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Editor’s Choice Articles

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

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15 pages, 1299 KB  
Article
Leachate Analysis of Biodried MSW: Case Study of the CWMC Marišćina
by Anita Ptiček Siročić, Dragana Dogančić, Igor Petrović and Nikola Hrnčić
Processes 2026, 14(1), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14010141 - 31 Dec 2025
Viewed by 367
Abstract
A major factor in worldwide ecological harm is the large quantity of municipal solid waste generated because of rapid industrialization and population growth. Nowadays, there are numerous mechanical, biological, and thermal waste treatment processes that can reduce the amount of landfilled waste. A [...] Read more.
A major factor in worldwide ecological harm is the large quantity of municipal solid waste generated because of rapid industrialization and population growth. Nowadays, there are numerous mechanical, biological, and thermal waste treatment processes that can reduce the amount of landfilled waste. A variety of analytical tests are conducted to evaluate the potential risks that landfills pose to human health and the environment. Among these, laboratory leaching tests are commonly employed to assess the release of specific waste constituents that may become hazardous to the environment. Municipal solid waste (MSW) management poses significant environmental risks due to leachate contamination in bioreactor landfills, where acidic conditions (pH ≈ 5) can mobilize heavy metals. This study evaluates the reliability of leaching tests for biodried reject MSW from CWMC Marišćina, Croatia, by comparing standard EN 12457-1 and EN 12457-2 methods (L/S = 2 and 10 L/kg) with simulations of aerobic degradation using acetic acid (10 g/L) to maintain pH = 5 over 9 days. Waste composition analysis revealed plastics (35%), paper/cardboard (25%), metals (15%), and glass (10%) as dominant fractions. Although the majority of parameters determined through standard leaching tests remain below the maximum permissible limits for non-hazardous waste, simulations under acidic conditions demonstrated substantial increases in eluate concentrations between days 6 and 9: Hg (+1500%), As (+1322%), Pb (+1330%), Ni (+786%), and Cd (+267%), with TDS rising 33%. These results highlight the underestimation of risks by conventional tests, emphasizing the need for pH-dependent methods to predict in situ leachate behavior in MBO-treated waste and support improved EU landfill regulations for enhanced environmental protection. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations in Solid Waste Treatment and Resource Utilization)
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21 pages, 4404 KB  
Article
Effect of Fluidized Bed Drying on the Physicochemical, Functional, and Morpho-Structural Properties of Starch from Avocado cv. Breda By-Product
by Anna Emanuelle S. Tomé, Yann B. Camilo, Newton Carlos Santos, Priscylla P. D. Rosendo, Elizabeth A. de Oliveira, Jéssica G. Matias, Sinthya K. Q. Morais, Thaisa A. S. Gusmão, Rennan P. de Gusmão, Josivanda P. Gomes and Ana P. T. Rocha
Processes 2026, 14(1), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14010122 - 29 Dec 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 298
Abstract
Fluidized bed drying has been widely applied in the food industry due to its high heat and mass transfer rates. In this study, the impact of drying temperatures (50, 60, 70 and 80 °C) in a fluidized bed on the physicochemical, functional, morpho-structural, [...] Read more.
Fluidized bed drying has been widely applied in the food industry due to its high heat and mass transfer rates. In this study, the impact of drying temperatures (50, 60, 70 and 80 °C) in a fluidized bed on the physicochemical, functional, morpho-structural, and thermal properties of avocado seed starch was evaluated. The process yield for all temperatures ranged from 52.3 to 58.5% (p > 0.05), with a starch content of 59.20–60.9 g/100 g, amylose content of 28.85–31.84 g/100 g, and amylopectin content of 29.13–30.37 g/100 g. Additionally, all samples showed high water, milk, and oil absorption capacity (>90%), low solubility (5.22–8.35%), good flow characteristics, and swelling power greater than 50%. There was also a greater release of water (syneresis) after 168 h of storage, regardless of the drying temperature, which likewise did not influence the texture parameters. The granules had a smooth surface, without cracks or cavities, predominantly oval and partially rounded, being classified as type B. In the FT-IR analysis, no new functional groups were observed, only a reduction in peak intensity with increasing drying temperature. Finally, the thermal properties indicated high conclusion temperatures (>130 °C), with gelatinization enthalpy in the range of 14.18 to 15.49 J/g, reflecting its thermal resistance and structural integrity under heat conditions. These results demonstrated that fluidized bed drying is an alternative technique for drying avocado seed starch pastes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green and Sustainable Food Technologies: Innovations in Processing and Preservation)
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21 pages, 2202 KB  
Article
Correlating Feed Characteristics and Catalyst Properties with Fluid Catalytic Cracking Performance
by Dicho Stratiev, Ivelina Shiskova, Mihail Ivanov, Iliyan Kolev, Veselina Bureva, Simeon Ribagin and Krassimir Atanassov
Processes 2026, 14(1), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14010110 - 28 Dec 2025
Viewed by 425
Abstract
Feedstock quality has been proven to be the single variable that most affects fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) unit performance, but catalyst characteristics have also been reported in the literature to have a considerable effect on cracking process performance. How these two main variables [...] Read more.
Feedstock quality has been proven to be the single variable that most affects fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) unit performance, but catalyst characteristics have also been reported in the literature to have a considerable effect on cracking process performance. How these two main variables of the FCC process complement each other in the search for ways to optimize the performance of the FCC unit is the subject of current research. Twenty-one feedstocks with KW-characterizing factors ranging from 11.08 to 12.06, Conradson carbon contents ranging from 0.05 to 12.8 wt.%, and nitrogen contents ranging from 800 to 3590 ppm (wt/wt) (basic nitrogen from 172 to 1125 ppm (wt/wt)) were cracked on 21 catalysts with micro-activity between 67% and 76% (wt/wt) in a laboratory-based advanced catalytic evaluation (ACE) unit at a reaction temperature of 527 °C, catalyst–to-oil ratios between 3.5 and 12.0 wt/wt, and a catalyst time on stream of 30 s. Some of the feeds and catalysts tested in the laboratory FCC ACE unit were also examined in a commercial short-contact-time FCC unit resembling a UOP side-by-side design. It was found that conversion can be very well predicted in both the laboratory ACE and the commercial FCC units using multiple linear correlations developed in this work from information about the following feed properties: KW-characterizing factor, nitrogen content, and micro-activity of the catalyst. The coke on the catalyst that controls the catalyst-to-oil ratio and the regenerator temperature in the commercial FCC unit could be calculated using the correlations developed in this work for the laboratory ACE and commercial FCC units, based on feed characteristics and catalyst micro-activity. Due to the greater slope of the Δ coke/Δ micro-activity dependence observed in the ACE FCC unit, the more active catalysts show weaker results compared to the less active catalysts at a constant coke yield. In contrast, catalysts with higher activity are preferable for operation in the commercial FCC plant because they provide higher conversion at the same coke yield due to the lower slope of the Δ coke/Δ micro-activity relationship. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Catalysis Enhanced Processes)
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29 pages, 10487 KB  
Review
Is Photocatalysis Ready for Scale Yet?
by Isadora Luiza Climaco Cunha, Geovania Cordeiro de Assis, Patricia Metolina, Priscila Hasse Palharim, Carolina de Araújo Gusmão, Luiz Kulay, Antonio Carlos Silva Costa Teixeira and Bruno Ramos
Processes 2026, 14(1), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14010102 - 27 Dec 2025
Viewed by 474
Abstract
Despite being frequently proposed as a low-carbon solution for wastewater treatment and solar fuel production, the feasibility of photocatalytic processes in large-scale deployments remains unclear. This review evaluates the scalability of photocatalytic technologies by synthesizing a decade (2015–2025) of techno-economic analysis (TEA) and [...] Read more.
Despite being frequently proposed as a low-carbon solution for wastewater treatment and solar fuel production, the feasibility of photocatalytic processes in large-scale deployments remains unclear. This review evaluates the scalability of photocatalytic technologies by synthesizing a decade (2015–2025) of techno-economic analysis (TEA) and life-cycle assessment (LCA) studies. Using a systematic search and programmatic screening, 77 assessment-focused publications were identified from an initial corpus of 854 studies. Across applications, TEA and LCA consistently highlight two dominant barriers to scale-up: high electricity demand in UV-driven systems and significant cradle-to-gate impacts associated with catalyst synthesis, particularly for nanostructured materials. When solar irradiation replaces artificial light, environmental and economic hotspots shift from energy use to material production, catalyst durability, and reuse assumptions. Wide variability in reported costs and impacts reflects heterogeneous methodologies, limited pilot-scale data, and a lack of standardized reporting. Overall, assessment-based evidence indicates that photocatalysis is not yet ready for widespread industrial deployment as a large industrial process. However, continuous advances in solar-driven reactor design, low-impact and circular catalyst synthesis, hybrid process integration, and harmonized TEA/LCA frameworks could substantially improve its prospects for scalable, climate-positive implementation, especially in the context of emerging green energy alternatives. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photocatalytic Water and Wastewater Treatment Processes)
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20 pages, 14815 KB  
Article
CFD-DEM Simulation of Erosion in Glass Fiber-Reinforced Epoxy Resin Elbow
by Lei Xu, Yujie Shen, Xingchen Chen, Shiyi Bao, Xiaoteng Zheng, Xiyong Du and Yongzhi Zhao
Processes 2026, 14(1), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14010094 - 26 Dec 2025
Viewed by 297
Abstract
Erosion wear represents a significant issue in piping systems across energy and chemical industries, particularly in elbows. This study develops a prediction model for erosion wear based on tangential and normal impact energy for elbow tubes fabricated from zinc oxide-modified bidirectional E-glass fiber-reinforced [...] Read more.
Erosion wear represents a significant issue in piping systems across energy and chemical industries, particularly in elbows. This study develops a prediction model for erosion wear based on tangential and normal impact energy for elbow tubes fabricated from zinc oxide-modified bidirectional E-glass fiber-reinforced epoxy resin composites (ZnO-BE-GFRP). Using a combined CFD-DEM approach, the wear characteristics under gas–solid two-phase flow conditions were systematically investigated. The model quantifies the contributions of tangential and normal impact energy to material removal through the specific energy for cutting wear (et) and the specific energy for deformation wear (en), with key parameters calibrated against experimental data from ZnO-BE-GFRP. This study shows that the increase in gas velocity significantly intensifies wear, and the wear area extends towards the middle of the elbow as the gas velocity increases. The 40–45° area of the elbow is a high-risk wear zone due to the concentration of particle kinetic energy and high-frequency collisions. The particle size distribution has a significant impact on wear: as the degree of particle dispersion increases, the wear on the elbow extrados decreases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Discrete Element Method (DEM) and Its Engineering Applications)
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23 pages, 7879 KB  
Article
Modelling the Behaviour of Pollutant Indicators in Activated Carbon Adsorption of Oil and Textile Effluents
by Samia Rabet, Rachida Chemini, Gerhard Schäfer and Farid Aiouache
Processes 2026, 14(1), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14010063 - 24 Dec 2025
Viewed by 420
Abstract
Simulation studies of adsorption in complex effluents are challenging due to nonlinear interactions between sorbents, adsorbates and carrying flows. This study investigates effluents from oil and textile industries, characterised by their heavy metal content and chemical oxygen demand. It examines the process in [...] Read more.
