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Processing Foods: Process Optimization and Quality Assessment, 3rd Edition

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A special issue of Processes (ISSN 2227-9717). This special issue belongs to the section "Food Process Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 15 November 2025 | Viewed by 10228

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Péter Sipos

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Doctoral School of Nutrition and Food Sciences, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary
Interests: food technology; rheology; quality of plant origin foods and raw materials; automation in food processing
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Milivoj Radojčin

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Guest Editor

Department of Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Novi Sad, 21102 Novi Sad, Serbia
Interests: food processing; drying; physical properties; rheology; energy
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

There are several new and long-standing demands in the food industry—our foodstuffs have to be delicious, attractive, nourishing, and rich in bioactive and health-promoting components and have a long shelf-life. The processes of food technology have a huge impact on these properties, and there are several situations where the producer has to choose between quality, cost, simplicity, or options available in the plant. This Special Issue focuses on the effect of different processes, such as heat treatment, separation, size reduction, mixing, chemical and enzymatic treatments, and fermentation, on the different quality attributes of foods and provides information for their optimization, considering their cost, environmental and health relations, and sustainability. New applications of informatics and unit operations that can be applied in quality assurance (e.g., sensor techniques for measurement and blockchain techniques for traceability) are also welcome.

Dr. Péter Sipos
Dr. Milivoj Radojčin
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Processes is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

unit operations
processing technologies
optimization
food quality
nutrition
traceability
sustainability

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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16 pages, 2008 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Spirulina Microalgae Powder in Gluten-Free Biscuits and Snacks Formulated with Quinoa Flour

by Ahmed M. S. Hussein, Sayed Mostafa, Shymaa M. Ata, Nefisa A. Hegazy, Ibrahim M. Abu-Reidah and Ahmed A. Zaky

Processes 2025, 13(3), 625; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13030625 - 22 Feb 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 738

Abstract

This study evaluated the effects of incorporating spirulina algae powder (SAP) at 3%, 6%, and 9% into quinoa flour (QF) blends to produce gluten-free biscuits and snacks, compared to a 100% QF control. The chemical composition, mineral and amino acid content, antioxidant capacity, starch gelatinization, color, baking quality, sensory properties, and texture were analyzed. SAP was found to have high protein (62.50%), fat (5.92%), and ash (12.90%) content. Increasing the SAP concentration in QF blends resulted in a dose-dependent enhancement in the nutritional value of the biscuits and snacks. Farinograph analysis indicated a positive relationship between SAP percentage and water absorption. The inclusion of SAP significantly altered differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and viscoamylograph parameters. Biscuit weight, volume, and specific volume decreased with increasing SAP levels. Hunter color measurements showed a SAP concentration-dependent darkening effect, which was supported by sensory assessments. The 9% SAP biscuits and snacks exhibited the greatest antioxidant activity, with DPPH values of 50.18 and 43.6 µmol/g, respectively, and reducing power values of 41.49 and 36.58 µmol/g, respectively. Overall, while all samples were deemed acceptable, the 3% and 6% SAP formulations generally demonstrated better sensory characteristics and improved nutritional profiles, suggesting their potential as suitable options for individuals with gluten sensitivities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing Foods: Process Optimization and Quality Assessment, 3rd Edition)

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15 pages, 2260 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Application of Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy and Chemometrics in Identifying Signatures for Sheep’s Milk Authentication

by Robert Duliński, Marek Gancarz, Nataliya Shakhovska and Łukasz Byczyński

Processes 2025, 13(2), 518; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13020518 - 12 Feb 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 810

Abstract

This study explores the application of Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy combined with chemometric and machine learning techniques for authenticating sheep’s milk and distinguishing it from cow’s milk. The demand for accurate authentication methods is driven by the high production costs of sheep’s milk and the prevalent issue of adulteration with cow’s milk, which can have economic, health, and ethical implications. Our research utilizes exploratory analysis, regression, and classification tasks on spectral data to identify characteristic spectral signatures and physicochemical parameters for sheep’s milk. Key methods included the application of decision trees, random forests, and k-nearest neighbors (KNN), with the random forest model showing the highest predictive accuracy (R² of 0.9801). Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed significant spectral and compositional differences, particularly in fat content and wavelengths responsible for amide I and II bands (1454 nm and 1550 nm) correlated with the conformational characteristics of the proteins, with sheep’s milk exhibiting higher values than cow’s milk. These findings indicate the potential of FTIR spectroscopy as a reliable tool for milk authentication. Currently, digitalization within the milk production chain is limited, particularly in the case of regional dairy products. The introduction of integrated photonics, machine learning, and, in the future, telemetry systems would enable dairy farmers to optimize their operations and ensure the origin and quality of the milk supplied to milk producers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing Foods: Process Optimization and Quality Assessment, 3rd Edition)

