Sensors

11 pages, 2607 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimation of Thermal Sensation Based on Wrist Skin Temperatures

by Soo Young Sim, Myung Jun Koh, Kwang Min Joo, Seungwoo Noh, Sangyun Park, Youn Ho Kim and Kwang Suk Park

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 420; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040420 - 23 Mar 2016

Cited by 113 | Viewed by 14056

Abstract

Thermal comfort is an essential environmental factor related to quality of life and work effectiveness. We assessed the feasibility of wrist skin temperature monitoring for estimating subjective thermal sensation. We invented a wrist band that simultaneously monitors skin temperatures from the wrist ( [...] Read more.

Thermal comfort is an essential environmental factor related to quality of life and work effectiveness. We assessed the feasibility of wrist skin temperature monitoring for estimating subjective thermal sensation. We invented a wrist band that simultaneously monitors skin temperatures from the wrist (i.e., the radial artery and ulnar artery regions, and upper wrist) and the fingertip. Skin temperatures from eight healthy subjects were acquired while thermal sensation varied. To develop a thermal sensation estimation model, the mean skin temperature, temperature gradient, time differential of the temperatures, and average power of frequency band were calculated. A thermal sensation estimation model using temperatures of the fingertip and wrist showed the highest accuracy (mean root mean square error [RMSE]: 1.26 ± 0.31). An estimation model based on the three wrist skin temperatures showed a slightly better result to the model that used a single fingertip skin temperature (mean RMSE: 1.39 ± 0.18). When a personalized thermal sensation estimation model based on three wrist skin temperatures was used, the mean RMSE was 1.06 ± 0.29, and the correlation coefficient was 0.89. Thermal sensation estimation technology based on wrist skin temperatures, and combined with wearable devices may facilitate intelligent control of one’s thermal environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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15 pages, 2808 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Amperometric Biosensor Based on Diamine Oxidase/Platinum Nanoparticles/Graphene/Chitosan Modified Screen-Printed Carbon Electrode for Histamine Detection

by Irina Mirela Apetrei and Constantin Apetrei

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 422; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040422 - 24 Mar 2016

Cited by 90 | Viewed by 9726

Abstract

This work describes the development and optimization studies of a novel biosensor employed in the detection and quantification of histamine in freshwater fish samples. The proposed biosensor is based on a modified carbon screen-printed electrode with diamineoxidase, graphene and platinum nanoparticles, which detects [...] Read more.

This work describes the development and optimization studies of a novel biosensor employed in the detection and quantification of histamine in freshwater fish samples. The proposed biosensor is based on a modified carbon screen-printed electrode with diamineoxidase, graphene and platinum nanoparticles, which detects the hydrogen peroxide formed by the chemical process biocatalysed by the enzyme diamine oxidase and immobilized onto the nanostructurated surface of the receptor element. The amperometric measurements with the biosensor have been implemented in buffer solution of pH 7.4, applying an optimal low potential of +0.4 V. The novel biosensor shows high sensitivity (0.0631 μA·μM), low detection limit (2.54 × 10⁻⁸ M) and a broad linear domain from 0.1 to 300 μM. The applicability in natural complex samples and the analytical parameters of this enzyme sensor have been performed in the quantification of histamine in freshwater fish. An excellent correlation among results achieved with the developed biosensor and results found with the standard method for all freshwater fish samples has been achieved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)

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11 pages, 5313 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Poly(3-Methylthiophene) Thin Films Deposited Electrochemically on QCMs for the Sensing of Volatile Organic Compounds

by Sadullah Öztürk, Arif Kösemen, Zafer Şen, Necmettin Kılınç and Mika Harbeck

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 423; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040423 - 23 Mar 2016

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 6738

Abstract

Poly(3-methylthiophene) (PMeT) thin films were electrochemically deposited on quartz crystal microbalance QCM transducers to investigate their volatile organic compound (VOC) sensing properties depending on ambient conditions. Twelve different VOCs including alcohols, ketones, chlorinated compounds, amines, and the organosphosphate dimethyl methylphosphonate (DMMP) were used [...] Read more.

Poly(3-methylthiophene) (PMeT) thin films were electrochemically deposited on quartz crystal microbalance QCM transducers to investigate their volatile organic compound (VOC) sensing properties depending on ambient conditions. Twelve different VOCs including alcohols, ketones, chlorinated compounds, amines, and the organosphosphate dimethyl methylphosphonate (DMMP) were used as analytes. The responses of the chemical sensors against DMMP were the highest among the tested analytes; thus, fabricated chemical sensors based on PMeT can be evaluated as potential candidates for selectively detecting DMMP. Generally, detection limits in the low ppm range could be achieved. The gas sensing measurements were recorded at various humid air conditions to investigate the effects of the humidity on the gas sensing properties. The sensing performance of the chemical sensors was slightly reduced in the presence of humidity in ambient conditions. While a decrease in sensitivity was observed for humidity levels up to 50% r.h., the sensitivity was nearly unaffected for higher humidity levels and a reliable detection of the VOCs and DMMP was possible with detection limits in the low ppm range. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Environmental Monitoring 2016)

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25 pages, 1181 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Secure Authentication for Remote Patient Monitoring with Wireless Medical Sensor Networks

by Thaier Hayajneh, Bassam J Mohd, Muhammad Imran, Ghada Almashaqbeh and Athanasios V. Vasilakos

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 424; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040424 - 24 Mar 2016

Cited by 77 | Viewed by 12045

Abstract

There is broad consensus that remote health monitoring will benefit all stakeholders in the healthcare system and that it has the potential to save billions of dollars. Among the major concerns that are preventing the patients from widely adopting this technology are data [...] Read more.

There is broad consensus that remote health monitoring will benefit all stakeholders in the healthcare system and that it has the potential to save billions of dollars. Among the major concerns that are preventing the patients from widely adopting this technology are data privacy and security. Wireless Medical Sensor Networks (MSNs) are the building blocks for remote health monitoring systems. This paper helps to identify the most challenging security issues in the existing authentication protocols for remote patient monitoring and presents a lightweight public-key-based authentication protocol for MSNs. In MSNs, the nodes are classified into sensors that report measurements about the human body and actuators that receive commands from the medical staff and perform actions. Authenticating these commands is a critical security issue, as any alteration may lead to serious consequences. The proposed protocol is based on the Rabin authentication algorithm, which is modified in this paper to improve its signature signing process, making it suitable for delay-sensitive MSN applications. To prove the efficiency of the Rabin algorithm, we implemented the algorithm with different hardware settings using Tmote Sky motes and also programmed the algorithm on an FPGA to evaluate its design and performance. Furthermore, the proposed protocol is implemented and tested using the MIRACL (Multiprecision Integer and Rational Arithmetic C/C++) library. The results show that secure, direct, instant and authenticated commands can be delivered from the medical staff to the MSN nodes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mobile Sensor Computing: Theory and Applications)

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30 pages, 3974 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Capacity of Heterogeneous Mobile Wireless Networks with D-Delay Transmission Strategy

by Feng Wu, Jiang Zhu, Zhipeng Xi and Kai Gao

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 425; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040425 - 25 Mar 2016

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4449

Abstract

This paper investigates the capacity problem of heterogeneous wireless networks in mobility scenarios. A heterogeneous network model which consists of n normal nodes and m helping nodes is proposed. Moreover, we propose a D-delay transmission strategy to ensure that every packet can [...] Read more.

This paper investigates the capacity problem of heterogeneous wireless networks in mobility scenarios. A heterogeneous network model which consists of n normal nodes and m helping nodes is proposed. Moreover, we propose a D-delay transmission strategy to ensure that every packet can be delivered to its destination nodes with limited delay. Different from most existing network schemes, our network model has a novel two-tier architecture. The existence of helping nodes greatly improves the network capacity. Four types of mobile networks are studied in this paper: i.i.d. fast mobility model and slow mobility model in two-dimensional space, i.i.d. fast mobility model and slow mobility model in three-dimensional space. Using the virtual channel model, we present an intuitive analysis of the capacity of two-dimensional mobile networks and three-dimensional mobile networks, respectively. Given a delay constraint D, we derive the asymptotic expressions for the capacity of the four types of mobile networks. Furthermore, the impact of D and m to the capacity of the whole network is analyzed. Our findings provide great guidance for the future design of the next generation of networks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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24 pages, 2213 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Complex Human Activity Recognition Using Smartphone and Wrist-Worn Motion Sensors

by Muhammad Shoaib, Stephan Bosch, Ozlem Durmaz Incel, Hans Scholten and Paul J. M. Havinga

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 426; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040426 - 24 Mar 2016

Cited by 362 | Viewed by 22925

Abstract

The position of on-body motion sensors plays an important role in human activity recognition. Most often, mobile phone sensors at the trouser pocket or an equivalent position are used for this purpose. However, this position is not suitable for recognizing activities that involve [...] Read more.

The position of on-body motion sensors plays an important role in human activity recognition. Most often, mobile phone sensors at the trouser pocket or an equivalent position are used for this purpose. However, this position is not suitable for recognizing activities that involve hand gestures, such as smoking, eating, drinking coffee and giving a talk. To recognize such activities, wrist-worn motion sensors are used. However, these two positions are mainly used in isolation. To use richer context information, we evaluate three motion sensors (accelerometer, gyroscope and linear acceleration sensor) at both wrist and pocket positions. Using three classifiers, we show that the combination of these two positions outperforms the wrist position alone, mainly at smaller segmentation windows. Another problem is that less-repetitive activities, such as smoking, eating, giving a talk and drinking coffee, cannot be recognized easily at smaller segmentation windows unlike repetitive activities, like walking, jogging and biking. For this purpose, we evaluate the effect of seven window sizes (2–30 s) on thirteen activities and show how increasing window size affects these various activities in different ways. We also propose various optimizations to further improve the recognition of these activities. For reproducibility, we make our dataset publicly available. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Body Worn Behavior Sensing)

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12 pages, 2659 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Voltage Measurement on the Quantitative Identification of Transverse Cracks by Electrical Measurements

by Lakshmi Selvakumaran and Gilles Lubineau

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 427; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040427 - 24 Mar 2016

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4790

Abstract

Electrical tomography can be used as a structural health monitoring technique to identify different damage mechanisms in composite laminates. Previous work has established the link between transverse cracking density and mesoscale conductivity of the ply. Through the mesoscale relationship, the conductivity obtained from [...] Read more.

Electrical tomography can be used as a structural health monitoring technique to identify different damage mechanisms in composite laminates. Previous work has established the link between transverse cracking density and mesoscale conductivity of the ply. Through the mesoscale relationship, the conductivity obtained from electrical tomography can be used as a measure of the transverse cracking density. Interpretation of this measure will be accurate provided the assumptions made during homogenization are valid. One main assumption of mesoscale homogenization is that the electric field is in the plane. Here, we test the validity of this assumption for laminates with varying anisotropy ratios and for different distances between the cracked ply and surface that is instrumented with electrodes. We also show the equivalence in electrical response between measurements from cracked laminates and their equivalent mesoscale counterparts. Finally, we propose some general guidelines on the measurement strategy for maximizing the accuracy of transverse cracks identification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Structural Health Monitoring in Polymeric Composites)

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13 pages, 1252 KiB

Open AccessArticle

RheoStim: Development of an Adaptive Multi-Sensor to Prevent Venous Stasis

by Sören Weyer, Fabio Weishaupt, Christian Kleeberg, Steffen Leonhardt and Daniel Teichmann

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 428; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040428 - 24 Mar 2016

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 8324

Abstract

Chronic venous insufficiency of the lower limbs is often underestimated and, in the absence of therapy, results in increasingly severe complications, including therapy-resistant tissue defects. Therefore, early diagnosis and adequate therapy is of particular importance. External counter pulsation (ECP) therapy is a method [...] Read more.

Chronic venous insufficiency of the lower limbs is often underestimated and, in the absence of therapy, results in increasingly severe complications, including therapy-resistant tissue defects. Therefore, early diagnosis and adequate therapy is of particular importance. External counter pulsation (ECP) therapy is a method used to assist the venous system. The main principle of ECP is to squeeze the inner leg vessels by muscle contractions, which are evoked by functional electrical stimulation. A new adaptive trigger method is proposed, which improves and supplements the current therapeutic options by means of pulse synchronous electro-stimulation of the muscle pump. For this purpose, blood flow is determined by multi-sensor plethysmography. The hardware design and signal processing of this novel multi-sensor plethysmography device are introduced. The merged signal is used to determine the phase of the cardiac cycle, to ensure stimulation of the muscle pump during the filling phase of the heart. The pulse detection of the system is validated against a gold standard and provides a sensitivity of 98% and a false-negative rate of 2% after physical exertion. Furthermore, flow enhancement of the system has been validated by duplex ultrasonography. The results show a highly increased blood flow in the popliteal vein at the knee. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Noninvasive Biomedical Sensors)

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26 pages, 17571 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Close-Range Tracking of Underwater Vehicles Using Light Beacons

by Josep Bosch, Nuno Gracias, Pere Ridao, Klemen Istenič and David Ribas

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 429; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040429 - 25 Mar 2016

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 9609

Abstract

This paper presents a new tracking system for autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) navigating in a close formation, based on computer vision and the use of active light markers. While acoustic localization can be very effective from medium to long distances, it is not [...] Read more.

This paper presents a new tracking system for autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) navigating in a close formation, based on computer vision and the use of active light markers. While acoustic localization can be very effective from medium to long distances, it is not so advantageous in short distances when the safety of the vehicles requires higher accuracy and update rates. The proposed system allows the estimation of the pose of a target vehicle at short ranges, with high accuracy and execution speed. To extend the field of view, an omnidirectional camera is used. This camera provides a full coverage of the lower hemisphere and enables the concurrent tracking of multiple vehicles in different positions. The system was evaluated in real sea conditions by tracking vehicles in mapping missions, where it demonstrated robust operation during extended periods of time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Underwater Sensor Nodes and Underwater Sensor Networks 2016)

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15 pages, 3682 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Tactile Sensor with Electromagnetic Induction and Its Application on Stick-Slip Interaction Detection

by Yanjie Liu, Haijun Han, Tao Liu, Jingang Yi, Qingguo Li and Yoshio Inoue

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 430; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040430 - 24 Mar 2016

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 7908

Abstract

Real-time detection of contact states, such as stick-slip interaction between a robot and an object on its end effector, is crucial for the robot to grasp and manipulate the object steadily. This paper presents a novel tactile sensor based on electromagnetic induction and [...] Read more.

Real-time detection of contact states, such as stick-slip interaction between a robot and an object on its end effector, is crucial for the robot to grasp and manipulate the object steadily. This paper presents a novel tactile sensor based on electromagnetic induction and its application on stick-slip interaction. An equivalent cantilever-beam model of the tactile sensor was built and capable of constructing the relationship between the sensor output and the friction applied on the sensor. With the tactile sensor, a new method to detect stick-slip interaction on the contact surface between the object and the sensor is proposed based on the characteristics of friction change. Furthermore, a prototype was developed for a typical application, stable wafer transferring on a wafer transfer robot, by considering the spatial magnetic field distribution and the sensor size according to the requirements of wafer transfer. The experimental results validate the sensing mechanism of the tactile sensor and verify its feasibility of detecting stick-slip on the contact surface between the wafer and the sensor. The sensing mechanism also provides a new approach to detect the contact state on the soft-rigid surface in other robot-environment interaction systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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10 pages, 5144 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fabrication of ZnO Nanowires Arrays by Anodization and High-Vacuum Die Casting Technique, and Their Piezoelectric Properties

by Chin-Guo Kuo, Ho Chang and Jian-Hao Wang

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 431; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040431 - 24 Mar 2016

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 7167

Abstract

In this investigation, anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) with arrayed and regularly arranged nanopores is used as a template in the high-vacuum die casting of molten zinc metal (Zn) into the nanopores. The proposed technique yields arrayed Zn nanowires with an aspect ratio of [...] Read more.

In this investigation, anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) with arrayed and regularly arranged nanopores is used as a template in the high-vacuum die casting of molten zinc metal (Zn) into the nanopores. The proposed technique yields arrayed Zn nanowires with an aspect ratio of over 600. After annealing, arrayed zinc oxide (ZnO) nanowires are obtained. Varying the anodizing time yields AAO templates with thicknesses of approximately 50 μm, 60 μm, and 70 μm that can be used in the fabrication of nanowires of three lengths with high aspect ratios. Experimental results reveal that a longer nanowire generates a greater measured piezoelectric current. The ZnO nanowires that are fabricated using an alumina template are anodized for 7 h and produce higher piezoelectric current of up to 69 pA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Advanced Materials on Microelectronic and Optical Sensors)

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15 pages, 8608 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spectroscopic Terahertz Imaging at Room Temperature Employing Microbolometer Terahertz Sensors and Its Application to the Study of Carcinoma Tissues

by Irmantas Kašalynas, Rimvydas Venckevičius, Linas Minkevičius, Aleksander Sešek, Faustino Wahaia, Vincas Tamošiūnas, Bogdan Voisiat, Dalius Seliuta, Gintaras Valušis, Andrej Švigelj and Janez Trontelj

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 432; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040432 - 25 Mar 2016

Cited by 79 | Viewed by 10303

Abstract

A terahertz (THz) imaging system based on narrow band microbolometer sensors (NBMS) and a novel diffractive lens was developed for spectroscopic microscopy applications. The frequency response characteristics of the THz antenna-coupled NBMS were determined employing Fourier transform spectroscopy. The NBMS was found to [...] Read more.