Simulation studies of adsorption in complex effluents are challenging due to nonlinear interactions between sorbents, adsorbates and carrying flows. This study investigates effluents from oil and textile industries, characterised by their heavy metal content and chemical oxygen demand. It examines the process in a continuous-flow laboratory-scale adsorption system. Results were validated using process modelling based on mass and energy conservation, applied to an industrial adsorber. The model described surface sorption mechanisms on bioactivated carbon at the molecular level and predicted breakthrough curve profiles, integrated with Aspen Plus ® adsorption simulation under industrially relevant conditions. Experimental data and model predictions showed good agreement, with relative deviations ranging from 0.2% to 24.6%. Differences in adsorption capacities between oily and textile effluents highlighted the influence of coexisting constituents. At the same time, the varied behaviour of identical components supported the hypothesis of multifactorial effects in complex mixtures. The optimisation study, using Response Surface Methodology with a Central Composite design, evaluated factors such as bed height, feed rate, and adsorption cycle time, achieving enhanced removal efficiencies of 62% for chemical oxygen demand and 25% for suspended solids. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Environmental and Green Processes)
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15 pages, 1067 KB  
Article
Enrichment of Wheat Flour Bread with Pleurotus ostreatus Lyophilizate and Aqueous Extract—Influence on Dough and Bread Quality
by Jana Zahorec, Dragana Šoronja-Simović, Jovana Petrović, Sonja Smole Možina, Anja Klančnik, Jerica Sabotič and Meta Sterniša
Processes 2026, 14(1), 65; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14010065 - 24 Dec 2025
Viewed by 360
Abstract
The use of Pleurotus ostreatus lyophilizate (POL) and hot water extract (POE) as potential functional ingredients for the development of enriched bread was investigated. The effects of POL and POE were examined based on the results of empirical rheological measurements and physical, textural [...] Read more.
The use of Pleurotus ostreatus lyophilizate (POL) and hot water extract (POE) as potential functional ingredients for the development of enriched bread was investigated. The effects of POL and POE were examined based on the results of empirical rheological measurements and physical, textural and sensory analysis of bread. POL was incorporated into dough as a partial substitute for wheat flour (1% and 5%), while POE was added as a replacement for part of the water required to achieve optimal dough consistency (2% and 10%). Inclusion of POL in dough formulation caused dough disintegration: extreme decrease in degree of softening, from 60 FU (control) to 275 FU (POL1) and 290 FU (POL5), and extensographic measurements could not be performed. The specific volume of bread with 10% POL decreased by 46% and the crumb hardness increased approximately four times compared to the control. On the other hand, rheological properties of dough with POE were comparable to control, resulting in minimal impact on physical, textural and sensory characteristics of bread. Both fortifying ingredients positively affected the total phenolic content and antioxidant activity of the bread, with a more pronounced effect observed for POL compared to POE. Additionally, bread enriched with 5% POL had total dietary fiber content of 4.7 g/100 g and could be labeled as a source of fiber. P. ostreatus derivatives show great potential for functional bread development; however, further research is needed to optimize their use and maintain bread quality. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processes in Agri-Food Technology)
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15 pages, 1645 KB  
Article
Decomposition Behavior of Bisphenol A Under Subcritical Water Conditions: A Response Surface Methodology Approach
by Mihael Irgolič, Maja Čolnik and Mojca Škerget
Processes 2026, 14(1), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14010053 - 23 Dec 2025
Viewed by 443
Abstract
The degradation of bisphenol A (BPA), the main monomer of polycarbonate, was investigated under subcritical water conditions to better understand its decomposition as a function of process conditions and to provide useful data for designing a recycling process to convert polycarbonate into valuable [...] Read more.
The degradation of bisphenol A (BPA), the main monomer of polycarbonate, was investigated under subcritical water conditions to better understand its decomposition as a function of process conditions and to provide useful data for designing a recycling process to convert polycarbonate into valuable products. Hydrothermal experiments were conducted in a batch reactor at temperatures ranging from 250 to 350 °C, with reaction times from 5 to 30 min and water-to-material ratios of 5, 10, and 15 (mL/g), following a Box–Behnken design with response surface methodology (RSM). The influence of process parameters on phase distribution, total carbon content, and product composition was evaluated. The results showed that temperature and reaction time were the most significant factors affecting BPA decomposition, while the water-to-material ratio had a minor effect. The recovery of the DEE (diethyl ether)-soluble phase decreased with increasing temperature and time, accompanied by a corresponding increase in the water-soluble phase yield and total carbon content. Analysis of the DEE-soluble fraction revealed the sequential transformation of BPA into 4-isopropenylphenol, 4-isopropylphenol, and phenol, with phenol becoming the dominant degradation product at higher temperatures. These findings provide new insights into the hydrothermal decomposition mechanism of BPA and form a basis for understanding polycarbonate degradation and developing sustainable subcritical water recycling processes for polymeric materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Processes and Systems)
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23 pages, 2041 KB  
Review
From Industrial Symbiosis to Carbon-Hydrogen-Oxygen Symbiosis Networks: A System-Level Roadmap to 2035
by Hugo Eduardo Medrano-Minet, Francisco Javier López-Flores, Fabricio Nápoles-Rivera, César Ramírez-Márquez and José María Ponce-Ortega
Processes 2026, 14(1), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14010025 - 20 Dec 2025
Viewed by 818
Abstract
The growing pressure to achieve carbon neutrality has exposed major limitations in current industrial processes, which often operate in isolation, rely on simplified mass-balance assumptions, and struggle to manage increasingly complex material and energy flows. Traditional industrial symbiosis and circular economy strategies have [...] Read more.
The growing pressure to achieve carbon neutrality has exposed major limitations in current industrial processes, which often operate in isolation, rely on simplified mass-balance assumptions, and struggle to manage increasingly complex material and energy flows. Traditional industrial symbiosis and circular economy strategies have improved resource efficiency, yet they rarely capture molecular-level interactions or enable coordinated optimization across multiple facilities, restricting their ability to support large-scale decarbonization. In this context, Carbon–Hydrogen–Oxygen Symbiosis Networks (CHOSYNs) have emerged as an advanced framework that integrates atomic-level targeting with multi-scale process systems engineering to identify synergies, valorization pathways, and cross-sector exchanges that conventional approaches overlook. This review consolidates the theoretical foundations, historical development, and recent applications of CHOSYNs, illustrating how it can enhance efficiency, reduce emissions, and strengthen resilience in energy systems, chemical industries, and circular resource management. Although the literature remains limited, existing studies demonstrate the promise of CHOSYNs as a unifying methodology for designing low-carbon industrial ecosystems. Key challenges related to scalability, validation, governance, and operational robustness are examined, and a roadmap is proposed to guide the evolution and practical deployment of CHOSYNs toward 2035. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Simulation and Control in Energy Systems—2nd Edition)
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20 pages, 3579 KB  
Article
Green Synthesis of Silver Particles Using Pecan Nutshell Extract: Development and Antioxidant Characterization of Zein/Pectin Active Films
by Karla Hazel Ozuna-Valencia, Carlos Gregorio Barreras-Urbina, José Agustín Tapia-Hernández, María de Jesús Moreno-Vásquez, Abril Zoraida Graciano-Verdugo, Miguel Ángel Robles-García, Idania Emedith Quintero-Reyes and Francisco Rodríguez-Félix
Processes 2026, 14(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14010004 - 19 Dec 2025
Viewed by 392
Abstract
(1) Background: The replacement of petroleum-based plastics with sustainable biopolymer films is crucial for global food preservation. Biopolymers like zein and pectin offer biodegradable and compostable alternatives but often require functionalization. This study develops and characterizes a novel antioxidant film by incorporating silver [...] Read more.
(1) Background: The replacement of petroleum-based plastics with sustainable biopolymer films is crucial for global food preservation. Biopolymers like zein and pectin offer biodegradable and compostable alternatives but often require functionalization. This study develops and characterizes a novel antioxidant film by incorporating silver microparticles (AgMp) derived from the valorization of an agricultural waste product: pecan nutshell extract. (2) Methods: AgMp were synthesized via green reduction method using the extract. These bioactive microparticles were subsequently incorporated into a zein/pectin polymeric solution using the solvent-casting technique. The particles and the active films were characterized using FTIR, SEM, and antioxidant assays (ABTS, DPPH, and FRAP). (3) Results: The extract and AgMp exhibited a potent antioxidant activity (100% inhibition for ABTS/DPPH). SEM analysis confirmed the scale of 0.545–1.033 µm, classifying the material as microparticles. The final films retained a dose-dependent antioxidant activity (66.78% for ABTS and 53.67% for DPPH). (4) Conclusions: This work validates that pecan nutshell extract as an effective green reducing and capping agent. The resulting film possesses significant antioxidant activity, offering a promising alternative for active food packaging applications, such as bioactive pads or inserts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technology for Food Engineering and Bioactive Compound Characterization)
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42 pages, 5456 KB  
Review
Advances in Graphene Oxide-Based Composites and Membranes: Structural Engineering, Multifunctional Performance, and Emerging Applications
by Duska Kleut and Jovana Prekodravac Filipovic
Processes 2026, 14(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14010013 - 19 Dec 2025
Viewed by 796
Abstract
Graphene oxide (GO), with its high surface area, tunable chemistry, and exceptional mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties, is rapidly advancing as a transformative material in both composite engineering and membrane technology. In composite systems, GO serves as a multifunctional reinforcement, significantly improving strength, [...] Read more.
Graphene oxide (GO), with its high surface area, tunable chemistry, and exceptional mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties, is rapidly advancing as a transformative material in both composite engineering and membrane technology. In composite systems, GO serves as a multifunctional reinforcement, significantly improving strength, stiffness, thermal stability, and conductivity when integrated into polymeric, ceramic, or metallic matrices. These enhancements are enabling high-performance solutions across electronics, aerospace, automotive, and construction sectors, where lightweight yet durable materials are in demand. In addition, GO-based membranes are revolutionizing water purification, desalination, and other high-end separation technologies. The layered structure, adjustable interlayer spacing, and abundant oxygen-containing functional groups of GO allow precise control over permeability and selectivity, enabling efficient transport of desired molecules while blocking contaminants. Tailoring GO morphology and surface chemistry offers a pathway to optimized membrane performance for both industrial and environmental applications. This paper gives a comprehensive overview of the latest developments in GO-based composites and membranes, highlighting the interplay between structure, morphology, and functionality. Future research directions toward scalable fabrication, performance optimization, and integration into sustainable technologies are discussed, underscoring GO’s pivotal role in shaping next-generation advanced materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Graphene Oxide: From Synthesis to Applications)
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17 pages, 1569 KB  
Article
Techno-Economic Assessment of Hydrogen and CO2 Recovery from Broccoli Waste via Dark Fermentation and Biorefinery Modeling
by Carlos Eduardo Molina-Guerrero, Idania Valdez-Vazquez, Arquímedes Cruz López, José de Jesús Ibarra-Sánchez and Luis Carlos Barrientos Álvarez
Processes 2025, 13(12), 4083; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13124083 - 18 Dec 2025
Viewed by 455
Abstract
Broccoli waste (Brassica oleracea), comprising non-commercialized stems and leaves, represents a valuable substrate for bioenergy and commodity recovery within agro-industrial systems. This study evaluates the potential of dark fermentation (DF) to produce hydrogen (H2) and carbon dioxide (CO2 [...] Read more.
Broccoli waste (Brassica oleracea), comprising non-commercialized stems and leaves, represents a valuable substrate for bioenergy and commodity recovery within agro-industrial systems. This study evaluates the potential of dark fermentation (DF) to produce hydrogen (H2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) from unpretreated broccoli residues. Batch experiments (120 mL) yielded maximum gas production rates of up to 166 mL/L·d, with final compositions of 41.43 mol% and 58.56 mol% of H2 and CO2, respectively. Based on these results, two biorefinery models were simulated using COCO v3.10 and SuperPro Designer® v12.0, incorporating absorption and cryogenic separation technologies in the purification stage. Two scenarios were considered: Option A (169.82 kmol/day; H2: 0.5856 mol fraction, CO2: 0.4143 mol fraction) and Option B (72.84 kmol/day; H2: 0.6808 mol fraction, CO2: 0.3092 mol fraction). In both configurations, the purities of the final streams were the same, being 99.8% and 99.8% for both H2 and CO2, respectively. However, energy consumption was 43.76% higher in the cryogenic H2/CO2 separation system than in the absorption system. Noteworthily, this difference does not depend on the stream’s composition. Furthermore, from a financial standpoint, the cryogenic system is more expensive than the absorption system. These findings confirm the feasibility of designing biorefineries for H2 production with high CO2 recovery from broccoli waste. However, the economic viability of the process depends on the valorization of the secondary effluent from the fermentation reactor, which may require subsequent anaerobic digestion stages to complete the degradation of residual organic matter and enhance overall resource recovery. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery Applications)
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17 pages, 1227 KB  
Article
Enhancing the Biorefinery of Chestnut Burrs, Part II: Influence of Pretreatment with Choline Chloride–Urea-Diluted Deep Eutectic Solvent on Enzymatic Hydrolysis
by Iván Costa-Trigo, María Guadalupe Morán-Aguilar, Nelson Pérez Guerra, Ricardo Pinheiro de Souza Oliveira and José Manuel Domínguez
Processes 2025, 13(12), 4090; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13124090 - 18 Dec 2025
Viewed by 457
Abstract
Agro-industrial chestnut waste derived from chestnut processing is usually discharged without further use. However, these residues are attractive due to their high-value composition, rich in sugars and lignin. Among these residues, chestnut burrs (CB) represent a promising feedstock for biorefinery applications aimed at [...] Read more.
