study of Shanghai

by Lingyue Li and Lie Wang

Buildings 2025, 15(17), 3033; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15173033 - 26 Aug 2025

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3606

Abstract

Urban public space is a crucial constituent of livable city construction. A pleasant and comfortable public space is not simply spacious, bright, and accessible but also subjectively preferred by citizens who use it. Efforts to understand how citizens experience and perceive therein thus [...] Read more.

Urban public space is a crucial constituent of livable city construction. A pleasant and comfortable public space is not simply spacious, bright, and accessible but also subjectively preferred by citizens who use it. Efforts to understand how citizens experience and perceive therein thus matters and would significantly aid urban design and well-being improvement. This research constructs a perception lexicon for 129 sites of public street space, a significant type of public space, in Shanghai and identifies how citizens comment on these sites through sentiment analysis based on social platform texts. A Chinese natural language processing (NLP) tool is applied to sort out the extent of citizens’ feelings on the urban street environment through a 0–1 scoring system. Six types of built environment elements and five categories of urban public spaces are identified. Pleasantly perceived sites primarily locate in the urban center and sporadically distribute in the outskirts and are normally “high-density” and “multi-function” in nature. Among the five categories of urban public spaces, sites that are commercially dynamic with culture, arts, and historical elements or that have gourmet food and good walkability generally receive the higher sentiment scores, but scores of ancient town commercial streets (many are antique streets), once popular and contributing much to tourism economy, are not satisfactory. The NLP-based text analysis also quantifies the intensity of emotional perceptions toward the six types of built environment elements and their associations with the general perception. This study not only offers insights for designers and policy makers in public space optimization but also showcases a scalable, data-driven approach for integrating public emotional and experiential dimensions into urban livability assessments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Planning for Sustainable Land Use and Built Environment in High-Density Cities)

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30 pages, 6711 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Experimental Investigation on the Tensile and Bond Durability of Galvanized Steel Reinforced Grout

by Sara Fares, Pietro Meriggi, Stefano De Santis and Gianmarco de Felice

Buildings 2025, 15(17), 3020; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15173020 - 25 Aug 2025

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1250

Abstract

Steel reinforced grout (SRG) composites are widely used for strengthening existing structures. Galvanized (zinc-coated) ultra-high tensile strength steel cords are more durable than brass-coated and cheaper than stainless-steel ones, making them the most common in practice. While compliant with certification standards, corrosion may [...] Read more.

Steel reinforced grout (SRG) composites are widely used for strengthening existing structures. Galvanized (zinc-coated) ultra-high tensile strength steel cords are more durable than brass-coated and cheaper than stainless-steel ones, making them the most common in practice. While compliant with certification standards, corrosion may occur, potentially affecting tensile strength and bond capacity. The latter has, however, remained largely unexplored, highlighting a need to assess durability under different environmental exposures. This study investigated the durability of galvanized SRGs with four cord types and four mortar matrices (cement- and lime-based). Direct tensile, shear bond, and lap-tensile tests were conducted after immersion in saltwater or alkaline solutions, exposure to freeze–thaw or salt crystallization cycles, and high temperatures. Results highlighted salt exposure as the most critical condition, particularly with lime-based matrices. Zinc coating thickness proved essential for corrosion resistance, while freeze–thaw and salt crystallization led to bond degradation due to concentrated steel corrosion and mortar microcracking. The findings highlight the importance of considering appropriate protective measures and exposure-specific conditions when designing SRG reinforcements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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23 pages, 14404 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Early-Age Properties and Reaction of Hydrophobic Portland Cement and Alkali-Activated Fly Ash–Slag Pastes with Alkyl Silanes

by Rongfeng Gao, Jiaxi Mao, Shengqian Ruan, Wenlin Tu, Yansong Wang and Dongming Yan

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2966; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162966 - 21 Aug 2025

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1785

Abstract

Cementitious materials are susceptible to water ingress due to their hydrophilicity and porous microstructure, which can cause premature destruction and compromise long-term durability. Integral hydrophobic modification using alkyl silanes is an effective strategy for enhancing water resistance, while the influence of different silanes [...] Read more.