A terahertz (THz) imaging system based on narrow band microbolometer sensors (NBMS) and a novel diffractive lens was developed for spectroscopic microscopy applications. The frequency response characteristics of the THz antenna-coupled NBMS were determined employing Fourier transform spectroscopy. The NBMS was found to be a very sensitive frequency selective sensor which was used to develop a compact all-electronic system for multispectral THz measurements. This system was successfully applied for principal components analysis of optically opaque packed samples. A thin diffractive lens with a numerical aperture of 0.62 was proposed for the reduction of system dimensions. The THz imaging system enhanced with novel optics was used to image for the first time non-neoplastic and neoplastic human colon tissues with close to wavelength-limited spatial resolution at 584 GHz frequency. The results demonstrated the new potential of compact RT THz imaging systems in the fields of spectroscopic analysis of materials and medical diagnostics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infrared and THz Sensing and Imaging)

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18 pages, 4395 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation on the Mechanical and Electrical Behavior of a Tuning Fork-Shaped Ionic Polymer Metal Composite Actuator with a Continuous Water Supply Mechanism

by Guo-Hua Feng and Wei-Lun Huang

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 433; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040433 - 25 Mar 2016

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5300

Abstract

This paper presents an innovative tuning fork-shaped ionic polymer metal composite (IPMC) actuator. With an integrated soft strain gauge and water supply mechanism (WSM), the surface strain of the actuator can be sensed in situ, and providing a continuous water supply maintains [...] Read more.

This paper presents an innovative tuning fork-shaped ionic polymer metal composite (IPMC) actuator. With an integrated soft strain gauge and water supply mechanism (WSM), the surface strain of the actuator can be sensed in situ, and providing a continuous water supply maintains the water content inside the IPMC for long-term operation in air. The actuator was fabricated using a micromachining technique and plated with a nickel electrode. The device performance was experimentally characterized and compared with an actuator without a WSM. A large displacement of 1.5 mm was achieved for a 6 mm-long prong with 7-V dc actuation applied for 30 s. The measured current was analyzed using an electrochemical model. The results revealed that the faradaic current plays a crucial role during operation, particularly after 10 s. The measured strain confirms both the bending and axial strain generation during the open-and-close motion of the actuator prongs. Most of the water loss during device operation was due to evaporation rather than hydrolysis. The constructed WSM effectively maintained the water content inside the IPMC for long-term continuous operation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Graphical abstract

34 pages, 807 KiB

Open AccessReview

Balance Improvement Effects of Biofeedback Systems with State-of-the-Art Wearable Sensors: A Systematic Review

by Christina Zong-Hao Ma, Duo Wai-Chi Wong, Wing Kai Lam, Anson Hong-Ping Wan and Winson Chiu-Chun Lee

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 434; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040434 - 25 Mar 2016

Cited by 90 | Viewed by 13710

Abstract

Falls and fall-induced injuries are major global public health problems. Balance and gait disorders have been the second leading cause of falls. Inertial motion sensors and force sensors have been widely used to monitor both static and dynamic balance performance. Based on the [...] Read more.

Falls and fall-induced injuries are major global public health problems. Balance and gait disorders have been the second leading cause of falls. Inertial motion sensors and force sensors have been widely used to monitor both static and dynamic balance performance. Based on the detected performance, instant visual, auditory, electrotactile and vibrotactile biofeedback could be provided to augment the somatosensory input and enhance balance control. This review aims to synthesize the research examining the effect of biofeedback systems, with wearable inertial motion sensors and force sensors, on balance performance. Randomized and non-randomized clinical trials were included in this review. All studies were evaluated based on the methodological quality. Sample characteristics, device design and study characteristics were summarized. Most previous studies suggested that biofeedback devices were effective in enhancing static and dynamic balance in healthy young and older adults, and patients with balance and gait disorders. Attention should be paid to the choice of appropriate types of sensors and biofeedback for different intended purposes. Maximizing the computing capacity of the micro-processer, while minimizing the size of the electronic components, appears to be the future direction of optimizing the devices. Wearable balance-improving devices have their potential of serving as balance aids in daily life, which can be used indoors and outdoors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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12 pages, 3953 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Simple Interface for 3D Position Estimation of a Mobile Robot with Single Camera

by Chun-Tang Chao, Ming-Hsuan Chung, Juing-Shian Chiou and Chi-Jo Wang

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 435; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040435 - 25 Mar 2016

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 8439

Abstract

In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of mobile robots controlled by a smart phone or tablet. This paper proposes a visual control interface for a mobile robot with a single camera to easily control the robot actions and [...] Read more.

In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of mobile robots controlled by a smart phone or tablet. This paper proposes a visual control interface for a mobile robot with a single camera to easily control the robot actions and estimate the 3D position of a target. In this proposal, the mobile robot employed an Arduino Yun as the core processor and was remote-controlled by a tablet with an Android operating system. In addition, the robot was fitted with a three-axis robotic arm for grasping. Both the real-time control signal and video transmission are transmitted via Wi-Fi. We show that with a properly calibrated camera and the proposed prototype procedures, the users can click on a desired position or object on the touchscreen and estimate its 3D coordinates in the real world by simple analytic geometry instead of a complicated algorithm. The results of the measurement verification demonstrates that this approach has great potential for mobile robots. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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25 pages, 2317 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Delay/Disruption Tolerant Network-Based Message Forwarding for a River Pollution Monitoring Wireless Sensor Network Application

by Carlos Velásquez-Villada and Yezid Donoso

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 436; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040436 - 25 Mar 2016

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 6829

Abstract

Communications from remote areas that may be of interest is still a problem. Many innovative projects applied to remote sites face communications difficulties. The GOLDFISH project was an EU-funded project for river pollution monitoring in developing countries. It had several sensor clusters, with [...] Read more.

Communications from remote areas that may be of interest is still a problem. Many innovative projects applied to remote sites face communications difficulties. The GOLDFISH project was an EU-funded project for river pollution monitoring in developing countries. It had several sensor clusters, with floating WiFi antennas, deployed along a downstream river’s course. Sensor clusters sent messages to a Gateway installed on the riverbank. This gateway sent the messages, through a backhaul technology, to an Internet server where data was aggregated over a map. The communication challenge in this scenario was produced by the antennas’ movement and network backhaul availability. Since the antennas were floating on the river, communications could be disrupted at any time. Also, 2G/3G availability near the river was not constant. For non-real-time applications, we propose a Delay/Disruption Tolerant Network (DTN)-based solution where all nodes have persistent storage capabilities and DTN protocols to be able to wait minutes or hours to transmit. A mechanical backhaul will periodically visit the river bank where the gateway is installed and it will automatically collect sensor data to be carried to an Internet-covered spot. The proposed forwarding protocol delivers around 98% of the messages for this scenario, performing better than other well-known DTN routing protocols. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue I3S 2015 Selected Papers)

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11 pages, 1984 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Leaf Chlorophyll Content Estimation of Winter Wheat Based on Visible and Near-Infrared Sensors

by Jianfeng Zhang, Wenting Han, Lvwen Huang, Zhiyong Zhang, Yimian Ma and Yamin Hu

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 437; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040437 - 25 Mar 2016

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 9034

Abstract

The leaf chlorophyll content is one of the most important factors for the growth of winter wheat. Visual and near-infrared sensors are a quick and non-destructive testing technology for the estimation of crop leaf chlorophyll content. In this paper, a new approach is [...] Read more.

The leaf chlorophyll content is one of the most important factors for the growth of winter wheat. Visual and near-infrared sensors are a quick and non-destructive testing technology for the estimation of crop leaf chlorophyll content. In this paper, a new approach is developed for leaf chlorophyll content estimation of winter wheat based on visible and near-infrared sensors. First, the sliding window smoothing (SWS) was integrated with the multiplicative scatter correction (MSC) or the standard normal variable transformation (SNV) to preprocess the reflectance spectra images of wheat leaves. Then, a model for the relationship between the leaf relative chlorophyll content and the reflectance spectra was developed using the partial least squares (PLS) and the back propagation neural network. A total of 300 samples from areas surrounding Yangling, China, were used for the experimental studies. The samples of visible and near-infrared spectroscopy at the wavelength of 450,900 nm were preprocessed using SWS, MSC and SNV. The experimental results indicate that the preprocessing using SWS and SNV and then modeling using PLS can achieve the most accurate estimation, with the correlation coefficient at 0.8492 and the root mean square error at 1.7216. Thus, the proposed approach can be widely used for winter wheat chlorophyll content analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Agriculture)

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10 pages, 940 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Evaluation of Sensor Performance for Harmful Compounds by Using Photo-Induced Electron Transfer from Photosynthetic Membranes to Electrodes

by Megumi Kasuno, Hiroki Kimura, Hisataka Yasutomo, Masaki Torimura, Daisuke Murakami, Yusuke Tsukatani, Satoshi Hanada, Takayuki Matsushita and Hiroaki Tao

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 438; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040438 - 25 Mar 2016

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4983

Abstract

Rapid, simple, and low-cost screening procedures are necessary for the detection of harmful compounds in the effluent that flows out of point sources such as industrial outfall. The present study investigated the effects on a novel sensor of harmful compounds such as KCN, [...] Read more.

Rapid, simple, and low-cost screening procedures are necessary for the detection of harmful compounds in the effluent that flows out of point sources such as industrial outfall. The present study investigated the effects on a novel sensor of harmful compounds such as KCN, phenol, and herbicides such as 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea (DCMU), 2-chloro-4-ethylamino-6-isopropylamino-1,3,5-triazine (atrazine), and 2-N-tert-butyl-4-N-ethyl-6-methylsulfanyl-1,3,5-triazine-2,4-diamine (terbutryn). The sensor employed an electrode system that incorporated the photocurrent of intra-cytoplasmic membranes (so-called chromatophores) prepared from photosynthetic bacteria and linked using carbon paste electrodes. The amperometric curve (photocurrent-time curve) of photo-induced electron transfer from chromatophores of the purple photosynthetic bacterium Rhodobacter sphaeroides to the electrode via an exogenous electron acceptor was composed of two characteristic phases: an abrupt increase in current immediately after illumination (I₀), and constant current over time (I_c). Compared with other redox compounds, 2,5-dichloro-1,4-benzoquinone (DCBQ) was the most useful exogenous electron acceptor in this system. Photo-reduction of DCBQ exhibited Michaelis-Menten-like kinetics, and reduction rates were dependent on the amount of DCBQ and the photon flux intensity. The I_c decreased in the presence of KCN at concentrations over 0.05 μM (=μmol·dm⁻³). The I₀ decreased following the addition of phenol at concentrations over 20 μM. The I_c was affected by terbutryn at concentrations over 10 μM. In contrast, DCMU and atrazine had no effect on either I₀ or I_c. The utility of this electrode system for the detection of harmful compounds is discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 2nd International Electronic Conference on Sensors and Applications)

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8 pages, 2082 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improved Tuning Fork for Terahertz Quartz-Enhanced Photoacoustic Spectroscopy

by Angelo Sampaolo, Pietro Patimisco, Marilena Giglio, Miriam S. Vitiello, Harvey E. Beere, David A. Ritchie, Gaetano Scamarcio, Frank K. Tittel and Vincenzo Spagnolo

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 439; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040439 - 25 Mar 2016

Cited by 62 | Viewed by 7086

Abstract

We report on a quartz-enhanced photoacoustic (QEPAS) sensor for methanol (CH₃OH) detection employing a novel quartz tuning fork (QTF), specifically designed to enhance the QEPAS sensing performance in the terahertz (THz) spectral range. A discussion of the QTF properties in terms [...] Read more.

We report on a quartz-enhanced photoacoustic (QEPAS) sensor for methanol (CH₃OH) detection employing a novel quartz tuning fork (QTF), specifically designed to enhance the QEPAS sensing performance in the terahertz (THz) spectral range. A discussion of the QTF properties in terms of resonance frequency, quality factor and acousto-electric transduction efficiency as a function of prong sizes and spacing between the QTF prongs is presented. The QTF was employed in a QEPAS sensor system using a 3.93 THz quantum cascade laser as the excitation source in resonance with a CH₃OH rotational absorption line located at 131.054 cm⁻¹. A minimum detection limit of 160 ppb in 30 s integration time, corresponding to a normalized noise equivalent absorption NNEA = 3.75 × 10⁻¹¹ cm⁻¹W/Hz^½, was achieved, representing a nearly one-order-of-magnitude improvement with respect to previous reports. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infrared and THz Sensing and Imaging)

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13 pages, 3287 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of MEMS Accelerometers and Gyroscopes in Fast Steering Mirror Control Systems

by Jing Tian, Wenshu Yang, Zhenming Peng, Tao Tang and Zhijun Li

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 440; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040440 - 25 Mar 2016

Cited by 61 | Viewed by 10853

Abstract

In a charge-coupled device (CCD)-based fast steering mirror (FSM) tracking control system, high control bandwidth is the most effective way to enhance the closed-loop performance. However, the control system usually suffers a great deal from mechanical resonances and time delays induced by the [...] Read more.

In a charge-coupled device (CCD)-based fast steering mirror (FSM) tracking control system, high control bandwidth is the most effective way to enhance the closed-loop performance. However, the control system usually suffers a great deal from mechanical resonances and time delays induced by the low sampling rate of CCDs. To meet the requirements of high precision and load restriction, fiber-optic gyroscopes (FOGs) are usually used in traditional FSM tracking control systems. In recent years, the MEMS accelerometer and gyroscope are becoming smaller and lighter and their performance have improved gradually, so that they can be used in a fast steering mirror (FSM) to realize the stabilization of the line-of-sight (LOS) of the control system. Therefore, a tentative approach to implement a CCD-based FSM tracking control system, which uses MEMS accelerometers and gyroscopes as feedback components and contains an acceleration loop, a velocity loop and a position loop, is proposed. The disturbance suppression of the proposed method is the product of the error attenuation of the acceleration loop, the velocity loop and the position loop. Extensive experimental results show that the MEMS accelerometers and gyroscopes can act the similar role as the FOG with lower cost for stabilizing the LOS of the FSM tracking control system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Components of Mechatronics and Micro-Electro-Mechanical-Systems (MEMS) – Modeling and Design)

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11 pages, 2210 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Penetration Depth Measurement of Near-Infrared Hyperspectral Imaging Light for Milk Powder

by Min Huang, Moon S. Kim, Kuanglin Chao, Jianwei Qin, Changyeun Mo, Carlos Esquerre, Stephen Delwiche and Qibing Zhu

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 441; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040441 - 25 Mar 2016

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 9937

Abstract

The increasingly common application of the near-infrared (NIR) hyperspectral imaging technique to the analysis of food powders has led to the need for optical characterization of samples. This study was aimed at exploring the feasibility of quantifying penetration depth of NIR hyperspectral imaging [...] Read more.

The increasingly common application of the near-infrared (NIR) hyperspectral imaging technique to the analysis of food powders has led to the need for optical characterization of samples. This study was aimed at exploring the feasibility of quantifying penetration depth of NIR hyperspectral imaging light for milk powder. Hyperspectral NIR reflectance images were collected for eight different milk powder products that included five brands of non-fat milk powder and three brands of whole milk powder. For each milk powder, five different powder depths ranging from 1 mm–5 mm were prepared on the top of a base layer of melamine, to test spectral-based detection of the melamine through the milk. A relationship was established between the NIR reflectance spectra (937.5–1653.7 nm) and the penetration depth was investigated by means of the partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) technique to classify pixels as being milk-only or a mixture of milk and melamine. With increasing milk depth, classification model accuracy was gradually decreased. The results from the 1-mm, 2-mm and 3-mm models showed that the average classification accuracy of the validation set for milk-melamine samples was reduced from 99.86% down to 94.93% as the milk depth increased from 1 mm–3 mm. As the milk depth increased to 4 mm and 5 mm, model performance deteriorated further to accuracies as low as 81.83% and 58.26%, respectively. The results suggest that a 2-mm sample depth is recommended for the screening/evaluation of milk powders using an online NIR hyperspectral imaging system similar to that used in this study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Imaging: Sensors and Technologies)

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13 pages, 1920 KiB

Open AccessArticle

LS Channel Estimation and Signal Separation for UHF RFID Tag Collision Recovery on the Physical Layer

by Hanjun Duan, Haifeng Wu, Yu Zeng and Yuebin Chen

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 442; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040442 - 26 Mar 2016

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5708

Abstract

In a passive ultra-high frequency (UHF) radio-frequency identification (RFID) system, tag collision is generally resolved on a medium access control (MAC) layer. However, some of collided tag signals could be recovered on a physical (PHY) layer and, thus, enhance the identification efficiency of [...] Read more.

In a passive ultra-high frequency (UHF) radio-frequency identification (RFID) system, tag collision is generally resolved on a medium access control (MAC) layer. However, some of collided tag signals could be recovered on a physical (PHY) layer and, thus, enhance the identification efficiency of the RFID system. For the recovery on the PHY layer, channel estimation is a critical issue. Good channel estimation will help to recover the collided signals. Existing channel estimates work well for two collided tags. When the number of collided tags is beyond two, however, the existing estimates have more estimation errors. In this paper, we propose a novel channel estimate for the UHF RFID system. It adopts an orthogonal matrix based on the information of preambles which is known for a reader and applies a minimum-mean-square-error (MMSE) criterion to estimate channels. From the estimated channel, we could accurately separate the collided signals and recover them. By means of numerical results, we show that the proposed estimate has lower estimation errors and higher separation efficiency than the existing estimates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Identification, Information & Knowledge in the Internet of Things)

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16 pages, 247 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Survey on Security and Privacy in Emerging Sensor Networks: From Viewpoint of Close-Loop

by Lifu Zhang and Heng Zhang

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 443; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040443 - 26 Mar 2016

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6446

Abstract

Nowadays, as the next generation sensor networks, Cyber-Physical Systems (CPSs) refer to the complex networked systems that have both physical subsystems and cyber components, and the information flow between different subsystems and components is across a communication network, which forms a closed-loop. New [...] Read more.

Nowadays, as the next generation sensor networks, Cyber-Physical Systems (CPSs) refer to the complex networked systems that have both physical subsystems and cyber components, and the information flow between different subsystems and components is across a communication network, which forms a closed-loop. New generation sensor networks are found in a growing number of applications and have received increasing attention from many inter-disciplines. Opportunities and challenges in the design, analysis, verification and validation of sensor networks co-exists, among which security and privacy are two important ingredients. This paper presents a survey on some recent results in the security and privacy aspects of emerging sensor networks from the viewpoint of the closed-loop. This paper also discusses several future research directions under these two umbrellas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy in Sensor Networks)

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18 pages, 2925 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Virtual Environment to Improve the Detection of Oral-Facial Malfunction in Children with Cerebral Palsy

by María-Luisa Martín-Ruiz, Nuria Máximo-Bocanegra and Laura Luna-Oliva

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 444; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040444 - 26 Mar 2016

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 8561

Abstract

The importance of an early rehabilitation process in children with cerebral palsy (CP) is widely recognized. On the one hand, new and useful treatment tools such as rehabilitation systems based on interactive technologies have appeared for rehabilitation of gross motor movements. On the [...] Read more.