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24 pages, 14787 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Molecular Dynamics Simulation of the Thermal Treatment of the Ara h 6 Peanut Protein

by Andrea Smith and Vijaya Raghavan

Processes 2025, 13(2), 434; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13020434 - 6 Feb 2025

Viewed by 534

Abstract

The Ara h 6 protein is an important allergen found in peanuts (Arachis hypogaea). Ara h 6 represents a significant risk to human health, given its potential to trigger IgE-mediated anaphylaxis. Seeing as peanuts are often heat-processed prior to consumption, understanding the effect heat application has on the Ara h 6 protein’s structure and function is vital. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore, through the application of long-timescale 200 ns GROMACS molecular dynamics simulations, the structural changes that occur in the Ara h 6 allergen during thermal processing at 300 K, 350 K, 400 K and 450 K. Larger fluctuations in the Ara h 6 allergen’s secondary structure, RMSD and RMSF were identified at higher processing temperatures. However, observed decreases in R_g and SASA as processing temperature rose from 300 K to 400 K suggested that these observed fluctuations in the structure may be due to a compaction of the protein’s structure. Overall, the Ara h 6 allergen exhibited high thermostability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing Foods: Process Optimization and Quality Assessment, 3rd Edition)

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23 pages, 3918 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Bioassays to Assess the Safety of Potassium and Sodium Nitrates and Nitrites

by Tania Merinas-Amo, Rocío Merinas-Amo, Laura Márquez Prados, Rafael Font, Mercedes Del Río Celestino and Ángeles Alonso-Moraga

Processes 2025, 13(2), 325; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13020325 - 24 Jan 2025

Viewed by 871

Abstract

(1) Background: Advances in food processing practices and health care are some of the most significant advances in modern daily life. The goal of this study is to evaluate the safety of potassium and sodium nitrates and nitrites when they are used as fertilizers in agriculture and food additives, as well as the known conversion of nitrate to nitrite in humans. (2) Methods: Various bioassays were conducted to investigate the effects of nitrates and nitrites in the Drosophila melanogaster genetic tester system. These assays focused on the modulation of degenerative processes at the molecular, cellular, individual, and population levels. Additionally, we assessed the chemopreventive potential and the ability to induce DNA strand breaks in HL-60 tumour cells. (3) Results: All nitrate and nitrite concentrations tested were shown to not be toxic or genotoxic in Drosophila since none of the compounds reached the LD₅₀ and significant genetic mutation. A positive or null protective capacity against a toxic agent was found for nitrates, not for nitrites, showing that sodium nitrite has a synergistic effect when combined with the oxidant toxin hydrogen peroxide; and a nutraceutical potential in the lifespan only for sodium nitrate to improve the quality of life in 5 days at ADI concentration. The in vitro results in human leukemia cells showed a chemopreventive potential only for potassium nitrate and sodium nitrite due to reducing the viability of HL-60 cells growth to 18% and 29%, respectively, compared to the controls at ADI (acceptable daily intake) concentrations. However, neither of these showed DNA damage or methylation modifications. (4) Conclusions: The tested compounds were shown to be safe to use during in vivo and in vitro tests when used at the extrapolated ADI concentrations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing Foods: Process Optimization and Quality Assessment, 3rd Edition)

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14 pages, 857 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Optimized Dry Fractionation Process for Nutritional Enhancement of Different Sunflower Meals

by Strahinja Vidosavljević, Nemanja Bojanić, Danka Dragojlović, Viktor Stojkov, Tea Sedlar, Vojislav Banjac and Aleksandar Fišteš

Processes 2025, 13(1), 255; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13010255 - 17 Jan 2025

Viewed by 1147

Abstract

Sunflower meal (SFM), a byproduct of sunflower oil extraction, is a relatively inexpensive protein source with high potential for feed formulations. Dry fractionation methodologies are emerging as ‘green’ and affordable technologies with the potential to additionally enhance the nutritional quality of plant-based raw materials for animal feed, including sunflower meal. Following the optimization of a dry fractionation process in a previous study of the authors, this research aims to validate the defined parameters through the processing of three sunflower meals (SFM1, SFM2, and SFM3) with different characteristics. The dry fractionation process includes two-stage grinding using hammer mill and roll mill and fractionation of sunflower meal by sieving. The process successfully increased the protein content of sunflower meals in the range of 17.5% to 31.2%, reaching levels high enough to be categorized as “high protein” sunflower meals of first quality (42% as is). Exceptionally high fraction yields (76.5–78.9%) were obtained for all three sunflower meals. The lowest energy consumption was recorded for SFM1 (8.44 Wh/kg), while slightly higher values were observed during the processing of SFM2 and SFM3 (9.30 and 9.93 Wh/kg, respectively). Relative amino acid enrichments ranging from 13.35% to 26.64% were achieved, with lysine enrichment ranging from 18.9% to 36% and methionine from 30.6% to 44.1%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing Foods: Process Optimization and Quality Assessment, 3rd Edition)

