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Editor’s Choice Articles

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

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26 pages, 8457 KB  
Article
Low Cyclic Fatigue Properties and Cyclic Constitutive Modeling of SS275 Steel for Seismic Applications
by Hubdar Hussain and Dong-keon Kim
Buildings 2025, 15(21), 3997; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15213997 - 5 Nov 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1538
Abstract
Steel energy dissipation devices are integral to seismic design, as they help reduce structural deformations during strong earthquakes by absorbing and dissipating energy through large inelastic deformations. This research provides new insights into the cyclic behavior and constitutive modeling of carbon steel SS275, [...] Read more.
Steel energy dissipation devices are integral to seismic design, as they help reduce structural deformations during strong earthquakes by absorbing and dissipating energy through large inelastic deformations. This research provides new insights into the cyclic behavior and constitutive modeling of carbon steel SS275, a domestically manufactured material in Korea specifically used for seismic energy dissipation applications. To characterize its mechanical response, monotonic and strain-controlled cyclic loading tests are conducted on nine machined coupons. The cyclic tests are performed under constant strain amplitudes ranging from ±0.5% to ±3.0%. Experimental strain–life data obtained at these amplitudes are used to determine the Coffin–Manson parameters, while the cyclic stress–strain relationship is defined using the Ramberg–Osgood equation. Furthermore, material parameters for the Chaboche nonlinear hardening model are extracted from the experimental results and validated through finite element simulations of coupon tests in ABAQUS, ensuring close agreement with the measured cyclic response. Following the coupon-level analysis, a member-scale test is performed on a buckling-restrained brace (BRB) fabricated from SS275 steel. The calibrated Chaboche parameters are then applied in numerical simulations of the BRB, and the results are compared with experimental data to assess the model’s predictive capability for seismic performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Seismic Performance of Seismic-Resilient Structures)
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33 pages, 8857 KB  
Article
A Multi-Stage Framework Combining Experimental Testing, Numerical Calibration, and AI Surrogates for Composite Panel Characterization
by Marcello Fulgione, Simone Palladino, Luca Esposito, Sina Sarfarazi and Mariano Modano
Buildings 2025, 15(21), 3900; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15213900 - 28 Oct 2025
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 1554
Abstract
Composite modular panels are increasingly used in modern buildings, yet their layered behavior makes mechanical characterization and modeling difficult. This study presents a novel hybrid framework that integrates analytical, numerical, and AI-driven approaches for the mechanical characterization of composite panels. The system combines [...] Read more.
Composite modular panels are increasingly used in modern buildings, yet their layered behavior makes mechanical characterization and modeling difficult. This study presents a novel hybrid framework that integrates analytical, numerical, and AI-driven approaches for the mechanical characterization of composite panels. The system combines a layered concrete configuration with embedded steel reinforcement, and its performance was evaluated through experimental testing, analytical formulation, finite element simulations, and artificial intelligence techniques. Full-scale bending and shear tests were conducted and results in terms of displacements were compared with in silico simulations. The equivalent elastic modulus and thickness were suggested via a closed-form analytical procedure and validated numerically, showing less than 3% deviation from experiments. These equivalent parameters were used to simulate the dynamic response of a two-storey prototype building under harmonic excitation, with simulated modal periods differing by less than 10% from experimental data. To generalize the method, a parametric dataset of 218 panel configurations was generated by varying material and geometric properties. Machine learning models including Artificial Neural Network, Random Forest, Gradient Boosting, and Extra Trees were trained on this dataset, achieving R2 > 0.98 for both targets. A graphical user interface was developed to integrate the trained models into an engineering tool for fast prediction of equivalent properties. The proposed methodology provides a unified and computationally efficient approach that combines physical accuracy with practical usability, enabling rapid design and optimization of composite panel structures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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43 pages, 1498 KB  
Article
Barriers and Drivers in the Construction Industry: Impacts of Industry 4.0 Enabling Technologies on Sustainability 4.0
by Luiz André Lima de Souza, Fagner José Coutinho de Melo, Eryka Fernanda Miranda Sobral, Djalma Silva Guimarães Junior, Tatyane Veras de Queiroz Ferreira da Cruz, Alexandre Duarte Gusmão, Carolina Gusmão and Kalinny Patrícia Vaz Lafayette
Buildings 2025, 15(20), 3760; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15203760 - 18 Oct 2025
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4881
Abstract
The civil construction sector is crucial to global economic development, influencing GDP and driving innovation with Industry 4.0 technologies such as BIM and IoT. However, how these technologies can be effectively aligned with the principles of Sustainability 4.0 within the framework of Construction [...] Read more.
The civil construction sector is crucial to global economic development, influencing GDP and driving innovation with Industry 4.0 technologies such as BIM and IoT. However, how these technologies can be effectively aligned with the principles of Sustainability 4.0 within the framework of Construction 4.0 remains unclear. This paper aims to identify the barriers and drivers related to the impact of adopting Industry 4.0 enabling technologies on Sustainability 4.0 in the construction sector. To achieve this, we conducted a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) using articles from the Web of Science and Scopus databases, focusing on the period from 2021 to 2025. The methodology applied enabled a comprehensive analysis of 50 articles, highlighting challenges, barriers, and potential facilitators in the adoption of Sustainability 4.0 practices. Among the key findings, advanced technologies such as BIM and IoT have shown positive impacts on sustainability dimensions, like reducing energy consumption; yet, practical implementation still encounters significant barriers, including high costs and insufficient public policies. Only 30% of the reviewed articles discuss adoption in less developed regions, indicating geographical disparity in the application of these technologies. The paper provides valuable insights for managers and policymakers on overcoming existing barriers, emphasizing the importance of innovative business models and the need for cultural and educational adaptation. The study suggests that, with a collaborative approach and adequate support policies, Industry 4.0 technologies can transform sustainable practices in civil construction, fostering a more balanced and environmentally responsible economy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)
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17 pages, 2172 KB  
Article
Brain Booster Buildings: Modelling Stair Use as a Daily Booster of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor
by Mohamed Hesham Khalil and Koen Steemers
Buildings 2025, 15(20), 3730; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15203730 - 16 Oct 2025
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2142
Abstract
This paper establishes the Brain Booster Buildings framework, the first model to demonstrate how daily stair use can elevate brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a vital molecule for lifelong neurogenesis and brain health in humans. Through a novel framework of the associations between metabolic [...] Read more.
This paper establishes the Brain Booster Buildings framework, the first model to demonstrate how daily stair use can elevate brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a vital molecule for lifelong neurogenesis and brain health in humans. Through a novel framework of the associations between metabolic equivalents (METs) data and BDNF response studies, we establish that stairs are generally higher in METs than any indoor activity. We further explain how architectural parameters (riser height, floor number, pace) predictably modulate exercise intensity during stair use. We identify two implementable patterns: moderate-intensity continuous use (≥20 min, 1–3 floors) and high-intensity interval training (6 min, carrying loads while using stairs in a building with three floors or less, or using stairs in a building with ≥3 floors, load-free). Based on BDNF responses to comparable exercise intensities, 6 min of high-intensity stair climbing is predicted to increase serum BDNF by up to 40%. Since people spend ~90% of their time indoors while neurogenesis declines fourfold throughout the adult lifespan, affecting mood, stress resilience, and memory, vertical architecture emerges as a vital, accessible, and cost-effective infrastructure that boosts BDNF for neurogenesis, plasticity, and brain health. We conducted scenario-based modelling using the Brain Booster Buildings framework to estimate how the use of stairs in residential, office, educational, hospital, and commercial buildings may boost BDNF levels based on established intensity–BDNF relationships. The framework provides architects, policymakers, and clinicians with evidence-based estimated specifications to use buildings as daily brain boosters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue BioCognitive Architectural Design)
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26 pages, 6872 KB  
Review
Biophilic Façades: The Potentiality of Bioreceptive Concrete
by Ronaldas Jakubovskis
Buildings 2025, 15(20), 3646; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15203646 - 10 Oct 2025
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3556
Abstract
The growth of microorganisms and lower plants on building walls may respond the central principle of the biophilic design: sustained engagement with nature. As such, bioreceptive concrete has great potential to increase the biodiversity in our cities. In addition, by actively participating in [...] Read more.
The growth of microorganisms and lower plants on building walls may respond the central principle of the biophilic design: sustained engagement with nature. As such, bioreceptive concrete has great potential to increase the biodiversity in our cities. In addition, by actively participating in the carbon and nitrogen cycles, biologically active, bioreceptive concrete has the potential to reduce the building’s environmental impact considerably. In the present study, we analyze the biological growth on concrete and critically review the current research approaches in the bioreceptivity evaluation. The uncontrolled and unaesthetic growth of fungal colonies, poor long-term survivability of the laboratory-developed biofilms, and a lack of field applications were identified among the major factors that hinder the practical application of bioreceptive concrete in the building envelope. Our ongoing field tests have shown that concrete’s controlled and aesthetically pleasant greening may be achieved in several years. We argue that such nature-integrated solutions would emphasize the beauty of the aging buildings while offering clear, practical benefits. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nature-Based Solutions to Mitigate the Effects of Urban Heat Islands and Urban Flooding)
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17 pages, 1475 KB  
Systematic Review
Exploring Neuroscientific Approaches to Architecture: Design Strategies of the Built Environment for Improving Human Performance
by Erminia Attaianese, Morena Barilà and Mariangela Perillo
Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3524; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193524 - 1 Oct 2025
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 9077
Abstract
Since the 1960s, theories on the relationship between people and their environment have explored how elements of the built environment may directly or indirectly influence human behavior. In this context, neuroarchitecture is emerging as an interdisciplinary field that integrates neuroscience, architecture, environmental psychology, [...] Read more.
Since the 1960s, theories on the relationship between people and their environment have explored how elements of the built environment may directly or indirectly influence human behavior. In this context, neuroarchitecture is emerging as an interdisciplinary field that integrates neuroscience, architecture, environmental psychology, and cognitive science, with the aim of providing empirical evidence on how architectural spaces affect the human brain. This study investigates the potential of neuroarchitecture to inform environmental design by clarifying its current conceptual framework, examining its practical applications, and identifying the context in which it is being implemented. Beginning with an in-depth analysis of the definition of neuroarchitecture, its theoretical foundations, and the range of interpretations within the academic community, the study then offers a critical review of its practical applications across various design fields. By presenting a comprehensive overview of this emerging discipline, the study also summarizes the measurement techniques commonly employed in related research and critically evaluates design criteria based on observed human responses. Ultimately, neuroarchitecture represents a promising avenue for creating environments that deliberately enhance psychological and physiological well-being, paving the way toward truly human-centered design. Nevertheless, neuroarchitecture is still an emerging experimental field, which entails significant limitations. The experiments conducted are still limited to virtual reality and controlled experimental contexts. In addition, small and heterogeneous population samples have been tested, without considering human variability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human-Centric Architectural Design: Neuroarchitecture as a New Tool to Shape Futureproof Inclusive Buildings)
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22 pages, 4204 KB  
Article
Eco-Friendly Flame-Retardant Construction Composites Based on Bio-Based TPU, Recycled Rice Husk, and Ammonium Polyphosphate
by Chen-Feng Kuan, Chane-Yuan Yang, Hsu-Chiang Kuan, Min-Chin Chung and Yeng-Fong Shih
Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3420; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183420 - 22 Sep 2025
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2608
Abstract
This study explores the use of agricultural waste rice husk powder (RH) as a sustainable alternative to the petrochemical-derived carbon source, pentaerythritol (PER), in expandable flame retardants. RH is combined with halogen-free ammonium polyphosphate (APP), which serves as both an acid and a [...] Read more.