The importance of an early rehabilitation process in children with cerebral palsy (CP) is widely recognized. On the one hand, new and useful treatment tools such as rehabilitation systems based on interactive technologies have appeared for rehabilitation of gross motor movements. On the other hand, from the therapeutic point of view, performing rehabilitation exercises with the facial muscles can improve the swallowing process, the facial expression through the management of muscles in the face, and even the speech of children with cerebral palsy. However, it is difficult to find interactive games to improve the detection and evaluation of oral-facial musculature dysfunctions in children with CP. This paper describes a framework based on strategies developed for interactive serious games that is created both for typically developed children and children with disabilities. Four interactive games are the core of a Virtual Environment called SONRIE. This paper demonstrates the benefits of SONRIE to monitor children’s oral-facial difficulties. The next steps will focus on the validation of SONRIE to carry out the rehabilitation process of oral-facial musculature in children with cerebral palsy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Entertainment)

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14 pages, 1397 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Sensitive Secondary Users Selection Algorithm for Cognitive Radio Ad Hoc Networks

by Aohan Li, Guangjie Han, Liangtian Wan and Lei Shu

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 445; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040445 - 26 Mar 2016

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6588

Abstract

Secondary Users (SUs) are allowed to use the temporarily unused licensed spectrum without disturbing Primary Users (PUs) in Cognitive Radio Ad Hoc Networks (CRAHNs). Existing architectures for CRAHNs impose energy-consuming Cognitive Radios (CRs) on SUs. However, the advanced CRs will increase energy cost [...] Read more.

Secondary Users (SUs) are allowed to use the temporarily unused licensed spectrum without disturbing Primary Users (PUs) in Cognitive Radio Ad Hoc Networks (CRAHNs). Existing architectures for CRAHNs impose energy-consuming Cognitive Radios (CRs) on SUs. However, the advanced CRs will increase energy cost for their cognitive functionalities, which is undesirable for the battery powered devices. A new architecture referred to as spectral Requirement-based CRAHN (RCRAHN) is proposed to enhance energy efficiency for CRAHNs in this paper. In RCRAHNs, only parts of SUs are equipped with CRs. SUs equipped with CRs are referred to as Cognitive Radio Users (CRUs). To further enhance energy efficiency of CRAHNs, we aim to select minimum CRUs to sense available spectrum. A non-linear programming problem is mathematically formulated under the constraints of energy efficiency and real-time. Considering the NP-hardness of the problem, a framework of a heuristic algorithm referred to as Sensitive Secondary Users Selection (SSUS) was designed to compute the near-optimal solutions. The simulation results demonstrate that SSUS not only improves the energy efficiency, but also achieves satisfied performances in end-to-end delay and communication reliability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Identification, Information & Knowledge in the Internet of Things)

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26 pages, 5556 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pedestrian Detection and Tracking from Low-Resolution Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Thermal Imagery

by Yalong Ma, Xinkai Wu, Guizhen Yu, Yongzheng Xu and Yunpeng Wang

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 446; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040446 - 26 Mar 2016

Cited by 86 | Viewed by 14381

Abstract

Driven by the prominent thermal signature of humans and following the growing availability of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), more and more research efforts have been focusing on the detection and tracking of pedestrians using thermal infrared images recorded from UAVs. However, pedestrian detection [...] Read more.

Driven by the prominent thermal signature of humans and following the growing availability of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), more and more research efforts have been focusing on the detection and tracking of pedestrians using thermal infrared images recorded from UAVs. However, pedestrian detection and tracking from the thermal images obtained from UAVs pose many challenges due to the low-resolution of imagery, platform motion, image instability and the relatively small size of the objects. This research tackles these challenges by proposing a pedestrian detection and tracking system. A two-stage blob-based approach is first developed for pedestrian detection. This approach first extracts pedestrian blobs using the regional gradient feature and geometric constraints filtering and then classifies the detected blobs by using a linear Support Vector Machine (SVM) with a hybrid descriptor, which sophisticatedly combines Histogram of Oriented Gradient (HOG) and Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) features in order to achieve accurate detection. This research further proposes an approach for pedestrian tracking. This approach employs the feature tracker with the update of detected pedestrian location to track pedestrian objects from the registered videos and extracts the motion trajectory data. The proposed detection and tracking approaches have been evaluated by multiple different datasets, and the results illustrate the effectiveness of the proposed methods. This research is expected to significantly benefit many transportation applications, such as the multimodal traffic performance measure, pedestrian behavior study and pedestrian-vehicle crash analysis. Future work will focus on using fused thermal and visual images to further improve the detection efficiency and effectiveness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue UAV-Based Remote Sensing)

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17 pages, 2701 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Concrete Condition Assessment Using Impact-Echo Method and Extreme Learning Machines

by Jing-Kui Zhang, Weizhong Yan and De-Mi Cui

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 447; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040447 - 26 Mar 2016

Cited by 85 | Viewed by 10685

Abstract

The impact-echo (IE) method is a popular non-destructive testing (NDT) technique widely used for measuring the thickness of plate-like structures and for detecting certain defects inside concrete elements or structures. However, the IE method is not effective for full condition assessment (i.e. [...] Read more.

The impact-echo (IE) method is a popular non-destructive testing (NDT) technique widely used for measuring the thickness of plate-like structures and for detecting certain defects inside concrete elements or structures. However, the IE method is not effective for full condition assessment (i.e., defect detection, defect diagnosis, defect sizing and location), because the simple frequency spectrum analysis involved in the existing IE method is not sufficient to capture the IE signal patterns associated with different conditions. In this paper, we attempt to enhance the IE technique and enable it for full condition assessment of concrete elements by introducing advanced machine learning techniques for performing comprehensive analysis and pattern recognition of IE signals. Specifically, we use wavelet decomposition for extracting signatures or features out of the raw IE signals and apply extreme learning machine, one of the recently developed machine learning techniques, as classification models for full condition assessment. To validate the capabilities of the proposed method, we build a number of specimens with various types, sizes, and locations of defects and perform IE testing on these specimens in a lab environment. Based on analysis of the collected IE signals using the proposed machine learning based IE method, we demonstrate that the proposed method is effective in performing full condition assessment of concrete elements or structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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19 pages, 1865 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Energy Aware Adaptive Sampling Algorithm for Energy Harvesting WSN with Energy Hungry Sensors

by Bruno Srbinovski, Michele Magno, Fiona Edwards-Murphy, Vikram Pakrashi and Emanuel Popovici

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 448; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040448 - 28 Mar 2016

Cited by 63 | Viewed by 7899

Abstract

Wireless sensor nodes have a limited power budget, though they are often expected to be functional in the field once deployed for extended periods of time. Therefore, minimization of energy consumption and energy harvesting technology in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) are key tools [...] Read more.

Wireless sensor nodes have a limited power budget, though they are often expected to be functional in the field once deployed for extended periods of time. Therefore, minimization of energy consumption and energy harvesting technology in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) are key tools for maximizing network lifetime, and achieving self-sustainability. This paper proposes an energy aware Adaptive Sampling Algorithm (ASA) for WSN with power hungry sensors and harvesting capabilities, an energy management technique that can be implemented on any WSN platform with enough processing power to execute the proposed algorithm. An existing state-of-the-art ASA developed for wireless sensor networks with power hungry sensors is optimized and enhanced to adapt the sampling frequency according to the available energy of the node. The proposed algorithm is evaluated using two in-field testbeds that are supplied by two different energy harvesting sources (solar and wind). Simulation and comparison between the state-of-the-art ASA and the proposed energy aware ASA (EASA) in terms of energy durability are carried out using in-field measured harvested energy (using both wind and solar sources) and power hungry sensors (ultrasonic wind sensor and gas sensors). The simulation results demonstrate that using ASA in combination with an energy aware function on the nodes can drastically increase the lifetime of a WSN node and enable self-sustainability. In fact, the proposed EASA in conjunction with energy harvesting capability can lead towards perpetual WSN operation and significantly outperform the state-of-the-art ASA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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16 pages, 3961 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tracking Mobile Sinks via Analysis of Movement Angle Changes in WSNs

by Guisong Yang, Huifen Xu, Xingyu He, Gang Wang, Naixue Xiong and Chunxue Wu

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 449; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040449 - 29 Mar 2016

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5547

Abstract

Existing methods for tracking mobile sinks in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) often incur considerable energy consumption and overhead. To address this issue, we propose a Detour-Aware Mobile Sink Tracking (DAMST) method via analysis of movement angle changes of mobile sinks, for collecting data [...] Read more.

Existing methods for tracking mobile sinks in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) often incur considerable energy consumption and overhead. To address this issue, we propose a Detour-Aware Mobile Sink Tracking (DAMST) method via analysis of movement angle changes of mobile sinks, for collecting data in a low-overhead and energy efficient way. In the proposed method, while a mobile sink passes through a region, it appoints a specific node as a region agent to collect information of the whole region, and records nodes near or on its trajectory as footprints. If it needs information from the region agent in a future time it will construct an energy efficient path from the region agent to itself by calculating its own movement angles according to the footprints, as well as getting rid of detours by analyzing these movement angles. Finally, the performance of the tracking method is evaluated systematically under different trajectory patterns and footprint appointment intervals. The simulation results consolidate that DAMST has advantages in reducing energy consumption and data overhead. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mobile Sensor Computing: Theory and Applications)

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6 pages, 1530 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Improvement of Total Ionization Dose Radiation Sensor Devices Using Fluorine-Treated MOHOS

by Wen-Ching Hsieh, Hao-Tien Daniel Lee, Fuh-Cheng Jong and Shich-Chuan Wu

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 450; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040450 - 29 Mar 2016

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5182

Abstract

Fluorine-treated titanium nitride–silicon oxide–hafnium oxide–silicon oxide–silicon devices (hereafter F-MOHOS) are candidates for total ionization dose (TID) radiation sensor applications. The main subject of the study reportedherein is the performance improvement in terms of TID radiation-induced charge generation effect and charge-retention reliability characterization for [...] Read more.

Fluorine-treated titanium nitride–silicon oxide–hafnium oxide–silicon oxide–silicon devices (hereafter F-MOHOS) are candidates for total ionization dose (TID) radiation sensor applications. The main subject of the study reportedherein is the performance improvement in terms of TID radiation-induced charge generation effect and charge-retention reliability characterization for F-MOHOS devices. In the case of F-MOHOS TID radiation sensors, the gamma radiation induces a significant decrease of threshold voltage V_T and the radiation-induced charge density is nearly six times larger than that of standard metal–oxide–nitride–oxide–silicon MONOS devices. The decrease of V_T for F-MOHOS after gamma irradiation has a strong correlation to the TID up to 5 Mrad gamma irradiation as well. The improvement of charge retention loss for F-MOHOS devices is nearly 15% better than that of metal–oxide–hafnium oxide–oxide–silicon MOHOS devices. The F-MOHOS device described in this study demonstrates better feasibility for non-volatile TID radiation sensing in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 2nd International Electronic Conference on Sensors and Applications)

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25 pages, 5540 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Trust-Based Adaptive Probability Marking and Storage Traceback Scheme for WSNs

by Anfeng Liu, Xiao Liu and Jun Long

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 451; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040451 - 30 Mar 2016

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5254

Abstract

Security is a pivotal issue for wireless sensor networks (WSNs), which are emerging as a promising platform that enables a wide range of military, scientific, industrial and commercial applications. Traceback, a key cyber-forensics technology, can play an important role in tracing and locating [...] Read more.

Security is a pivotal issue for wireless sensor networks (WSNs), which are emerging as a promising platform that enables a wide range of military, scientific, industrial and commercial applications. Traceback, a key cyber-forensics technology, can play an important role in tracing and locating a malicious source to guarantee cybersecurity. In this work a trust-based adaptive probability marking and storage (TAPMS) traceback scheme is proposed to enhance security for WSNs. In a TAPMS scheme, the marking probability is adaptively adjusted according to the security requirements of the network and can substantially reduce the number of marking tuples and improve network lifetime. More importantly, a high trust node is selected to store marking tuples, which can avoid the problem of marking information being lost. Experimental results show that the total number of marking tuples can be reduced in a TAPMS scheme, thus improving network lifetime. At the same time, since the marking tuples are stored in high trust nodes, storage reliability can be guaranteed, and the traceback time can be reduced by more than 80%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy in Sensor Networks)

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8 pages, 6479 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Non-Invasive Examination of Plant Surfaces by Opto-Electronic Means—Using Russet as a Prime Example

by Matthias Klemm, Olga Röttger, Lutz Damerow and Michael Blanke

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 452; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040452 - 29 Mar 2016

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6748

Abstract

(1) Background: Many disorders and diseases of agricultural produce change the physical features of surfaces of plant organs; in terms of russet, e.g., of apple or pear, affected fruit peel becomes rough and brown in color, which is associated with changes in light [...] Read more.

(1) Background: Many disorders and diseases of agricultural produce change the physical features of surfaces of plant organs; in terms of russet, e.g., of apple or pear, affected fruit peel becomes rough and brown in color, which is associated with changes in light reflection; (2) Objective and Methods: The objective of the present project was an interdisciplinary approach between horticultural science and engineering to examine two new innovative technologies as to their suitability for the non-destructive determination of surfaces of plant organs, using russet as an example, and (a) an industrial luster sensor (type CZ-H72, Keyence, Japan) and (b) a new type of a three-dimensional (3D) color microscope (VHX 5000); (3) Results: In the case of russet, i.e., suberinization of the fruit peel, peel roughness increased by ca. 2.5-fold from ca. 20 µm to ca. 50 µm on affected fruit sections when viewed at 200× magnification. Russeted peel showed significantly reduced luster, with smaller variation than russet-devoid peel with larger variation; (4) Conclusion: These results indicate that both sensors are suitable for biological material and their use for non-contact, non-invasive detection of surface disorders on agricultural produce such as russet may be a very powerful tool for many applications in agriculture and beyond in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Agriculture)

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31 pages, 22718 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Human Detection Based on the Generation of a Background Image and Fuzzy System by Using a Thermal Camera

by Eun Som Jeon, Jong Hyun Kim, Hyung Gil Hong, Ganbayar Batchuluun and Kang Ryoung Park

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 453; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040453 - 30 Mar 2016

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 8206

Abstract

Recently, human detection has been used in various applications. Although visible light cameras are usually employed for this purpose, human detection based on visible light cameras has limitations due to darkness, shadows, sunlight, etc. An approach using a thermal (far infrared light) [...] Read more.

Recently, human detection has been used in various applications. Although visible light cameras are usually employed for this purpose, human detection based on visible light cameras has limitations due to darkness, shadows, sunlight, etc. An approach using a thermal (far infrared light) camera has been studied as an alternative for human detection, however, the performance of human detection by thermal cameras is degraded in case of low temperature differences between humans and background. To overcome these drawbacks, we propose a new method for human detection by using thermal camera images. The main contribution of our research is that the thresholds for creating the binarized difference image between the input and background (reference) images can be adaptively determined based on fuzzy systems by using the information derived from the background image and difference values between background and input image. By using our method, human area can be correctly detected irrespective of the various conditions of input and background (reference) images. For the performance evaluation of the proposed method, experiments were performed with the 15 datasets captured under different weather and light conditions. In addition, the experiments with an open database were also performed. The experimental results confirm that the proposed method can robustly detect human shapes in various environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infrared and THz Sensing and Imaging)

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22 pages, 856 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Geometry-Based Distributed Spatial Skyline Queries in Wireless Sensor Networks

by Yan Wang, Baoyan Song, Junlu Wang, Li Zhang and Ling Wang

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 454; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040454 - 29 Mar 2016

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5427

Abstract

Algorithms for skyline querying based on wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have been widely used in the field of environmental monitoring. Because of the multi-dimensional nature of the problem of monitoring spatial position, traditional skyline query strategies cause enormous computational costs and energy consumption. [...] Read more.

Algorithms for skyline querying based on wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have been widely used in the field of environmental monitoring. Because of the multi-dimensional nature of the problem of monitoring spatial position, traditional skyline query strategies cause enormous computational costs and energy consumption. To ensure the efficient use of sensor energy, a geometry-based distributed spatial query strategy (GDSSky) is proposed in this paper. Firstly, the paper presents a geometry-based region partition strategy. It uses the skyline area reduction method based on the convex hull vertices, to quickly query the spatial skyline data related to a specific query area, and proposes a regional partition strategy based on the triangulation method, to implement distributed queries in each sub-region and reduce the comparison times between nodes. Secondly, a sub-region clustering strategy is designed to group the data inside into clusters for parallel queries that can save time. Finally, the paper presents a distributed query strategy based on the data node tree to traverse all adjacent sensors’ monitoring locations. It conducts spatial skyline queries for spatial skyline data that have been obtained and not found respectively, so as to realize the parallel queries. A large number of simulation results shows that GDSSky can quickly return the places which are nearer to query locations and have larger pollution capacity, and significantly reduce the WSN energy consumption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Identification, Information & Knowledge in the Internet of Things)

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19 pages, 550 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic RACH Partition for Massive Access of Differentiated M2M Services

by Qinghe Du, Wanyu Li, Lingjia Liu, Pinyi Ren, Yichen Wang and Li Sun

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 455; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040455 - 30 Mar 2016

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 6316

Abstract

In machine-to-machine (M2M) networks, a key challenge is to overcome the overload problem caused by random access requests from massive machine-type communication (MTC) devices. When differentiated services coexist, such as delay-sensitive and delay-tolerant services, the problem becomes more complicated and challenging. This is [...] Read more.