Agro-industrial chestnut waste derived from chestnut processing is usually discharged without further use. However, these residues are attractive due to their high-value composition, rich in sugars and lignin. Among these residues, chestnut burrs (CB) represent a promising feedstock for biorefinery applications aimed at maximizing the valorization of their main constituents. In this study, we propose an environmentally friendly approach based on deep eutectic solvents (DES) formed by choline chloride and urea (ChCl/U) (1:2, mol/mol) for the selective deconstruction of lignocellulosic architecture, followed by enzymatic hydrolysis to release second-generation (2G) fermentable sugars. Pretreatments were applied to raw CB, washed CB (W-CB), and the obtained solid fraction after prehydrolysis (PreH). Structural and morphological modifications, as well as crystallinity induced by DES pretreatment, were characterized using attenuated total reflectance Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Remarkable results in terms of effectiveness and environmental friendliness on saccharification yields were achieved for PreH subjected to DES treatment for 8 h, reaching approximately 60% glucan and 74% xylan conversion under the lower enzyme loading (23 FPU/g) and liquid-to-solid ratio (LSR) of 20:1 studied. This performance significantly reduces DES pretreatment time from 16 h to 8 h at mild conditions (100 °C), lowers the LSR for enzymatic hydrolysis from 30:1 to 20:1, and decreases enzyme loading from 63.5 FPU/g to 23 FPU/g, therefore improving process efficiency and sustainability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Green Extraction and Separation Processes)
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12 pages, 2737 KB  
Article
Polymer Solar Cells Using Au-Incorporated V2Ox as the Hole Transport Layer
by Yu-Shyan Lin and Shiun-Ming Shiu
Processes 2025, 13(12), 4070; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13124070 - 17 Dec 2025
Viewed by 294
Abstract
This study investigates the feasibility of adding gold nanoparticles (Au-NPs) to vanadium oxide (V2Ox) serving the hole transport layer (HTL) material oin polymer solar cells to enhance cell performance. The first part of this study used Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) as [...] Read more.
This study investigates the feasibility of adding gold nanoparticles (Au-NPs) to vanadium oxide (V2Ox) serving the hole transport layer (HTL) material oin polymer solar cells to enhance cell performance. The first part of this study used Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) as a baseline and optimized the parameters of this HTL material. Then, the V2Ox was substituted as the HTL material, and its parameters were optimized again. The second part involved incorporating an aqueous solution of gold nanoparticles (Au-NPs) with an average particle size of approximately 80 nm into V2Ox. Due to the excitation of localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) by Au-NPs, the addition of Au-NPs to the V2Ox layer can enhance the absorption efficiency of the P3HT:PCBM blended film. Therefore, compared with V2Ox alone, the solar cells with Au-NPs incorporated into the V2O5 hole transport layer demonstrate improved power conversion efficiency (PCE). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Characterization of Advanced Polymer Nanocomposites)
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16 pages, 1280 KB  
Article
Solubility Prediction in N2O + Ionic Liquid Systems Using Artificial Neural Networks Including Thermodynamically Consistent Data
by Elías N. Fierro, Ariana S. Muñoz, Patricio I. Cerda and Claudio A. Faúndez
Processes 2025, 13(12), 4072; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13124072 - 17 Dec 2025
Viewed by 325
Abstract
The solubilities of 498 datasets of N2O and ionic liquid systems were predicted using a multilayer perceptron. The data used to train the artificial neural network was subjected to the Gibbs–Duhem test to analyze their thermodynamic consistency. The Peng–Robinson cubic equation [...] Read more.
The solubilities of 498 datasets of N2O and ionic liquid systems were predicted using a multilayer perceptron. The data used to train the artificial neural network was subjected to the Gibbs–Duhem test to analyze their thermodynamic consistency. The Peng–Robinson cubic equation of state, combined with the Kwak–Mansoori mixing rule, was used as the thermodynamic model to implement the test. The analysis indicated that 71.9% of the data were declared thermodynamically inconsistent. The ability of artificial neural networks (ANNs) to predict the solubility of these systems using experimental datasets that do not satisfy the thermodynamic consistency criteria based on the Gibbs–Duhem equation was studied. The multilayer perceptron model achieved an average absolute deviation of 1.81% and a maximum individual deviation of 7.56%. These results highlight the potential of ANNs as robust predictive tools even when the available data do not fully satisfy thermodynamic consistency criteria. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Artificial Intelligence Technologies in Energy, Manufacturing and Automatic Control Processes)
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32 pages, 2656 KB  
Review
Graphene Oxide-Based Materials for the Remediation of Neurotoxic Organophosphates
by Vladan Anićijević, Tatjana Mitrović, Tamara Terzić and Tamara Lazarević-Pašti
Processes 2025, 13(12), 4028; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13124028 - 12 Dec 2025
Viewed by 671
Abstract
Graphene oxide (GO), with its unique surface chemistry, adjustable oxidation degree, and large specific surface area, has emerged as a highly promising platform for environmental remediation. Among hazardous contaminants, organophosphates pose a significant global concern due to their persistence, high toxicity, and widespread [...] Read more.
Graphene oxide (GO), with its unique surface chemistry, adjustable oxidation degree, and large specific surface area, has emerged as a highly promising platform for environmental remediation. Among hazardous contaminants, organophosphates pose a significant global concern due to their persistence, high toxicity, and widespread presence in aquatic systems. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent advances in the synthesis and functionalization of GO and GO-based composites specifically tailored for organophosphate removal. Particular emphasis is placed on strategies that optimize GO surface chemistry, defect engineering, and porosity control, which are critical determinants of adsorption efficiency and selectivity. In addition to its sorptive role, GO’s role in photocatalytic and electrochemical degradation of organophosphates is discussed, demonstrating its multifunctionality as both an adsorbent and a catalytic support. Finally, challenges related to scalability, regeneration, and environmental safety of GO-based systems are examined, along with perspectives for future research aimed at developing sustainable, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly technologies to mitigate the risks associated with neurotoxic organophosphates. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Graphene Oxide: From Synthesis to Applications)
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18 pages, 1071 KB  
Article
Taguchi-Based Optimization of Ultrasound-Assisted Valorization of Coffee Silver Skin for Increasing Phenolic Content: Antioxidant Activity, Physical Properties, and Energy Consumption Assessment
by Yu-Xuan Chen and Mohsen Gavahian
Processes 2025, 13(12), 3957; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13123957 - 7 Dec 2025
Viewed by 526
Abstract
Coffee is among the trendy beverages; however, roasting coffee beans generates by-products such as coffee silver skin (CS). Although CS is rich in phenolic compounds with potential health benefits, there are limited reports on applying advanced optimization approaches combined with emerging food processing [...] Read more.
Coffee is among the trendy beverages; however, roasting coffee beans generates by-products such as coffee silver skin (CS). Although CS is rich in phenolic compounds with potential health benefits, there are limited reports on applying advanced optimization approaches combined with emerging food processing technologies for sustainable valorization of CS. This study aims to optimize the ultrasound extraction process of Taiwanese CS using the L9 (34) orthogonal Taguchi method, aiming at maximizing total phenolic content (TPC) while assessing total and specific energy consumption (TEC and SEC). The antioxidant activity of the extracts was also evaluated in relation to processing variables. Besides, variations in the extracts’ CIE color values and total soluble solids were assessed. Independent parameters were extraction time, sonication amplitude, ethanol concentration, and temperature. According to the results, optimized conditions (1 min, 50% amplitude, 80% ethanol, and 25 °C) yielded a TPC value of 7.45 mg GAE/g CS, with the lowest SEC of 0.0067 kWh/mg GAE/g. Antioxidant analysis showed a range of 0.634–1.283 mg/mL for 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging ability, indicating Taguchi’s effectiveness in improving antioxidant activity. In addition, process optimization reduced TEC and SEC by 23.8 and 41.8%, respectively, contributing to green extraction and sustainable food production in line with sustainable development goals. It was found that selecting optimal parameters is crucial for maximizing the extraction of phenolic and enhancing antioxidant properties, while minimizing energy use. Future chemistry-focused studies can explore the interactions between individual phenolic compounds in CS extracts to further support the optimization of multi-parameter process design. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing Foods: Process Optimization and Quality Assessment, 3rd Edition)
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14 pages, 2460 KB  
Article
Generating Synthetic Data from Real-Time Simulators for Deep Learning Modeling of Machining
by Giambattista Gruosso and Enrico Spateri
Processes 2025, 13(12), 3953; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13123953 - 7 Dec 2025
Viewed by 597
Abstract
Manufacturers of cutting and machining machines face increasing pressure to optimize performance and sustainability while complying with evolving regulations. Traditional machine learning approaches are often limited by biased and repetitive datasets collected during real operations. This article presents a real-time simulation framework for [...] Read more.
Manufacturers of cutting and machining machines face increasing pressure to optimize performance and sustainability while complying with evolving regulations. Traditional machine learning approaches are often limited by biased and repetitive datasets collected during real operations. This article presents a real-time simulation framework for generating large synthetic datasets to train predictive machining models. A mechanistic model with probabilistic parameters is validated on experimental data and integrated into the simulator, enabling neural networks to predict process metrics such as vibrations, cutting forces, and product quality prior to machining. The framework further supports large-scale optimal control by testing setpoint control strategies for virtual prototyping. This approach allows manufacturers to enhance efficiency, reduce waste, and improve product quality while minimizing operational risks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Machine Learning, Control, and Optimization in Manufacturing and Industry 4.0)
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18 pages, 5592 KB  
Article
Development and Optimization of Green Extraction Process of Greek Mountain Tea (Sideritis scardica)
by Maria-Anna Karadendrou, Anna Karantoni, Ioanna Pitterou, Kyriaki Safari, Georgios Stavropoulos, Andromachi Tzani and Anastasia Detsi
Processes 2025, 13(12), 3945; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13123945 - 6 Dec 2025
Viewed by 563
Abstract
Medicinal and aromatic plants continue to attract attention as rich sources of natural bioactive compounds with potential health benefits. Among them, Greek mountain tea (Sideritis scardica) is widely recognized for its high content of phytochemicals, which have been associated with various [...] Read more.
Medicinal and aromatic plants continue to attract attention as rich sources of natural bioactive compounds with potential health benefits. Among them, Greek mountain tea (Sideritis scardica) is widely recognized for its high content of phytochemicals, which have been associated with various biological activities. In this study, Natural Deep Eutectic Solvents (NADESs) were investigated as a sustainable and efficient alternative to conventional solvents for the extraction of such compounds, aiming to the development of a more efficient extraction process. Six task-specific designed NADESs were prepared and evaluated for their extraction efficiency, based on the Total Phenolic Content (TPC) and Total Flavonoid Content (TFC) of the extract. The most promising NADES, comprising betaine and 1,3-propandeiol, was selected for process optimization using a Box–Behnken design and key extraction parameters were systematically examined to maximize TPC and TFC. The extract obtained under the proposed conditions (S/L = 20 mg/g, 240 min, 40% water as cosolvent) exhibited a TPC and TFC value of 49.2 mgGAE/g and 45.9 mgCAE/g, respectively, approximately two times higher than the values of a hydroethanolic extract, obtained under the same conditions (TPC = 26.6 mgGAE/g, TF = 19.9 mgCAE/g). The optimum extract was further analyzed using HPLC-DAD to determine its phytochemical profile and was compared with the conventional hydroethanolic extract, revealing the role of the selected media on the extracted compounds. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Green Extraction and Separation Processes)
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14 pages, 2694 KB  
Article
Removal of Ciprofloxacin from Aqueous Solutions by Waste-Pretreated Ganoderma resinaceum Biomass: Effect of Process Parameters and Kinetic and Equilibrium Studies
by Kristiana Lazarova, Gergana Kirova, Zdravka Velkova, Galena Angelova, Nikolay Zahariev, Ivan Iliev and Velizar Gochev
Processes 2025, 13(12), 3920; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13123920 - 4 Dec 2025
Viewed by 445
Abstract
This study explores the use of the waste-pretreated biomass of the macro-fungus Ganoderma resinaceum as a biosorbent for removing ciprofloxacin from aqueous solutions. Batch experiments were conducted to evaluate the biosorption performance of G. resinaceum under varying conditions. Key operational parameters—including pH, biosorbent [...] Read more.