This study explores the use of agricultural waste rice husk powder (RH) as a sustainable alternative to the petrochemical-derived carbon source, pentaerythritol (PER), in expandable flame retardants. RH is combined with halogen-free ammonium polyphosphate (APP), which serves as both an acid and a gas source. The resulting APP/RH system is incorporated into bio-based thermoplastic polyurethane (Biobased TPU) to prepare a halogen-free, flame-retardant composite material consistent with circular economy principles and environmental sustainability. The optimal APP-to-RH ratio in bio-based TPU was determined to be 2:1, with the best flame-retardant performance observed in the composite containing 20 wt% APP/RH. This formulation achieved a limiting oxygen index (LOI) of 27% and a UL-94 V-0 rating, indicating excellent flame resistance. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) showed a significant increase in char residue—from 0.51 wt% in pure TPU to 26.1 wt%—demonstrating improved thermal stability. Further characterization using cone calorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis–Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (TGA-FTIR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and Raman spectroscopy confirmed that the addition of APP/RH significantly enhances the flame-retardant properties of the TPU composite. Consequently, the application of TPU in construction materials can be advanced through improved fire safety performance and alignment with sustainability goals. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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44 pages, 4769 KB  
Review
Porosity and Permeability in Construction Materials as Key Parameters for Their Durability and Performance: A Review
by Almudena Ortiz-Marqués, Pablo Caldevilla, Eryk Goldmann, Małgorzata Safuta, María Fernández-Raga and Marcin Górski
Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3422; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183422 - 22 Sep 2025
Cited by 50 | Viewed by 8079
Abstract
This review provides a comprehensive examination of porosity and permeability as key parameters governing the durability and performance of construction materials, including natural stone, mortar, concrete, and other cementitious composites. It highlights the pivotal role of pore structure in transport phenomena and degradation [...] Read more.
This review provides a comprehensive examination of porosity and permeability as key parameters governing the durability and performance of construction materials, including natural stone, mortar, concrete, and other cementitious composites. It highlights the pivotal role of pore structure in transport phenomena and degradation mechanisms, examining how the variations in pore architecture, encompassing total vs. effective porosity, pore size distribution, and pore connectivity, dictate a material’s response to environmental stressors. A comparative evaluation of advanced pore characterization techniques is presented, including helium pycnometry, mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP), nitrogen adsorption (BET/BJH), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) relaxometry, and imaging methods such as optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and X-ray micro-computed tomography (micro-CT). Furthermore, it assesses how these porosity and permeability characteristics influence durability-related processes like freeze–thaw cycling, chloride ingress, sulphate attack, and carbonation. Case studies are discussed in which various additives have been employed to refine the pore structure of cement-based materials, and pervious concrete is highlighted as an example where deliberately high porosity and permeability confer functional benefits (e.g., enhanced drainage). Overall, these insights underscore the importance of tailoring porosity and permeability in material design to enhance durability and sustainability in construction engineering. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Solutions: Harnessing Nanotechnology, Smart Materials, and Photocatalysis for Enhanced Durability and Sustainability)
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24 pages, 7075 KB  
Article
Assessment of Solar Radiation Datasets for Building Energy Simulation
by Angélica S. Walsh García, Ana Paula de Almeida Rocha, Olga de Castro Vilela and Nathan Mendes
Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3337; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183337 - 15 Sep 2025
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3916
Abstract
Accurate solar radiation data are essential for reliable building energy simulations, particularly for policy making. However, uncertainty in solar input, especially in regions with limited ground-based measurements, can significantly affect simulation outcomes. This study investigates the impact of different solar radiation datasets on [...] Read more.
Accurate solar radiation data are essential for reliable building energy simulations, particularly for policy making. However, uncertainty in solar input, especially in regions with limited ground-based measurements, can significantly affect simulation outcomes. This study investigates the impact of different solar radiation datasets on building energy performance simulations across two climatically distinct years, 2015 and 2024, in a subtropical urban environment. Solar inputs from ERA5, CAMS, and NASA POWER were compared against a regional reference from the Brazilian National Institute for Space Research (INPE). In addition to energy simulations, the datasets were evaluated using statistical metrics including root mean square error (RMSE), mean bias error (MBE), and Pearson correlation. NASA POWER showed the best agreement with ground data and yielded simulation results that were reasonably aligned with observed cooling loads and thermal comfort in both years, with slight overestimations in cooling demand and overheating hours. CAMS maintained consistent performance across both years and produced the lowest cooling and overheating estimates, slightly underestimating results while closely matching monthly trends. ERA5 exhibited the largest positive bias in solar input, particularly in DNI, leading to substantial overestimation of cooling demand, up to 34% in 2024, especially during heatwaves. These discrepancies highlight the sensitivity of energy simulations to solar input selection and the importance of using validated high-quality datasets to ensure reliable modeling under increasing climate variability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Sustainable Energy Performance of Green Buildings)
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54 pages, 5072 KB  
Review
Comparative Analysis of Autogenous and Microbial-Based Calcite Precipitation in Concrete: State-of-the-Art Review
by David O. Owolabi, Mehdi Shokouhian, Izhar Ahmad, Marshell Jenkins and Gabrielle Lynn McLemore
Buildings 2025, 15(18), 3289; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15183289 - 11 Sep 2025
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3617
Abstract
Cracks in concrete are a persistent issue that compromises structural durability, increases maintenance costs, and poses environmental challenges. Self-healing concrete has emerged as a promising innovation to address these concerns by autonomously sealing cracks and restoring integrity. This review focuses on two primary [...] Read more.
Cracks in concrete are a persistent issue that compromises structural durability, increases maintenance costs, and poses environmental challenges. Self-healing concrete has emerged as a promising innovation to address these concerns by autonomously sealing cracks and restoring integrity. This review focuses on two primary healing mechanisms: autogenous healing and microbial-induced calcite precipitation (MICP), the latter involving the biomineralization activity of bacteria, such as Bacillus subtilis and Sporosarcina pasteurii (formerly known as B. pasteurii). This review explores the selection, survivability, and activity of these microbes within the alkaline concrete environment. Additionally, the review highlights the role of fiber-reinforced cementitious composites (FRCCs), including high-performance fiber-reinforced cement composites (HPFRCCs) and engineered cement composites (ECCs), in enhancing crack control and enabling more effective microbial healing. The hybridization of natural and synthetic fibers contributes to both improved mechanical properties and crack width regulation, key factors in facilitating bacterial calcite precipitation. This review synthesizes current findings on self-healing efficiency, fiber compatibility, and the scalability of bacterial healing in concrete. It also evaluates critical parameters, such as healing agent integration, long-term performance, and testing methodologies, including both destructive and non-destructive techniques. By identifying existing knowledge gaps and performance barriers, this review offers insights for advancing sustainable, fiber-assisted microbial self-healing concrete for resilient infrastructure applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Properties and Durability of Concrete Materials and Structures)
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29 pages, 7183 KB  
Article
Exploring Urban Spatial Quality Through Street View Imagery and Human Perception Analysis
by Yonghao Li, Jialin Lu, Yuan Meng, Yiwen Luo and Juan Ren
Buildings 2025, 15(17), 3116; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15173116 - 31 Aug 2025
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5101
Abstract
Amid the global challenges of rapid urbanization, understanding how micro-scale spatial features shape human perception is critical for advancing livable cities. This study pro-poses a data-driven framework that integrates street view imagery, deep learning-based semantic segmentation, and machine learning interpretation models including SHAP [...] Read more.
Amid the global challenges of rapid urbanization, understanding how micro-scale spatial features shape human perception is critical for advancing livable cities. This study pro-poses a data-driven framework that integrates street view imagery, deep learning-based semantic segmentation, and machine learning interpretation models including SHAP analysis to explore the relationship between urban spatial characteristics and subjective perceptions. A total of 12,604 street-level images from Xi’an, China, were analyzed to ex-tract seven spatial indicators. These indicators were then linked with perceptual data across six emotional dimensions derived from the Place Pulse 2.0 dataset. The analysis revealed that natural elements significantly enhance perceived comfort and aesthetics, while high-density built environments can suppress perceived safety and liveliness. Spatial clustering further identified three urban typologies—traditional, transitional, and modern—with distinct perceptual signatures. These findings offer scalable and transferable insights for perception-informed urban design and renewal, particularly in dense urban settings worldwide. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational Design for Low-Carbon and Climate-Responsive Architecture and Urban Environments)
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62 pages, 8154 KB  
Review
Assessment of Phase Change Materials Incorporation into Construction Commodities for Sustainable and Energy-Efficient Building Applications
by Ihsan Ur Rahman, Oronzio Manca, Bernardo Buonomo, Meriem Bounib, Shafi Ur Rehman, Hala Salhab, Antonio Caggiano and Sergio Nardini
Buildings 2025, 15(17), 3109; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15173109 - 29 Aug 2025
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2308
Abstract
The significant energy consumption and contribution to greenhouse gas emissions by the construction sector need careful attention to explore innovative sustainable solutions for improving the energy efficiency and thermal comfort of building envelopes. The integration of phase-change materials (PCMs) into building commodities is [...] Read more.
The significant energy consumption and contribution to greenhouse gas emissions by the construction sector need careful attention to explore innovative sustainable solutions for improving the energy efficiency and thermal comfort of building envelopes. The integration of phase-change materials (PCMs) into building commodities is a favorable technology for minimizing energy consumption and enhancing thermal performance. This review paper covers the impact of PCM incorporation into construction materials, such as walls, roofs, and glazing units. Additionally, it examines different embedding techniques like direct incorporation, immersion, macro and micro-encapsulation, and form and shape-stable PCM. Factors affecting the thermal performance of PCM-integrated buildings, including melting temperature, thickness, position, volumetric change, vapor pressure, density, optical properties, latent heat, thermal conductivity, chemical stability, and climate conditions, are elaborated. Furthermore, the latest experimental and numerical simulations, as well as modeling techniques, evident from case studies, are investigated. Ultimately, the advantages of PCM integration, including energy savings, peak load reduction, improvement in interior comfort, and reduced heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning dependence, are explained alongside the limitations. Finally, the recent progress and future potential of PCM-integrated construction materials are discussed, focusing on innovations in this field, addressing the status of policies in line with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, and outlining research potential for the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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51 pages, 4640 KB  
Review
Opportunities for Supplementary Cementitious Materials from Natural Sources and Industrial Byproducts: Literature Insights and Supply Assessment
by Somayeh Nassiri, Ali Azhar Butt, Ali Zarei, Souvik Roy, Iyanuoluwa Filani, Gandhar Abhay Pandit, Angel Mateos, Md Mostofa Haider and John T. Harvey
Buildings 2025, 15(17), 3099; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15173099 - 28 Aug 2025
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5795
Abstract
This paper reviews various emerging alternative SCMs derived from minerals and biomass sources, industrial byproducts, and underutilized waste streams. The paper compiles and evaluates physicochemical properties, reaction mechanisms in cementitious systems, resource availability, supply chain dynamics, technology readiness, the impact on concrete performance, [...] Read more.