In machine-to-machine (M2M) networks, a key challenge is to overcome the overload problem caused by random access requests from massive machine-type communication (MTC) devices. When differentiated services coexist, such as delay-sensitive and delay-tolerant services, the problem becomes more complicated and challenging. This is because delay-sensitive services often use more aggressive policies, and thus, delay-tolerant services get much fewer chances to access the network. To conquer the problem, we propose an efficient mechanism for massive access control over differentiated M2M services, including delay-sensitive and delay-tolerant services. Specifically, based on the traffic loads of the two types of services, the proposed scheme dynamically partitions and allocates the random access channel (RACH) resource to each type of services. The RACH partition strategy is thoroughly optimized to increase the access performances of M2M networks. Analyses and simulation demonstrate the effectiveness of our design. The proposed scheme can outperform the baseline access class barring (ACB) scheme, which ignores service types in access control, in terms of access success probability and the average access delay. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Identification, Information & Knowledge in the Internet of Things)

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20 pages, 12997 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Background Subtraction Based on Three-Dimensional Discrete Wavelet Transform

by Guang Han, Jinkuan Wang and Xi Cai

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 456; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040456 - 30 Mar 2016

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5997

Abstract

Background subtraction without a separate training phase has become a critical task, because a sufficiently long and clean training sequence is usually unavailable, and people generally thirst for immediate detection results from the first frame of a video. Without a training phase, we [...] Read more.

Background subtraction without a separate training phase has become a critical task, because a sufficiently long and clean training sequence is usually unavailable, and people generally thirst for immediate detection results from the first frame of a video. Without a training phase, we propose a background subtraction method based on three-dimensional (3D) discrete wavelet transform (DWT). Static backgrounds with few variations along the time axis are characterized by intensity temporal consistency in the 3D space-time domain and, hence, correspond to low-frequency components in the 3D frequency domain. Enlightened by this, we eliminate low-frequency components that correspond to static backgrounds using the 3D DWT in order to extract moving objects. Owing to the multiscale analysis property of the 3D DWT, the elimination of low-frequency components in sub-bands of the 3D DWT is equivalent to performing a pyramidal 3D filter. This 3D filter brings advantages to our method in reserving the inner parts of detected objects and reducing the ringing around object boundaries. Moreover, we make use of wavelet shrinkage to remove disturbance of intensity temporal consistency and introduce an adaptive threshold based on the entropy of the histogram to obtain optimal detection results. Experimental results show that our method works effectively in situations lacking training opportunities and outperforms several popular techniques. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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6 pages, 234 KiB

Open AccessLetter

On the Achievable Throughput Over TVWS Sensor Networks

by Marcello Caleffi and Angela Sara Cacciapuoti

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 457; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040457 - 30 Mar 2016

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3848

Abstract

In this letter, we study the throughput achievable by an unlicensed sensor network operating over TV white space spectrum in presence of coexistence interference. Through the letter, we first analytically derive the achievable throughput as a function of the channel ordering. Then, we [...] Read more.

In this letter, we study the throughput achievable by an unlicensed sensor network operating over TV white space spectrum in presence of coexistence interference. Through the letter, we first analytically derive the achievable throughput as a function of the channel ordering. Then, we show that the problem of deriving the maximum expected throughput through exhaustive search is computationally unfeasible. Finally, we derive a computational-efficient algorithm characterized by polynomial-time complexity to compute the channel set maximizing the expected throughput and, stemming from this, we derive a closed-form expression of the maximum expected throughput. Numerical simulations validate the theoretical analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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13 pages, 13856 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optical Riblet Sensor: Beam Parameter Requirements for the Probing Laser Source

by Juliane Tschentscher, Sven Hochheim, Hauke Brüning, Kai Brune, Kay-Michael Voit and Mirco Imlau

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 458; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040458 - 30 Mar 2016

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 7602

Abstract

Beam parameters of a probing laser source in an optical riblet sensor are studied by considering the high demands on a sensors’ precision and reliability for the determination of deviations of the geometrical shape of a riblet. Mandatory requirements, such as minimum intensity [...] Read more.

Beam parameters of a probing laser source in an optical riblet sensor are studied by considering the high demands on a sensors’ precision and reliability for the determination of deviations of the geometrical shape of a riblet. Mandatory requirements, such as minimum intensity and light polarization, are obtained by means of detailed inspection of the optical response of the riblet using ray and wave optics; the impact of wavelength is studied. Novel measures for analyzing the riblet shape without the necessity of a measurement with a reference sample are derived; reference values for an ideal riblet structure obtained with the optical riblet sensor are given. The application of a low-cost, frequency-doubled Nd:YVO₄ laser pointer sufficient to serve as a reliable laser source in an appropriate optical riblet sensor is discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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9 pages, 4630 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Single-Photon Avalanche Diode with Enhanced NIR-Sensitivity for Automotive LIDAR Systems

by Isamu Takai, Hiroyuki Matsubara, Mineki Soga, Mitsuhiko Ohta, Masaru Ogawa and Tatsuya Yamashita

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 459; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040459 - 30 Mar 2016

Cited by 94 | Viewed by 17286

Abstract

A single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) with enhanced near-infrared (NIR) sensitivity has been developed, based on 0.18 μm CMOS technology, for use in future automotive light detection and ranging (LIDAR) systems. The newly proposed SPAD operating in Geiger mode achieves a high NIR photon [...] Read more.

A single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) with enhanced near-infrared (NIR) sensitivity has been developed, based on 0.18 μm CMOS technology, for use in future automotive light detection and ranging (LIDAR) systems. The newly proposed SPAD operating in Geiger mode achieves a high NIR photon detection efficiency (PDE) without compromising the fill factor (FF) and a low breakdown voltage of approximately 20.5 V. These properties are obtained by employing two custom layers that are designed to provide a full-depletion layer with a high electric field profile. Experimental evaluation of the proposed SPAD reveals an FF of 33.1% and a PDE of 19.4% at 870 nm, which is the laser wavelength of our LIDAR system. The dark count rate (DCR) measurements shows that DCR levels of the proposed SPAD have a small effect on the ranging performance, even if the worst DCR (12.7 kcps) SPAD among the test samples is used. Furthermore, with an eye toward vehicle installations, the DCR is measured over a wide temperature range of 25–132 °C. The ranging experiment demonstrates that target distances are successfully measured in the distance range of 50–180 cm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photon-Counting Image Sensors)

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23 pages, 3827 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cost-Effective Encryption-Based Autonomous Routing Protocol for Efficient and Secure Wireless Sensor Networks

by Kashif Saleem, Abdelouahid Derhab, Mehmet A. Orgun, Jalal Al-Muhtadi, Joel J. P. C. Rodrigues, Mohammed Sayim Khalil and Adel Ali Ahmed

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 460; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040460 - 31 Mar 2016

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6359

Abstract

The deployment of intelligent remote surveillance systems depends on wireless sensor networks (WSNs) composed of various miniature resource-constrained wireless sensor nodes. The development of routing protocols for WSNs is a major challenge because of their severe resource constraints, ad hoc topology and dynamic [...] Read more.

The deployment of intelligent remote surveillance systems depends on wireless sensor networks (WSNs) composed of various miniature resource-constrained wireless sensor nodes. The development of routing protocols for WSNs is a major challenge because of their severe resource constraints, ad hoc topology and dynamic nature. Among those proposed routing protocols, the biology-inspired self-organized secure autonomous routing protocol (BIOSARP) involves an artificial immune system (AIS) that requires a certain amount of time to build up knowledge of neighboring nodes. The AIS algorithm uses this knowledge to distinguish between self and non-self neighboring nodes. The knowledge-building phase is a critical period in the WSN lifespan and requires active security measures. This paper proposes an enhanced BIOSARP (E-BIOSARP) that incorporates a random key encryption mechanism in a cost-effective manner to provide active security measures in WSNs. A detailed description of E-BIOSARP is presented, followed by an extensive security and performance analysis to demonstrate its efficiency. A scenario with E-BIOSARP is implemented in network simulator 2 (ns-2) and is populated with malicious nodes for analysis. Furthermore, E-BIOSARP is compared with state-of-the-art secure routing protocols in terms of processing time, delivery ratio, energy consumption, and packet overhead. The findings show that the proposed mechanism can efficiently protect WSNs from selective forwarding, brute-force or exhaustive key search, spoofing, eavesdropping, replaying or altering of routing information, cloning, acknowledgment spoofing, HELLO flood attacks, and Sybil attacks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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17 pages, 3259 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multichannel-Sensing Scheduling and Transmission-Energy Optimizing in Cognitive Radio Networks with Energy Harvesting

by Tran-Nhut-Khai Hoan, Vu-Van Hiep and In-Soo Koo

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 461; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040461 - 31 Mar 2016

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4769

Abstract

This paper considers cognitive radio networks (CRNs) utilizing multiple time-slotted primary channels in which cognitive users (CUs) are powered by energy harvesters. The CUs are under the consideration that hardware constraints on radio devices only allow them to sense and transmit on one [...] Read more.

This paper considers cognitive radio networks (CRNs) utilizing multiple time-slotted primary channels in which cognitive users (CUs) are powered by energy harvesters. The CUs are under the consideration that hardware constraints on radio devices only allow them to sense and transmit on one channel at a time. For a scenario where the arrival of harvested energy packets and the battery capacity are finite, we propose a scheme to optimize (i) the channel-sensing schedule (consisting of finding the optimal action (silent or active) and sensing order of channels) and (ii) the optimal transmission energy set corresponding to the channels in the sensing order for the operation of the CU in order to maximize the expected throughput of the CRN over multiple time slots. Frequency-switching delay, energy-switching cost, correlation in spectrum occupancy across time and frequency and errors in spectrum sensing are also considered in this work. The performance of the proposed scheme is evaluated via simulation. The simulation results show that the throughput of the proposed scheme is greatly improved, in comparison to related schemes in the literature. The collision ratio on the primary channels is also investigated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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22 pages, 3166 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Adaptive Data Gathering Scheme for Multi-Hop Wireless Sensor Networks Based on Compressed Sensing and Network Coding

by Jun Yin, Yuwang Yang and Lei Wang

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 462; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040462 - 1 Apr 2016

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5969

Abstract

Joint design of compressed sensing (CS) and network coding (NC) has been demonstrated to provide a new data gathering paradigm for multi-hop wireless sensor networks (WSNs). By exploiting the correlation of the network sensed data, a variety of data gathering schemes based on [...] Read more.

Joint design of compressed sensing (CS) and network coding (NC) has been demonstrated to provide a new data gathering paradigm for multi-hop wireless sensor networks (WSNs). By exploiting the correlation of the network sensed data, a variety of data gathering schemes based on NC and CS (Compressed Data Gathering—CDG) have been proposed. However, these schemes assume that the sparsity of the network sensed data is constant and the value of the sparsity is known before starting each data gathering epoch, thus they ignore the variation of the data observed by the WSNs which are deployed in practical circumstances. In this paper, we present a complete design of the feedback CDG scheme where the sink node adaptively queries those interested nodes to acquire an appropriate number of measurements. The adaptive measurement-formation procedure and its termination rules are proposed and analyzed in detail. Moreover, in order to minimize the number of overall transmissions in the formation procedure of each measurement, we have developed a NP-complete model (Maximum Leaf Nodes Minimum Steiner Nodes—MLMS) and realized a scalable greedy algorithm to solve the problem. Experimental results show that the proposed measurement-formation method outperforms previous schemes, and experiments on both datasets from ocean temperature and practical network deployment also prove the effectiveness of our proposed feedback CDG scheme. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Data in the IoT: from Sensing to Meaning)

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21 pages, 1478 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Potential of IMU Sensors in Performance Analysis of Professional Alpine Skiers

by Gwangjae Yu, Young Jae Jang, Jinhyeok Kim, Jin Hae Kim, Hye Young Kim, Kitae Kim and Siddhartha Bikram Panday

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 463; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040463 - 1 Apr 2016

Cited by 63 | Viewed by 13330

Abstract

In this paper, we present an analysis to identify a sensor location for an inertial measurement unit (IMU) on the body of a skier and propose the best location to capture turn motions for training. We also validate the manner in which the [...] Read more.

In this paper, we present an analysis to identify a sensor location for an inertial measurement unit (IMU) on the body of a skier and propose the best location to capture turn motions for training. We also validate the manner in which the data from the IMU sensor on the proposed location can characterize ski turns and performance with a series of statistical analyses, including a comparison with data collected from foot pressure sensors. The goal of the study is to logically identify the ideal location on the skier’s body to attach the IMU sensor and the best use of the data collected for the skier. The statistical analyses and the hierarchical clustering method indicate that the pelvis is the best location for attachment of an IMU, and numerical validation shows that the data collected from this location can effectively estimate the performance and characteristics of the skier. Moreover, placement of the sensor at this location does not distract the skier’s motion, and the sensor can be easily attached and detached. The findings of this study can be used for the development of a wearable device for the routine training of professional skiers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Entertainment)

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14 pages, 535 KiB

Open AccessArticle

SACRB-MAC: A High-Capacity MAC Protocol for Cognitive Radio Sensor Networks in Smart Grid

by Zhutian Yang, Zhenguo Shi and Chunlin Jin

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 464; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040464 - 31 Mar 2016

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5931

Abstract

The Cognitive Radio Sensor Network (CRSN) is considered as a viable solution to enhance various aspects of the electric power grid and to realize a smart grid. However, several challenges for CRSNs are generated due to the harsh wireless environment in a smart [...] Read more.

The Cognitive Radio Sensor Network (CRSN) is considered as a viable solution to enhance various aspects of the electric power grid and to realize a smart grid. However, several challenges for CRSNs are generated due to the harsh wireless environment in a smart grid. As a result, throughput and reliability become critical issues. On the other hand, the spectrum aggregation technique is expected to play an important role in CRSNs in a smart grid. By using spectrum aggregation, the throughput of CRSNs can be improved efficiently, so as to address the unique challenges of CRSNs in a smart grid. In this regard, we proposed Spectrum Aggregation Cognitive Receiver-Based MAC (SACRB-MAC), which employs the spectrum aggregation technique to improve the throughput performance of CRSNs in a smart grid. Moreover, SACRB-MAC is a receiver-based MAC protocol, which can provide a good reliability performance. Analytical and simulation results demonstrate that SACRB-MAC is a promising solution for CRSNs in a smart grid. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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7 pages, 1550 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reverse-Bumpy-Ball-Type-Nanoreactor-Loaded Nylon Membranes as Peroxidase-Mimic Membrane Reactors for a Colorimetric Assay for H₂O₂

by Ying Tong, Xiangyu Jiao, Hankun Yang, Yongqiang Wen, Lei Su and Xueji Zhang

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 465; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040465 - 1 Apr 2016

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 6245

Abstract

Herein we report for the first time fabrication of reverse bumpy ball (RBB)-type-nanoreactor-based flexible peroxidase-mimic membrane reactors (MRs). The RBB-type nanoreactors with gold nanoparticles embedded in the inner walls of carbon shells were loaded on nylon membranes through a facile filtration approach. The [...] Read more.

Herein we report for the first time fabrication of reverse bumpy ball (RBB)-type-nanoreactor-based flexible peroxidase-mimic membrane reactors (MRs). The RBB-type nanoreactors with gold nanoparticles embedded in the inner walls of carbon shells were loaded on nylon membranes through a facile filtration approach. The as-prepared flexible catalytic membrane was studied as a peroxidase-mimic MR. It was found that the obtained peroxidase-mimic MR could exhibit several advantages over natural enzymes, such as facile and good recyclability, long-term stability and easy storage. Moreover, the RBB NS-modified nylon MRs as a peroxidase mimic provide a useful colorimetric assay for H₂O₂. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Colorimetric and Fluorescent Sensor)

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14 pages, 306 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of a Large Pool of Microorganisms with an Array of Porphyrin Based Gas Sensors

by Nicola M. Zetola, Chawangwa Modongo, Keikantse Matlhagela, Enoch Sepako, Ogopotse Matsiri, Tsaone Tamuhla, Bontle Mbongwe, Eugenio Martinelli, Giorgio Sirugo, Roberto Paolesse and Corrado Di Natale

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 466; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040466 - 1 Apr 2016

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5398

Abstract

The association between volatile compounds (VCs) and microorganisms, as demonstrated by several studies, may offer the ground for a rapid identification of pathogens. To this regard, chemical sensors are a key enabling technology for the exploitation of this opportunity. In this study, we [...] Read more.

The association between volatile compounds (VCs) and microorganisms, as demonstrated by several studies, may offer the ground for a rapid identification of pathogens. To this regard, chemical sensors are a key enabling technology for the exploitation of this opportunity. In this study, we investigated the performance of an array of porphyrin-coated quartz microbalance gas sensors in the identification of a panel of 12 bacteria and fungi. The porphyrins were metal complexes and the free base of a functionalized tetraphenylporphyrin. Our results show that the sensor array distinguishes the VC patterns produced by microorganisms in vitro. Besides being individually identified, bacteria are also sorted into Gram-positive and Gram-negative. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue E-noses: Sensors and Applications)

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20 pages, 7776 KiB

Open AccessArticle

TTEO (Things Talk to Each Other): Programming Smart Spaces Based on IoT Systems

by Jaeseok Yun, Il-Yeup Ahn, Sung-Chan Choi and Jaeho Kim

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 467; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040467 - 1 Apr 2016

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 11203

Abstract

The Internet of Things allows things in the world to be connected to each other and enables them to automate daily tasks without human intervention, eventually building smart spaces. This article demonstrates a prototype service based on the Internet of Things, TTEO (Things [...] Read more.