This study explores the use of the waste-pretreated biomass of the macro-fungus Ganoderma resinaceum as a biosorbent for removing ciprofloxacin from aqueous solutions. Batch experiments were conducted to evaluate the biosorption performance of G. resinaceum under varying conditions. Key operational parameters—including pH, biosorbent dosage, contact time, and initial ciprofloxacin concentration—were systematically assessed. Equilibrium was reached within 120 min. Equilibrium data were fitted to both Freundlich and Langmuir isotherm models, with the Langmuir model providing a better fit. Under optimal conditions (initial pH of 7.0, 120-min contact time, 1 g/L biosorbent dosage, and ciprofloxacin concentrations ranging from 4 to 20 mg/L), the maximum biosorption capacity was determined to be 18.4 mg/g. Kinetic analysis revealed that the biosorption process followed a pseudo-second-order model. Furthermore, the biomass was characterized before and after biosorption using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. The FT-IR analysis of G. resinaceum biomass revealed the presence of hydroxyl, amino, and carbonyl functional groups, which play a crucial role in the binding and biosorption of ciprofloxacin molecules. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Bioprocess Technology, 2nd Edition)
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21 pages, 6328 KB  
Article
Modeling of Tar Removal in a Partial Oxidation Burner: Effect of Air Injection on Temperature, Tar Conversion, and Soot Formation
by Yongbin Wang, Guoqiang Cao, Sen Wang, Donghai Hu, Zhongren Ba, Chunyu Li, Jiantao Zhao and Yitian Fang
Processes 2025, 13(12), 3903; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13123903 - 3 Dec 2025
Viewed by 378
Abstract
In this study, a three-dimensional computational fluid dynamic (CFD) model was constructed and validated against experimental data. The oxygen injection methods—specifically the primary air flow and secondary air flow—were investigated. The results demonstrate that primary air flow is the dominant factor in combustion. [...] Read more.
In this study, a three-dimensional computational fluid dynamic (CFD) model was constructed and validated against experimental data. The oxygen injection methods—specifically the primary air flow and secondary air flow—were investigated. The results demonstrate that primary air flow is the dominant factor in combustion. An increase of primary air from an φ of 0.20 to 0.75 lead to a rise in combustion peak temperature from 892.17 K to 1321.02 K, while simultaneously expending the flame combustion zone and enhancing the conversion of C10H8 and CH4. Conversely, increasing the secondary air flow from 1 L/min to 7 L/min reduced the centrally measured temperatures form 886.09 K to 856.07 K due to irregular flow patterns, which expanded the central low-temperature region. While secondary air flow promoted more uniform reactant conversion and slightly suppressed intermediate products (e.g., soot, C6H6), its overall effect was secondary to that of the primary air. This research reveals a critical design insight: using primary air injection to introduce oxygen into the reactor is a reasonable approach. The findings provide valuable guidance for optimizing partial oxidation burner design and operating conditions to maximize tar conversion while maintaining reactor integrity. The study also establishes a rigorously validated CFD framework for analyzing complex reacting flows in tar thermochemical conversion reactors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Pretreatment for Thermochemical Conversion)
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12 pages, 1099 KB  
Article
Protein Level and Particle Size-Dependent Stabilization of Oil-in-Water Emulsions by Sunflower Meal
by Strahinja Vidosavljević, Nikola Maravić, Zita Šereš, Aleksandar Fišteš and Nemanja Bojanić
Processes 2025, 13(12), 3882; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13123882 - 1 Dec 2025
Viewed by 448
Abstract
Sunflower meal represents a protein- and fiber-rich by-product of the oil industry with potential application as a natural stabilizer in food emulsions. Building upon previous findings that emphasized the role of protein content in emulsion stability, the present study further investigated the combined [...] Read more.
Sunflower meal represents a protein- and fiber-rich by-product of the oil industry with potential application as a natural stabilizer in food emulsions. Building upon previous findings that emphasized the role of protein content in emulsion stability, the present study further investigated the combined effect of protein level and particle size distribution of sunflower meal fractions on the formation and stability of oil-in-water emulsions. Two sets of sunflower meal fractions were prepared from finely milled material, fractionated, and blended in controlled proportions to obtain four protein-enriched (30 ± 1%) and four cellulose-rich (15 ± 1%) fractions, each defined by particle size ranges of 250/200, 200/125, 125/100, and <100 µm. Emulsion stability was evaluated through droplet size analysis, zeta potential measurements, and creaming index determination during seven days of storage. The results demonstrated that both protein content and particle size significantly affected the emulsifying and stabilizing behavior of sunflower meal fractions. For the low-protein group (15%), larger particle sizes (250/200 µm) yielded smaller emulsion droplets (D[4.3] = 66.03 µm) and higher zeta potential values (−15.53 mV), while in the high-protein group (30%), droplet size distribution was more uniform (D[4.3] from 72.13 to 76.29 µm). During seven days of storage, all emulsions exhibited a gradual increase in creaming index, followed by partial stabilization at later time points. Emulsions prepared with sunflower meal fractions of higher-protein content showed consistently lower creaming index values, indicating improved physical stability throughout storage. Overall, the study confirmed that the interplay between composition (protein level) and physical structure (particle size) governs the emulsification efficiency of sunflower meal fractions, providing insights for their potential application as plant-based stabilizers in food systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Food Process Engineering)
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17 pages, 1516 KB  
Article
Novel Process Configuration of Photobioreactor and Supercritical Water Oxidation for Energy Production from Microalgae
by Alessandro Cosenza, Serena Lima, Francesca Scargiali, Franco Grisafi and Giuseppe Caputo
Processes 2025, 13(12), 3860; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13123860 - 29 Nov 2025
Viewed by 575
Abstract
This study presents the first comprehensive investigation of direct supercritical water oxidation (SCWO) of microalgae biomass integrated with photobioreactor oxygen recovery for sustainable energy production. Laboratory-scale experiments were conducted on Nannochloropsis gaditana at optimized conditions (650 °C, 24 MPa, 1 min residence time), [...] Read more.
This study presents the first comprehensive investigation of direct supercritical water oxidation (SCWO) of microalgae biomass integrated with photobioreactor oxygen recovery for sustainable energy production. Laboratory-scale experiments were conducted on Nannochloropsis gaditana at optimized conditions (650 °C, 24 MPa, 1 min residence time), achieving extraordinary conversion efficiency of 99.99% at biomass concentrations as low as 0.5 wt%. Process simulation using Aspen Plus demonstrated that this integrated photobioreactor-SCWO system can recover oxygen produced during photosynthesis, reducing compressor energy demands by 10–15% compared to conventional air-fed systems. The coupled system achieved net thermal power outputs of 47–66 kW from a 1 kg/min microalgae feed at 5–10 wt% biomass concentration, corresponding to an overall system thermal efficiency of approximately 18%. CO2 recovery via mono-ethanolamine absorption enabled 70–80% carbon cycle closure, while simultaneous nutrient recycling through the aqueous phase supports sustainable circular economy principles. This coupled photobioreactor-SCWO process represents an efficient pathway for energy recovery from wet microalgae biomass, eliminating the energy-intensive drying requirement (typically 60–70% of conventional processing energy) and achieving complete mineralization of organic compounds. The system demonstrates technical and energetic viability for scaling to pilot demonstration scale. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Supercritical Fluids Technologies: Applications in Energy, Chemistry, and Environment)
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23 pages, 715 KB  
Article
Diffusion Dominated Drug Release from Cylindrical Matrices
by George Kalosakas and Eirini Gontze
Processes 2025, 13(12), 3850; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13123850 - 28 Nov 2025
Viewed by 562
Abstract
Drug delivery from cylindrical tablets of arbitrary dimensions is discussed here, using the analytical solution of diffusion equation. Utilizing dimensionless quantities, we show that the release profiles are determined by a unique parameter, represented by the aspect ratio of the cylindrical formulation. Fractional [...] Read more.
Drug delivery from cylindrical tablets of arbitrary dimensions is discussed here, using the analytical solution of diffusion equation. Utilizing dimensionless quantities, we show that the release profiles are determined by a unique parameter, represented by the aspect ratio of the cylindrical formulation. Fractional release curves are presented for different values of the aspect ratio, covering a range of many orders of magnitude. The corresponding release profiles lie in between the two opposite limits of release from thin slabs and two-dimensional radial release, pertinent to the cases of thin and long cylinders, respectively. In a quest for a part of the delivery process closer to a zero-order release, the release rate is calculated, which is found to exhibit the typical behavior of purely diffusional release systems. Two simple fitting formulae, containing two parameters each, are considered to approximate the infinite series of the exact solution: The stretched exponential (Weibull) function and a recently suggested expression interpolating between the correct time dependencies at the initial and final stages of the process. The latter provides a better fitting in all cases. The variation of the fitting parameters with the aspect ratio of the device is presented for both fitting functions. We also calculate the characteristic release time, which is found to correspond to an amount of fractional release between 64% and around 68% depending on the cylindrical aspect ratio. We discuss how the last quantities can be used to estimate the drug diffusion coefficient from experimental release profiles and apply these ideas to published drug delivery data. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmacokinetic Modeling and Optimal Experimental Design: Applications and Prospects)
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26 pages, 1640 KB  
Review
Towards Sustainable Biopolymer Innovation: A Review of Opuntia ficus-indica Mucilage
by Yusuf O. Mukaila, Jerry O. Adeyemi and Olaniyi A. Fawole
Processes 2025, 13(12), 3837; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13123837 - 27 Nov 2025
Viewed by 1202
Abstract
Natural biopolymers, such as the mucilage of Opuntia ficus-indica (OFI), are gaining attention as sustainable alternatives to synthetic materials due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and functional versatility. Opuntia ficus-indica mucilage, a polysaccharide-rich hydrocolloid extracted from OFI cladodes, has emerged as a promising biomaterial [...] Read more.
Natural biopolymers, such as the mucilage of Opuntia ficus-indica (OFI), are gaining attention as sustainable alternatives to synthetic materials due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and functional versatility. Opuntia ficus-indica mucilage, a polysaccharide-rich hydrocolloid extracted from OFI cladodes, has emerged as a promising biomaterial with diverse applications. In the food sector, its use in edible coatings and films can extend shelf life, reduce moisture loss, and deliver bioactive agents, aligning with eco-friendly packaging initiatives. Its physicochemical properties, including high water-holding capacity, viscosity, thermal stability, and film-forming ability, also support potential uses in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, biomedicine, and environmental remediation. Despite this promise, large-scale adoption is limited by variability in composition, lack of standardized processing, functional inconsistencies, and competition with synthetic polymers. However, the sustainable cultivation of OFI, its resilience under drought, and the possibility of valorizing cladode waste strengthen its profile within circular economy frameworks. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the extraction, properties, and applications of OFI mucilage, while identifying key research gaps and technological challenges. It emphasizes the need for interdisciplinary research and industrial collaboration to overcome barriers and unlock the full potential of OFI mucilage as a high-performance, eco-friendly biopolymer for future applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Polymer Films and Coatings: Preparation, Characterization and Applications)
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18 pages, 1590 KB  
Article
Effects of Organic Acid Catalysts on the Ethanol Organosolv Treatment of Wheat Bran to Produce Ferulate-Enriched Extracts
by Zahida Mahouche, Hela Refai, Spyros Grigorakis and Dimitris P. Makris
Processes 2025, 13(12), 3794; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13123794 - 24 Nov 2025
Viewed by 370
Abstract
Wheat bran (WB) is a major wheat processing byproduct, and it is characterized by significant ferulic acid content and ferulate derivatives, which are biologically important polyphenols. These phytochemicals occur in WB in bound form, and their recovery requires acid- and/or alkali-catalyzed hydrolysis. In [...] Read more.