Cementitious materials are susceptible to water ingress due to their hydrophilicity and porous microstructure, which can cause premature destruction and compromise long-term durability. Integral hydrophobic modification using alkyl silanes is an effective strategy for enhancing water resistance, while the influence of different silanes on early-age properties (within the first 7 d) of various binder systems remains unclear. This study investigates the rheology, flowability, setting behavior, reaction kinetics, compressive strength, and hydrophobicity of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and alkali-activated fly ash–slag (AAFS) pastes incorporating alkyl silanes of varying alkyl chain lengths, i.e., methyl-(C1TMS), butyl-(C4TMS), octyl-(C8TMS), and dodecyl-trimethoxysilane (C12TMS). In OPC, C1TMS reduced yield stress and plastic viscosity by 33.6% and 21.0%, respectively, and improved flowability by 27.6%, whereas C4TMS, C8TMS, and C12TMS showed the opposite effects. In contrast, the effect of alkyl silanes on rheology and flowability of AAFS was less pronounced. Silanes delayed setting of OPC and AAFS by 5.6–164.4%, with shorter alkyl chains causing greater retardation. C1TMS and C4TMS inhibited early-age heat release and decreased the 1-day compressive strength by 14.8–35.7% in OPC and 82.0–84.5% in AAFS, whereas longer-chain silanes had comparatively minor effects. The hydrophobic performance in both binder systems was strongly correlated with alkyl chain length. C8TMS exhibited the best hydrophobicity in OPC, achieving a water contact angle of 145° and a 75.7% reduction in water sorptivity, while C4TMS demonstrated the highest hydrophobicity in AAFS. This study provides fundamental guidance for the rational selection of alkyl silanes in OPC and AAFS systems, offering insights into the design of multifunctional water-resistant cementitious composites for marine structures, building facades, and other applications with waterproofing requirements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research on Concrete Materials in Construction)

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22 pages, 2131 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Research Progress on CO₂ Transcritical Cycle Technology for Building Heating and Cooling Applications

by Weixiu Shi, Haiyu Chang, Junwei Zhou, Bai Mu, Shuang Quan and Lisheng Pan

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2952; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162952 - 20 Aug 2025

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4521

Abstract

This review focuses on the advancements of CO₂ transcritical cycle technology in building indoor environmental regulation, particularly in combined heating and cooling applications. The paper highlights the energy efficiency and environmental benefits of CO₂ as a natural refrigerant, which has zero [...] Read more.

This review focuses on the advancements of CO₂ transcritical cycle technology in building indoor environmental regulation, particularly in combined heating and cooling applications. The paper highlights the energy efficiency and environmental benefits of CO₂ as a natural refrigerant, which has zero ozone depletion potential (ODP) and very low global warming potential (GWP). It provides a comprehensive overview of recent optimization strategies, including distributed compression, the integration of ejectors and expanders, and the design improvements of key components such as gas coolers, compressors, and throttling valves. Through optimization strategies such as dual-system cycles, this technology can achieve a COP improvement of 15.3–46.96% in heating scenarios; meanwhile, with the help of distributed compression technology, its cooling capacity can be enhanced by up to 26.5%. The review also examines various operating conditions such as discharge pressure and subcooling, which significantly affect system performance. The paper concludes by identifying the current challenges in the application of CO₂ systems, such as high initial costs and system stability under extreme conditions, and suggests future research directions to overcome these limitations and improve the practical application of CO₂ transcritical cycles in the building industry. Overall, it is concluded that the development of expander-compressors holds great potential for achieving better performance and represents a promising direction for future advancements in this field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development of Indoor Environment Comfort)

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26 pages, 9783 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Assessing the Impact of the Indoor Light Environment of Office Facilities on Multidimensional Human Responses

by Ki Rim Kim, Kyung Sun Lee and Hyesung Cho

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2955; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162955 - 20 Aug 2025

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2635

Abstract

This study investigates the effects of adjustable indoor light variables (illuminance and correlated color temperature [CCT]) typically found in office environments on human physiological, psychological, and cognitive responses. An experiment involving 72 participants was conducted, producing 360 data points. Each participant was exposed [...] Read more.