The Internet of Things allows things in the world to be connected to each other and enables them to automate daily tasks without human intervention, eventually building smart spaces. This article demonstrates a prototype service based on the Internet of Things, TTEO (Things Talk to Each Other). We present the full details on the system architecture and the software platforms for IoT servers and devices, called Mobius and &Cube, respectively, complying with the globally-applicable IoT standards, oneM2M, a unique identification scheme for a huge number of IoT devices, and service scenarios with an intuitive smartphone app. We hope that our approach will help developers and lead users for IoT devices and application services to establish an emerging IoT ecosystem, just like the ecosystem for smartphones and mobile applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Internet of Things (IoT) Networks)

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15 pages, 2643 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Vibration Sensitivity Analysis of a MEMS Tuning Fork Gyroscope with an Anchored Diamond Coupling Mechanism

by Yanwei Guan, Shiqiao Gao, Haipeng Liu, Lei Jin and Shaohua Niu

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 468; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040468 - 2 Apr 2016

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 7262

Abstract

In this paper, a new micromachined tuning fork gyroscope (TFG) with an anchored diamond coupling mechanism is proposed while the mode ordering and the vibration sensitivity are also investigated. The sense-mode of the proposed TFG was optimized through use of an anchored diamond [...] Read more.

In this paper, a new micromachined tuning fork gyroscope (TFG) with an anchored diamond coupling mechanism is proposed while the mode ordering and the vibration sensitivity are also investigated. The sense-mode of the proposed TFG was optimized through use of an anchored diamond coupling spring, which enables the in-phase mode frequency to be 108.3% higher than the anti-phase one. The frequencies of the in- and anti-phase modes in the sense direction are 9799.6 Hz and 4705.3 Hz, respectively. The analytical solutions illustrate that the stiffness difference ratio of the in- and anti-phase modes is inversely proportional to the output induced by the vibration from the sense direction. Additionally, FEM simulations demonstrate that the stiffness difference ratio of the anchored diamond coupling TFG is 16.08 times larger than the direct coupling one while the vibration output is reduced by 94.1%. Consequently, the proposed new anchored diamond coupling TFG can structurally increase the stiffness difference ratio to improve the mode ordering and considerably reduce the vibration sensitivity without sacrificing the scale factor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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7 pages, 1021 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Evaluation of Algorithms for Breath Alcohol Screening

by Jonas Ljungblad, Bertil Hök and Mikael Ekström

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 469; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040469 - 1 Apr 2016

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5087

Abstract

Breath alcohol screening is important for traffic safety, access control and other areas of health promotion. A family of sensor devices useful for these purposes is being developed and evaluated. This paper is focusing on algorithms for the determination of breath alcohol concentration [...] Read more.

Breath alcohol screening is important for traffic safety, access control and other areas of health promotion. A family of sensor devices useful for these purposes is being developed and evaluated. This paper is focusing on algorithms for the determination of breath alcohol concentration in diluted breath samples using carbon dioxide to compensate for the dilution. The examined algorithms make use of signal averaging, weighting and personalization to reduce estimation errors. Evaluation has been performed by using data from a previously conducted human study. It is concluded that these features in combination will significantly reduce the random error compared to the signal averaging algorithm taken alone. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)

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11 pages, 1764 KiB

Open AccessArticle

GNSS Precise Kinematic Positioning for Multiple Kinematic Stations Based on A Priori Distance Constraints

by Kaifei He, Tianhe Xu, Christoph Förste, Svetozar Petrovic, Franz Barthelmes, Nan Jiang and Frank Flechtner

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 470; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040470 - 1 Apr 2016

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6101

Abstract

When applying the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) for precise kinematic positioning in airborne and shipborne gravimetry, multiple GNSS receiving equipment is often fixed mounted on the kinematic platform carrying the gravimetry instrumentation. Thus, the distances among these GNSS antennas are known and [...] Read more.

When applying the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) for precise kinematic positioning in airborne and shipborne gravimetry, multiple GNSS receiving equipment is often fixed mounted on the kinematic platform carrying the gravimetry instrumentation. Thus, the distances among these GNSS antennas are known and invariant. This information can be used to improve the accuracy and reliability of the state estimates. For this purpose, the known distances between the antennas are applied as a priori constraints within the state parameters adjustment. These constraints are introduced in such a way that their accuracy is taken into account. To test this approach, GNSS data of a Baltic Sea shipborne gravimetric campaign have been used. The results of our study show that an application of distance constraints improves the accuracy of the GNSS kinematic positioning, for example, by about 4 mm for the radial component. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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15 pages, 2709 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Field-Circuit FEM Modeling and Channel Gain Estimation for Galvanic Coupling Real IBC Measurements

by Yue-Ming Gao, Zhu-Mei Wu, Sio-Hang Pun, Peng-Un Mak, Mang-I Vai and Min Du

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 471; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040471 - 2 Apr 2016

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 6823

Abstract

Existing research on human channel modeling of galvanic coupling intra-body communication (IBC) is primarily focused on the human body itself. Although galvanic coupling IBC is less disturbed by external influences during signal transmission, there are inevitable factors in real measurement scenarios such as [...] Read more.

Existing research on human channel modeling of galvanic coupling intra-body communication (IBC) is primarily focused on the human body itself. Although galvanic coupling IBC is less disturbed by external influences during signal transmission, there are inevitable factors in real measurement scenarios such as the parasitic impedance of electrodes, impedance matching of the transceiver, etc. which might lead to deviations between the human model and the in vivo measurements. This paper proposes a field-circuit finite element method (FEM) model of galvanic coupling IBC in a real measurement environment to estimate the human channel gain. First an anisotropic concentric cylinder model of the electric field intra-body communication for human limbs was developed based on the galvanic method. Then the electric field model was combined with several impedance elements, which were equivalent in terms of parasitic impedance of the electrodes, input and output impedance of the transceiver, establishing a field-circuit FEM model. The results indicated that a circuit module equivalent to external factors can be added to the field-circuit model, which makes this model more complete, and the estimations based on the proposed field-circuit are in better agreement with the corresponding measurement results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances on Data Transmission and Analysis for Wearable Sensors Systems)

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19 pages, 2892 KiB

Open AccessArticle

MapSentinel: Can the Knowledge of Space Use Improve Indoor Tracking Further?

by Ruoxi Jia, Ming Jin, Han Zou, Yigitcan Yesilata, Lihua Xie and Costas Spanos

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 472; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040472 - 2 Apr 2016

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 6112

Abstract

Estimating an occupant’s location is arguably the most fundamental sensing task in smart buildings. The applications for fine-grained, responsive building operations require the location sensing systems to provide location estimates in real time, also known as indoor tracking. Existing indoor tracking systems require [...] Read more.

Estimating an occupant’s location is arguably the most fundamental sensing task in smart buildings. The applications for fine-grained, responsive building operations require the location sensing systems to provide location estimates in real time, also known as indoor tracking. Existing indoor tracking systems require occupants to carry specialized devices or install programs on their smartphone to collect inertial sensing data. In this paper, we propose MapSentinel, which performs non-intrusive location sensing based on WiFi access points and ultrasonic sensors. MapSentinel combines the noisy sensor readings with the floormap information to estimate locations. One key observation supporting our work is that occupants exhibit distinctive motion characteristics at different locations on the floormap, e.g., constrained motion along the corridor or in the cubicle zones, and free movement in the open space. While extensive research has been performed on using a floormap as a tool to obtain correct walking trajectories without wall-crossings, there have been few attempts to incorporate the knowledge of space use available from the floormap into the location estimation. This paper argues that the knowledge of space use as an additional information source presents new opportunities for indoor tracking. The fusion of heterogeneous information is theoretically formulated within the Factor Graph framework, and the Context-Augmented Particle Filtering algorithm is developed to efficiently solve real-time walking trajectories. Our evaluation in a large office space shows that the MapSentinel can achieve accuracy improvement of 31.3% compared with the purely WiFi-based tracking system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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9 pages, 2049 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Automatic Identification of Subtechniques in Skating-Style Roller Skiing Using Inertial Sensors

by Yoshihisa Sakurai, Zenya Fujita and Yusuke Ishige

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 473; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040473 - 2 Apr 2016

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 6913

Abstract

This study aims to develop and validate an automated system for identifying skating-style cross-country subtechniques using inertial sensors. In the first experiment, the performance of a male cross-country skier was used to develop an automated identification system. In the second, eight male and [...] Read more.

This study aims to develop and validate an automated system for identifying skating-style cross-country subtechniques using inertial sensors. In the first experiment, the performance of a male cross-country skier was used to develop an automated identification system. In the second, eight male and seven female college cross-country skiers participated to validate the developed identification system. Each subject wore inertial sensors on both wrists and both roller skis, and a small video camera on a backpack. All subjects skied through a 3450 m roller ski course using a skating style at their maximum speed. The adopted subtechniques were identified by the automated method based on the data obtained from the sensors, as well as by visual observations from a video recording of the same ski run. The system correctly identified 6418 subtechniques from a total of 6768 cycles, which indicates an accuracy of 94.8%. The precisions of the automatic system for identifying the V1R, V1L, V2R, V2L, V2AR, and V2AL subtechniques were 87.6%, 87.0%, 97.5%, 97.8%, 92.1%, and 92.0%, respectively. Most incorrect identification cases occurred during a subtechnique identification that included a transition and turn event. Identification accuracy can be improved by separately identifying transition and turn events. This system could be used to evaluate each skier’s subtechniques in course conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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14 pages, 3720 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Portable Low-Power Acquisition System with a Urease Bioelectrochemical Sensor for Potentiometric Detection of Urea Concentrations

by Wei-Jhe Ma, Ching-Hsing Luo, Jiun-Ling Lin, Sin-Houng Chou, Ping-Hung Chen, Mei-Jywan Syu, Shin-Hung Kuo and Shin-Chi Lai

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 474; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040474 - 2 Apr 2016

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 9024

Abstract

This paper presents a portable low-power battery-driven bioelectrochemical signal acquisition system for urea detection. The proposed design has several advantages, including high performance, low cost, low-power consumption, and high portability. A LT1789-1 low-supply-voltage instrumentation amplifier (IA) was used to measure and amplify the [...] Read more.

This paper presents a portable low-power battery-driven bioelectrochemical signal acquisition system for urea detection. The proposed design has several advantages, including high performance, low cost, low-power consumption, and high portability. A LT1789-1 low-supply-voltage instrumentation amplifier (IA) was used to measure and amplify the open-circuit potential (OCP) between the working and reference electrodes. An MSP430 micro-controller was programmed to process and transduce the signals to the custom-developed software by ZigBee RF module in wireless mode and UART in able mode. The immobilized urease sensor was prepared by embedding urease into the polymer (aniline-co-o-phenylenediamine) polymeric matrix and then coating/depositing it onto a MEMS-fabricated Au working electrode. The linear correlation established between the urea concentration and the potentiometric change is in the urea concentrations range of 3.16 × 10⁻⁴ to 3.16 × 10⁻² M with a sensitivity of 31.12 mV/log [M] and a precision of 0.995 (R² = 0.995). This portable device not only detects urea concentrations, but can also operate continuously with a 3.7 V rechargeab-le lithium-ion battery (500 mA·h) for at least four days. Accordingly, its use is feasible and even promising for home-care applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)

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11 pages, 2127 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Towards Real-Time Detection of Freezing of Gait Using Wavelet Transform on Wireless Accelerometer Data

by Saba Rezvanian and Thurmon E. Lockhart

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 475; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040475 - 2 Apr 2016

Cited by 69 | Viewed by 9248

Abstract

Injuries associated with fall incidences continue to pose a significant burden to persons with Parkinson’s disease (PD) both in terms of human suffering and economic loss. Freezing of gait (FOG), which is one of the symptoms of PD, is a common cause of [...] Read more.

Injuries associated with fall incidences continue to pose a significant burden to persons with Parkinson’s disease (PD) both in terms of human suffering and economic loss. Freezing of gait (FOG), which is one of the symptoms of PD, is a common cause of falls in this population. Although a significant amount of work has been performed to characterize/detect FOG using both qualitative and quantitative methods, there remains paucity of data regarding real-time detection of FOG, such as the requirements for minimum sensor nodes, sensor placement locations, and appropriate sampling period and update time. Here, the continuous wavelet transform (CWT) is employed to define an index for correctly identifying FOG. Since the CWT method uses both time and frequency components of a waveform in comparison to other methods utilizing only the frequency component, we hypothesized that using this method could lead to a significant improvement in the accuracy of FOG detection. We tested the proposed index on the data of 10 PD patients who experience FOG. Two hundred and thirty seven (237) FOG events were identified by the physiotherapists. The results show that the index could discriminate FOG in the anterior–posterior axis better than other two axes, and is robust to the update time variability. These results suggest that real time detection of FOG may be realized by using CWT of a single shank sensor with window size of 2 s and update time of 1 s (82.1% and 77.1% for the sensitivity and specificity, respectively). Although implicated, future studies should examine the utility of this method in real-time detection of FOG. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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11 pages, 4068 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microfluidic Devices for Terahertz Spectroscopy of Live Cells Toward Lab-on-a-Chip Applications

by Qi Tang, Min Liang, Yi Lu, Pak Kin Wong, Gerald J. Wilmink, Donna D. Zhang and Hao Xin

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 476; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040476 - 4 Apr 2016

Cited by 46 | Viewed by 8356

Abstract

THz spectroscopy is an emerging technique for studying the dynamics and interactions of cells and biomolecules, but many practical challenges still remain in experimental studies. We present a prototype of simple and inexpensive cell-trapping microfluidic chip for THz spectroscopic study of live cells. [...] Read more.

THz spectroscopy is an emerging technique for studying the dynamics and interactions of cells and biomolecules, but many practical challenges still remain in experimental studies. We present a prototype of simple and inexpensive cell-trapping microfluidic chip for THz spectroscopic study of live cells. Cells are transported, trapped and concentrated into the THz exposure region by applying an AC bias signal while the chip maintains a steady temperature at 37 °C by resistive heating. We conduct some preliminary experiments on E. coli and T-cell solution and compare the transmission spectra of empty channels, channels filled with aqueous media only, and channels filled with aqueous media with un-concentrated and concentrated cells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infrared and THz Sensing and Imaging)

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15 pages, 844 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Smartphone Inertial Sensor Performance for Cross-Platform Mobile Applications

by Anton Kos, Sašo Tomažič and Anton Umek

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 477; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040477 - 4 Apr 2016

Cited by 54 | Viewed by 9314

Abstract

Smartphone sensors are being increasingly used in mobile applications. The performance of sensors varies considerably among different smartphone models and the development of a cross-platform mobile application might be a very complex and demanding task. A publicly accessible resource containing real-life-situation smartphone sensor [...] Read more.

Smartphone sensors are being increasingly used in mobile applications. The performance of sensors varies considerably among different smartphone models and the development of a cross-platform mobile application might be a very complex and demanding task. A publicly accessible resource containing real-life-situation smartphone sensor parameters could be of great help for cross-platform developers. To address this issue we have designed and implemented a pilot participatory sensing application for measuring, gathering, and analyzing smartphone sensor parameters. We start with smartphone accelerometer and gyroscope bias and noise parameters. The application database presently includes sensor parameters of more than 60 different smartphone models of different platforms. It is a modest, but important start, offering information on several statistical parameters of the measured smartphone sensors and insights into their performance. The next step, a large-scale cloud-based version of the application, is already planned. The large database of smartphone sensor parameters may prove particularly useful for cross-platform developers. It may also be interesting for individual participants who would be able to check-up and compare their smartphone sensors against a large number of similar or identical models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Identification, Information & Knowledge in the Internet of Things)

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23 pages, 1237 KiB

Open AccessArticle

VANET Clustering Based Routing Protocol Suitable for Deserts

by Mohammed Mohsen Mohammed Nasr, Abdeldime Mohamed Salih Abdelgader, Zhi-Gong Wang and Lian-Feng Shen

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 478; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040478 - 6 Apr 2016

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 9714

Abstract

In recent years, there has emerged applications of vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) towards security, safety, rescue, exploration, military and communication redundancy systems in non-populated areas, besides its ordinary use in urban environments as an essential part of intelligent transportation systems (ITS). This [...] Read more.

In recent years, there has emerged applications of vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) towards security, safety, rescue, exploration, military and communication redundancy systems in non-populated areas, besides its ordinary use in urban environments as an essential part of intelligent transportation systems (ITS). This paper proposes a novel algorithm for the process of organizing a cluster structure and cluster head election (CHE) suitable for VANETs. Moreover, it presents a robust clustering-based routing protocol, which is appropriate for deserts and can achieve high communication efficiency, ensuring reliable information delivery and optimal exploitation of the equipment on each vehicle. A comprehensive simulation is conducted to evaluate the performance of the proposed CHE and routing algorithms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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18 pages, 3939 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cutting State Diagnosis for Shearer through the Vibration of Rocker Transmission Part with an Improved Probabilistic Neural Network

by Lei Si, Zhongbin Wang, Xinhua Liu, Chao Tan and Lin Zhang

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 479; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040479 - 6 Apr 2016

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4836

Abstract

In order to achieve more accurate and reliable identification of shearer cutting state, this paper employs the vibration of rocker transmission part and proposes a diagnosis method based on a probabilistic neural network (PNN) and fruit fly optimization algorithm (FOA). The original FOA [...] Read more.

In order to achieve more accurate and reliable identification of shearer cutting state, this paper employs the vibration of rocker transmission part and proposes a diagnosis method based on a probabilistic neural network (PNN) and fruit fly optimization algorithm (FOA). The original FOA is modified with a multi-swarm strategy to enhance the search performance and the modified FOA is utilized to optimize the smoothing parameters of the PNN. The vibration signals of rocker transmission part are decomposed by the ensemble empirical mode decomposition and the Kullback-Leibler divergence is used to choose several appropriate components. Forty-five features are extracted to estimate the decomposed components and original signal, and the distance-based evaluation approach is employed to select a subset of state-sensitive features by removing the irrelevant features. Finally, the effectiveness of the proposed method is demonstrated via the simulation studies of shearer cutting state diagnosis and the comparison results indicate that the proposed method outperforms the competing methods in terms of diagnosis accuracy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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19 pages, 6188 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Atmospheric Effects on Retrieval of Sun-Induced Fluorescence Using Hyperspectral Imagery

by Zhuoya Ni, Zhigang Liu, Zhao-Liang Li, Françoise Nerry, Hongyuan Huo, Rui Sun, Peiqi Yang and Weiwei Zhang

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 480; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040480 - 6 Apr 2016

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6003

Abstract

Significant research progress has recently been made in estimating fluorescence in the oxygen absorption bands, however, quantitative retrieval of fluorescence data is still affected by factors such as atmospheric effects. In this paper, top-of-atmosphere (TOA) radiance is generated by the MODTRAN 4 and [...] Read more.