This paper reviews various emerging alternative SCMs derived from minerals and biomass sources, industrial byproducts, and underutilized waste streams. The paper compiles and evaluates physicochemical properties, reaction mechanisms in cementitious systems, resource availability, supply chain dynamics, technology readiness, the impact on concrete performance, and environmental and cost factors for each candidate SCM. Specifically, the review examines wood ash from bioenergy plants, volcanic and sedimentary natural pozzolans, and construction and demolition waste. This includes recycled concrete fines, asphalt plants’ rock dust (baghouse fines), aggregate production fines, and post-consumer waste, particularly municipal solid waste incinerator ash and wastewater sludge ash. Additionally, the paper explores innovative additives such as cellulose and chitin nanomaterials and calcium–silicate–hydrate nanoseeds to address challenges of slower strength development and rheological changes. The key contribution of this review is a multifactor framework for assessing alternative SCMs, emphasizing availability, supply chain, market readiness, and environmental performance, combined with an engineering performance review. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Composite Materials in Construction)
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26 pages, 17806 KB  
Article
Cross-Material Damage Detection and Analysis for Architectural Heritage Images
by Qingman Yu, Xin Yuan and Lingyu Xu
Buildings 2025, 15(17), 3100; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15173100 - 28 Aug 2025
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1934
Abstract
This study addresses the strategic requirements for cultural heritage preservation as specified, alongside the needs of high-quality urban-rural development. It highlights the inefficiency, subjectivity, and lack of intelligence in traditional manual detection methods used in architectural heritage preservation. Consequently, this research explores intelligent [...] Read more.
This study addresses the strategic requirements for cultural heritage preservation as specified, alongside the needs of high-quality urban-rural development. It highlights the inefficiency, subjectivity, and lack of intelligence in traditional manual detection methods used in architectural heritage preservation. Consequently, this research explores intelligent damage detection and quantitative analysis through image detection technology based on artificial intelligence. Firstly, a cross-material classification standard for architectural remnants is developed to facilitate data annotation in image detection techniques. Secondly, a dense object detection algorithm specifically designed for architectural images is proposed to address challenges such as boundary ambiguity and high-density damage in architectural heritage. This algorithm effectively facilitates intelligent detection and quantitative analysis of architectural heritage damage. On this basis, multiple datasets for architectural heritage damage detection are compiled and constructed on-site. Experimental results obtained from these datasets demonstrate that the proposed method surpasses comparative approaches across various metrics, including average precision, thus confirming its feasibility and effectiveness. Additionally, a software application for intelligent damage detection and quantitative analysis of architectural heritage images is developed, providing novel insights and support for the field of architectural heritage preservation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Analysis, Conservation, and Refurbishment Methods of Heritage Architecture Based on Modern Technology)
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19 pages, 4875 KB  
Article
Insights into People’s Perceptions Towards Urban Public Spaces Through Analysis of Social Media Reviews: A Case Study of Shanghai
by Lingyue Li and Lie Wang
Buildings 2025, 15(17), 3033; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15173033 - 26 Aug 2025
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3419
Abstract
Urban public space is a crucial constituent of livable city construction. A pleasant and comfortable public space is not simply spacious, bright, and accessible but also subjectively preferred by citizens who use it. Efforts to understand how citizens experience and perceive therein thus [...] Read more.
Urban public space is a crucial constituent of livable city construction. A pleasant and comfortable public space is not simply spacious, bright, and accessible but also subjectively preferred by citizens who use it. Efforts to understand how citizens experience and perceive therein thus matters and would significantly aid urban design and well-being improvement. This research constructs a perception lexicon for 129 sites of public street space, a significant type of public space, in Shanghai and identifies how citizens comment on these sites through sentiment analysis based on social platform texts. A Chinese natural language processing (NLP) tool is applied to sort out the extent of citizens’ feelings on the urban street environment through a 0–1 scoring system. Six types of built environment elements and five categories of urban public spaces are identified. Pleasantly perceived sites primarily locate in the urban center and sporadically distribute in the outskirts and are normally “high-density” and “multi-function” in nature. Among the five categories of urban public spaces, sites that are commercially dynamic with culture, arts, and historical elements or that have gourmet food and good walkability generally receive the higher sentiment scores, but scores of ancient town commercial streets (many are antique streets), once popular and contributing much to tourism economy, are not satisfactory. The NLP-based text analysis also quantifies the intensity of emotional perceptions toward the six types of built environment elements and their associations with the general perception. This study not only offers insights for designers and policy makers in public space optimization but also showcases a scalable, data-driven approach for integrating public emotional and experiential dimensions into urban livability assessments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Planning for Sustainable Land Use and Built Environment in High-Density Cities)
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30 pages, 6711 KB  
Article
Experimental Investigation on the Tensile and Bond Durability of Galvanized Steel Reinforced Grout
by Sara Fares, Pietro Meriggi, Stefano De Santis and Gianmarco de Felice
Buildings 2025, 15(17), 3020; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15173020 - 25 Aug 2025
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1153
Abstract
Steel reinforced grout (SRG) composites are widely used for strengthening existing structures. Galvanized (zinc-coated) ultra-high tensile strength steel cords are more durable than brass-coated and cheaper than stainless-steel ones, making them the most common in practice. While compliant with certification standards, corrosion may [...] Read more.
Steel reinforced grout (SRG) composites are widely used for strengthening existing structures. Galvanized (zinc-coated) ultra-high tensile strength steel cords are more durable than brass-coated and cheaper than stainless-steel ones, making them the most common in practice. While compliant with certification standards, corrosion may occur, potentially affecting tensile strength and bond capacity. The latter has, however, remained largely unexplored, highlighting a need to assess durability under different environmental exposures. This study investigated the durability of galvanized SRGs with four cord types and four mortar matrices (cement- and lime-based). Direct tensile, shear bond, and lap-tensile tests were conducted after immersion in saltwater or alkaline solutions, exposure to freeze–thaw or salt crystallization cycles, and high temperatures. Results highlighted salt exposure as the most critical condition, particularly with lime-based matrices. Zinc coating thickness proved essential for corrosion resistance, while freeze–thaw and salt crystallization led to bond degradation due to concentrated steel corrosion and mortar microcracking. The findings highlight the importance of considering appropriate protective measures and exposure-specific conditions when designing SRG reinforcements. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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23 pages, 14404 KB  
Article
Early-Age Properties and Reaction of Hydrophobic Portland Cement and Alkali-Activated Fly Ash–Slag Pastes with Alkyl Silanes
by Rongfeng Gao, Jiaxi Mao, Shengqian Ruan, Wenlin Tu, Yansong Wang and Dongming Yan
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2966; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162966 - 21 Aug 2025
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1686
Abstract
Cementitious materials are susceptible to water ingress due to their hydrophilicity and porous microstructure, which can cause premature destruction and compromise long-term durability. Integral hydrophobic modification using alkyl silanes is an effective strategy for enhancing water resistance, while the influence of different silanes [...] Read more.
Cementitious materials are susceptible to water ingress due to their hydrophilicity and porous microstructure, which can cause premature destruction and compromise long-term durability. Integral hydrophobic modification using alkyl silanes is an effective strategy for enhancing water resistance, while the influence of different silanes on early-age properties (within the first 7 d) of various binder systems remains unclear. This study investigates the rheology, flowability, setting behavior, reaction kinetics, compressive strength, and hydrophobicity of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and alkali-activated fly ash–slag (AAFS) pastes incorporating alkyl silanes of varying alkyl chain lengths, i.e., methyl-(C1TMS), butyl-(C4TMS), octyl-(C8TMS), and dodecyl-trimethoxysilane (C12TMS). In OPC, C1TMS reduced yield stress and plastic viscosity by 33.6% and 21.0%, respectively, and improved flowability by 27.6%, whereas C4TMS, C8TMS, and C12TMS showed the opposite effects. In contrast, the effect of alkyl silanes on rheology and flowability of AAFS was less pronounced. Silanes delayed setting of OPC and AAFS by 5.6–164.4%, with shorter alkyl chains causing greater retardation. C1TMS and C4TMS inhibited early-age heat release and decreased the 1-day compressive strength by 14.8–35.7% in OPC and 82.0–84.5% in AAFS, whereas longer-chain silanes had comparatively minor effects. The hydrophobic performance in both binder systems was strongly correlated with alkyl chain length. C8TMS exhibited the best hydrophobicity in OPC, achieving a water contact angle of 145° and a 75.7% reduction in water sorptivity, while C4TMS demonstrated the highest hydrophobicity in AAFS. This study provides fundamental guidance for the rational selection of alkyl silanes in OPC and AAFS systems, offering insights into the design of multifunctional water-resistant cementitious composites for marine structures, building facades, and other applications with waterproofing requirements. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research on Concrete Materials in Construction)
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22 pages, 2131 KB  
Review
Research Progress on CO2 Transcritical Cycle Technology for Building Heating and Cooling Applications
by Weixiu Shi, Haiyu Chang, Junwei Zhou, Bai Mu, Shuang Quan and Lisheng Pan
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2952; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162952 - 20 Aug 2025
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4323
Abstract
This review focuses on the advancements of CO2 transcritical cycle technology in building indoor environmental regulation, particularly in combined heating and cooling applications. The paper highlights the energy efficiency and environmental benefits of CO2 as a natural refrigerant, which has zero [...] Read more.
This review focuses on the advancements of CO2 transcritical cycle technology in building indoor environmental regulation, particularly in combined heating and cooling applications. The paper highlights the energy efficiency and environmental benefits of CO2 as a natural refrigerant, which has zero ozone depletion potential (ODP) and very low global warming potential (GWP). It provides a comprehensive overview of recent optimization strategies, including distributed compression, the integration of ejectors and expanders, and the design improvements of key components such as gas coolers, compressors, and throttling valves. Through optimization strategies such as dual-system cycles, this technology can achieve a COP improvement of 15.3–46.96% in heating scenarios; meanwhile, with the help of distributed compression technology, its cooling capacity can be enhanced by up to 26.5%. The review also examines various operating conditions such as discharge pressure and subcooling, which significantly affect system performance. The paper concludes by identifying the current challenges in the application of CO2 systems, such as high initial costs and system stability under extreme conditions, and suggests future research directions to overcome these limitations and improve the practical application of CO2 transcritical cycles in the building industry. Overall, it is concluded that the development of expander-compressors holds great potential for achieving better performance and represents a promising direction for future advancements in this field. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development of Indoor Environment Comfort)
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26 pages, 9783 KB  
Article
Assessing the Impact of the Indoor Light Environment of Office Facilities on Multidimensional Human Responses
by Ki Rim Kim, Kyung Sun Lee and Hyesung Cho
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2955; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162955 - 20 Aug 2025
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2495
Abstract
This study investigates the effects of adjustable indoor light variables (illuminance and correlated color temperature [CCT]) typically found in office environments on human physiological, psychological, and cognitive responses. An experiment involving 72 participants was conducted, producing 360 data points. Each participant was exposed [...] Read more.