Wheat bran (WB) is a major wheat processing byproduct, and it is characterized by significant ferulic acid content and ferulate derivatives, which are biologically important polyphenols. These phytochemicals occur in WB in bound form, and their recovery requires acid- and/or alkali-catalyzed hydrolysis. In the work described herein, ethanol organosolv treatment was employed, catalyzed by organic acids (oxalic, citric), to investigate their catalytic potency in releasing ferulates. Sulfuric acid was also included to compare the effects of mild and strong catalysis. Treatment assessment based on severity showed that the yield of total polyphenols was related to the combined severity factor in an exponential manner, while kinetics revealed that increases in temperature resulted in lower recovery rates but higher yields. Response surface optimization suggested 80 °C and 300 min to be the ideal conditions, where both oxalic acid- and sulfuric acid-catalyzed treatments yielded 11.6 mg ferulic acid equivalents per g dry WB weight; citric acid-catalyzed treatment was significantly less efficient (p < 0.05), giving a yield of 9.2 mg ferulic acid equivalents per g dry WB weight. Liquid chromatography–diode array–tandem mass spectrometry analyses showed that both sulfuric acid and oxalic acid catalysis was pivotal in the generation of certain ferulate derivatives, whereas the effect of citric acid was very weak. Some of the major derivatives tentatively identified were ferulate pentose esters and related compounds, in line with earlier findings. The differences in the compositions of the extracts obtained were reflected in their antioxidant properties, where important differentiation was observed. It was concluded that oxalic acid-catalyzed treatment might be an effective replacement for corrosive sulfuric acid in processes that are aimed at harnessing WB as a raw material for the generation of bioactive ferulate derivatives. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Techniques for Extraction and Isolation of Natural Bioactive Compounds)
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18 pages, 1011 KB  
Article
Optimization of Green Extraction of Antioxidant Compounds from Blackthorn Pomace (Prunus spinosa L.) Using Natural Deep Eutectic Solvents (NADES)
by Sara Hourani, Jelena Vukosavljević, Nemanja Teslić, Ružica Ždero Pavlović, Boris M. Popović and Branimir Pavlić
Processes 2025, 13(11), 3737; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13113737 - 19 Nov 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 685
Abstract
Blackthorn (Prunus spinosa L.) is a wild, understudied plant rich in bioactive compounds such as polyphenols with designated antioxidant potential. The main objective of this research was to optimize ultrasound-assisted extraction of blackthorn pomace using natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES). To obtain [...] Read more.
Blackthorn (Prunus spinosa L.) is a wild, understudied plant rich in bioactive compounds such as polyphenols with designated antioxidant potential. The main objective of this research was to optimize ultrasound-assisted extraction of blackthorn pomace using natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES). To obtain the highest yield of polyphenols and improved in vitro antioxidant activity, response surface methodology (RSM) and central composite experimental design were used. The screening step of the study included ten different NADESs using a one-factor-at-a-time approach. Two NADES mixtures (N12, containing proline and lactic acid in a molar ratio of 1:2, and N14, containing choline chloride and glycerol in a molar ratio of 1:1) were chosen for the second step of the study, which aimed to select the most influential process parameters. A fractional factorial 25−1 design was used, varying five different parameters at two levels: extraction time (30 and 60 min), extraction temperature (40 and 50 °C), and liquid-to-solid ratio (10 and 20 mL/g), water content in NADES (15 and 20%), and NADES type (N12 and N14). After the second step, N12 containing 20% water was chosen as the most potent solvent for the optimization study. For the final step, the other three parameters were varied on three levels, and thus optimal conditions were obtained (extraction time 90 min, extraction temperature 65 °C, and liquid-to-solid ratio 22.65 mL/g). Blackthorn juice was also tested in the first step, as well as under optimal conditions established for pomace, in order to evaluate whether these conditions are suitable for juice and to determine the percentage of improvement in extraction efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Green Extraction and Separation Processes)
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30 pages, 9285 KB  
Article
Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Antioxidant Compounds from Pomegranate Peels and Simultaneous Machine Learning Optimization Study
by Martha Mantiniotou, Vassilis Athanasiadis, Konstantinos G. Liakos, Eleni Bozinou and Stavros I. Lalas
Processes 2025, 13(11), 3700; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13113700 - 16 Nov 2025
Viewed by 671
Abstract
The pomegranate, a widely consumed fruit, produces large quantities of waste, mainly from its peel. Pomegranate peels (PPs) contain high amounts of antioxidant compounds, such as polyphenols, flavonoids, and anthocyanins, which can be isolated from them and used for the benefit of humans [...] Read more.
The pomegranate, a widely consumed fruit, produces large quantities of waste, mainly from its peel. Pomegranate peels (PPs) contain high amounts of antioxidant compounds, such as polyphenols, flavonoids, and anthocyanins, which can be isolated from them and used for the benefit of humans and the environment. In the present work, a study of recovery of these compounds by ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) was carried out, whose parameters were optimized. The optimal results were a total polyphenol content of 195.55 mg gallic acid equivalents/g, total flavonoid content of 74.78 mg rutin equivalents/g, total anthocyanin content of 992.87 μg cyanidin 3-O-glucoside equivalents/g, and ascorbic acid content of 15.68 mg/g, while the antioxidant activity determined through ferric-reducing antioxidant power and DPPH assays was 2366.89 and 1755.17 μmol ascorbic acid equivalents/g, respectively. In parallel, an artificial intelligence (AI)-based framework was developed to model and predict antioxidant and phytochemical responses from UAE parameters. Six machine learning models were implemented on the experimental dataset, with the Random Forest (RF) regressor consistently achieving the best predictive accuracy. Partial dependence analysis revealed ethanol concentration as the dominant factor influencing outcomes, while ultrasonic power and extraction time exerted comparatively minor effects. Although dataset size limited model generalizability, the RF model reproduced experimental outcomes within experimental variability, underscoring its suitability for predictive extraction optimization. These findings demonstrate the complementary role of machine learning in accelerating antioxidant compound recovery research and its potential to guide future industrial-scale applications of AI-assisted extraction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Separation and Extraction Processes for Effective Resource Utilization)
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22 pages, 790 KB  
Article
Enhanced Removal of Ibuprofen, Paracetamol, and Caffeine in Vertical Constructed Wetlands Using Biochar and Zeolite as Support Media
by Marco A. Hernández-Cardona, Germán Giácoman-Vallejos, Marisela I. Vega-De-Lille, Roger I. Méndez-Novelo, Avel A. González-Sánchez, Emanuel Hernández-Núñez, Carmen Ponce-Caballero and Virgilio R. Góngora-Echeverría
Processes 2025, 13(11), 3679; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13113679 - 14 Nov 2025
Viewed by 1207
Abstract
Pharmaceuticals such as ibuprofen, paracetamol, and caffeine are commonly found in wastewater due to incomplete removal in conventional treatment systems. This study evaluated three vertical constructed wetland (V-CW) configurations: V1 (gravel–sand with vegetation), V2 (biochar–zeolite with vegetation), and V3 (biochar–zeolite without vegetation). All [...] Read more.
Pharmaceuticals such as ibuprofen, paracetamol, and caffeine are commonly found in wastewater due to incomplete removal in conventional treatment systems. This study evaluated three vertical constructed wetland (V-CW) configurations: V1 (gravel–sand with vegetation), V2 (biochar–zeolite with vegetation), and V3 (biochar–zeolite without vegetation). All systems achieved high removal efficiencies for organic matter (Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): 89.4–91.7%, Biochemical Oxygen Demand over 5 days (BOD5): 93.3–93.8%, Total Suspended Solids (TSS): 94.5–96.6%) and pharmaceuticals (ibuprofen: 81.8–91.5%, paracetamol: 90.0–94.3%, caffeine: 93.1–97.2%). Statistical analysis showed that substrate type significantly influenced ibuprofen (p = 0.0035) and caffeine (p = 0.0436) removal, while vegetation had no significant effect (p > 0.266). The enhanced performance of biochar and zeolite can be attributed to their high adsorption capacity and microbial support, with adsorption and biodegradation identified as dominant removal mechanisms, as reported in previous research. These findings highlight the importance of engineered substrates in optimizing constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment to improve the removal of emerging contaminants. Future research should focus on long-term substrate performance, cost-effectiveness, and field-scale validation, particularly in regions with vulnerable groundwater systems such as the Yucatán Peninsula. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Efficient Contaminant Removal Technologies for Wastewater)
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13 pages, 1106 KB  
Article
Prussian Blue–Alumina as Stable Fenton-Type Catalysts in Textile Dyeing Wastewater Treatment
by Lucila I. Doumic, Ana M. Ferro Orozco, Miryan C. Cassanello and María A. Ayude
Processes 2025, 13(11), 3656; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13113656 - 11 Nov 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 574
Abstract
Textile dyeing effluents are characterized by recalcitrant organics and high salinity, requiring robust pretreatments prior to biological polishing. The heterogeneous Fenton-type (HFT) oxidation over Prussian Blue nanoparticles supported on γ-alumina (PBNP/γ-Al2O3) was investigated in a liquid batch-recycle packed-bed reactor [...] Read more.
Textile dyeing effluents are characterized by recalcitrant organics and high salinity, requiring robust pretreatments prior to biological polishing. The heterogeneous Fenton-type (HFT) oxidation over Prussian Blue nanoparticles supported on γ-alumina (PBNP/γ-Al2O3) was investigated in a liquid batch-recycle packed-bed reactor treating a synthetic textile wastewater (STW) reproducing an industrial dye bath with the Reactive Black 5 (RB5) dye, together with simplified RB5 and RB5 + NaCl matrices. Hydrogen peroxide decay followed pseudo-first-order kinetics. Using fixed initial doses (11, 20, 35 mmol L−1), the catalyst exhibited an early adaptation phase and then reproducible operation: from the fourth reuse onward, both the H2O2 decomposition rate constant and DOC removal varied by <10% under identical conditions. Among matrices, STW exhibited the highest oxidant efficiency. With an initial H2O2 dose of 11 mmol L−1, the treatment enabled complete discoloration and produced effluents with negligible toxicity. Increasing the initial dose to 20 or 35 mmol L−1 did not improve treatment and led to a decrease in the hydrogen peroxide decomposition rate with reuses and loss of PB ν(C≡N) Raman bands, indicating surface transformation. Overall, PBNP/γ-Al2O3 demonstrated reproducible activity and structural resilience in saline, dyeing-relevant matrices at H2O2 doses that preserve catalytic integrity, confirming its feasibility as a stable and reusable pretreatment catalyst for saline dyeing effluents, and supporting its integration into hybrid AOP–biological treatment schemes for dyeing wastewater. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Addressing Environmental Issues with Advanced Oxidation Technologies)
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41 pages, 7787 KB  
Review
Integrating Solar Energy into Fossil Fuel Power Plant with CO2 Capture and Storage: A Bibliographic Survey
by Agustín Moisés Alcaraz Calderón, O. A. Jaramillo, J. C. Garcia, Miriam Navarrete Procopio and Abigail González Díaz
Processes 2025, 13(11), 3581; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13113581 - 6 Nov 2025
Viewed by 1222
Abstract
There is an urgent need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2). Currently, numerous research initiatives are underway to develop CO2 Capture and Storage (CCS) technologies aiming for net-zero emissions, especially in sectors that are difficult to decarbonize, [...] Read more.