Significant research progress has recently been made in estimating fluorescence in the oxygen absorption bands, however, quantitative retrieval of fluorescence data is still affected by factors such as atmospheric effects. In this paper, top-of-atmosphere (TOA) radiance is generated by the MODTRAN 4 and SCOPE models. Based on simulated data, sensitivity analysis is conducted to assess the sensitivities of four indicators—depth_absorption_band, depth_nofs-depth_withfs, radiance and Fs/radiance—to atmospheric parameters (sun zenith angle (SZA), sensor height, elevation, visibility (VIS) and water content) in the oxygen absorption bands. The results indicate that the SZA and sensor height are the most sensitive parameters and that variations in these two parameters result in large variations calculated as the variation value/the base value in the oxygen absorption depth in the O₂-A and O₂-B bands (111.4% and 77.1% in the O₂-A band; and 27.5% and 32.6% in the O₂-B band, respectively). A comparison of fluorescence retrieval using three methods (Damm method, Braun method and DOAS) and SCOPE Fs indicates that the Damm method yields good results and that atmospheric correction can improve the accuracy of fluorescence retrieval. Damm method is the improved 3FLD method but considering atmospheric effects. Finally, hyperspectral airborne images combined with other parameters (SZA, VIS and water content) are exploited to estimate fluorescence using the Damm method and 3FLD method. The retrieval fluorescence is compared with the field measured fluorescence, yielding good results (R² = 0.91 for Damm vs. SCOPE SIF; R² = 0.65 for 3FLD vs. SCOPE SIF). Five types of vegetation, including ailanthus, elm, mountain peach, willow and Chinese ash, exhibit consistent associations between the retrieved fluorescence and field measured fluorescence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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14 pages, 889 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Truthful Incentive Mechanisms for Social Cost Minimization in Mobile Crowdsourcing Systems

by Zhuojun Duan, Mingyuan Yan, Zhipeng Cai, Xiaoming Wang, Meng Han and Yingshu Li

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 481; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040481 - 6 Apr 2016

Cited by 55 | Viewed by 7431

Abstract

With the emergence of new technologies, mobile devices are capable of undertaking computational and sensing tasks. A large number of users with these mobile devices promote the formation of the Mobile Crowdsourcing Systems (MCSs). Within a MCS, each mobile device can contribute to [...] Read more.

With the emergence of new technologies, mobile devices are capable of undertaking computational and sensing tasks. A large number of users with these mobile devices promote the formation of the Mobile Crowdsourcing Systems (MCSs). Within a MCS, each mobile device can contribute to the crowdsourcing platform and get rewards from it. In order to achieve better performance, it is important to design a mechanism that can attract enough participants with mobile devices and then allocate the tasks among participants efficiently. In this paper, we are interested in the investigation of tasks allocation and price determination in MCSs. Two truthful auction mechanisms are proposed for different working patterns. A Vickrey–Clarke–Groves (VCG)-based auction mechanism is proposed to the continuous working pattern, and a suboptimal auction mechanism is introduced for the discontinuous working pattern. Further analysis shows that the proposed mechanisms have the properties of individual rationality and computational efficiencies. Experimental results suggest that both mechanisms guarantee all the mobile users bidding with their truthful values and the optimal maximal social cost can be achieved in the VCG-based auction mechanism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Algorithms for Mobile Sensing: from Wireless Sensor Networks to Mobile Crowd Sensing)

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22 pages, 701 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Data Collection for Mobile Group Consumption: An Asynchronous Distributed Approach

by Weiping Zhu, Weiran Chen, Zhejie Hu, Zuoyou Li, Yue Liang and Jiaojiao Chen

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 482; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040482 - 6 Apr 2016

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4683

Abstract

Mobile group consumption refers to consumption by a group of people, such as a couple, a family, colleagues and friends, based on mobile communications. It differs from consumption only involving individuals, because of the complex relations among group members. Existing data collection systems [...] Read more.

Mobile group consumption refers to consumption by a group of people, such as a couple, a family, colleagues and friends, based on mobile communications. It differs from consumption only involving individuals, because of the complex relations among group members. Existing data collection systems for mobile group consumption are centralized, which has the disadvantages of being a performance bottleneck, having single-point failure and increasing business and security risks. Moreover, these data collection systems are based on a synchronized clock, which is often unrealistic because of hardware constraints, privacy concerns or synchronization cost. In this paper, we propose the first asynchronous distributed approach to collecting data generated by mobile group consumption. We formally built a system model thereof based on asynchronous distributed communication. We then designed a simulation system for the model for which we propose a three-layer solution framework. After that, we describe how to detect the causality relation of two/three gathering events that happened in the system based on the collected data. Various definitions of causality relations based on asynchronous distributed communication are supported. Extensive simulation results show that the proposed approach is effective for data collection relating to mobile group consumption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Identification, Information & Knowledge in the Internet of Things)

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13 pages, 5580 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Microforce Sensor and Its Array Platform for Robotic Cell Microinjection Force Measurement

by Yu Xie, Yunlei Zhou, Yuzi Lin, Lingyun Wang and Wenming Xi

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 483; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040483 - 6 Apr 2016

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 7122

Abstract

Robot-assisted cell microinjection, which is precise and can enable a high throughput, is attracting interest from researchers. Conventional probe-type cell microforce sensors have some real-time injection force measurement limitations, which prevent their integration in a cell microinjection robot. In this paper, a novel [...] Read more.

Robot-assisted cell microinjection, which is precise and can enable a high throughput, is attracting interest from researchers. Conventional probe-type cell microforce sensors have some real-time injection force measurement limitations, which prevent their integration in a cell microinjection robot. In this paper, a novel supported-beam based cell micro-force sensor with a piezoelectric polyvinylidine fluoride film used as the sensing element is described, which was designed to solve the real-time force-sensing problem during a robotic microinjection manipulation, and theoretical mechanical and electrical models of the sensor function are derived. Furthermore, an array based cell-holding device with a trapezoidal microstructure is micro-fabricated, which serves to improve the force sensing speed and cell manipulation rates. Tests confirmed that the sensor showed good repeatability and a linearity of 1.82%. Finally, robot-assisted zebrafish embryo microinjection experiments were conducted. These results demonstrated the effectiveness of the sensor working with the robotic cell manipulation system. Moreover, the sensing structure, theoretical model, and fabrication method established in this study are not scale dependent. Smaller cells, e.g., mouse oocytes, could also be manipulated with this approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)

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15 pages, 1588 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vision without the Image

by Bo Chen and Pietro Perona

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 484; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040484 - 6 Apr 2016

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6382

Abstract

Novel image sensors transduce the stream of photons directly into asynchronous electrical pulses, rather than forming an image. Classical approaches to vision start from a good quality image and therefore it is tempting to consider image reconstruction as a first step to image [...] Read more.

Novel image sensors transduce the stream of photons directly into asynchronous electrical pulses, rather than forming an image. Classical approaches to vision start from a good quality image and therefore it is tempting to consider image reconstruction as a first step to image analysis. We propose that, instead, one should focus on the task at hand (e.g., detection, tracking or control) and design algorithms that compute the relevant variables (class, position, velocity) directly from the stream of photons. We discuss three examples of such computer vision algorithms and test them on simulated data from photon-counting sensors. Such algorithms work just-in-time, i.e., they complete classification, search and tracking with high accuracy as soon as the information is sufficient, which is typically before there are enough photons to form a high-quality image. We argue that this is particularly useful when the photons are few or expensive, e.g., in astronomy, biological imaging, surveillance and night vision. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photon-Counting Image Sensors)

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21 pages, 17214 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design of a Computerised Flight Mill Device to Measure the Flight Potential of Different Insects

by Antonio Martí-Campoy, Juan Antonio Ávalos, Antonia Soto, Francisco Rodríguez-Ballester, Victoria Martínez-Blay and Manuel Pérez Malumbres

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 485; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040485 - 7 Apr 2016

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 7616

Abstract

Several insect species pose a serious threat to different plant species, sometimes becoming a pest that produces significant damage to the landscape, biodiversity, and/or the economy. This is the case of Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Olivier (Coleoptera: Dryophthoridae), Semanotus laurasii Lucas (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), and Monochamus [...] Read more.

Several insect species pose a serious threat to different plant species, sometimes becoming a pest that produces significant damage to the landscape, biodiversity, and/or the economy. This is the case of Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Olivier (Coleoptera: Dryophthoridae), Semanotus laurasii Lucas (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), and Monochamus galloprovincialis Olivier (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), which have become serious threats to ornamental and productive trees all over the world such as palm trees, cypresses, and pines. Knowledge about their flight potential is very important for designing and applying measures targeted to reduce the negative effects from these pests. Studying the flight capability and behaviour of some insects is difficult due to their small size and the large area wherein they can fly, so we wondered how we could obtain information about their flight capabilities in a controlled environment. The answer came with the design of flight mills. Relevant data about the flight potential of these insects may be recorded and analysed by means of a flight mill. Once an insect is attached to the flight mill, it is able to fly in a circular direction without hitting walls or objects. By adding sensors to the flight mill, it is possible to record the number of revolutions and flight time. This paper presents a full description of a computer monitored flight mill. The description covers both the mechanical and the electronic parts in detail. The mill was designed to easily adapt to the anatomy of different insects and was successfully tested with individuals from three species R. ferrugineus, S. laurasii, and M. galloprovincialis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2015)

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15 pages, 16385 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comprehensive Motion Estimation Technique for the Improvement of EIS Methods Based on the SURF Algorithm and Kalman Filter

by Xuemin Cheng, Qun Hao and Mengdi Xie

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 486; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040486 - 7 Apr 2016

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 7858

Abstract

Video stabilization is an important technology for removing undesired motion in videos. This paper presents a comprehensive motion estimation method for electronic image stabilization techniques, integrating the speeded up robust features (SURF) algorithm, modified random sample consensus (RANSAC), and the Kalman filter, and [...] Read more.

Video stabilization is an important technology for removing undesired motion in videos. This paper presents a comprehensive motion estimation method for electronic image stabilization techniques, integrating the speeded up robust features (SURF) algorithm, modified random sample consensus (RANSAC), and the Kalman filter, and also taking camera scaling and conventional camera translation and rotation into full consideration. Using SURF in sub-pixel space, feature points were located and then matched. The false matched points were removed by modified RANSAC. Global motion was estimated by using the feature points and modified cascading parameters, which reduced the accumulated errors in a series of frames and improved the peak signal to noise ratio (PSNR) by 8.2 dB. A specific Kalman filter model was established by considering the movement and scaling of scenes. Finally, video stabilization was achieved with filtered motion parameters using the modified adjacent frame compensation. The experimental results proved that the target images were stabilized even when the vibrating amplitudes of the video become increasingly large. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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22 pages, 798 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Enhanced Energy Balanced Data Transmission Protocol for Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks

by Nadeem Javaid, Mehreen Shah, Ashfaq Ahmad, Muhammad Imran, Majid Iqbal Khan and Athanasios V. Vasilakos

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 487; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040487 - 7 Apr 2016

Cited by 65 | Viewed by 7790

Abstract

This paper presents two new energy balanced routing protocols for Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks (UASNs); Efficient and Balanced Energy consumption Technique (EBET) and Enhanced EBET (EEBET). The first proposed protocol avoids direct transmission over long distance to save sufficient amount of energy consumed [...] Read more.

This paper presents two new energy balanced routing protocols for Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks (UASNs); Efficient and Balanced Energy consumption Technique (EBET) and Enhanced EBET (EEBET). The first proposed protocol avoids direct transmission over long distance to save sufficient amount of energy consumed in the routing process. The second protocol overcomes the deficiencies in both Balanced Transmission Mechanism (BTM) and EBET techniques. EBET selects relay node on the basis of optimal distance threshold which leads to network lifetime prolongation. The initial energy of each sensor node is divided into energy levels for balanced energy consumption. Selection of high energy level node within transmission range avoids long distance direct data transmission. The EEBET incorporates depth threshold to minimize the number of hops between source node and sink while eradicating backward data transmissions. The EBET technique balances energy consumption within successive ring sectors, while, EEBET balances energy consumption of the entire network. In EEBET, optimum number of energy levels are also calculated to further enhance the network lifetime. Effectiveness of the proposed schemes is validated through simulations where these are compared with two existing routing protocols in terms of network lifetime, transmission loss, and throughput. The simulations are conducted under different network radii and varied number of nodes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Algorithms for Mobile Sensing: from Wireless Sensor Networks to Mobile Crowd Sensing)

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15 pages, 1151 KiB

Open AccessReview

Wireless Sensor Network Security Enhancement Using Directional Antennas: State of the Art and Research Challenges

by Daniel-Ioan Curiac

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 488; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040488 - 7 Apr 2016

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 9769

Abstract

Being often deployed in remote or hostile environments, wireless sensor networks are vulnerable to various types of security attacks. A possible solution to reduce the security risks is to use directional antennas instead of omnidirectional ones or in conjunction with them. Due to [...] Read more.

Being often deployed in remote or hostile environments, wireless sensor networks are vulnerable to various types of security attacks. A possible solution to reduce the security risks is to use directional antennas instead of omnidirectional ones or in conjunction with them. Due to their increased complexity, higher costs and larger sizes, directional antennas are not traditionally used in wireless sensor networks, but recent technology trends may support this method. This paper surveys existing state of the art approaches in the field, offering a broad perspective of the future use of directional antennas in mitigating security risks, together with new challenges and open research issues. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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25 pages, 6165 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Visual EKF-SLAM from Heterogeneous Landmarks

by Jorge Othón Esparza-Jiménez, Michel Devy and José L. Gordillo

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 489; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040489 - 7 Apr 2016

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 9703

Abstract

Many applications require the localization of a moving object, e.g., a robot, using sensory data acquired from embedded devices. Simultaneous localization and mapping from vision performs both the spatial and temporal fusion of these data on a map when a camera moves in [...] Read more.

Many applications require the localization of a moving object, e.g., a robot, using sensory data acquired from embedded devices. Simultaneous localization and mapping from vision performs both the spatial and temporal fusion of these data on a map when a camera moves in an unknown environment. Such a SLAM process executes two interleaved functions: the front-end detects and tracks features from images, while the back-end interprets features as landmark observations and estimates both the landmarks and the robot positions with respect to a selected reference frame. This paper describes a complete visual SLAM solution, combining both point and line landmarks on a single map. The proposed method has an impact on both the back-end and the front-end. The contributions comprehend the use of heterogeneous landmark-based EKF-SLAM (the management of a map composed of both point and line landmarks); from this perspective, the comparison between landmark parametrizations and the evaluation of how the heterogeneity improves the accuracy on the camera localization, the development of a front-end active-search process for linear landmarks integrated into SLAM and the experimentation methodology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Robots)

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17 pages, 9890 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Frequency Management for Electromagnetic Continuous Wave Conductivity Meters

by Przemyslaw Mazurek and Grzegorz Putynkowski

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 490; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040490 - 7 Apr 2016

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5780

Abstract

Ground conductivity meters use electromagnetic fields for the mapping of geological variations, like the determination of water amount, depending on ground layers, which is important for the state analysis of embankments. The VLF band is contaminated by numerous natural and artificial electromagnetic interference [...] Read more.

Ground conductivity meters use electromagnetic fields for the mapping of geological variations, like the determination of water amount, depending on ground layers, which is important for the state analysis of embankments. The VLF band is contaminated by numerous natural and artificial electromagnetic interference signals. Prior to the determination of ground conductivity, the meter’s working frequency is not possible, due to the variable frequency of the interferences. Frequency management based on the analysis of the selected band using track-before-detect (TBD) algorithms, which allows dynamical frequency changes of the conductivity of the meter transmitting part, is proposed in the paper. Naive maximum value search, spatio-temporal TBD (ST-TBD), Viterbi TBD and a new algorithm that uses combined ST-TBD and Viterbi TBD are compared. Monte Carlo tests are provided for the numerical analysis of the properties for a single interference signal in the considered band, and a new approach based on combined ST-TBD and Viterbi algorithms shows the best performance. The considered algorithms process spectrogram data for the selected band, so DFT (Discrete Fourier Transform) could be applied for the computation of the spectrogram. Real–time properties, related to the latency, are discussed also, and it is shown that TBD algorithms are feasible for real applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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11 pages, 3410 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Characterization of a Three-Axis Hall Effect-Based Soft Skin Sensor

by Tito Pradhono Tomo, Sophon Somlor, Alexander Schmitz, Lorenzo Jamone, Weijie Huang, Harris Kristanto and Shigeki Sugano

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 491; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040491 - 7 Apr 2016

Cited by 90 | Viewed by 13865

Abstract

This paper presents an easy means to produce a 3-axis Hall effect–based skin sensor for robotic applications. It uses an off-the-shelf chip and is physically small and provides digital output. Furthermore, the sensor has a soft exterior for safe interactions with the environment; [...] Read more.

This paper presents an easy means to produce a 3-axis Hall effect–based skin sensor for robotic applications. It uses an off-the-shelf chip and is physically small and provides digital output. Furthermore, the sensor has a soft exterior for safe interactions with the environment; in particular it uses soft silicone with about an 8 mm thickness. Tests were performed to evaluate the drift due to temperature changes, and a compensation using the integral temperature sensor was implemented. Furthermore, the hysteresis and the crosstalk between the 3-axis measurements were evaluated. The sensor is able to detect minimal forces of about 1 gf. The sensor was calibrated and results with total forces up to 1450 gf in the normal and tangential directions of the sensor are presented. The test revealed that the sensor is able to measure the different components of the force vector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Robots)

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18 pages, 5671 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Assessment of a New Variable Stiffness Probing System for Micro-CMMs

by Khalid Alblalaihid, Peter Kinnell, Simon Lawes, Dorian Desgaches and Richard Leach

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 492; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040492 - 8 Apr 2016

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 8300

Abstract

When designing micro-scale tactile probes, a design trade-off must be made between the stiffness and flexibility of the probing element. The probe must be flexible enough to ensure sensitive parts are not damaged during contact, but it must be stiff enough to overcome [...] Read more.