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12 pages, 2546 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Characterization of the Alcoholic Fermentation Process in Wine Production Based on Acoustic Emission Analysis

by Angel Sanchez-Roca, Juan-Ignacio Latorre-Biel, Emilio Jiménez-Macías, Juan Carlos Saenz-Díez and Julio Blanco-Fernández

Processes 2024, 12(12), 2797; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12122797 - 7 Dec 2024

Viewed by 1060

Abstract

The present experimental study assessed the viability of utilizing an acoustic emission signal as a monitoring instrument to predict the chemical characteristics of wine throughout the alcoholic fermentation process. The purpose of this study is to acquire the acoustic emission signals generated by CO₂ bubbles to calculate the must density and monitor the kinetics of the alcoholic fermentation process. The kinetics of the process were evaluated in real time using a hydrophone immersed in the liquid within the fermentation tank. The measurements were conducted in multiple fermentation tanks at a winery engaged in the production of wines bearing the Rioja Denomination of Origin (D.O.) designation. Acoustic signals were acquired throughout the entirety of the fermentation process, via a sampling period of five minutes, and stored for subsequent processing. To validate the results, the measurements obtained manually in the laboratory by the winemaker were collected during this stage. Signal processing was conducted to extract descriptors from the acoustic signal and evaluate their correlation with the experimental data acquired during the process. The results of the analyses confirm that there is a high linear correlation between the density data obtained from the acoustic analysis and the density data obtained at the laboratory level, with determination coefficients exceeding 95%. The acoustic emission signal is a valuable decision-making tool for technicians and winemakers due to its sensitivity when describing variations in kinetics and density during the alcoholic fermentation process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing Foods: Process Optimization and Quality Assessment, 3rd Edition)

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26 pages, 8854 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Deep Fat Frying Characteristics of Malpoa: Kinetics, Heat, and Mass Transfer Modeling

by Puneeta Gupta, Imdadul Hoque Mondal, Kshirod Kumar Dash, Geetika, Tejas Suthar, Khadija Ramzan, Endre Harsanyi, Ayaz Mukarram Shaikh and Kovács Béla

Processes 2024, 12(12), 2662; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12122662 - 26 Nov 2024

Viewed by 1042

Abstract

This article investigated deep-frying characteristics of malpoa for varied frying time (2–10 min) and temperature (170–190 °C). The evaluation encompassed a comprehensive analysis of textural and color kinetics and heat and mass transfer modeling during deep fat frying of malpoa balls. Such investigations confirmed an enhancement in fat content from 10.2 to 41.65%. On the other hand, textural properties such as hardness, cohesiveness, and springiness varied from 3.14 to 22.59 N/mm, 0.22 to 0.76, and 15.5 to 49.56, respectively. Similarly, color parameters such as b^*/a^* and ΔE varied from 3.31 to 1.55 and 55.36 to 75.48. For the textural and color kinetics, the activation energies ranged between 58.65 and 85.82 kJ/mol and 31.34 and 64.34 kJ/mol. Similarly, for a variation in frying time from 2 to 10 min, responses (hardness, cohesiveness, springiness, and overall color) varied across the following ranges: 3.15–13.57 N, 0.22–0.66, 15.5–35.5, and 55.63–63.50 and 5.60–20.60 N, 0.30–0.77, 22.35–49.56, and 62.26–75.65 for temperatures of 170 and 190 degrees, respectively. On the other hand, heat and mass transfer analysis indicated a Biot number and heat transfer coefficient within the range of 0.31–0.65 and 25.58–34.64 for 170–190 °C. Thus, this investigation provides a deeper insight of the deep fat frying characteristics of malpoa. This provides a guideline for the food processing sector for such products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing Foods: Process Optimization and Quality Assessment, 3rd Edition)

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10 pages, 243 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Various Smoking Techniques on Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) Formation in Dry-Cured Pork Neck (Buđola)

by Leona Puljić, Brankica Kartalović, Kristina Habschied, Nikolina Kajić, Dragan Kovačević, Mario Kovač, Marija Banožić and Krešimir Mastanjević