There is an urgent need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2). Currently, numerous research initiatives are underway to develop CO2 Capture and Storage (CCS) technologies aiming for net-zero emissions, especially in sectors that are difficult to decarbonize, such as fossil fuel power generation. Integrating solar thermal energy into CO2 capture facilities (CCFs) for fossil fuel-based power plants offers a promising approach to reduce the high operational costs associated with CO2 capture processes. However, a comprehensive systematic review focusing on the integration of solar thermal energy with CCFs in fossil fuel power generation is currently lacking. To address this gap, this study systematically evaluates the technological frameworks involved, including (a) various generation technologies such as coal-fired Rankine cycle plants, natural gas combined cycle plants, and cogeneration units; (b) concentrated solar power (CSP) technologies, including parabolic trough collectors, linear Fresnel reflectors, solar power towers, and Stirling dish systems; and (c) post-combustion CO2 capture systems. Additionally, this research analyzes relevant projects, patents, and scholarly publications from the past 25 years that explore the coupling of CSP technologies with fossil fuel power plants and post-combustion CO2 capture systems. This literature review encompasses diverse methodologies, such as innovative patents, conceptual models, evaluations of solar collector performances, thermal integration optimization, and various system configurations. It also investigates technical advancements aimed at improving efficiency, reliability, and flexibility of fossil fuel power plants while mitigating the inherent challenges of CO2 capture. Beyond the energy-focused aspects, we explore complementary circular economy strategies—such as by-product valorization and material substitution in sectors like mining, cement, and steel manufacturing—that can reduce embodied emissions and enhance the overall system benefits of solar-assisted CO2 capture. The review employs a bibliometric approach using digital tools including Publish or Perish, Mendeley, and VOSviewer to systematically analyze the scholarly landscape. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fluid Dynamics and Thermodynamic Studies in Gas Turbine)
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24 pages, 1079 KB  
Review
Review and Evaluation of Agricultural Biomass Ashes as Supplementary Cementitious Materials for Sustainable Concrete
by Leila Mirzaei, Tewodros Ghebrab and Clifford B. Fedler
Processes 2025, 13(11), 3571; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13113571 - 5 Nov 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1300
Abstract
Concrete is the second most consumed material after water, with cement as its primary binder. However, cement production accounts for nearly 7% of global CO2 emissions, posing a major sustainability challenge. This review critically evaluates 35 agricultural biomass ashes (ABAs) as potential [...] Read more.
Concrete is the second most consumed material after water, with cement as its primary binder. However, cement production accounts for nearly 7% of global CO2 emissions, posing a major sustainability challenge. This review critically evaluates 35 agricultural biomass ashes (ABAs) as potential supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) for partial cement replacement, focusing on their effects on concrete strength and durability and highlighting performance gaps. Using a systematic methodology, rice husk ash (RHA), sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA), and wheat straw ash (WSA) were identified as the most promising ABAs, enhancing strength and durability—including resistance to chloride ingress, sulfate attack, acid exposure, alkali–silica reaction, and drying shrinkage—while maintaining acceptable workability. Optimal replacement levels are recommended at 30% for RHA and 20% for SCBA and WSA, balancing performance and sustainability. These findings indicate that ABAs are viable, scalable SCMs for low-carbon concrete, promoting greener construction and contributing to global climate mitigation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructural and Chemical Characteristics of Recycled Construction Materials)
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13 pages, 766 KB  
Article
Sunflower Seed Oil Enriched with Phenolic Compounds from Barbatimão Bark
by Janiani de Oliveira Cavitioli, Izabelle Alves de Castro França, Djéssica Tatiane Raspe, Natália Stevanato, Vitor Augusto dos Santos Garcia, Beatriz Cervejeira Bolanho Barros and Camila da Silva
Processes 2025, 13(11), 3534; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13113534 - 4 Nov 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 716
Abstract
This study aimed to use sunflower seeds (SSs) and barbatimão bark (BB) to obtain an oil enriched with phenolic compounds. For this purpose, simultaneous extractions were carried out using different proportions of SSs and BB. Subsequently, the effects of temperature and extraction time [...] Read more.
This study aimed to use sunflower seeds (SSs) and barbatimão bark (BB) to obtain an oil enriched with phenolic compounds. For this purpose, simultaneous extractions were carried out using different proportions of SSs and BB. Subsequently, the effects of temperature and extraction time were determined. The resulting oils were evaluated for composition and physicochemical properties. BB addition decreased the mass yield by 27% to 56% but increased the total phenolic content by 5 to 13 times. The best SS/BB ratio (3:2.5) was selected for further experiments. Increasing the extraction temperature from 30 to 60 °C and the extraction time from 15 to 60 min led to a 10% increase in oil yield and enhanced the contents of phenolic acids and flavonoids by 1.1 to 10 times. Gallic, quinic, and trans-cinnamic acids were the main phenolics in enriched oils, which exhibited higher antioxidant activity via the DPPH•, FRAP, and ABTS•+ methods. Linoleic and oleic acids were identified as the major fatty acids in the tested oils. Enriched oils showed greater thermal stability than their unenriched counterpart. The application of phenolic-enriched oil at concentrations of up to 400 µg/mL did not exert cytotoxic effects on human keratinocyte HaCaT cells. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Green Extraction and Separation Processes)
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13 pages, 274 KB  
Article
The Strains Enterococcus faecalis as Contaminants of Raw Goat Milk and Their Treatment with Postbiotic Active Substances Produced by Autochthonous Lactococci
by Andrea Lauková, Eva Bino, Natália Zábolyová, Marián Maďar and Monika Pogány Simonová
Processes 2025, 13(11), 3552; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13113552 - 4 Nov 2025
Viewed by 575
Abstract
Enterococci from raw goat milk were taxonomically allotted in the species Enterococcus faecalis using sequencing (16S rRNA and BLASTn analysis) with a percentage identity up to 99.91%. The virulence factor gene gelE was found in the strains EE/K3, EE/G3, and EE/G6. The agg [...] Read more.
Enterococci from raw goat milk were taxonomically allotted in the species Enterococcus faecalis using sequencing (16S rRNA and BLASTn analysis) with a percentage identity up to 99.91%. The virulence factor gene gelE was found in the strains EE/K3, EE/G3, and EE/G6. The agg gene was detected in the strain EE/G6, and the esp gene was detected in the strains EE/K5 and EE/G7. Each strain possessed at least one virulence factor gene. In the strain EE/G6, the gelE and esp genes were found. The strains EE/G6 and EE/G3 showed resistance to tetracycline and vancomycin. EE/G7 was resistant to vancomycin and gentamicin. All strains possessed low-grade biofilm-forming ability (0.1 < A570 ≤ 1.0). They possessed genes for biofilm formation (bopD, srt, and/or ace). They also produced esterase (20–40 nmo/L), esterase lipase, and α-chymotrypsin (10–40 nmoL). The values of acid phosphatase reached 20–40 nmoL. The strains EE/G3, EE/G6, and EE/G7 were observed to possess the most pathogenicity. However, all strains were susceptible to postbiotic active substances produced by two autochthonous lactococci, MK2/8 and MK1/3 (inhibitory activity up to 400 AU/mL). These postbiotic substances provide a new potential alternative to reducing contaminants in milk. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Food Process Engineering)
15 pages, 13512 KB  
Article
Facile Microwave Production and Photocatalytic Activity of Bismuth Vanadate Nanoparticles over the Acid Orange 7
by Nataša Tot, Bojana Vasiljević, Slađana Davidović, Anđela Pustak, Ivan Marić, Jovana Prekodravac Filipović and Dragana Marinković
Processes 2025, 13(11), 3485; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13113485 - 30 Oct 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 851
Abstract
This work reports the rapid aqueous microwave-assisted synthesis of monoclinic scheelite BiVO4 nanoparticles and their behavior under visible light. X-ray diffraction (XRD) confirms phase-pure BiVO4 with an average crystallite size of ~19 nm, consistent with transmission electron microscopy (TEM) observations, while [...] Read more.
This work reports the rapid aqueous microwave-assisted synthesis of monoclinic scheelite BiVO4 nanoparticles and their behavior under visible light. X-ray diffraction (XRD) confirms phase-pure BiVO4 with an average crystallite size of ~19 nm, consistent with transmission electron microscopy (TEM) observations, while N2 sorption yields a BET surface area of 7.5 m2/g. UV–Vis diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS) indicates a direct band gap of 2.55 eV. We evaluated the effects of catalyst dosage and initial Acid Orange 7 (AO7) concentration on visible-light degradation efficiency. Up to 77% removal was achieved within 120 min, with kinetics following a pseudo-first-order model (R2 ≈ 0.970–0.996). Under the tested conditions, BiVO4 also exhibited a modest antibacterial effect against Escherichia coli (~0.5 log reduction). These findings demonstrate that microwave-synthesized BiVO4 is a multifunctional material and provides a quantitative baseline for practical wastewater treatment studies under visible light. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Correlations Between Performance and Structure of Catalytic Materials for Sustainable Process Design)
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25 pages, 8887 KB  
Article
Effects of the Fluctuating Wind Loads on Flow Field Distribution and Structural Response of the Dish Solar Concentrator System Under Multiple Operating Conditions
by Jianing He, Hongyan Zuo, Guohai Jia, Yuhao Su and Jiaqiang E
Processes 2025, 13(11), 3444; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13113444 - 27 Oct 2025
Viewed by 504
Abstract
With the rapid development of solar thermal power generation technology, the structural stability of the dish solar concentrator system under complex wind environments has become a critical limiting factor for its large-scale application. This study investigates the flow field distribution and structural response [...] Read more.
With the rapid development of solar thermal power generation technology, the structural stability of the dish solar concentrator system under complex wind environments has become a critical limiting factor for its large-scale application. This study investigates the flow field distribution and structural response under fluctuating wind loads using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). A three-dimensional model was developed and simulated in ANSYS Fluent under varying wind angles and speed cycles. The results indicate that changes in the concentrator’s orientation significantly influence the airflow field, with the most adverse effects observed at low elevation angles (0°) and an azimuth angle of 60°. Short-period wind loads (T = 25 s) exacerbate transient impact effects of lift forces and overturning moments, markedly increasing structural fatigue risks. Long-period winds (T = 50 s) amplify cumulative drag forces and tilting moments (e.g., peak drag of −73.9 kN at β = 0°). Key parameters for wind-resistant design are identified, including critical angles and period-dependent load characteristics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Manufacturing and Low-Carbon Control of Mechanical and Electrical Products)
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18 pages, 7910 KB  
Article
Mixed-Dimensional 3D BiOCl Nanosheet Arrays/2D ZnO Nanoparticle Film Heterojunction Photodetectors with High Self-Powered Performance for Light Communication
by Mingmin Zhang and Weixin Ouyang
Processes 2025, 13(11), 3428; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13113428 - 25 Oct 2025
Viewed by 540
Abstract
High-performance self-powered ultraviolet (UV) photodetectors (PDs) based on mixed-dimensional 3D BiOCl nanosheet array/2D ZnO nanoparticle films heterojunction were fabricated via facile spin-coating and impregnation methods. Under zero bias, compared to the pristine ZnO PD exhibiting a large dark current (≈2 μA) and slow [...] Read more.
High-performance self-powered ultraviolet (UV) photodetectors (PDs) based on mixed-dimensional 3D BiOCl nanosheet array/2D ZnO nanoparticle films heterojunction were fabricated via facile spin-coating and impregnation methods. Under zero bias, compared to the pristine ZnO PD exhibiting a large dark current (≈2 μA) and slow response time (>20 s/>20 s), the optimized 2-BiOCl-ZnO heterojunction PD demonstrated a dramatically suppressed dark current (≈1 nA), along with an ultrahigh on/off ratio (22,748) and a shorter response time (17.44 ms/14 ms) under 365 nm light illumination. This optimized device also achieved a remarkable responsivity of 1.08 A·W−1 and a detectivity of 2.48 × 1013 Jones at 354 nm. The built-in electric field formed at the BiOCl-ZnO heterojunction interface, the improved light absorption enabled by the mixed-dimensional heterostructure, and the optimized charge carrier separation and transport within the device were responsible for the enhanced self-powered performance. Due to its fascinating photoelectric properties, this PD was applied as a self-powered signal receiver in a UV optical communication system, demonstrating the ability to achieve efficient and high-speed message transmission. The rational construction of BiOCl-based heterojunction has proved to be an efficient pathway to achieving self-powered photodetection. These results demonstrate that the rational construction of heterojunctions holds great potential for fabricating high-performance PDs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Preparation of Semiconductor Materials and Their Application in Photoelectronic Devices)
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20 pages, 4748 KB  
Article
PLIF and PIV as Tools to Analyze and Validate Mathematical Models on Mixing and Fluid Flow of Physical Models of Two-Strand Tundishes
by Alberto Velázquez-Sánchez, Luis E. Jardón-Pérez, Carlos González-Rivera, Adrián M. Amaro-Villeda and Marco A. Ramírez-Argáez
Processes 2025, 13(10), 3341; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13103341 - 18 Oct 2025
Viewed by 584
Abstract
This article demonstrates how the non-intrusive techniques PLIF (Planar Laser-Induced Fluorescence) and PIV (Particle Image Velocimetry) are used to study fluid flow and mixing in a water model of a continuous casting tundish. These techniques validate CFD models by providing hydrodynamic data and [...] Read more.