When designing micro-scale tactile probes, a design trade-off must be made between the stiffness and flexibility of the probing element. The probe must be flexible enough to ensure sensitive parts are not damaged during contact, but it must be stiff enough to overcome attractive surface forces, ensure it is not excessively fragile, easily damaged or sensitive to inertial loads. To address the need for a probing element that is both flexible and stiff, a novel micro-scale tactile probe has been designed and tested that makes use of an active suspension structure. The suspension structure is used to modulate the probe stiffness as required to ensure optimal stiffness conditions for each phase of the measurement process. In this paper, a novel control system is presented that monitors and controls stiffness, allowing two probe stiffness values (“stiff” and “flexible”) to be defined and switched between. During switching, the stylus tip undergoes a displacement of approximately 18 µm, however, the control system is able ensure a consistent flexible mode tip deflection to within 12 nm in the vertical axis. The overall uncertainty for three-dimensional displacement measurements using the probing system is estimated to be 58 nm, which demonstrates the potential of this innovative variable stiffness micro-scale probe system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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19 pages, 14375 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Building an Enhanced Vocabulary of the Robot Environment with a Ceiling Pointing Camera

by Alejandro Rituerto, Henrik Andreasson, Ana C. Murillo, Achim Lilienthal and José Jesús Guerrero

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 493; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040493 - 7 Apr 2016

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 7606

Abstract

Mobile robots are of great help for automatic monitoring tasks in different environments. One of the first tasks that needs to be addressed when creating these kinds of robotic systems is modeling the robot environment. This work proposes a pipeline to build an [...] Read more.

Mobile robots are of great help for automatic monitoring tasks in different environments. One of the first tasks that needs to be addressed when creating these kinds of robotic systems is modeling the robot environment. This work proposes a pipeline to build an enhanced visual model of a robot environment indoors. Vision based recognition approaches frequently use quantized feature spaces, commonly known as Bag of Words (BoW) or vocabulary representations. A drawback using standard BoW approaches is that semantic information is not considered as a criteria to create the visual words. To solve this challenging task, this paper studies how to leverage the standard vocabulary construction process to obtain a more meaningful visual vocabulary of the robot work environment using image sequences. We take advantage of spatio-temporal constraints and prior knowledge about the position of the camera. The key contribution of our work is the definition of a new pipeline to create a model of the environment. This pipeline incorporates (1) tracking information to the process of vocabulary construction and (2) geometric cues to the appearance descriptors. Motivated by long term robotic applications, such as the aforementioned monitoring tasks, we focus on a configuration where the robot camera points to the ceiling, which captures more stable regions of the environment. The experimental validation shows how our vocabulary models the environment in more detail than standard vocabulary approaches, without loss of recognition performance. We show different robotic tasks that could benefit of the use of our visual vocabulary approach, such as place recognition or object discovery. For this validation, we use our publicly available data-set. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Robotic Sensory Systems for Environment Protection and Conservation)

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19 pages, 1046 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Accelerating Spaceborne SAR Imaging Using Multiple CPU/GPU Deep Collaborative Computing

by Fan Zhang, Guojun Li, Wei Li, Wei Hu and Yuxin Hu

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 494; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040494 - 7 Apr 2016

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 8714

Abstract

With the development of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) technologies in recent years, the huge amount of remote sensing data brings challenges for real-time imaging processing. Therefore, high performance computing (HPC) methods have been presented to accelerate SAR imaging, especially the GPU based methods. [...] Read more.

With the development of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) technologies in recent years, the huge amount of remote sensing data brings challenges for real-time imaging processing. Therefore, high performance computing (HPC) methods have been presented to accelerate SAR imaging, especially the GPU based methods. In the classical GPU based imaging algorithm, GPU is employed to accelerate image processing by massive parallel computing, and CPU is only used to perform the auxiliary work such as data input/output (IO). However, the computing capability of CPU is ignored and underestimated. In this work, a new deep collaborative SAR imaging method based on multiple CPU/GPU is proposed to achieve real-time SAR imaging. Through the proposed tasks partitioning and scheduling strategy, the whole image can be generated with deep collaborative multiple CPU/GPU computing. In the part of CPU parallel imaging, the advanced vector extension (AVX) method is firstly introduced into the multi-core CPU parallel method for higher efficiency. As for the GPU parallel imaging, not only the bottlenecks of memory limitation and frequent data transferring are broken, but also kinds of optimized strategies are applied, such as streaming, parallel pipeline and so on. Experimental results demonstrate that the deep CPU/GPU collaborative imaging method enhances the efficiency of SAR imaging on single-core CPU by 270 times and realizes the real-time imaging in that the imaging rate outperforms the raw data generation rate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthetic Aperture Radars: Models, Algorithms, Techniques and Tools for Data Exploitation)

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14 pages, 10564 KiB

Open AccessReview

Geiger-Mode Avalanche Photodiode Arrays Integrated to All-Digital CMOS Circuits

by Brian Aull

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 495; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040495 - 8 Apr 2016

Cited by 43 | Viewed by 15168

Abstract

This article reviews MIT Lincoln Laboratory's work over the past 20 years to develop photon-sensitive image sensors based on arrays of silicon Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes. Integration of these detectors to all-digital CMOS readout circuits enable exquisitely sensitive solid-state imagers for lidar, wavefront sensing, [...] Read more.

This article reviews MIT Lincoln Laboratory's work over the past 20 years to develop photon-sensitive image sensors based on arrays of silicon Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes. Integration of these detectors to all-digital CMOS readout circuits enable exquisitely sensitive solid-state imagers for lidar, wavefront sensing, and passive imaging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photon-Counting Image Sensors)

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17 pages, 11186 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Wireless Passive Sensing System for Displacement/Strain Measurement in Reinforced Concrete Members

by Burak Ozbey, Vakur B. Erturk, Hilmi Volkan Demir, Ayhan Altintas and Ozgur Kurc

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 496; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040496 - 8 Apr 2016

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 7679

Abstract

In this study, we show a wireless passive sensing system embedded in a reinforced concrete member successfully being employed for the measurement of relative displacement and strain in a simply supported beam experiment. The system utilizes electromagnetic coupling between the transceiver antenna located [...] Read more.

In this study, we show a wireless passive sensing system embedded in a reinforced concrete member successfully being employed for the measurement of relative displacement and strain in a simply supported beam experiment. The system utilizes electromagnetic coupling between the transceiver antenna located outside the beam, and the sensing probes placed on the reinforcing bar (rebar) surface inside the beam. The probes were designed in the form of a nested split-ring resonator, a metamaterial-based structure chosen for its compact size and high sensitivity/resolution, which is at µm/microstrains level. Experiments were performed in both the elastic and plastic deformation cases of steel rebars, and the sensing system was demonstrated to acquire telemetric data in both cases. The wireless measurement results from multiple probes are compared with the data obtained from the strain gages, and an excellent agreement is observed. A discrete time measurement where the system records data at different force levels is also shown. Practical issues regarding the placement of the sensors and accurate recording of data are discussed. The proposed sensing technology is demonstrated to be a good candidate for wireless structural health monitoring (SHM) of reinforced concrete members by its high sensitivity and wide dynamic range. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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14 pages, 4349 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vascular Structure Identification in Intraoperative 3D Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound Data

by Elisee Ilunga-Mbuyamba, Juan Gabriel Avina-Cervantes, Dirk Lindner, Ivan Cruz-Aceves, Felix Arlt and Claire Chalopin

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 497; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040497 - 8 Apr 2016

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 7031

Abstract

In this paper, a method of vascular structure identification in intraoperative 3D Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound (CEUS) data is presented. Ultrasound imaging is commonly used in brain tumor surgery to investigate in real time the current status of cerebral structures. The use of an ultrasound [...] Read more.

In this paper, a method of vascular structure identification in intraoperative 3D Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound (CEUS) data is presented. Ultrasound imaging is commonly used in brain tumor surgery to investigate in real time the current status of cerebral structures. The use of an ultrasound contrast agent enables to highlight tumor tissue, but also surrounding blood vessels. However, these structures can be used as landmarks to estimate and correct the brain shift. This work proposes an alternative method for extracting small vascular segments close to the tumor as landmark. The patient image dataset involved in brain tumor operations includes preoperative contrast T1MR (cT1MR) data and 3D intraoperative contrast enhanced ultrasound data acquired before (3D-iCEUS

_{s t a r t}

) and after (3D-iCEUS

_{e n d}

) tumor resection. Based on rigid registration techniques, a preselected vascular segment in cT1MR is searched in 3D-iCEUS

_{s t a r t}

and 3D-iCEUS

_{e n d}

data. The method was validated by using three similarity measures (Normalized Gradient Field, Normalized Mutual Information and Normalized Cross Correlation). Tests were performed on data obtained from ten patients overcoming a brain tumor operation and it succeeded in nine cases. Despite the small size of the vascular structures, the artifacts in the ultrasound images and the brain tissue deformations, blood vessels were successfully identified. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Noninvasive Biomedical Sensors)

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12 pages, 4350 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cotton Fabric Coated with Conducting Polymers and its Application in Monitoring of Carnivorous Plant Response

by Václav Bajgar, Marek Penhaker, Lenka Martinková, Andrej Pavlovič, Patrycja Bober, Miroslava Trchová and Jaroslav Stejskal

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 498; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040498 - 8 Apr 2016

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 10208

Abstract

The paper describes the electrical plant response to mechanical stimulation monitored with the help of conducting polymers deposited on cotton fabric. Cotton fabric was coated with conducting polymers, polyaniline or polypyrrole, in situ during the oxidation of respective monomers in aqueous medium. Thus, [...] Read more.

The paper describes the electrical plant response to mechanical stimulation monitored with the help of conducting polymers deposited on cotton fabric. Cotton fabric was coated with conducting polymers, polyaniline or polypyrrole, in situ during the oxidation of respective monomers in aqueous medium. Thus, modified fabrics were again coated with polypyrrole or polyaniline, respectively, in order to investigate any synergetic effect between both polymers with respect to conductivity and its stability during repeated dry cleaning. The coating was confirmed by infrared spectroscopy. The resulting fabrics have been used as electrodes to collect the electrical response to the stimulation of a Venus flytrap plant. This is a paradigm of the use of conducting polymers in monitoring of plant neurobiology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Use of New and/or Improved Materials for Sensing Applications)

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15 pages, 2996 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Measurement of Spray Drift with a Specifically Designed Lidar System

by Eduard Gregorio, Xavier Torrent, Santiago Planas de Martí, Francesc Solanelles, Ricardo Sanz, Francesc Rocadenbosch, Joan Masip, Manel Ribes-Dasi and Joan R. Rosell-Polo

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 499; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040499 - 8 Apr 2016

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 8623

Abstract

Field measurements of spray drift are usually carried out by passive collectors and tracers. However, these methods are labour- and time-intensive and only provide point- and time-integrated measurements. Unlike these methods, the light detection and ranging (lidar) technique allows real-time measurements, obtaining information [...] Read more.

Field measurements of spray drift are usually carried out by passive collectors and tracers. However, these methods are labour- and time-intensive and only provide point- and time-integrated measurements. Unlike these methods, the light detection and ranging (lidar) technique allows real-time measurements, obtaining information with temporal and spatial resolution. Recently, the authors have developed the first eye-safe lidar system specifically designed for spray drift monitoring. This prototype is based on a 1534 nm erbium-doped glass laser and an 80 mm diameter telescope, has scanning capability, and is easily transportable. This paper presents the results of the first experimental campaign carried out with this instrument. High coefficients of determination (R² > 0.85) were observed by comparing lidar measurements of the spray drift with those obtained by horizontal collectors. Furthermore, the lidar system allowed an assessment of the drift reduction potential (DRP) when comparing low-drift nozzles with standard ones, resulting in a DRP of 57% (preliminary result) for the tested nozzles. The lidar system was also used for monitoring the evolution of the spray flux over the canopy and to generate 2-D images of these plumes. The developed instrument is an advantageous alternative to passive collectors and opens the possibility of new methods for field measurement of spray drift. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Agriculture)

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24 pages, 5577 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Arc Fault Detector for Early Detection of Electrical Fires

by Kai Yang, Rencheng Zhang, Jianhong Yang, Canhua Liu, Shouhong Chen and Fujiang Zhang

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 500; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040500 - 9 Apr 2016

Cited by 70 | Viewed by 16545

Abstract

Arc faults can produce very high temperatures and can easily ignite combustible materials; thus, they represent one of the most important causes of electrical fires. The application of arc fault detection, as an emerging early fire detection technology, is required by the National [...] Read more.

Arc faults can produce very high temperatures and can easily ignite combustible materials; thus, they represent one of the most important causes of electrical fires. The application of arc fault detection, as an emerging early fire detection technology, is required by the National Electrical Code to reduce the occurrence of electrical fires. However, the concealment, randomness and diversity of arc faults make them difficult to detect. To improve the accuracy of arc fault detection, a novel arc fault detector (AFD) is developed in this study. First, an experimental arc fault platform is built to study electrical fires. A high-frequency transducer and a current transducer are used to measure typical load signals of arc faults and normal states. After the common features of these signals are studied, high-frequency energy and current variations are extracted as an input eigenvector for use by an arc fault detection algorithm. Then, the detection algorithm based on a weighted least squares support vector machine is designed and successfully applied in a microprocessor. Finally, an AFD is developed. The test results show that the AFD can detect arc faults in a timely manner and interrupt the circuit power supply before electrical fires can occur. The AFD is not influenced by cross talk or transient processes, and the detection accuracy is very high. Hence, the AFD can be installed in low-voltage circuits to monitor circuit states in real-time to facilitate the early detection of electrical fires. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Fire Detection)

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11 pages, 1915 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Low Cost Compact Measurement System Constructed Using a Smart Electrochemical Sensor for the Real-Time Discrimination of Fruit Ripening

by Liuzheng Ma, Ling Wang, Ruipeng Chen, Keke Chang, Shun Wang, Xinran Hu, Xiaohui Sun, Zhaohui Lu, Haifeng Sun, Qingqian Guo, Min Jiang and Jiandong Hu

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 501; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040501 - 8 Apr 2016

Cited by 44 | Viewed by 11514

Abstract

Ethylene as an indicator for evaluating fruit ripening can be measured by very sensitive electrochemical gas sensors based on a high-resolution current produced by a bias potential applied to the electrodes. For this purpose, a measurement system for monitoring ethylene gas concentrations to [...] Read more.

Ethylene as an indicator for evaluating fruit ripening can be measured by very sensitive electrochemical gas sensors based on a high-resolution current produced by a bias potential applied to the electrodes. For this purpose, a measurement system for monitoring ethylene gas concentrations to evaluate fruit ripening by using the electrochemical ethylene sensor was successfully developed. Before the electrochemical ethylene sensor was used to measure the ethylene gas concentrations released from fruits, a calibration curve was established by the standard ethylene gases at concentrations of 2.99 ppm, 4.99 ppm, 8.01 ppm and 10 ppm, respectively, with a flow rate of 0.4 L·min⁻¹. From the calibration curve, the linear relationship between the responses and concentrations of ethylene gas was obtained in the range of 0–10 ppm with the correlation coefficient R² of 0.9976. The micropump and a novel signal conditioning circuit were implemented in this measurement, resulting in a rapid response in detecting ethylene concentrations down to 0.1 ppm in air and in under 50 s. In this experiment, three kinds of fruits—apples, pears and kiwifruits—were studied at a low concentration (under 0.8 ppm) of trace ethylene content in the air exhaled by fruits. The experimental results showed that a low cost, compact measurement system constructed by using an electrochemical ethylene sensor has a high sensitivity of 0.3907 V·ppm⁻¹ with a theoretical detection limit of 0.413 ppm, and is non-invasive and highly portable. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)

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17 pages, 3398 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Essential Limitations of the Standard THz TDS Method for Substance Detection and Identification and a Way of Overcoming Them

by Vyacheslav A. Trofimov and Svetlana A. Varentsova

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 502; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040502 - 8 Apr 2016

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 5919

Abstract

Low efficiency of the standard THz TDS method of the detection and identification of substances based on a comparison of the spectrum for the signal under investigation with a standard signal spectrum is demonstrated using the physical experiments conducted under real conditions with [...] Read more.

Low efficiency of the standard THz TDS method of the detection and identification of substances based on a comparison of the spectrum for the signal under investigation with a standard signal spectrum is demonstrated using the physical experiments conducted under real conditions with a thick paper bag as well as with Si-based semiconductors under laboratory conditions. In fact, standard THz spectroscopy leads to false detection of hazardous substances in neutral samples, which do not contain them. This disadvantage of the THz TDS method can be overcome by using time-dependent THz pulse spectrum analysis. For a quality assessment of the standard substance spectral features presence in the signal under analysis, one may use time-dependent integral correlation criteria. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infrared and THz Sensing and Imaging)

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17 pages, 6292 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Coupling Error Suppression Technology for an Improved Decoupled Dual-Mass Micro-Gyroscope

by Bo Yang, Xingjun Wang, Yunpeng Deng and Di Hu

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 503; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040503 - 8 Apr 2016

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6016

Abstract

This paper presents technology for the suppression of the mechanical coupling errors for an improved decoupled dual-mass micro-gyroscope (DDMG). The improved micro-gyroscope structure decreases the moment arm of the drive decoupled torque, which benefits the suppression of the non-ideal decoupled error. Quadrature correction [...] Read more.