This study investigates the effects of adjustable indoor light variables (illuminance and correlated color temperature [CCT]) typically found in office environments on human physiological, psychological, and cognitive responses. An experiment involving 72 participants was conducted, producing 360 data points. Each participant was exposed to 5 of 18 light environment conditions, which combined different levels of illuminance and CCT. Human responses were measured through skin conductivity, heart rate variability (SDNN, RMSSD, LF/HF ratio), preference, visual comfort, fatigue, work speed, and work accuracy. Correlation and multiple regression analyses were performed to evaluate both the direct effects and interrelationships among the variables. The results showed that psychological responses were most sensitive to light conditions. Illuminance significantly influenced visual comfort and fatigue, while both illuminance and CCT affected preference. Although physiological responses and work performance showed no direct statistical significance with light conditions, they were significantly correlated with psychological responses. These findings suggest that psychological responses may serve as mediators between light environments and other human reactions. Therefore, a more integrated evaluation framework is needed for light design. This study emphasizes the importance of considering psychological well-being in indoor light and provides practical implications for advancing human-centric light design in smart office environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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23 pages, 1493 KB  
Review
Prefabricated and Modularized Residential Construction: A Review of Present Status, Opportunities, and Future Challenges
by Sunai Kim
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2889; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162889 - 15 Aug 2025
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 15094
Abstract
Many countries worldwide are facing a housing crisis, marked by a shortage of affordable housing. To respond to this growing crisis, prefabricated residential construction is gaining popularity due to cost savings in mass production, faster construction times, improved quality control, and sustainability considerations. [...] Read more.
Many countries worldwide are facing a housing crisis, marked by a shortage of affordable housing. To respond to this growing crisis, prefabricated residential construction is gaining popularity due to cost savings in mass production, faster construction times, improved quality control, and sustainability considerations. This study provides a critical review of the available literature within the prefabricated and modular residential construction industry to assess its present status and to identify opportunities and challenges. The literature was categorized into the subfields of architecture, sustainability, structural, energy, environment, factory build, installation, policy, possibilities and challenges, and case studies. A detailed summary is provided for each subfield. This study aims to provide insights into the prefabricated and modular residential construction industry to fill the knowledge gap, discover possibilities, and address any challenges to create a clear pathway for implementation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modular and Offsite Construction: Evidence-Based Benefits and Innovations)
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33 pages, 1706 KB  
Systematic Review
A Systematic Review of Lean Construction, BIM and Emerging Technologies Integration: Identifying Key Tools
by Omar Alnajjar, Edison Atencio and Jose Turmo
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2884; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162884 - 14 Aug 2025
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 10836
Abstract
The construction industry, a cornerstone of global economic growth, continues to struggle with entrenched inefficiencies, including low productivity, cost overruns, and fragmented project delivery. Addressing these persistent challenges requires more than incremental improvements, it demands a strategic unification of Lean Construction, Building Information [...] Read more.
The construction industry, a cornerstone of global economic growth, continues to struggle with entrenched inefficiencies, including low productivity, cost overruns, and fragmented project delivery. Addressing these persistent challenges requires more than incremental improvements, it demands a strategic unification of Lean Construction, Building Information Modeling (BIM), and Emerging Technologies. This systematic review synthesizes evidence from 64 academic studies to identify the most influential tools, techniques, and methodologies across these domains, revealing both their individual strengths and untapped synergies. The analysis highlights widely adopted Lean practices such as the Last Planner System (LPS) and Just-In-Time (JIT); BIM capabilities across 3D, 4D, 5D, 6D, and 7D dimensions; and a spectrum of digital innovations including Digital Twins, AR/VR/MR, AI, IoT, robotics, and blockchain. Crucially, the review demonstrates that despite rapid advancements, integration remains sporadic and unstructured, representing a critical research and industry gap. By moving beyond descriptive mapping, this study establishes an essential foundation for the development of robust, adaptable integration frameworks capable of bridging theory and practice. Such frameworks are urgently needed to optimize efficiency, enhance sustainability, and enable innovation in large-scale and complex construction projects, positioning this work as both a scholarly contribution and a practical roadmap for future research and implementation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Innovative Technologies in Construction Project Management)
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55 pages, 3852 KB  
Review
Review of the Influence of the Interaction Between In-Plane and Out-of-Plane Behaviors on the Seismic Response of Non-Framed Unreinforced Masonry Walls
by Amirhossein Ghezelbash, Jan G. Rots and Francesco Messali
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2874; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162874 - 14 Aug 2025
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1771
Abstract
This study reviews existing research on the effects of the interaction between in-plane (IP) and out-of-plane (OOP) behaviors on the seismic response of non-framed unreinforced masonry (URM) structures. During earthquakes, masonry buildings exhibit complex behaviors. First, walls may experience simultaneous IP and OOP [...] Read more.
This study reviews existing research on the effects of the interaction between in-plane (IP) and out-of-plane (OOP) behaviors on the seismic response of non-framed unreinforced masonry (URM) structures. During earthquakes, masonry buildings exhibit complex behaviors. First, walls may experience simultaneous IP and OOP actions, or pre-existing IP and OOP damage, deformation, or loads that can alter their unidirectional IP or OOP seismic response. Second, the IP and OOP action of one wall can affect the behavior of its intersecting walls. However, the effects of these behaviors, referred to as “direct IP-OOP interactions” and “Flange effects”, respectively, are often disregarded in design and assessment provisions. To address this gap, this study explores findings from experimental and numerical research conducted at the wall level currently available in the literature, identifying the nature of these interaction effects and the key parameters that affect their extent. The available body of work includes only a few experimental studies on interaction effects, whereas numerical investigations are more extensive. However, most numerical studies focus on how OOP pre-damage/deformation influences the IP behaviors (OOP/IP interactions) and the role of flanges in IP response (F/IP interactions), leaving significant gaps in understanding the effects of IP pre-damage/deformation on the OOP response (IP/OOP interactions) and the OOP response in the presence of flanges (F/OOP interactions). Among the parameters studied, boundary conditions, wall height-to-length aspect ratio, and vertical overburden are found to have the most significant influence on interaction effects because of their relevance for the IP and OOP failure mechanisms. Other parameters, such as the restriction of top uplift, the presence of openings, or changes in slenderness ratio, are not comprehensively studied, and the available data are insufficient for definitive conclusions. Methodologies available in the literature for extrapolating the findings observed at the wall level to building-level analyses are reviewed. The current predictive equations primarily address the effects of OOP pre-load and Flange effects on IP response. Furthermore, only a few macro-element models are proposed for cost-effective, large-scale building simulations. To bridge these gaps, future research must expand experimental investigations, develop more comprehensive design and assessment equations, and refine numerical modeling techniques for building-level applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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24 pages, 2570 KB  
Article
Economic Performance Analysis of Jointly Acting Renewable Self-Consumption: A Case Study on 109 Condominiums in an Italian Urban Area
by Christian Mari, Matilde Chierici, Simone Franzò and Francesco Causone
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2808; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162808 - 8 Aug 2025
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1931
Abstract
Remote self-consumption supports the energy transition, especially through Jointly Acting Renewable Self-consumption (JARS) and Renewable Energy Communities (RECs). While RECs typically operate at the city/district level, JARS is focused on condominium buildings where apartment owners jointly invest in renewable energy systems, sharing both [...] Read more.
Remote self-consumption supports the energy transition, especially through Jointly Acting Renewable Self-consumption (JARS) and Renewable Energy Communities (RECs). While RECs typically operate at the city/district level, JARS is focused on condominium buildings where apartment owners jointly invest in renewable energy systems, sharing both costs and benefits. The energy produced is consumed on-site, reducing bills and benefiting from financial incentives, when available, as under the Italian law. This research aims to assess the economic feasibility of JARS in Italy and the average financial benefit for a family living in a condominium. It also evaluates the impact of integrating JARS into larger RECs. The study uses photovoltaic electricity production simulations via OpenSolar and building energy modeling through Rose Community Designer. Results are analyzed using energy, environmental, and financial indicators such as Net Present Value (NPV) and Discounted Payback Time (DPBT) over a 20-year period. The findings show that JARS yields average incentive gains of EUR 94.34 per person per year, rising to EUR 340 when including tax bonuses, energy savings, and energy sales. The average investment payback time is 8.8 years. When integrated into RECs, JARS shows improved energy sharing (from 78% to 93%) and higher economic returns, highlighting its potential in accelerating the energy transition. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Data Analysis and Energy Modeling in Smart and Zero-Energy Buildings and Communities)
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21 pages, 2365 KB  
Article
Development of an Optimization Algorithm for Designing Low-Carbon Concrete Materials Standardization with Blockchain Technology and Ensemble Machine Learning Methods
by Zilefac Ebenezer Nwetlawung and Yi-Hsin Lin
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2809; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162809 - 8 Aug 2025
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1920
Abstract
This study presents SmartMix Web3, a framework combining ensemble machine learning and blockchain technology to optimize low-carbon concrete design. It addresses two key challenges: (1) the limitations of conventional models in predicting concrete performance, and (2) ensuring data reliability and overcoming collaboration issues [...] Read more.
This study presents SmartMix Web3, a framework combining ensemble machine learning and blockchain technology to optimize low-carbon concrete design. It addresses two key challenges: (1) the limitations of conventional models in predicting concrete performance, and (2) ensuring data reliability and overcoming collaboration issues in AI-driven sustainable construction. Validated with 61 real-world experiments in Cameroon and 752 mix designs, the framework shows major improvements in predictive accuracy and decentralized trust. To address the first research question, a stacked ensemble model comprising Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost)–Random Forest and a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) was developed, achieving a 22% reduction in Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) for compressive strength prediction and embodied carbon estimation compared to traditional methods. The 29% reduction in Mean Absolute Error (MAE) results confirms the superiority of Extreme Learning Machine (EML) in low-carbon concrete performance prediction. For the second research question, SmartMix Web3 employs blockchain to ensure tamper-proof traceability and promote collaboration. Deployed on Ethereum, it automates verification of tokenized Environmental Product Declarations via smart contracts, reducing disputes and preserving data integrity. Federated learning supports decentralized training across nine batching plants, with Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA)-256 checks ensuring privacy. Field implementation in Cameroon yielded annual cost savings of FCFA 24.3 million and a 99.87 kgCO2/m3 reduction per mix design. By uniting EML precision with blockchain transparency, SmartMix Web3 offers practical and scalable benefits for sustainable construction in developing economies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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22 pages, 16891 KB  
Article
Efficient Hyperparameter Optimization Using Metaheuristics for Machine Learning in Truss Steel Structure Cross-Section Prediction
by Donwoo Lee, Seunghyeon Noh, Jeonghyun Kim and Seungjae Lee
Buildings 2025, 15(15), 2791; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15152791 - 7 Aug 2025
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2205
Abstract
The optimal design of truss structures is one of the most complex problems, as it requires achieving high stiffness and stability while pursuing lightweight structures. With the recent advancements in AI technologies, machine learning-based approaches for predicting the optimal cross-sectional areas of truss [...] Read more.
The optimal design of truss structures is one of the most complex problems, as it requires achieving high stiffness and stability while pursuing lightweight structures. With the recent advancements in AI technologies, machine learning-based approaches for predicting the optimal cross-sectional areas of truss structures have garnered significant attention from researchers. However, the design problem of truss structures poses substantial challenges for machine learning models due to the highly diverse and nonlinear characteristics of the optimal cross-sectional distributions, which may hinder effective learning. To address these limitations, the importance of hyperparameter optimization (HPO) has been increasingly recognized. This paper employs metaheuristic algorithms, which are efficient in searching for global optima, to perform HPO on 10-bar and 17-bar truss structure datasets. By balancing exploitation and exploration capabilities, metaheuristic algorithms demonstrate superior performance and time efficiency compared to conventional HPO methods. The results underscore the critical role of hyperparameters in machine learning-based truss structure design and suggest that leveraging metaheuristic algorithm-based HPO holds significant potential for addressing complex structural design problems in future applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Structural Analysis and Design of Civil Structures)
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32 pages, 2341 KB  
Review
Human and Multi-Robot Collaboration in Indoor Environments: A Review of Methods and Application Potential for Indoor Construction Sites
by Francis Xavier Duorinaah, Mathanraj Rajendran, Tae Wan Kim, Jung In Kim, Seulbi Lee, Seulki Lee and Min-Koo Kim
Buildings 2025, 15(15), 2794; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15152794 - 7 Aug 2025
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4918
Abstract
The integration of robotic agents into complex indoor construction environments is increasing, particularly through human–robot collaboration (HRC) and multi-robot collaboration (MRC). These collaborative frameworks hold great potential to enhance productivity and safety. However, indoor construction environments present unique challenges, such as dynamic layouts, [...] Read more.