This study investigates the effects of adjustable indoor light variables (illuminance and correlated color temperature [CCT]) typically found in office environments on human physiological, psychological, and cognitive responses. An experiment involving 72 participants was conducted, producing 360 data points. Each participant was exposed to 5 of 18 light environment conditions, which combined different levels of illuminance and CCT. Human responses were measured through skin conductivity, heart rate variability (SDNN, RMSSD, LF/HF ratio), preference, visual comfort, fatigue, work speed, and work accuracy. Correlation and multiple regression analyses were performed to evaluate both the direct effects and interrelationships among the variables. The results showed that psychological responses were most sensitive to light conditions. Illuminance significantly influenced visual comfort and fatigue, while both illuminance and CCT affected preference. Although physiological responses and work performance showed no direct statistical significance with light conditions, they were significantly correlated with psychological responses. These findings suggest that psychological responses may serve as mediators between light environments and other human reactions. Therefore, a more integrated evaluation framework is needed for light design. This study emphasizes the importance of considering psychological well-being in indoor light and provides practical implications for advancing human-centric light design in smart office environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)

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23 pages, 1493 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Prefabricated and Modularized Residential Construction: A Review of Present Status, Opportunities, and Future Challenges

by Sunai Kim

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2889; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162889 - 15 Aug 2025

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 15818

Abstract

Many countries worldwide are facing a housing crisis, marked by a shortage of affordable housing. To respond to this growing crisis, prefabricated residential construction is gaining popularity due to cost savings in mass production, faster construction times, improved quality control, and sustainability considerations. [...] Read more.

Many countries worldwide are facing a housing crisis, marked by a shortage of affordable housing. To respond to this growing crisis, prefabricated residential construction is gaining popularity due to cost savings in mass production, faster construction times, improved quality control, and sustainability considerations. This study provides a critical review of the available literature within the prefabricated and modular residential construction industry to assess its present status and to identify opportunities and challenges. The literature was categorized into the subfields of architecture, sustainability, structural, energy, environment, factory build, installation, policy, possibilities and challenges, and case studies. A detailed summary is provided for each subfield. This study aims to provide insights into the prefabricated and modular residential construction industry to fill the knowledge gap, discover possibilities, and address any challenges to create a clear pathway for implementation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modular and Offsite Construction: Evidence-Based Benefits and Innovations)

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55 pages, 3852 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Review of the Influence of the Interaction Between In-Plane and Out-of-Plane Behaviors on the Seismic Response of Non-Framed Unreinforced Masonry Walls

by Amirhossein Ghezelbash, Jan G. Rots and Francesco Messali

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2874; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162874 - 14 Aug 2025

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1890

Abstract

This study reviews existing research on the effects of the interaction between in-plane (IP) and out-of-plane (OOP) behaviors on the seismic response of non-framed unreinforced masonry (URM) structures. During earthquakes, masonry buildings exhibit complex behaviors. First, walls may experience simultaneous IP and OOP [...] Read more.

This study reviews existing research on the effects of the interaction between in-plane (IP) and out-of-plane (OOP) behaviors on the seismic response of non-framed unreinforced masonry (URM) structures. During earthquakes, masonry buildings exhibit complex behaviors. First, walls may experience simultaneous IP and OOP actions, or pre-existing IP and OOP damage, deformation, or loads that can alter their unidirectional IP or OOP seismic response. Second, the IP and OOP action of one wall can affect the behavior of its intersecting walls. However, the effects of these behaviors, referred to as “direct IP-OOP interactions” and “Flange effects”, respectively, are often disregarded in design and assessment provisions. To address this gap, this study explores findings from experimental and numerical research conducted at the wall level currently available in the literature, identifying the nature of these interaction effects and the key parameters that affect their extent. The available body of work includes only a few experimental studies on interaction effects, whereas numerical investigations are more extensive. However, most numerical studies focus on how OOP pre-damage/deformation influences the IP behaviors (OOP/IP interactions) and the role of flanges in IP response (F/IP interactions), leaving significant gaps in understanding the effects of IP pre-damage/deformation on the OOP response (IP/OOP interactions) and the OOP response in the presence of flanges (F/OOP interactions). Among the parameters studied, boundary conditions, wall height-to-length aspect ratio, and vertical overburden are found to have the most significant influence on interaction effects because of their relevance for the IP and OOP failure mechanisms. Other parameters, such as the restriction of top uplift, the presence of openings, or changes in slenderness ratio, are not comprehensively studied, and the available data are insufficient for definitive conclusions. Methodologies available in the literature for extrapolating the findings observed at the wall level to building-level analyses are reviewed. The current predictive equations primarily address the effects of OOP pre-load and Flange effects on IP response. Furthermore, only a few macro-element models are proposed for cost-effective, large-scale building simulations. To bridge these gaps, future research must expand experimental investigations, develop more comprehensive design and assessment equations, and refine numerical modeling techniques for building-level applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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33 pages, 1706 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceSystematic Review