Processes 2024, 12(11), 2335; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12112335 - 24 Oct 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 769

Abstract

Traditional meat products that are smoked may pose health risks due to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Recently, concerns have grown about the health implications of meat products smoked under traditional, uncontrolled conditions. This study compares the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in specimens of the dry-cured meat product “Buđola” made in traditional smokehouses versus industrial chambers. PAHs were measured upon completion of smoking and when the production was complete. The findings indicate that traditional smoking methods lead to higher PAH contamination compared to industrial methods. Among the 16 PAHs analyzed, 10 (NA, AL, FL, ANT, PHE, FLT, BA, PR, BBF, BKF) were detected in traditionally smoked “Buđola” samples, whereas only 2 (NA, AL) were found in samples smoked by industrial methods. The BP levels in all samples were undetectable. PAH4 levels in industrial smoked “Buđola” were below the quantification limit, while those in traditional products were 28.77 μg·kg⁻¹ for the surface layers and 21.14 μg·kg⁻¹ for inner layers. The total PAH16 content ranged from 4.32 μg·kg⁻¹ to 3587.83 μg·kg⁻¹. The inner layers had lower concentrations of overall and specific PAHs in relation to the product surface. The results suggest that, from a health perspective, industrially produced “Buđola” is safer for consumption than the product smoked in uncontrolled conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing Foods: Process Optimization and Quality Assessment, 3rd Edition)

15 pages, 2840 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rapid Detection of Adulteration in Minced Lamb Meat Using Vis-NIR Reflectance Spectroscopy

by Xiaojia Zuo, Yanlei Li, Xinwen Chen, Li Chen and Chang Liu

Processes 2024, 12(10), 2307; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12102307 - 21 Oct 2024

Viewed by 1441

Abstract

In view of the phenomenon that adulterated lamb with other animal-derived meats in the market could not be quickly identified, this study used visible near-infrared spectroscopy combined with chemometric methods to quickly identify and quantify lamb rolls adulterated with chicken, duck, and pork. The spectra of the visible–near-infrared band (350–1000 nm) and near-infrared band (1000–1700 nm) of 360 lamb samples, which were mixed with chicken, duck, pork, and 10% lamb oil separately in different increasing proportions, were collected. It was found that the qualitative models of heterogeneous meat (adulterated with chicken, duck, and pork) in lamb were constructed by the combination of first derivative and multiplicative scatter correction (MSC); the accuracy of the validation set reached 100%; the meantime accuracy of the cross-validation set reached 100% (pure lamb), 98.3% (adulterated with chicken), 98.7% (adulterated with duck), and 97.3% (adulterated with pork). Furthermore, the correlation coefficient (R²c) of the adulterated chicken, pork, and duck quantitative prediction models reached 0.972 (chicken), 0.981 (pork), and 0.985 (duck). In summary, the use of Vis NIR can identify lamb meat mixed with chicken, duck, and pork and can quantitatively predict the content of adulterated meat. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing Foods: Process Optimization and Quality Assessment, 3rd Edition)

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Review

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15 pages, 2437 KiB

Open AccessReview

New Techniques of Meat Quality Assessment for Detecting Meat Texture

by Chang Liu, Yanlei Li, Wenming Sun, Feiyu Ma, Xiangwu Wang and Zihao Yang

Processes 2025, 13(3), 640; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13030640 - 24 Feb 2025

Viewed by 1015

Abstract

Meat, as an essential food source in people’s lives, provides a wealth of nutrients. The physical properties of meat are directly related to its sensory caracteristics, such as elasticity, viscosity, and toughness. Food rheology, as a discipline that studies the deformation and flow behavior of food under force, can effectively characterize these physical properties of meat. The evaluation methods of rheological properties provide a more comprehensive and accurate means of detecting meat quality. This not only helps enhance the quality control level in the meat industry but also holds significant importance for safeguarding consumer rights. This paper reviews the assessment of rheological properties such as sensory evaluation, texture analyzers, and rheometers. The combined application of multiple technologies (such as the integration of hyperspectral imaging (HSI) with computer vision and the fusion of airflow and laser detection) and emerging technologies (such as nanotechnology and biosensor technology) shows potential in predicting the rheological properties of meat. It analyzes the current application status, advantages, and challenges faced by the assessment of rheological properties and provides an outlook on future development trends, offering theoretical references for the objective evaluation of meat quality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing Foods: Process Optimization and Quality Assessment, 3rd Edition)

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