The integration of robotic agents into complex indoor construction environments is increasing, particularly through human–robot collaboration (HRC) and multi-robot collaboration (MRC). These collaborative frameworks hold great potential to enhance productivity and safety. However, indoor construction environments present unique challenges, such as dynamic layouts, constrained spaces, and variable lighting conditions, which complicate the safe and effective deployment of collaborative robot teams. Existing studies have primarily addressed various HRC and MRC challenges in manufacturing, logistics, and outdoor construction, with limited attention given to indoor construction settings. To this end, this review presents a comprehensive analysis of human–robot and multi-robot collaboration methods within various indoor domains and critically evaluates the potential of adopting these methods for indoor construction. This review presents three key contributions: (1) it provides a structured evaluation of current human–robot interaction techniques and safety-enhancing methods; (2) it presents a summary of state-of-the-art multi-robot collaboration frameworks, including task allocation, mapping, and coordination; and (3) it identifies major limitations in current systems and provides research directions for enabling scalable, robust, and context-aware collaboration in indoor construction. By bridging the gap between current robotic collaboration methods and the needs of indoor construction, this review lays the foundation for the development of adaptive and optimized collaborative robot deployment frameworks for indoor built environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Automation and Robotics in Building Design and Construction)
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28 pages, 11045 KB  
Article
Evaluating the Microclimatic Performance of Elevated Open Spaces for Outdoor Thermal Comfort in Cold Climate Zones
by Xuan Ma, Qian Luo, Fangxi Yan, Yibo Lei, Yuyang Lu, Haoyang Chen, Yuhuan Yang, Han Feng, Mengyuan Zhou, Hua Ding and Jingyuan Zhao
Buildings 2025, 15(15), 2777; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15152777 - 6 Aug 2025
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1738
Abstract
Improving outdoor thermal comfort is a critical objective in urban design, particularly in densely built urban environments. Elevated semi-open spaces—outdoor areas located beneath raised building structures—have been recognized for enhancing pedestrian comfort by improving airflow and shading. However, previous studies primarily focused on [...] Read more.
Improving outdoor thermal comfort is a critical objective in urban design, particularly in densely built urban environments. Elevated semi-open spaces—outdoor areas located beneath raised building structures—have been recognized for enhancing pedestrian comfort by improving airflow and shading. However, previous studies primarily focused on warm or temperate climates, leaving a significant research gap regarding their thermal performance in cold climate zones characterized by extreme seasonal variations. Specifically, few studies have investigated how these spaces perform under conditions typical of northern Chinese cities like Xi’an, which is explicitly classified within the Cold Climate Zone according to China’s national standard GB 50176-2016 and experiences both severe summer heat and cold winter conditions. To address this gap, we conducted field measurements and numerical simulations using the ENVI-met model (v5.0) to systematically evaluate the microclimatic performance of elevated ground-floor spaces in Xi’an. Key microclimatic parameters—including air temperature, mean radiant temperature, relative humidity, and wind velocity—were assessed during representative summer and winter conditions. Our findings indicate that the height of the elevated structure significantly affects outdoor thermal comfort, identifying an optimal elevated height range of 3.6–4.3 m to effectively balance summer cooling and winter sheltering needs. These results provide valuable design guidance for architects and planners aiming to enhance outdoor thermal environments in cold climate regions facing distinct seasonal extremes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buildings' Thermal Performance and Energy Efficiency for a Sustainable Construction)
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21 pages, 1209 KB  
Article
Sustainable Membrane-Based Acoustic Metamaterials Using Cork and Honeycomb Structures: Experimental and Numerical Characterization
by Giuseppe Ciaburro and Virginia Puyana-Romero
Buildings 2025, 15(15), 2763; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15152763 - 5 Aug 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2483
Abstract
This work presents the experimental and numerical investigation of a novel acoustic metamaterial based on sustainable and biodegradable components: cork membranes and honeycomb cores made from treated aramid paper. The design exploits the principle of localized resonance induced by tensioned membranes coupled with [...] Read more.
This work presents the experimental and numerical investigation of a novel acoustic metamaterial based on sustainable and biodegradable components: cork membranes and honeycomb cores made from treated aramid paper. The design exploits the principle of localized resonance induced by tensioned membranes coupled with subwavelength cavities, aiming to achieve high sound absorption at low (250–500 Hz) and mid frequencies (500–1400 Hz) with minimal thickness and environmental impact. Three configurations were analyzed, varying the number of membranes (one, two, and three) while keeping a constant core structure composed of three stacked honeycomb layers. Acoustic performance was measured using an impedance tube (Kundt’s tube), focusing on the normal-incidence sound absorption coefficient in the frequency range of 250–1400 Hz. The results demonstrate that increasing the number of membranes introduces multiple resonances and broadens the effective absorption bandwidth. Numerical simulations were performed to predict pressure field distributions. The numerical model showed good agreement with the experimental data, validating the underlying physical model of coupled mass–spring resonators. The proposed metamaterial offers a low-cost, modular, and fully recyclable solution for indoor sound control, combining acoustic performance and environmental sustainability. These findings offer promising perspectives for the application of bio-based metamaterials in architecture and eco-design. Further developments will address durability, high-frequency absorption, and integration in hybrid soundproofing systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Materials, Structural Systems and Construction for Green Buildings)
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29 pages, 3167 KB  
Article
A Comparative Evaluation of Polymer-Modified Rapid-Set Calcium Sulfoaluminate Concrete: Bridging the Gap Between Laboratory Shrinkage and the Field Strain Performance
by Daniel D. Akerele and Federico Aguayo
Buildings 2025, 15(15), 2759; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15152759 - 5 Aug 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2179
Abstract
Rapid pavement repair demands materials that combine accelerated strength gains, dimensional stability, long-term durability, and sustainability. However, finding materials or formulations that offer these balances remains a critical challenge. This study systematically evaluates two polymer-modified belitic calcium sulfoaluminate (CSA) concretes—CSAP (powdered polymer) and [...] Read more.
Rapid pavement repair demands materials that combine accelerated strength gains, dimensional stability, long-term durability, and sustainability. However, finding materials or formulations that offer these balances remains a critical challenge. This study systematically evaluates two polymer-modified belitic calcium sulfoaluminate (CSA) concretes—CSAP (powdered polymer) and CSA-LLP (liquid polymer admixture)—against a traditional Type III Portland cement (OPC) control under both laboratory and realistic outdoor conditions. Laboratory specimens were tested for fresh properties, early-age and later-age compressive, flexural, and splitting tensile strengths, as well as drying shrinkage according to ASTM standards. Outdoor 5 × 4 × 12-inch slabs mimicking typical jointed plain concrete panels (JPCPs), instrumented with vibrating wire strain gauges and thermocouples, recorded the strain and temperature at 5 min intervals over 16 weeks, with 24 h wet-burlap curing to replicate field practices. Laboratory findings show that CSA mixes exceeded 3200 psi of compressive strength at 4 h, but cold outdoor casting (~48 °F) delayed the early-age strength development. The CSA-LLP exhibited the lowest drying shrinkage (0.036% at 16 weeks), and outdoor CSA slabs captured the initial ettringite-driven expansion, resulting in a net expansion (+200 µε) rather than contraction. Approximately 80% of the total strain evolved within the first 48 h, driven by autogenous and plastic effects. CSA mixes generated lower peak internal temperatures and reduced thermal strain amplitudes compared to the OPC, improving dimensional stability and mitigating restraint-induced cracking. These results underscore the necessity of field validation for shrinkage compensation mechanisms and highlight the critical roles of the polymer type and curing protocol in optimizing CSA-based repairs for durable, low-carbon pavement rehabilitation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study on Concrete Structures—2nd Edition)
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27 pages, 917 KB  
Article
Information Sharing Barriers of Construction Projects Toward Circular Economy: Review and Framework Development
by Yuhui Sun, Raufdeen Rameezdeen, Christopher W. K. Chow and Jing Gao
Buildings 2025, 15(15), 2744; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15152744 - 4 Aug 2025
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2655
Abstract
The construction industry is transitioning towards the circular economy, an approach that effectively reduces the industry’s environmental impact and promotes sustainability. However, realising the circular economy goal requires adequate information sharing among stakeholders and across the building lifecycle stages. This research examines the [...] Read more.
The construction industry is transitioning towards the circular economy, an approach that effectively reduces the industry’s environmental impact and promotes sustainability. However, realising the circular economy goal requires adequate information sharing among stakeholders and across the building lifecycle stages. This research examines the barriers that impede the information-sharing process in construction projects for the circular economy. This research adopts the framework of the information-sharing process, which suggests four essential components: context, content, people, and media. This study systematically searches and analyses the literature to identify and classify the information sharing barriers in the circular economy context, as well as their interaction. This study also conducts a case study to validate the information barrier framework and the findings. The findings suggest that information barriers are interlinked and require comprehensive solutions from the aspects of technology, organisation, and people, instead of single-aspect solutions. As this study provides insights into the systemic complexities of how information flows within the circular economy implementation system, it consequently contributes to the improvement of sustainable construction practices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)
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36 pages, 699 KB  
Article
A Framework of Indicators for Assessing Team Performance of Human–Robot Collaboration in Construction Projects
by Guodong Zhang, Xiaowei Luo, Lei Zhang, Wei Li, Wen Wang and Qiming Li
Buildings 2025, 15(15), 2734; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15152734 - 2 Aug 2025
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5097
Abstract
The construction industry has been troubled by a shortage of skilled labor and safety accidents in recent years. Therefore, more and more robots are introduced to undertake dangerous and repetitive jobs, so that human workers can concentrate on higher-value and creative problem-solving tasks. [...] Read more.
The construction industry has been troubled by a shortage of skilled labor and safety accidents in recent years. Therefore, more and more robots are introduced to undertake dangerous and repetitive jobs, so that human workers can concentrate on higher-value and creative problem-solving tasks. Nevertheless, although human–robot collaboration (HRC) shows great potential, most existing evaluation methods still focus on the single performance of either the human or robot, and systematic indicators for a whole HRC team remain insufficient. To fill this research gap, the present study constructs a comprehensive evaluation framework for HRC team performance in construction projects. Firstly, a detailed literature review is carried out, and three theories are integrated to build 33 indicators preliminarily. Afterwards, an expert questionnaire survey (N = 15) is adopted to revise and verify the model empirically. The survey yielded a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.916, indicating excellent internal consistency. The indicators rated highest in importance were task completion time (µ = 4.53) and dynamic separation distance (µ = 4.47) on a 5-point scale. Eight indicators were excluded due to mean importance ratings falling below the 3.0 threshold. The framework is formed with five main dimensions and 25 concrete indicators. Finally, an AHP-TOPSIS method is used to evaluate the HRC team performance. The AHP analysis reveals that Safety (weight = 0.2708) is prioritized over Productivity (weight = 0.2327) by experts, establishing a safety-first principle for successful HRC deployment. The framework is demonstrated through a case study of a human–robot plastering team, whose team performance scored as fair. This shows that the framework can help practitioners find out the advantages and disadvantages of HRC team performance and provide targeted improvement strategies. Furthermore, the framework offers construction managers a scientific basis for deciding robot deployment and team assignment, thus promoting safer, more efficient, and more creative HRC in construction projects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)
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23 pages, 4918 KB  
Article
Meso-Scale Numerical Analysis of the Torsional Size Effect of RC Beams Reinforced with CFRP Sheets Under Combined Bending and Torsion
by Dong Li, Minghai Wang, Yishuai He, Jiangxing Zhang, Liu Jin and Xiuli Du
Buildings 2025, 15(15), 2641; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15152641 - 26 Jul 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1139
Abstract
In practical engineering, buildings are predominantly subjected to combined forces, and reinforced concrete (RC) beams serve as the primary load-bearing components of buildings. However, there is a paucity of research on the torsional effects of RC beams, particularly concerning the torsional failure mechanisms [...] Read more.