A Systematic Review of Lean Construction, BIM and Emerging Technologies Integration: Identifying Key Tools

by Omar Alnajjar, Edison Atencio and Jose Turmo

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2884; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162884 - 14 Aug 2025

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 11293

Abstract

The construction industry, a cornerstone of global economic growth, continues to struggle with entrenched inefficiencies, including low productivity, cost overruns, and fragmented project delivery. Addressing these persistent challenges requires more than incremental improvements, it demands a strategic unification of Lean Construction, Building Information [...] Read more.

The construction industry, a cornerstone of global economic growth, continues to struggle with entrenched inefficiencies, including low productivity, cost overruns, and fragmented project delivery. Addressing these persistent challenges requires more than incremental improvements, it demands a strategic unification of Lean Construction, Building Information Modeling (BIM), and Emerging Technologies. This systematic review synthesizes evidence from 64 academic studies to identify the most influential tools, techniques, and methodologies across these domains, revealing both their individual strengths and untapped synergies. The analysis highlights widely adopted Lean practices such as the Last Planner System (LPS) and Just-In-Time (JIT); BIM capabilities across 3D, 4D, 5D, 6D, and 7D dimensions; and a spectrum of digital innovations including Digital Twins, AR/VR/MR, AI, IoT, robotics, and blockchain. Crucially, the review demonstrates that despite rapid advancements, integration remains sporadic and unstructured, representing a critical research and industry gap. By moving beyond descriptive mapping, this study establishes an essential foundation for the development of robust, adaptable integration frameworks capable of bridging theory and practice. Such frameworks are urgently needed to optimize efficiency, enhance sustainability, and enable innovation in large-scale and complex construction projects, positioning this work as both a scholarly contribution and a practical roadmap for future research and implementation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Innovative Technologies in Construction Project Management)

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24 pages, 2570 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Economic Performance Analysis of Jointly Acting Renewable Self-Consumption: A Case Study on 109 Condominiums in an Italian Urban Area

by Christian Mari, Matilde Chierici, Simone Franzò and Francesco Causone

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2808; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162808 - 8 Aug 2025

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2026

Abstract

Remote self-consumption supports the energy transition, especially through Jointly Acting Renewable Self-consumption (JARS) and Renewable Energy Communities (RECs). While RECs typically operate at the city/district level, JARS is focused on condominium buildings where apartment owners jointly invest in renewable energy systems, sharing both [...] Read more.

Remote self-consumption supports the energy transition, especially through Jointly Acting Renewable Self-consumption (JARS) and Renewable Energy Communities (RECs). While RECs typically operate at the city/district level, JARS is focused on condominium buildings where apartment owners jointly invest in renewable energy systems, sharing both costs and benefits. The energy produced is consumed on-site, reducing bills and benefiting from financial incentives, when available, as under the Italian law. This research aims to assess the economic feasibility of JARS in Italy and the average financial benefit for a family living in a condominium. It also evaluates the impact of integrating JARS into larger RECs. The study uses photovoltaic electricity production simulations via OpenSolar and building energy modeling through Rose Community Designer. Results are analyzed using energy, environmental, and financial indicators such as Net Present Value (NPV) and Discounted Payback Time (DPBT) over a 20-year period. The findings show that JARS yields average incentive gains of EUR 94.34 per person per year, rising to EUR 340 when including tax bonuses, energy savings, and energy sales. The average investment payback time is 8.8 years. When integrated into RECs, JARS shows improved energy sharing (from 78% to 93%) and higher economic returns, highlighting its potential in accelerating the energy transition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Data Analysis and Energy Modeling in Smart and Zero-Energy Buildings and Communities)