This article demonstrates how the non-intrusive techniques PLIF (Planar Laser-Induced Fluorescence) and PIV (Particle Image Velocimetry) are used to study fluid flow and mixing in a water model of a continuous casting tundish. These techniques validate CFD models by providing hydrodynamic data and by testing the models’ ability to predict mixing through simulated concentration field evolution under defined process conditions. Using PIV and PLIF yields more accurate information on turbulent mixing and impurity transport than traditional methods. Access to flow and concentration field evolution enables more precise mathematical model refinement and clarifies the impact of tundish design or operational changes on hydrodynamics and mixing. Relative errors in chemical evolution are approximately 20%, whereas velocity errors vary depending on the measurement plane, being lower for longitudinal planes and higher for transversal planes. This suggests that the turbulence model does not fully capture all low- and high-velocity zones. This approach supports reliable flow and mixing predictions in metallurgy and related fields. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Numerical Simulation and Heat Transfer in Material Processing and Casting Engineering)
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11 pages, 547 KB  
Article
Chloride Ion and Chemical Oxygen Demand on the Rust Generation of Metals in Cleaning
by Tsuyoshi Yoda
Processes 2025, 13(10), 3253; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13103253 - 13 Oct 2025
Viewed by 491
Abstract
Metal components that undergo ultrasonic cleaning are often stored in rinse water before drying; during this dwell period, surface corrosion can nucleate and grow. Here, we investigate how two easily monitored water-quality parameters—chloride ion concentration (Cl−) and chemical oxygen demand (COD), [...] Read more.
Metal components that undergo ultrasonic cleaning are often stored in rinse water before drying; during this dwell period, surface corrosion can nucleate and grow. Here, we investigate how two easily monitored water-quality parameters—chloride ion concentration (Cl−) and chemical oxygen demand (COD), a proxy for residual organic species—govern the initiation and propagation of corrosion on low-carbon steel. After ultrasonic cleaning in five representative cleaning solutions, test coupons were immersed for up to 72 h in the corresponding rinse water and the extent of corrosion was quantified by optical profilometry and mass loss. The surface area covered by corrosion scaled linearly with [Cl−] (0–150 mg L−1) and COD (5–120 mg L−1), with correlation coefficients of 0.92 and 0.88, respectively. When both parameters exceeded threshold values of 50 mg L−1 (Cl−) and 30 mg L−1 (COD), the corrosion rate doubled relative to the control. A two-step mitigation strategy—ion-exchange pretreatment followed by activated-carbon polishing—reduced Cl− and COD below the thresholds and suppressed corrosion formation by >70%. These findings provide a simple water-quality guideline and a low-cost process retrofit for manufacturers that store steel parts in high-humidity environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development of Materials and Processes for Integration of Reaction and Separation Operations)
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22 pages, 3781 KB  
Article
Selective Nickel Leaching and Preparation of Battery-Grade Nickel Carbonate from Copper-Rich Industrial Intermediate
by Janaka Jayamini Wijenayake, Michael S. Moats, Lloyd Masuzyo Mseteka and Lana Alagha
Processes 2025, 13(10), 3235; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13103235 - 11 Oct 2025
Viewed by 1355
Abstract
The rising demand for electric vehicles (EVs) has driven a significant increase in nickel consumption, a critical element in EV battery production. An industrially viable hydrometallurgical process was developed for the selective recovery of nickel from a copper-rich industrial intermediate, containing approximately 70 [...] Read more.
The rising demand for electric vehicles (EVs) has driven a significant increase in nickel consumption, a critical element in EV battery production. An industrially viable hydrometallurgical process was developed for the selective recovery of nickel from a copper-rich industrial intermediate, containing approximately 70 wt.% Cu and 6 wt.% Ni, predominantly as sulfides alongside minor impurities. Approximately 90% of nickel was selectively extracted via single-stage atmospheric pressure leaching using HCl and H2O2 at 95 °C for 12 h, with the majority of copper retained in the leach residue, which can be utilized as a valuable feedstock for copper smelters. The selectivity of nickel over copper was analyzed in detail through corresponding Pourbaix diagrams, and an appropriate leaching mechanism was proposed. The leachate was subsequently purified through a sequence of cementation, selective precipitation, and solvent extraction steps to remove residual copper, iron, and cobalt, achieving an overall separation efficiency of 99% with nickel losses below 2%. In the final stage, nickel carbonate was precipitated with >99% purity using sodium carbonate, potentially suitable for battery applications. The optimal conditions at each stage were determined through batch-type laboratory-scale experiments, which may need to be verified by continuous pilot-scale testing in the future. This process offers dual advantages by meeting the growing nickel demand for battery applications while simultaneously providing additional copper feedstocks for smelters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Separation and Extraction Processes for Effective Resource Utilization)
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13 pages, 461 KB  
Article
The Impact of Product Environmental Innovation in Process Industries: Evidence from Innovation Efficiency and Performance
by Yeongjun Kim, Jiyun Seong and Changhee Kim
Processes 2025, 13(10), 3227; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13103227 - 10 Oct 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 980
Abstract
This study examines the heterogeneous effects of product environmental innovation on firm-level innovation efficiency and performance in process industries, with a focus on the chemical and electronics sectors. Following the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)’s Oslo Manual, four types of product [...] Read more.
This study examines the heterogeneous effects of product environmental innovation on firm-level innovation efficiency and performance in process industries, with a focus on the chemical and electronics sectors. Following the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)’s Oslo Manual, four types of product environmental innovation are considered: reducing energy use and emissions (RUE), reducing pollution (RP), promoting recycling (PR), and enhancing durability and extending product life (EDEL). Innovation efficiency is evaluated using the input-oriented Banker–Charnes–Cooper (BCC) Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) model, and regression analyses are applied to test the effects of each innovation type on efficiency and sales outcomes. The results reveal that RUE and EDEL consistently enhance both efficiency and performance, whereas PR has a negative impact on performance, and RP shows no significant effect. These findings demonstrate that product environmental innovation is not a homogeneous construct but yields heterogeneous outcomes depending on type and industry context. The study contributes to the literature by jointly examining efficiency and performance outcomes and by overcoming the limitations of single-metric evaluations, and it provides practical implications by clarifying which innovation types deliver immediate value in business-to-consumer (B2C) markets and which are more relevant for business-to-business (B2B) settings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovation and Optimization of Production Processes in Industry 4.0)
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27 pages, 12130 KB  
Article
A Comparative Study of Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalyzed Glycerol Acetylation with Acetic Acid: Activity, Selectivity, and Stability
by Lucas G. Tonutti, Lourdes Vergara, Noemí Linares Pérez, Erika de Oliveira Jardim, Bruno O. Dalla Costa and Hernán P. Decolatti
Processes 2025, 13(10), 3231; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13103231 - 10 Oct 2025
Viewed by 885
Abstract
The esterification of glycerol with acetic acid to produce acetylglycerols was investigated both in the absence of a catalyst and using several commercial FAU zeolites with varied acid site concentrations and pore structures. Specifically, ultra-stable Y zeolite (H-USY, CBV720; Si/Al: 15), ammonium Y [...] Read more.
The esterification of glycerol with acetic acid to produce acetylglycerols was investigated both in the absence of a catalyst and using several commercial FAU zeolites with varied acid site concentrations and pore structures. Specifically, ultra-stable Y zeolite (H-USY, CBV720; Si/Al: 15), ammonium Y zeolite (NH4-Y, CBV300, Si/Al: 2.6), and Na-Y zeolite (CBV100, Si/Al: 2.6) were tested to evaluate their catalytic performance in this reaction. In addition, two control catalysts were assessed under identical conditions: a commercial acidic ion-exchange resin (Amberlyst 15, A15) and a homogeneous acid catalyst (p-toluenesulfonic acid, PTSA). The catalytic performance of both the ultra-stable Y zeolite (CBV720) and Amberlyst 15 resin was comparable to the best results previously reported for solid catalysts. Furthermore, a comprehensive examination of acidity and accessibility was conducted to better understand their behavior. As expected, PTSA exhibited higher yields but also showed common drawbacks associated with homogeneous catalysts, such as corrosion and difficulties in separation. From an environmental perspective, and considering potential reuse cycles, the CBV720 zeolite delivered promising results during five consecutive tests. Its levels of conversion and selectivity were comparable to those obtained with Amberlyst 15, making it a viable alternative for future studies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Synthesis and Characterization of Zeolite Catalysts for Sustainable Applications)
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17 pages, 1033 KB  
Review
Towards Carbon-Neutral Hydrogen: Integrating Methane Pyrolysis with Geothermal Energy
by Ayann Tiam, Marshall Watson and Talal Gamadi
Processes 2025, 13(10), 3195; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13103195 - 8 Oct 2025
Viewed by 925
Abstract
Methane pyrolysis produces hydrogen (H2) with solid carbon black as a co-product, eliminating direct CO2 emissions and enabling a low-carbon supply when combined with renewable or low-carbon heat sources. In this study, we propose a hybrid geothermal pyrolysis configuration in [...] Read more.
Methane pyrolysis produces hydrogen (H2) with solid carbon black as a co-product, eliminating direct CO2 emissions and enabling a low-carbon supply when combined with renewable or low-carbon heat sources. In this study, we propose a hybrid geothermal pyrolysis configuration in which an enhanced geothermal system (EGS) provides base-load preheating and isothermal holding, while either electrical or solar–thermal input supplies the final temperature rise to the catalytic set-point. The work addresses four main objectives: (i) integrating field-scale geothermal operating envelopes to define heat-integration targets and duty splits; (ii) assessing scalability through high-pressure reactor design, thermal management, and carbon separation strategies that preserve co-product value; (iii) developing a techno-economic analysis (TEA) framework that lists CAPEX and OPEX, incorporates carbon pricing and credits, and evaluates dual-product economics for hydrogen and carbon black; and (iv) reorganizing state-of-the-art advances chronologically, linking molten media demonstrations, catalyst development, and integration studies. The process synthesis shows that allocating geothermal heat to the largest heat-capacity streams (feed, recycle, and melt/salt hold) reduces electric top-up demand and stabilizes reactor operation, thereby mitigating coking, sintering, and broad particle size distributions. High-pressure operation improves the hydrogen yield and equipment compactness, but it also requires corrosion-resistant materials and careful thermal-stress management. The TEA indicates that the levelized cost of hydrogen is primarily influenced by two factors: (a) electric duty and the carbon intensity of power, and (b) the achievable price and specifications of the carbon co-product. Secondary drivers include the methane price, geothermal capacity factor, and overall conversion and selectivity. Overall, geothermal-assisted methane pyrolysis emerges as a practical pathway to turquoise hydrogen, if the carbon quality is maintained and heat integration is optimized. The study offers design principles and reporting guidelines intended to accelerate pilot-scale deployment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Low-Carbon and Efficient Extraction Technologies of Deep Unconventional Reservoirs)
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14 pages, 1108 KB  
Article
Comparative Study of Seal Strength and Mechanical Behavior of Untreated and Corona-Treated Polymer Films
by Zuzanna Żołek-Tryznowska, Kamila Cudna and Mariusz Tryznowski
Processes 2025, 13(10), 3190; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13103190 - 8 Oct 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1243
Abstract
Corona treatment is commonly used in industry to enhance the surface-free energy of plastic films. However, corona treatment may cause some undesirable effects affecting further processing, such as sealing. In this paper, we deeply analyze the corona treatment effect on selected properties of [...] Read more.