In practical engineering, buildings are predominantly subjected to combined forces, and reinforced concrete (RC) beams serve as the primary load-bearing components of buildings. However, there is a paucity of research on the torsional effects of RC beams, particularly concerning the torsional failure mechanisms of large-size beams. To address this gap, this paper establishes a meso-scale numerical analysis model for RC beams reinforced with Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) sheets under combined bending and torsion pressures. The research analyzes how the fiber ratio and torsion-bending ratio govern torsion-induced failure characteristics and size effects in CFRP-strengthened RC beams. The results indicate that an increase in the fiber ratio leads to accumulated damage distribution in the RC beam, a gradual decrease in CFRP sheet strain, and an increase in peak load and peak torque, albeit with diminishing amplitudes; as the torsion-bending ratio increases, crack distribution becomes more concentrated, the angle between cracks and the horizontal direction decreases, overall peak load decreases, peak torque increases, and CFRP sheet strain increases; and the nominal torsional capacity of CFRP-strengthened RC beams declines with increasing size, exhibiting a reduction of 24.1% to 35.6%, which distinctly demonstrates the torsional size effect under bending–torsion coupling conditions. A modified Torque Size Effect Law is formulated, characterizing in quantitative terms the dependence of the fiber ratio and the torsion-bending ratio. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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24 pages, 2803 KB  
Article
AKI2ALL: Integrating AI and Blockchain for Circular Repurposing of Japan’s Akiyas—A Framework and Review
by Manuel Herrador, Romi Bramantyo Margono and Bart Dewancker
Buildings 2025, 15(15), 2629; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15152629 - 25 Jul 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2786
Abstract
Japan’s 8.5 million vacant homes (Akiyas) represent a paradox of scarcity amid surplus: while rural depopulation leaves properties abandoned, housing shortages and bureaucratic inefficiencies hinder their reuse. This study proposes AKI2ALL, an AI-blockchain framework designed to automate the circular repurposing of Akiyas into [...] Read more.
Japan’s 8.5 million vacant homes (Akiyas) represent a paradox of scarcity amid surplus: while rural depopulation leaves properties abandoned, housing shortages and bureaucratic inefficiencies hinder their reuse. This study proposes AKI2ALL, an AI-blockchain framework designed to automate the circular repurposing of Akiyas into ten high-value community assets—guesthouses, co-working spaces, pop-up retail and logistics hubs, urban farming hubs, disaster relief housing, parking lots, elderly daycare centers, exhibition spaces, places for food and beverages, and company offices—through smart contracts and data-driven workflows. By integrating circular economy principles with decentralized technology, AKI2ALL streamlines property transitions, tax validation, and administrative processes, reducing operational costs while preserving embodied carbon in existing structures. Municipalities list properties, owners select uses, and AI optimizes assignments based on real-time demand. This work bridges gaps in digital construction governance, proving that automating trust and accountability can transform systemic inefficiencies into opportunities for community-led, low-carbon regeneration, highlighting its potential as a scalable model for global vacant property reuse. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Implementation of Circular Economy in Buildings)
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19 pages, 894 KB  
Article
Minimum Spatial Housing Requirements for Human Flourishing
by Karl T. Ulrich
Buildings 2025, 15(15), 2623; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15152623 - 24 Jul 2025
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 8149
Abstract
This study defines evidence-based minimum internal floor areas required to support long-term residential use across different household types. It addresses the following question: what is the smallest viable floor area that supports sustained occupancy without persistent stress, conflict, or turnover? An integrative review [...] Read more.
This study defines evidence-based minimum internal floor areas required to support long-term residential use across different household types. It addresses the following question: what is the smallest viable floor area that supports sustained occupancy without persistent stress, conflict, or turnover? An integrative review method was employed, drawing from behavioural studies in environmental psychology, international regulatory standards, and real-world market data. The analysis focuses on essential domestic functions including sleep, hygiene, food preparation, storage, social interaction, and work. Quantitative findings from tenancy surveys, post-occupancy research, and market performance data indicate that residential units below 30 square metres for single occupants and 45 square metres for couples are consistently associated with reduced satisfaction and shorter tenancies. Regulatory minimums across diverse jurisdictions tend to converge near these same thresholds. The study proposes technical minimums of 30, 45, and 60 square metres for one-, two-, and three-person households, respectively. These values reflect functional lower bounds rather than ideal or aspirational sizes and are intended to inform performance-based housing standards. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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16 pages, 2285 KB  
Article
Evaluating the Heat of Hydration, Conductivity, and Microstructural Properties of Cement Composites with Recycled Concrete Powder
by Damir Barbir, Pero Dabić, Miće Jakić and Ivana Weber
Buildings 2025, 15(15), 2613; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15152613 - 23 Jul 2025
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1741
Abstract
This study investigates the effects of incorporating recycled concrete powder (RCP) as a supplementary cementitious material in Portland cement composites at replacement levels of 5–30% by weight. A comprehensive characterization using isothermal calorimetry, electrical conductivity measurements, thermogravimetric analysis, FT-IR spectroscopy, and scanning electron [...] Read more.
This study investigates the effects of incorporating recycled concrete powder (RCP) as a supplementary cementitious material in Portland cement composites at replacement levels of 5–30% by weight. A comprehensive characterization using isothermal calorimetry, electrical conductivity measurements, thermogravimetric analysis, FT-IR spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy revealed that RCP modified the hydration behavior and microstructural development. The results showed a linear 16.5% reduction in the total heat of hydration (from 145.38 to 121.44 J/g) at 30% RCP content, accompanied by a 26.5% decrease in peak electrical conductivity (19.16 to 14.08 mS/cm) and delayed reaction kinetics. Thermal analysis demonstrated an increased stability of hydration products, with portlandite decomposition temperatures rising by up to 10.8 °C. Microstructural observations confirmed the formation of denser but more amorphous C–S–H phases alongside increased interfacial porosity at higher RCP contents. The study provides quantitative evidence of RCP’s dual functionality as both an inert filler and a nucleation agent, identifying an optimal 20–25% replacement range that balances performance and sustainability. These findings advance the understanding of construction waste utilization in cementitious materials and provide practical solutions for developing more sustainable building composites while addressing circular economy objectives in the construction sector. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances and Applications of Recycled Concrete in Green Building)
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29 pages, 1852 KB  
Review
Evaluating the Economic Impact of Digital Twinning in the AEC Industry: A Systematic Review
by Tharindu Karunaratne, Ikenna Reginald Ajiero, Rotimi Joseph, Eric Farr and Poorang Piroozfar
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2583; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142583 - 21 Jul 2025
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 7414
Abstract
This study conducts a comprehensive systematic review of the economic impact of Digital Twin (DT) technology within the Architecture, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) industry, following the PRISMA methodology. While DT adoption has been accelerated by advancements in Building Information Modelling (BIM), the Internet [...] Read more.
This study conducts a comprehensive systematic review of the economic impact of Digital Twin (DT) technology within the Architecture, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) industry, following the PRISMA methodology. While DT adoption has been accelerated by advancements in Building Information Modelling (BIM), the Internet of Things (IoT), and data analytics, significant challenges persist—most notably, high initial investment costs and integration complexities. Synthesising the literature from 2016 onwards, this review identifies sector-specific barriers, regulatory burdens, and a lack of standardisation as key factors constituting DT implementation costs. Despite these hurdles, DTs demonstrate strong potential for enhancing construction productivity, optimising lifecycle asset management, and enabling predictive maintenance, ultimately reducing operational expenditures and improving long-term financial performance. Case studies reveal cost efficiencies achieved through DTs in modular construction, energy optimisation, and infrastructure management. However, limited financial resources and digital skills continue to constrain the uptake across the sector, with various extents of impact. This paper calls for the development of unified standards, innovative public–private funding mechanisms, and strategic collaborations to unlock and utilise DTs’ full economic value. It also recommends that future research explore theoretical frameworks addressing governance, data infrastructure, and digital equity—particularly through conceptualising DT-related data as public assets or collective goods in the context of smart cities and networked infrastructure systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Transformation in the Construction Industry: Latest Advances and Prospects)
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19 pages, 1563 KB  
Review
Autonomous Earthwork Machinery for Urban Construction: A Review of Integrated Control, Fleet Coordination, and Safety Assurance
by Zeru Liu and Jung In Kim
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2570; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142570 - 21 Jul 2025
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6835
Abstract
Autonomous earthwork machinery is gaining traction as a means to boost productivity and safety on space-constrained urban sites, yet the fast-growing literature has not been fully integrated. To clarify current knowledge, we systematically searched Scopus and screened 597 records, retaining 157 peer-reviewed papers [...] Read more.
Autonomous earthwork machinery is gaining traction as a means to boost productivity and safety on space-constrained urban sites, yet the fast-growing literature has not been fully integrated. To clarify current knowledge, we systematically searched Scopus and screened 597 records, retaining 157 peer-reviewed papers (2015–March 2025) that address autonomy, integrated control, or risk mitigation for excavators, bulldozers, and loaders. Descriptive statistics, VOSviewer mapping, and qualitative synthesis show the output rising rapidly and peaking at 30 papers in 2024, led by China, Korea, and the USA. Four tightly linked themes dominate: perception-driven machine autonomy, IoT-enabled integrated control systems, multi-sensor safety strategies, and the first demonstrations of fleet-level collaboration (e.g., coordinated excavator clusters and unmanned aerial vehicle and unmanned ground vehicle (UAV–UGV) site preparation). Advances include centimeter-scale path tracking, real-time vision-light detection and ranging (LiDAR) fusion and geofenced safety envelopes, but formal validation protocols and robust inter-machine communication remain open challenges. The review distils five research priorities, including adaptive perception and artificial intelligence (AI), digital-twin integration with building information modeling (BIM), cooperative multi-robot planning, rigorous safety assurance, and human–automation partnership that must be addressed to transform isolated prototypes into connected, self-optimizing fleets capable of delivering safer, faster, and more sustainable urban construction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Automation and Robotics in Building Design and Construction)
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26 pages, 4943 KB  
Article
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity for Real-Time Filament Quality Monitoring in 3D Concrete Printing Construction
by Luis de la Flor Juncal, Allan Scott, Don Clucas and Giuseppe Loporcaro
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2566; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142566 - 21 Jul 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1782
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) concrete printing (3DCP) has gained significant attention over the last decade due to its many claimed benefits. The absence of effective real-time quality control mechanisms, however, can lead to inconsistencies in extrusion, compromising the integrity of 3D-printed structures. Although the importance [...] Read more.