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21 pages, 2365 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Development of an Optimization Algorithm for Designing Low-Carbon Concrete Materials Standardization with Blockchain Technology and Ensemble Machine Learning Methods

by Zilefac Ebenezer Nwetlawung and Yi-Hsin Lin

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2809; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162809 - 8 Aug 2025

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2082

Abstract

This study presents SmartMix Web3, a framework combining ensemble machine learning and blockchain technology to optimize low-carbon concrete design. It addresses two key challenges: (1) the limitations of conventional models in predicting concrete performance, and (2) ensuring data reliability and overcoming collaboration issues [...] Read more.

This study presents SmartMix Web3, a framework combining ensemble machine learning and blockchain technology to optimize low-carbon concrete design. It addresses two key challenges: (1) the limitations of conventional models in predicting concrete performance, and (2) ensuring data reliability and overcoming collaboration issues in AI-driven sustainable construction. Validated with 61 real-world experiments in Cameroon and 752 mix designs, the framework shows major improvements in predictive accuracy and decentralized trust. To address the first research question, a stacked ensemble model comprising Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost)–Random Forest and a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) was developed, achieving a 22% reduction in Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) for compressive strength prediction and embodied carbon estimation compared to traditional methods. The 29% reduction in Mean Absolute Error (MAE) results confirms the superiority of Extreme Learning Machine (EML) in low-carbon concrete performance prediction. For the second research question, SmartMix Web3 employs blockchain to ensure tamper-proof traceability and promote collaboration. Deployed on Ethereum, it automates verification of tokenized Environmental Product Declarations via smart contracts, reducing disputes and preserving data integrity. Federated learning supports decentralized training across nine batching plants, with Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA)-256 checks ensuring privacy. Field implementation in Cameroon yielded annual cost savings of FCFA 24.3 million and a 99.87 kgCO₂/m³ reduction per mix design. By uniting EML precision with blockchain transparency, SmartMix Web3 offers practical and scalable benefits for sustainable construction in developing economies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

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22 pages, 16891 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Efficient Hyperparameter Optimization Using Metaheuristics for Machine Learning in Truss Steel Structure Cross-Section Prediction

by Donwoo Lee, Seunghyeon Noh, Jeonghyun Kim and Seungjae Lee

Buildings 2025, 15(15), 2791; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15152791 - 7 Aug 2025

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2344

Abstract

The optimal design of truss structures is one of the most complex problems, as it requires achieving high stiffness and stability while pursuing lightweight structures. With the recent advancements in AI technologies, machine learning-based approaches for predicting the optimal cross-sectional areas of truss [...] Read more.

The optimal design of truss structures is one of the most complex problems, as it requires achieving high stiffness and stability while pursuing lightweight structures. With the recent advancements in AI technologies, machine learning-based approaches for predicting the optimal cross-sectional areas of truss structures have garnered significant attention from researchers. However, the design problem of truss structures poses substantial challenges for machine learning models due to the highly diverse and nonlinear characteristics of the optimal cross-sectional distributions, which may hinder effective learning. To address these limitations, the importance of hyperparameter optimization (HPO) has been increasingly recognized. This paper employs metaheuristic algorithms, which are efficient in searching for global optima, to perform HPO on 10-bar and 17-bar truss structure datasets. By balancing exploitation and exploration capabilities, metaheuristic algorithms demonstrate superior performance and time efficiency compared to conventional HPO methods. The results underscore the critical role of hyperparameters in machine learning-based truss structure design and suggest that leveraging metaheuristic algorithm-based HPO holds significant potential for addressing complex structural design problems in future applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Structural Analysis and Design of Civil Structures)

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