Corona treatment is commonly used in industry to enhance the surface-free energy of plastic films. However, corona treatment may cause some undesirable effects affecting further processing, such as sealing. In this paper, we deeply analyze the corona treatment effect on selected properties of various polymer films commonly used in packaging applications. The films were treated at two power levels (100 W and 300 W), and the experimental design included surface characterization and mechanical testing to assess changes in wettability, chemical structure, and seal strength. The Owens–Wendt approach confirmed the corona treatment effect by static contact angle measurement and surface free energy calculation. Next, their seal strength was evaluated in relation to surface energy and chemical structure changes. FTIR spectroscopy was used to identify functional groups potentially affected by corona treatment. The results indicate that the impact of corona treatment is material-dependent. In general, corona treatment at a lower level increases the seal strength, while corona treatment at a higher power level is related to a decrease in seal strength. The study highlights the importance of optimizing corona treatment parameters for specific materials to enhance seal performance without compromising surface integrity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Materials Processes)
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17 pages, 2611 KB  
Article
The Removal of Azoles from an Aqueous Solution by Adsorption on Nature-Derived and Waste Materials
by Julia Płatkiewicz, Robert Frankowski, Tomasz Grześkowiak, Włodzimierz Urbaniak and Agnieszka Zgoła-Grześkowiak
Processes 2025, 13(10), 3197; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13103197 - 8 Oct 2025
Viewed by 860
Abstract
The objective of this study was to investigate the adsorption of 11 azoles (tebuconazole, ketoconazole, econazole, miconazole, fluconazole, clotrimazole, climbazole, flutriafol, epoxiconazole, tiabendazole, and imazalil) on natural and waste-derived sorbents such as ceramsite, perlite, pumice, sawdust, coconut fibers, heavy oil fly ash (HOFA), [...] Read more.
The objective of this study was to investigate the adsorption of 11 azoles (tebuconazole, ketoconazole, econazole, miconazole, fluconazole, clotrimazole, climbazole, flutriafol, epoxiconazole, tiabendazole, and imazalil) on natural and waste-derived sorbents such as ceramsite, perlite, pumice, sawdust, coconut fibers, heavy oil fly ash (HOFA), activated carbon, and silica gel. The results of adsorption efficiency for most sorbents varied depending on the azole compounds and their concentration. The highest adsorption for all tested compounds was obtained for activated carbon and heavy oil fly ash, reaching about 100% in both tested concentrations (0.2 mg L−1 and 0.02 mg L−1). The HOFA material was characterized in terms of elemental analysis (CHNS), confirming the elemental contents of 52% C, 0.65% H, 0.4% N, and 2.3% S. The specific surface area of HOFA was 11.2 m2 g−1, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) results showed the spherical yet porous nature of the particles. Furthermore, the calculated adsorption isotherms demonstrated that for most tested azoles, the Dubinin–Radushkevich (D-R) isotherm best fits the data, with R2 = 0.93 or more, which is characteristic of porous carbon materials. The results highlight the significant potential of the tested HOFA sorbent for effectively removing azoles, as the tests performed showed that it was possible to remove these compounds with a concentration of up to 0.2 mg L−1 within an hour. This is particularly important because HOFA is an easily accessible waste material. Furthermore, the adsorption of azoles will not increase the cost of HOFA disposal when using the standard procedures currently applied to this waste. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biochemical Processes for Sustainability, 2nd Edition)
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21 pages, 1424 KB  
Article
Improving Combined Cycle Performance with Pressure Gain Combustion in the Gas Turbine
by Antonio Giuffrida and Paolo Chiesa
Processes 2025, 13(10), 3181; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13103181 - 7 Oct 2025
Viewed by 2619
Abstract
Pressure Gain Combustion (PGC) is an interesting emerging concept to enhance the performance of gas turbines currently based on the Brayton–Joule cycle. Focusing on a F-class gas turbine for land-based power generation, the current work investigates PGC potential in both simple and combined [...] Read more.
Pressure Gain Combustion (PGC) is an interesting emerging concept to enhance the performance of gas turbines currently based on the Brayton–Joule cycle. Focusing on a F-class gas turbine for land-based power generation, the current work investigates PGC potential in both simple and combined cycle operations by means of an in-house simulation software. The PGC cycle lay-out specifically includes a booster compressor for delivering cooling air to the blades at the first stage of the gas turbine expander. The effects of different amounts of air from the same booster to the PGC system for cooling requirements are also analyzed. Considering reasonable PGC values based on literature data, the efficiency of the gas turbine simple cycle rises by 2.85–3.40 percentage points in the case of no combustor cooling, or 1.85–2.25 percentage points for the most extensive cooling at the combustor, compared to the reference case. The combined cycle efficiency increases too, despite the almost equal power generation at the bottoming steam cycle. Ultimately, a revised parametric analysis with reduced efficiency at the first stage of the gas turbine expander is carried out as well to account for the losses induced by the PGC on the fluid dynamics of the expansion. In this new scenario, the risk of nullifying the advantages related to PGC is real, because of specific combinations of lower expansion efficiency at the gas turbine expander and extensive cooling at the combustor. Thus, better turbine design and effective thermal management at the combustor are fundamental to achieve the highest efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fluid Dynamics and Thermodynamic Studies in Gas Turbine)
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19 pages, 936 KB  
Article
Physicochemical, Functional and Nutritional Characteristics of Various Types of Fruit Pomace
by Agata Blicharz-Kania, Anna Pecyna, Beata Zdybel and Dariusz Andrejko
Processes 2025, 13(10), 3182; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13103182 - 7 Oct 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1346
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate and compare dried apple (A), chokeberry (C), grape (G), raspberry (R), and red currant (RC) pomace as potential additives to food, beverages, and cosmetics. Their physicochemical properties and nutritional composition were examined. The fruit pomace [...] Read more.
The aim of this study was to evaluate and compare dried apple (A), chokeberry (C), grape (G), raspberry (R), and red currant (RC) pomace as potential additives to food, beverages, and cosmetics. Their physicochemical properties and nutritional composition were examined. The fruit pomace was characterised by significant differences in acidity ranging 1.41 (G) to 7.96 g·100 g−1d.w. (R), water holding capacity (2.36–4.25 g·g−1, C-A), and oil holding capacity (1.86–2.41 g·g−1, C-G). The colour parameters of the pomace differed significantly. The highest lightness L* was recorded for the apple pomace (66.29). Samples RC and R were characterised by the highest redness (32.99; 26.76), while A, G, and R showed high b* values, amounting to 28.54, 22.84, and 20.40 (yellowness), respectively. The highest protein (13.01%), fat (6.82%), and fibre (67.38%) contents were recorded in the redcurrant pomace. The mineral analysis revealed high potassium, phosphorus, and calcium contents in all pomace samples, with the grape and redcurrant pomace containing the highest mineral content. These results highlight the potential of fruit pomace as a sustainable, nutritionally enriching ingredient, primarily for food products, and the potential to reduce food waste. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in the "Food Process Engineering" Section)
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27 pages, 4295 KB  
Review
Polymer Template Selection for 1D Metal Oxide Gas Sensors: A Review
by Khanyisile Sheryl Nkuna, Teboho Clement Mokhena, Rudolph Erasmus and Katekani Shingange
Processes 2025, 13(10), 3180; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13103180 - 7 Oct 2025
Viewed by 899
Abstract
The increasing demand for reliable, sensitive, and cost-effective gas sensors drives ongoing research in this field. Ideal gas sensors must demonstrate high sensitivity and selectivity, stability, rapid response and recovery times, energy efficiency, and affordability. One-dimensional (1D) metal oxide semiconductors (MOSs) are prominent [...] Read more.
The increasing demand for reliable, sensitive, and cost-effective gas sensors drives ongoing research in this field. Ideal gas sensors must demonstrate high sensitivity and selectivity, stability, rapid response and recovery times, energy efficiency, and affordability. One-dimensional (1D) metal oxide semiconductors (MOSs) are prominent candidates due to their excellent sensing properties and straightforward fabrication processes. The sensing efficacy of 1D MOSs is heavily dependent on their surface area and porosity, which influence gas interaction and detection efficiency. Polymeric templates serve as effective tools for enhancing these properties by enabling the creation of uniform, porous nanostructures with high surface area, thereby improving gas adsorption, sensitivity, and dynamic response characteristics. This review systematically examines the role of polymeric templates in the construction of 1D MOSs for gas sensing applications. It discusses critical factors influencing polymer template selection and how this choice affects key microstructural parameters, such as grain size, pore distribution, and defect density, essential to sensor performance. The recent literature highlights the mechanisms through which polymer templates facilitate the fine-tuning of nanostructures. Future research directions include exploring novel polymer architectures, developing scalable synthesis methods, and integrating these sensors with emerging technologies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing and Applications of Polymer Composite Materials)
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33 pages, 3845 KB  
Article
Innovative Surrogate Combustion Model for Efficient Design of Small-Scale Waste Mono-Incineration Systems
by Anton Žnidarčič, Tomaž Katrašnik and Tine Seljak
Processes 2025, 13(10), 3170; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13103170 - 6 Oct 2025
Viewed by 771
Abstract
Small-scale thermal treatment systems can provide environmentally improved sewage sludge treatment due to processing sludge locally, which lowers transport costs and emissions. However, the combined effect of confined volume and complex sludge properties makes achieving strict regulations on flue gas emissions and end-ash [...] Read more.
Small-scale thermal treatment systems can provide environmentally improved sewage sludge treatment due to processing sludge locally, which lowers transport costs and emissions. However, the combined effect of confined volume and complex sludge properties makes achieving strict regulations on flue gas emissions and end-ash composition challenging. System development thus requires the use of advanced, 3D CFD simulation supported studies. An important step forward regarding these is the application of combustion models which introduce tailored surrogate fuels and apply detailed chemical kinetics to achieve a high-fidelity combustion description in confined volumes. In relation to this, the paper presents an innovative computationally efficient sewage sludge surrogate-based combustion model capable of defining surrogates, tailored to sewage sludge, and capable of providing detailed insight into reaction zone evolution in small-scale sludge incineration systems. The validity of the proposed model and surrogates is confirmed via simulated temperatures differing from measurements in the small-scale system for less than 30 K. The validated model of a small-scale system is used in the parametric analysis of variable air–fuel ratios, higher fuel moisture presence, varying bed temperature, and varying thermal power to enable unprecedentedly accurate and efficient definition of design features of small-scale systems and to provide key guidelines for operation optimization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Engineering: Energy Conversion, Numerical Simulation, and Advanced Control)
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13 pages, 1329 KB  
Article
Integrating Acheta domesticus into Cocoa Cream Products: Nutritional Enhancement and Impact on Technological Properties
by Milica Stožinić, Ivana Lončarević, Branislav Šojić, Danica Zarić, Đurđica Ačkar, Biljana Pajin and Attila Gere
Processes 2025, 13(10), 3162; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13103162 - 4 Oct 2025
Viewed by 706
Abstract
Over the past few decades, people have become increasingly aware of how the ingredients in their food affect their health, leading to significant changes in dietary habits. A notable trend is the growing demand for high-protein foods. However, as consumption of high-protein products [...] Read more.
Over the past few decades, people have become increasingly aware of how the ingredients in their food affect their health, leading to significant changes in dietary habits. A notable trend is the growing demand for high-protein foods. However, as consumption of high-protein products increases, manufacturers face challenges in sourcing enough protein to meet this rising demand. One promising alternative is insect protein, which has attracted considerable attention in recent years due to its high nutritional value, with Acheta domesticus protein containing up to 80% protein per gram. To explore this potential, this study was conducted to investigate the effects of integrating different concentrations (10%, 12.5%, and 15%) of Acheta domesticus protein powder into cocoa cream products. The study’s findings indicated that incorporation of Acheta Domesticus protein resulted in a limited alteration in the particle size distribution of the cocoa cream, while sensory evaluations confirmed the absence of a gritty texture. In addition to sensory analysis, the study examined chemical composition, rheological properties, texture, color, and thermal characteristics. These results were compared with a control sample. The findings of this study indicate that the samples with 12.5 and 15% of the added protein can claim a nutritional statement “source of protein”. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Design, Analysis and Evaluation of Functional Foods)
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