Three-dimensional (3D) concrete printing (3DCP) has gained significant attention over the last decade due to its many claimed benefits. The absence of effective real-time quality control mechanisms, however, can lead to inconsistencies in extrusion, compromising the integrity of 3D-printed structures. Although the importance of quality control in 3DCP is broadly acknowledged, research lacks systematic methods. This research investigates the feasibility of using ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) as a practical, in situ, real-time monitoring tool for 3DCP. Two different groups of binders were investigated: limestone calcined clay (LC3) and zeolite-based mixes in binary and ternary blends. Filaments of 200 mm were extruded every 5 min, and UPV, pocket hand vane, flow table, and viscometer tests were performed to measure pulse velocity, shear strength, relative deformation, yield stress, and plastic viscosity, respectively, in the fresh state. Once the filaments presented printing defects (e.g., filament tearing, filament width reduction), the tests were concluded, and the open time was recorded. Isothermal calorimetry tests were conducted to obtain the initial heat release and reactivity of the supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). Results showed a strong correlation (R2 = 0.93) between UPV and initial heat release, indicating that early hydration (ettringite formation) influenced UPV and determined printability across different mixes. No correlation was observed between the other tests and hydration kinetics. UPV demonstrated potential as a real-time monitoring tool, provided the mix-specific pulse velocity is established beforehand. Further research is needed to evaluate UPV performance during active printing when there is an active flow through the printer. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on the Performance of Traditional, New and Potential Building Materials: 2nd Edition)
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29 pages, 3759 KB  
Article
Enhancing Asset Management: Rapid Seismic Assessment of Heterogeneous Portfolios
by Marco Gaspari, Margherita Fabris, Elisa Saler, Marco Donà and Francesca da Porto
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2560; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142560 - 20 Jul 2025
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1338
Abstract
The seismic risk assessment of large building stocks is crucial for informed asset management in earthquake-prone regions, providing decision-support for retrofit intervention planning. Many existing methodologies focus on a single structural typology or asset class (e.g., ordinary buildings or industrial facilities), thus limiting [...] Read more.
The seismic risk assessment of large building stocks is crucial for informed asset management in earthquake-prone regions, providing decision-support for retrofit intervention planning. Many existing methodologies focus on a single structural typology or asset class (e.g., ordinary buildings or industrial facilities), thus limiting their applicability to mixed portfolios. This study proposes a comprehensive and adaptable methodology for the seismic assessment of diverse building stocks—a cross-typology approach encompassing masonry, reinforced concrete (r.c.), precast r.c., and steel structures. The approach integrates deficiency-based qualitative evaluations with simplified mechanical models tailored for each building class. Where validated methodologies were unavailable, new assessment tools were developed. The proposed framework was applied to an industrial-oriented building stock comprising 79 structural units at regional scale, demonstrating its capability to identify priority structures for retrofitting interventions. By overcoming the constraints of typology- or asset-specific approaches, this methodology enables a more comprehensive and scalable assessment. This ultimately contributes to effective risk mitigation planning and seismic resilience enhancing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Seismic Resistance and Vulnerability Assessments of Building Structures)
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19 pages, 1942 KB  
Article
Adaptive Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning with Graph Neural Networks for Dynamic Optimization in Sports Buildings
by Sen Chen, Xiaolong Chen, Qian Bao, Hongfeng Zhang and Cora Un In Wong
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2554; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142554 - 20 Jul 2025
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4048
Abstract
The dynamic scheduling optimization of sports facilities faces challenges posed by real-time demand fluctuations and complex interdependencies between facilities. To address the adaptability limitations of traditional centralized approaches, this study proposes a decentralized multi-agent reinforcement learning framework based on graph neural networks (GNNs). [...] Read more.
The dynamic scheduling optimization of sports facilities faces challenges posed by real-time demand fluctuations and complex interdependencies between facilities. To address the adaptability limitations of traditional centralized approaches, this study proposes a decentralized multi-agent reinforcement learning framework based on graph neural networks (GNNs). Experimental results demonstrate that in a simulated environment comprising 12 heterogeneous sports facilities, the proposed method achieves an operational efficiency of 0.89 ± 0.02, representing a 13% improvement over Centralized PPO, while user satisfaction reaches 0.85 ± 0.03, a 9% enhancement. When confronted with a sudden 30% surge in demand, the system recovers in just 90 steps, 33% faster than centralized methods. The GNN attention mechanism successfully captures critical dependencies between facilities, such as the connection weight of 0.32 ± 0.04 between swimming pools and locker rooms. Computational efficiency tests show that the system maintains real-time decision-making capability within 800 ms even when scaled to 50 facilities. These results verify that the method effectively balances decentralized decision-making with global coordination while maintaining low communication overhead (0.09 ± 0.01), offering a scalable and practical solution for resource management in complex built environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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24 pages, 4791 KB  
Article
SeismicV: A Mobile Tool for Assessing the Seismic Vulnerability of Buildings
by Philipe Q. Rodrigues, João C. Pantoja and Humberto Varum
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2541; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142541 - 19 Jul 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1534
Abstract
Rapid visual screening has been used worldwide as the first approach to evaluate the seismic vulnerability of civil structures in a specific area, in order to prioritize buildings based on the need for upgrading or retrofitting. In this work, a novel mobile application [...] Read more.
Rapid visual screening has been used worldwide as the first approach to evaluate the seismic vulnerability of civil structures in a specific area, in order to prioritize buildings based on the need for upgrading or retrofitting. In this work, a novel mobile application tool for the rapid visual screening of reinforced concrete buildings is presented and discussed. The herein suggested “SeismicV” tool performs a pre-seismic visual screening based on the Japanese guidelines for the seismic evaluation of existing RC buildings. A preliminary seismic vulnerability assessment of a complex modern building situated in the capital of Brazil, Brasilia, was carried out using this mobile app. The data were collected from in situ and based on some data from plants and documents. The SeismicV tool consists of an effective, user-friendly, and straightforward mobile application. Since the methodology is based on a performance score that is compared to the seismic demand, this application design allows for the knowledge of intermediate indices at each step of the evaluation, including dominant variables such as structural irregularity, building age, ground index, and usage index. Although the application was conceived and applied to heritage buildings in the early stages, it can be employed for other complex structures. The findings highlight that utilizing SeismicV to assess the seismic vulnerability of complex buildings through the rapid visual screening method offers significant benefits, including faster evaluations, increased accuracy, and improved accessibility for field assessments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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40 pages, 3297 KB  
Systematic Review
Decision Making and Decision Support During the Design of Healthcare Facilities: A Systematic Review
by Alice B. Mastrangelo Gittler and Sarah S. Lam
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2474; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142474 - 15 Jul 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5187
Abstract
Iterative decision making is deeply embedded in the design process of healthcare facilities. A significant body of literature and practices, most notably Evidence-based Design, explicitly seeks to better inform decisions as a key pathway to achieving improved outcomes. The objective of this systematic [...] Read more.
Iterative decision making is deeply embedded in the design process of healthcare facilities. A significant body of literature and practices, most notably Evidence-based Design, explicitly seeks to better inform decisions as a key pathway to achieving improved outcomes. The objective of this systematic review is to explore multiple dimensions of decision making in the healthcare design literature, including interprofessional stakeholder engagement, decision flow elements, and multidisciplinary methodologies aimed at improving decision quality during healthcare facility design processes. This review offers a comprehensive review of 114 papers from the Web of Science, CINAHL, MEDLINE, and Art and Architecture Source. Decisions made during healthcare facility design processes are characterized as complex, highly interdependent, and difficult to reverse with significant implications for human and operational outcomes. The published literature emphasizes decision support generated from ex ante or ex post research. Despite numerous references to the importance of decision making, there are considerable gaps in the study of interprofessional group decision-making dynamics. The adoption and application of decision analysis tools and integrated decision flows are emerging. This review synthesizes current perspectives and methods aimed at improving decision making during the design of healthcare facilities and proposes a potential framework for future investigations of design decision quality. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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18 pages, 2030 KB  
Article
Quantifying Three-Dimensional Street Network Orientation Entropy in Chongqing, China: Implications for Urban Spatial Order and Environmental Perception
by Hao Rao, Leyao Chen and Cui Liu
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2460; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142460 - 14 Jul 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1399
Abstract
Orientation entropy serves as a critical metric for assessing the directional disorder of urban street networks. However, conventional two-dimensional (2D) approaches neglect vertical variations, limiting their applicability in cities with complex terrains. This study proposes a three-dimensional (3D) orientation entropy framework by integrating [...] Read more.
Orientation entropy serves as a critical metric for assessing the directional disorder of urban street networks. However, conventional two-dimensional (2D) approaches neglect vertical variations, limiting their applicability in cities with complex terrains. This study proposes a three-dimensional (3D) orientation entropy framework by integrating elevation data, providing a more comprehensive assessment of urban spatial complexity. We developed a computational workflow combining ArcGIS 10.8 for spatial data extraction and Python 3.10.10 for entropy calculation. A case study in Chongqing, China, explores the relationship between 3D orientation entropy and residents’ perceptions of spatial disorder through a small-scale survey. Although no statistically significant correlation was observed, the findings suggest emerging patterns and underscore the necessity of multidimensional frameworks in evaluating urban spatial experience. This research contributes a novel metric to urban design assessment, particularly in topographically diverse environments, and offers a foundation for future empirical studies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Wellbeing: The Impact of Spatial Parameters—2nd Edition)
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17 pages, 3867 KB  
Article
A Case-Study-Based Comparative Analysis of Using Prefabricated Structures in Industrial Buildings
by Abdelhadi Salih, Cynthia Changxin Wang, Rui Tian and Mohammad Mojtahedi
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2416; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142416 - 10 Jul 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5284
Abstract
Construction costs have increased significantly since the COVID-19 pandemic due to supply chain disruption, labour shortages, and construction material price hikes. The market is increasingly demanding innovative construction methods that can save construction costs, reduce construction time, and minimise waste and carbon emission. [...] Read more.
Construction costs have increased significantly since the COVID-19 pandemic due to supply chain disruption, labour shortages, and construction material price hikes. The market is increasingly demanding innovative construction methods that can save construction costs, reduce construction time, and minimise waste and carbon emission. The prefabrication system has been used for years in industrial construction, resulting in better performance in regard to structure stability, the control of wastage, and the optimisation of construction time and cost. In addition, prefabrication has had a positive contribution on resource utilisation in the construction industry. There are various types of prefabricated wall systems. However, the majority of comparative studies have focused on comparing each prefabrication wall system against the conventional construction system, while limited research has been conducted to compare different prefabrication structures. This study examined four prominent prefabricated wall systems, i.e., precast walls, tilt-up walls, prefabricated steel-frame walls, and on-site-cut steel-frame walls, to determine which one is more suitable for the construction of industrial buildings to minimise cost, time delay, and labourer utilisation on construction sites, as well as to enhance structure durability, construction efficiency, and sustainability. One primary case project and five additional projects were included in this study. For the primary case project, data were collected and analysed; for example, a subcontractor cost comparison for supply and installation was conducted, and shop drawings, construction procedures, timelines, and site photos were collected. For the additional five projects, the overall cost data were compared. The main research finding of this study is that factory-made precast walls and tilt-up wall panels require similar construction time. However, on average, tilt-up prefabrication construction can reduce the cost by around 23.55%. It was also found that prefabricated frame walls provide cost and time savings of around 39% and 10.5%, respectively. These findings can provide architects, developers, builders, suppliers, regulators, and other stakeholders with a comprehensive insight into selecting a method of wall construction that can achieve greater efficiency, cost savings, and environmental sustainability in the construction of industrial and commercial buildings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Buildings for the 21st Century)
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38 pages, 2791 KB  
Review
Digital Platforms for the Built Environment: A Systematic Review Across Sectors and Scales
by Michele Berlato, Leonardo Binni, Dilan Durmus, Chiara Gatto, Letizia Giusti, Alessia Massari, Beatrice Maria Toldo, Stefano Cascone and Claudio Mirarchi
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2432; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142432 - 10 Jul 2025
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 7682
Abstract
The digital transformation of the Architecture, Engineering and Construction sector is accelerating the adoption of digital platforms as critical enablers of data integration, stakeholder collaboration and process optimization. This paper presents a systematic review of 125 peer-reviewed journal articles (2015–2025), selected through a [...] Read more.
The digital transformation of the Architecture, Engineering and Construction sector is accelerating the adoption of digital platforms as critical enablers of data integration, stakeholder collaboration and process optimization. This paper presents a systematic review of 125 peer-reviewed journal articles (2015–2025), selected through a PRISMA-guided search using the Scopus database, with inclusion criteria focused on English-language academic literature on platform-enabled digitalization in the built environment. Studies were grouped into six thematic domains, i.e., artificial intelligence in construction, digital twin integration, lifecycle cost management, BIM-GIS for underground utilities, energy systems and public administration, based on a combination of literature precedent and domain relevance. Unlike existing reviews focused on single technologies or sectors, this work offers a cross-sectoral synthesis, highlighting shared challenges and opportunities across disciplines and lifecycle stages. It identifies the functional roles, enabling technologies and systemic barriers affecting digital platform adoption, such as fragmented data sources, limited interoperability between systems and siloed organizational processes. These barriers hinder the development of integrated and adaptive digital ecosystems capable of supporting real-time decision-making, participatory planning and sustainable infrastructure management. The study advocates for modular, human-centered platforms underpinned by standardized ontologies, explainable AI and participatory governance models. It also highlights the importance of emerging technologies, including large language models and federated learning, as well as context-specific platform strategies, especially for applications in the Global South. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)
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20 pages, 3929 KB  
Review
Integration of Lean Construction and BIM in Sustainable Built Environment: A Review and Future Research Directions
by Yingnan Yang, Chunxiao Chen, Xin Liu and Zhicheng Zhang
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2411; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142411 - 9 Jul 2025
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 7426
Abstract
Despite growing interest in integrating Lean Construction (LC) and Building Information Modeling (BIM) to advance sustainability in the Architecture, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) industry, research remains fragmented and lacks a unified implementation framework. This study bridges this gap by conducting a systematic literature [...] Read more.
Despite growing interest in integrating Lean Construction (LC) and Building Information Modeling (BIM) to advance sustainability in the Architecture, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) industry, research remains fragmented and lacks a unified implementation framework. This study bridges this gap by conducting a systematic literature review (2010–2024) of 96 journal articles to (1) analyze research trends in BIM-LC integration; (2) evaluate its benefits for sustainable built environments; and (3) identify barriers to adoption. A key contribution is the development of a novel four-dimensional BIM-LC integration framework, encompassing information integration, supply chain management, waste management, and life cycle management, which synergizes LC principles with BIM’s technical capabilities to reduce waste, enhance resource efficiency, and support carbon neutrality goals. The findings reveal that while BIM-LC integration significantly improves construction productivity and reduces environmental impacts, technical challenges in data interoperability and fragmented lifecycle management persist. Actionable solutions are further proposed, including semantic model standardization, AI-driven supply chain resilience, and circular economy integration. This framework provides both scholars and practitioners with a roadmap to advance BIM-LC adoption for sustainable construction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Project Development and Construction Management—2nd Edition)
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22 pages, 3183 KB  
Article
Surrogate Modeling for Building Design: Energy and Cost Prediction Compared to Simulation-Based Methods
by Navid Shirzadi, Dominic Lau and Meli Stylianou
Buildings 2025, 15(13), 2361; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15132361 - 5 Jul 2025
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 6319
Abstract
Designing energy-efficient buildings is essential for reducing global energy consumption and carbon emissions. However, traditional physics-based simulation models require substantial computational resources, detailed input data, and domain expertise. To address these limitations, this study investigates the use of three machine learning-based surrogate models—Random [...] Read more.
Designing energy-efficient buildings is essential for reducing global energy consumption and carbon emissions. However, traditional physics-based simulation models require substantial computational resources, detailed input data, and domain expertise. To address these limitations, this study investigates the use of three machine learning-based surrogate models—Random Forest (RF), Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost), and Multilayer Perceptron (MLP)—trained on a synthetic dataset of 2000 EnergyPlus-simulated building design scenarios to predict both energy use intensity (EUI) and cost estimates for midrise apartment buildings in the Toronto area. All three models exhibit strong predictive performance, with R2 values exceeding 0.9 for both EUI and cost. XGBoost achieves the best performance in cost prediction on the testing dataset with a root mean squared error (RMSE) of 5.13 CAD/m2, while MLP outperforms others in EUI prediction with a testing RMSE of 0.002 GJ/m2. In terms of computational efficiency, the surrogate models significantly outperform a physics-based simulation model, with MLP running approximately 340 times faster and XGBoost and RF achieving over 200 times speedup. This study also examines the effect of training dataset size on model performance, identifying a point of diminishing returns where further increases in data size yield minimal accuracy gains but substantially higher training times. To enhance model interpretability, SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) analysis is used to quantify feature importance, revealing how different model types prioritize design parameters. A parametric design configuration analysis further evaluates the models’ sensitivity to changes in building envelope features. Overall, the findings demonstrate that machine learning-based surrogate models can serve as fast, accurate, and interpretable alternatives to traditional simulation methods, supporting efficient decision-making during early-stage building design. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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24 pages, 4336 KB  
Article
Mechanical Performance of Fiber-Reinforced Cement Mortars: A Comparative Study on the Effect of Synthetic and Natural Fibers
by A. Arvizu-Montes, Oswaldo Guerrero-Bustamante, Rodrigo Polo-Mendoza and M. J. Martinez-Echevarria
Buildings 2025, 15(13), 2352; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15132352 - 4 Jul 2025
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4527
Abstract
The incorporation of fibers in cement-based materials has gained attention in the construction sector in recent decades, aiming to improve the mechanical performance of composites. This present work evaluates the influence of synthetic and natural fibers as reinforcements in cement mortars, analyzing their [...] Read more.
The incorporation of fibers in cement-based materials has gained attention in the construction sector in recent decades, aiming to improve the mechanical performance of composites. This present work evaluates the influence of synthetic and natural fibers as reinforcements in cement mortars, analyzing their effects on both physical and mechanical properties through destructive and non-destructive testing. Polypropylene fibers (PPFs) were considered synthetic reinforcement, whereas alfa fibers (AFs) were selected as a sustainable alternative. Compressive strength, flexural strength and Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) were conducted to assess mechanical behavior and material integrity as well as density, water absorption and voids content. Additionally, a statistical approach was performed to compare the properties of both types of fibers and determine their significance in improving mortar properties. The results indicate that both PPFs and AFs significantly improve the flexural strength and promote a ductile failure mode without compromising workability. Moreover, UPV measurements suggest that fiber incorporation does not adversely impair the internal homogeneity of the material. The results obtained confirm the effectiveness of fiber reinforcement, offering valuable insights regarding the potential of AF as a strong candidate for sustainable building purposes and practical applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Advances in Optimized Concrete Mix Design: Assessing Physical Properties, Mechanical Performance and Long-Term Durability)
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19 pages, 4862 KB  
Article
Fire Resistance of Steel Beams with Intumescent Coating Exposed to Fire Using ANSYS and Machine Learning
by Igor Džolev, Sofija Kekez-Baran and Andrija Rašeta
Buildings 2025, 15(13), 2334; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15132334 - 3 Jul 2025
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2547
Abstract
The thermal conductivity of steel is high compared to other materials such as concrete or timber. Therefore, fire protection measures are applied to prolong the duration between the onset of fire exposure and the final loss of load-bearing function of a steel structure. [...] Read more.
The thermal conductivity of steel is high compared to other materials such as concrete or timber. Therefore, fire protection measures are applied to prolong the duration between the onset of fire exposure and the final loss of load-bearing function of a steel structure. The most common passive fire protection measure is the application of intumescent coating (IC), a thin film that expands at elevated temperatures and forms an insulating char layer of lower thermal conductivity. This paper focuses on structural steel beams with IPE open-section profiles protected by a water-based IC and subjected to static and standard fire loading. ANSYS 16.0 is used to simulate heat transfer, with thermal conductivity function described by standard multivariate linear regression analysis, followed by mechanical analysis considering degradation of material mechanical properties at elevated temperatures. Simulations are conducted for all IPE profile sizes, with varying initial degrees of utilisation, beam lengths, and coating thicknesses. Results indicated fire resistance times ranging from 24 to 53.5 min, demonstrating a relatively good level of fire resistance even with the minimal IC thickness. Furthermore, artificial neural networks were developed to predict the fire resistance time of steel members with IC using varying numbers of hidden neurons and subset ratios. The model achieved a predictability level of 99.9% upon evaluation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Analysis and Design for Steel Structure Stability)
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21 pages, 770 KB  
Article
Unraveling Tourist Behavioral Intentions in Historic Urban Built Environment: The Mediating Role of Perceived Value via SOR Model in Macau’s Heritage Sites
by Jiaxing Liu, Yongchao Zhu, Jing Liu and Pohsun Wang
Buildings 2025, 15(13), 2316; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15132316 - 1 Jul 2025
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4207
Abstract
In response to growing concerns about overtourism and the need for sustainable heritage tourism, this study investigates how external environmental stimuli affect tourists’ perceived value and behavioral intentions in historic urban environments. Using the Stimulus–Organism–Response (SOR) model as the theoretical framework, and based [...] Read more.
In response to growing concerns about overtourism and the need for sustainable heritage tourism, this study investigates how external environmental stimuli affect tourists’ perceived value and behavioral intentions in historic urban environments. Using the Stimulus–Organism–Response (SOR) model as the theoretical framework, and based on 275 valid questionnaires collected from five major sites in the Historic Center of Macau, this study explores the direct and indirect relationships among four types of environmental stimuli (physical factors, social activities, environmental atmosphere, and information and services), perceived value, and behavioral intentions. The results of structural equation modeling (SEM) indicate that all four stimuli significantly influence perceived value and behavioral intentions. Among them, physical factors exert the strongest influence on perceived value (β = 0.291, p < 0.001), while social activities are the most influential predictor of behavioral intentions (β = 0.225, p < 0.01). Perceived value plays a significant mediating role in all relationships, with the largest mediation effect found in the path from physical factors to behavioral intentions (27.99%), followed by environmental atmosphere (24.80%), information and services (22.62%), and social activities (11.66%). These findings validate the applicability of the SOR model in heritage tourism contexts and highlight the central role of perceived value in shaping tourist behavior. Theoretically, this study advances our understanding of how multidimensional environmental stimuli contribute to value-based decision-making in tourism. Practically, it provides actionable insights for urban planners and heritage managers to design environments that promote deeper engagement and foster sustainable tourist behavior in high-density historic destinations like Macau. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Built Environment and Mobility)
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