This paper presents technology for the suppression of the mechanical coupling errors for an improved decoupled dual-mass micro-gyroscope (DDMG). The improved micro-gyroscope structure decreases the moment arm of the drive decoupled torque, which benefits the suppression of the non-ideal decoupled error. Quadrature correction electrodes are added to eliminate the residual quadrature error. The structure principle and the quadrature error suppression means of the DDMG are described in detail. ANSYS software is used to simulate the micro-gyroscope structure to verify the mechanical coupling error suppression effect. Compared with the former structure, simulation results demonstrate that the rotational displacements of the sense frame in the improved structure are substantially suppressed in the drive mode. The improved DDMG structure chip is fabricated by the deep dry silicon on glass (DDSOG) process. The feedback control circuits with quadrature control loops are designed to suppress the residual mechanical coupling error. Finally, the system performance of the DDMG prototype is tested. Compared with the former DDMG, the quadrature error in the improved dual-mass micro-gyroscope is decreased 9.66-fold, and the offset error is decreased 6.36-fold. Compared with the open loop sense, the feedback control circuits with quadrature control loop decrease the bias drift by 20.59-fold and the scale factor non-linearity by 2.81-fold in the ±400°/s range. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inertial Sensors and Systems 2016)

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32 pages, 14955 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Radio-Map Automatic Construction Algorithm Based on Crowdsourcing

by Ning Yu, Chenxian Xiao, Yinfeng Wu and Renjian Feng

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 504; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040504 - 9 Apr 2016

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 6658

Abstract

Traditional radio-map-based localization methods need to sample a large number of location fingerprints offline, which requires huge amount of human and material resources. To solve the high sampling cost problem, an automatic radio-map construction algorithm based on crowdsourcing is proposed. The algorithm employs [...] Read more.

Traditional radio-map-based localization methods need to sample a large number of location fingerprints offline, which requires huge amount of human and material resources. To solve the high sampling cost problem, an automatic radio-map construction algorithm based on crowdsourcing is proposed. The algorithm employs the crowd-sourced information provided by a large number of users when they are walking in the buildings as the source of location fingerprint data. Through the variation characteristics of users’ smartphone sensors, the indoor anchors (doors) are identified and their locations are regarded as reference positions of the whole radio-map. The AP-Cluster method is used to cluster the crowdsourced fingerprints to acquire the representative fingerprints. According to the reference positions and the similarity between fingerprints, the representative fingerprints are linked to their corresponding physical locations and the radio-map is generated. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed algorithm reduces the cost of fingerprint sampling and radio-map construction and guarantees the localization accuracy. The proposed method does not require users’ explicit participation, which effectively solves the resource-consumption problem when a location fingerprint database is established. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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21 pages, 4365 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimized Sharable-Slot Allocation Using Multiple Channels to Reduce Data-Gathering Delay in Wireless Sensor Networks

by Phan Van Vinh and Hoon Oh

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 505; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040505 - 9 Apr 2016

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4960

Abstract

The demand for event-driven real-time applications for timely and reliable data acquisition is growing in industrial sectors. However, it is challenging to satisfy the requirements since constraints such as limited available energy and bandwidth are inherent in a wireless sensor network. To deal [...] Read more.

The demand for event-driven real-time applications for timely and reliable data acquisition is growing in industrial sectors. However, it is challenging to satisfy the requirements since constraints such as limited available energy and bandwidth are inherent in a wireless sensor network. To deal with timely delivery, one desirable approach is to improve network throughput so that more real-time applications with tighter time constraints can be satisfied in any given network. To deal with reliable delivery, the use of a carrier sense multiple access mechanism for data transmission is preferred, along with the use of a sharable slot within which multiple nodes compete to send data. Thus, we present a method of using multiple channels and a way to optimize the size of the sharable slot. The proposed channel-slot–scheduling algorithm tries to optimize the size of a sharable slot when multiple channels are used. The algorithm also deals with situations where nodes generate multiple data packets in each round of a data-gathering period. It is shown through simulation that our approach greatly outperforms others on some selected metrics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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16 pages, 1830 KiB

Open AccessConcept Paper

Comprehensive Numerical Analysis of Finite Difference Time Domain Methods for Improving Optical Waveguide Sensor Accuracy

by M. Mosleh E. Abu Samak, A. Ashrif A. Bakar, Muhammad Kashif and Mohd Saiful Dzulkifly Zan

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 506; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040506 - 9 Apr 2016

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5415

Abstract

This paper discusses numerical analysis methods for different geometrical features that have limited interval values for typically used sensor wavelengths. Compared with existing Finite Difference Time Domain (FDTD) methods, the alternating direction implicit (ADI)-FDTD method reduces the number of sub-steps by a factor [...] Read more.

This paper discusses numerical analysis methods for different geometrical features that have limited interval values for typically used sensor wavelengths. Compared with existing Finite Difference Time Domain (FDTD) methods, the alternating direction implicit (ADI)-FDTD method reduces the number of sub-steps by a factor of two to three, which represents a 33% time savings in each single run. The local one-dimensional (LOD)-FDTD method has similar numerical equation properties, which should be calculated as in the previous method. Generally, a small number of arithmetic processes, which result in a shorter simulation time, are desired. The alternating direction implicit technique can be considered a significant step forward for improving the efficiency of unconditionally stable FDTD schemes. This comparative study shows that the local one-dimensional method had minimum relative error ranges of less than 40% for analytical frequencies above 42.85 GHz, and the same accuracy was generated by both methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Advanced Materials on Microelectronic and Optical Sensors)

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25 pages, 20343 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Two-Phase Space Resection Model for Accurate Topographic Reconstruction from Lunar Imagery with PushbroomScanners

by Xuemiao Xu, Huaidong Zhang, Guoqiang Han, Kin Chung Kwan, Wai-Man Pang, Jiaming Fang and Gansen Zhao

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 507; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040507 - 11 Apr 2016

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5152

Abstract

Exterior orientation parameters’ (EOP) estimation using space resection plays an important role in topographic reconstruction for push broom scanners. However, existing models of space resection are highly sensitive to errors in data. Unfortunately, for lunar imagery, the altitude data at the ground control [...] Read more.

Exterior orientation parameters’ (EOP) estimation using space resection plays an important role in topographic reconstruction for push broom scanners. However, existing models of space resection are highly sensitive to errors in data. Unfortunately, for lunar imagery, the altitude data at the ground control points (GCPs) for space resection are error-prone. Thus, existing models fail to produce reliable EOPs. Motivated by a finding that for push broom scanners, angular rotations of EOPs can be estimated independent of the altitude data and only involving the geographic data at the GCPs, which are already provided, hence, we divide the modeling of space resection into two phases. Firstly, we estimate the angular rotations based on the reliable geographic data using our proposed mathematical model. Then, with the accurate angular rotations, the collinear equations for space resection are simplified into a linear problem, and the global optimal solution for the spatial position of EOPs can always be achieved. Moreover, a certainty term is integrated to penalize the unreliable altitude data for increasing the error tolerance. Experimental results evidence that our model can obtain more accurate EOPs and topographic maps not only for the simulated data, but also for the real data from Chang’E-1, compared to the existing space resection model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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17 pages, 5812 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Optimized Air-Core Coil Sensor with a Magnetic Flux Compensation Structure Suitable to the Helicopter TEM System

by Chen Chen, Fei Liu, Jun Lin, Kaiguang Zhu and Yanzhang Wang

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 508; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040508 - 12 Apr 2016

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 8714

Abstract

The air-core coil sensor (ACS) is widely used as a transducer to measure the variation in magnetic fields of a helicopter transient electromagnetic (TEM) system. A high periodic emitting current induces the magnetic field signal of the underground medium. However, such current also [...] Read more.

The air-core coil sensor (ACS) is widely used as a transducer to measure the variation in magnetic fields of a helicopter transient electromagnetic (TEM) system. A high periodic emitting current induces the magnetic field signal of the underground medium. However, such current also generates a high primary field signal that can affect the received signal of the ACS and even damage the receiver. To increase the dynamic range of the received signal and to protect the receiver when emitting current rises/falls, the combination of ACS with magnetic flux compensation structure (bucking coil) is necessary. Moreover, the optimized ACS, which is composed of an air-core coil and a differential pre-amplifier circuit, must be investigated to meet the requirements of the helicopter TEM system suited to rapid surveying for shallow buried metal mine in rough topography. Accordingly, two ACSs are fabricated in this study, and their performance is verified and compared inside a magnetic shielding room. Using the designed ACSs, field experiments are conducted in Baoqing County. The field experimental data show that the primary field response can be compensated when the bucking coil is placed at an appropriate point in the range of allowed shift distance beyond the center of the transmitting coil and that the damage to the receiver induced by the over-statured signal can be solved. In conclusion, a more suitable ACS is adopted and is shown to have better performance, with a mass of 2.5 kg, resultant effective area of 11.6 m² (i.e., diameter of 0.496 m), 3 dB bandwidth of 66 kHz, signal-to-noise ratio of 4 (i.e., varying magnetic field strength of 0.2 nT/s), and normalized equivalent input noise of 3.62 nV/m². Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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18 pages, 3512 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Hybrid Key Management Scheme for WSNs Based on PPBR and a Tree-Based Path Key Establishment Method

by Ying Zhang, Jixing Liang, Bingxin Zheng and Wei Chen

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 509; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040509 - 9 Apr 2016

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6000

Abstract

With the development of wireless sensor networks (WSNs), in most application scenarios traditional WSNs with static sink nodes will be gradually replaced by Mobile Sinks (MSs), and the corresponding application requires a secure communication environment. Current key management researches pay less attention to [...] Read more.

With the development of wireless sensor networks (WSNs), in most application scenarios traditional WSNs with static sink nodes will be gradually replaced by Mobile Sinks (MSs), and the corresponding application requires a secure communication environment. Current key management researches pay less attention to the security of sensor networks with MS. This paper proposes a hybrid key management schemes based on a Polynomial Pool-based key pre-distribution and Basic Random key pre-distribution (PPBR) to be used in WSNs with MS. The scheme takes full advantages of these two kinds of methods to improve the cracking difficulty of the key system. The storage effectiveness and the network resilience can be significantly enhanced as well. The tree-based path key establishment method is introduced to effectively solve the problem of communication link connectivity. Simulation clearly shows that the proposed scheme performs better in terms of network resilience, connectivity and storage effectiveness compared to other widely used schemes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mobile Sensor Computing: Theory and Applications)

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13 pages, 2303 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vehicle Detection Based on Probability Hypothesis Density Filter

by Feihu Zhang and Alois Knoll

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 510; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040510 - 9 Apr 2016

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6589

Abstract

In the past decade, the developments of vehicle detection have been significantly improved. By utilizing cameras, vehicles can be detected in the Regions of Interest (ROI) in complex environments. However, vision techniques often suffer from false positives and limited field of view. In [...] Read more.

In the past decade, the developments of vehicle detection have been significantly improved. By utilizing cameras, vehicles can be detected in the Regions of Interest (ROI) in complex environments. However, vision techniques often suffer from false positives and limited field of view. In this paper, a LiDAR based vehicle detection approach is proposed by using the Probability Hypothesis Density (PHD) filter. The proposed approach consists of two phases: the hypothesis generation phase to detect potential objects and the hypothesis verification phase to classify objects. The performance of the proposed approach is evaluated in complex scenarios, compared with the state-of-the-art. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Autonomous Road Vehicles)

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14 pages, 5474 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Contact Pressure Level Indication Using Stepped Output Tactile Sensors

by Eunsuk Choi, Onejae Sul, Juyoung Kim, Kyumin Kim, Jong-Seok Kim, Dae-Yong Kwon, Byong-Deok Choi and Seung-Beck Lee

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 511; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040511 - 9 Apr 2016

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 7339

Abstract

In this article, we report on a novel diaphragm-type tactile pressure sensor that produces stepwise output currents depending on varying low contact pressures. When contact pressures are applied to the stepped output tactile sensor (SOTS), the sensor’s suspended diaphragm makes contact with the [...] Read more.

In this article, we report on a novel diaphragm-type tactile pressure sensor that produces stepwise output currents depending on varying low contact pressures. When contact pressures are applied to the stepped output tactile sensor (SOTS), the sensor’s suspended diaphragm makes contact with the substrate, which completes a circuit by connecting resistive current paths. Then the contact area, and therefore the number of current paths, would determine the stepped output current produced. This mechanism allows SOTS to have high signal-to-noise ratio (>20 dB) in the 3–500 Hz frequency range at contact pressures below 15 kPa. Moreover, since the sensor’s operation does not depend on a material’s pressure-dependent electrical properties, the SOTS is able to demonstrate high reproducibility and reliability. By forming a 4 × 4 array of SOTS with a surface bump structure, we demonstrated shear sensing as well as surface (1 × 1 cm²) pressure mapping capabilities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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9 pages, 2303 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Nanocylinders on the Whispering Gallery Modes in a Microcylinder

by Jinwoo Han

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 512; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040512 - 9 Apr 2016

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 6391

Abstract

Optical biosensors have been studied extensively for the detection and characterization of biological entities, such as viruses, bacteria, and biomolecules. A two-dimensional (2D) microcylinder resonator (

Q \sim 2 \times 10^{5}

) was designed, and the effects of a nanocylinder on the [...] Read more.

Optical biosensors have been studied extensively for the detection and characterization of biological entities, such as viruses, bacteria, and biomolecules. A two-dimensional (2D) microcylinder resonator (

Q \sim 2 \times 10^{5}

) was designed, and the effects of a nanocylinder on the whispering gallery modes (WGMs) were examined numerically. For this purpose, the finite element method with COMSOL multiphysics software was employed. The perturbation of the WGM resonances can be characterized by the shift and splitting of the resonance peaks, which varies according to the position, size, and refractive index of an embedded nanocylinder. The positional dependence shows a large splitting in the region of strong electric fields, and the size dependence shows a broad peak of the splitting at

R_{c} = 110 nm

. These results are attributed to the changing degree of overlap of the WGMs with the nanocylinder. The refractive index dependences of splitting show linear behavior for a nanocylinder less than 50 nm in size, and the nonlinear behavior increases with increasing size of the nanocylinder. The optical resonator system is shown to be suitable for detecting impurity particles, which are smaller than the sizes of the node and antinode regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Label-Free Optical Biosensors)

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13 pages, 5681 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A High Performance Torque Sensor for Milling Based on a Piezoresistive MEMS Strain Gauge

by Yafei Qin, Yulong Zhao, Yingxue Li, You Zhao and Peng Wang

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 513; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040513 - 9 Apr 2016

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 13551

Abstract

In high speed and high precision machining applications, it is important to monitor the machining process in order to ensure high product quality. For this purpose, it is essential to develop a dynamometer with high sensitivity and high natural frequency which is suited [...] Read more.

In high speed and high precision machining applications, it is important to monitor the machining process in order to ensure high product quality. For this purpose, it is essential to develop a dynamometer with high sensitivity and high natural frequency which is suited to these conditions. This paper describes the design, calibration and performance of a milling torque sensor based on piezoresistive MEMS strain. A detailed design study is carried out to optimize the two mutually-contradictory indicators sensitivity and natural frequency. The developed torque sensor principally consists of a thin-walled cylinder, and a piezoresistive MEMS strain gauge bonded on the surface of the sensing element where the shear strain is maximum. The strain gauge includes eight piezoresistances and four are connected in a full Wheatstone circuit bridge, which is used to measure the applied torque force during machining procedures. Experimental static calibration results show that the sensitivity of torque sensor has been improved to 0.13 mv/Nm. A modal impact test indicates that the natural frequency of torque sensor reaches 1216 Hz, which is suitable for high speed machining processes. The dynamic test results indicate that the developed torque sensor is stable and practical for monitoring the milling process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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19 pages, 791 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Noise Reduction Techniques and Scaling Effects towards Photon Counting CMOS Image Sensors

by Assim Boukhayma, Arnaud Peizerat and Christian Enz

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 514; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040514 - 9 Apr 2016

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 15482

Abstract

This paper presents an overview of the read noise in CMOS image sensors (CISs) based on four-transistors (4T) pixels, column-level amplification and correlated multiple sampling. Starting from the input-referred noise analytical formula, process level optimizations, device choices and circuit techniques at the pixel [...] Read more.

This paper presents an overview of the read noise in CMOS image sensors (CISs) based on four-transistors (4T) pixels, column-level amplification and correlated multiple sampling. Starting from the input-referred noise analytical formula, process level optimizations, device choices and circuit techniques at the pixel and column level of the readout chain are derived and discussed. The noise reduction techniques that can be implemented at the column and pixel level are verified by transient noise simulations, measurement and results from recently-published low noise CIS. We show how recently-reported process refinement, leading to the reduction of the sense node capacitance, can be combined with an optimal in-pixel source follower design to reach a sub-0.3 \(e^{-}_{rms}\) read noise at room temperature. This paper also discusses the impact of technology scaling on the CIS read noise. It shows how designers can take advantage of scaling and how the Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (MOS) transistor gate leakage tunneling current appears as a challenging limitation. For this purpose, both simulation results of the gate leakage current and 1/f noise data reported from different foundries and technology nodes are used. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photon-Counting Image Sensors)

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17 pages, 3772 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Asymmetric Directional Multicast for Capillary Machine-to-Machine Using mmWave Communications

by Jung-Hyok Kwon and Eui-Jik Kim

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 515; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040515 - 11 Apr 2016

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4864

Abstract

The huge demand for high data rate machine-to-machine (M2M) services has led to the use of millimeter Wave (mmWave) band communications with support for a multi-Gbps data rate through the use of directional antennas. However, unnecessary sector switching in multicast transmissions with directional [...] Read more.

The huge demand for high data rate machine-to-machine (M2M) services has led to the use of millimeter Wave (mmWave) band communications with support for a multi-Gbps data rate through the use of directional antennas. However, unnecessary sector switching in multicast transmissions with directional antennas results in a long delay, and consequently a low throughput. We propose asymmetric directional multicast (ADM) for capillary M2M to address this problem in mmWave communications. ADM provides asymmetric sectorization that is optimized for the irregular deployment pattern of mulicast group members. In ADM, an M2M gateway builds up asymmetric sectors with a beamwidth of a different size to cover all multicast group members with the minimum number of directional transmissions. The performance of ADM under various simulation environments is evaluated through a comparison with legacy mmWave multicast. The results of the simulation indicate that ADM achieves a better performance in terms of the transmission sectors, the transmission time, and the aggregate throughput when compared with the legacy multicast method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Millimeter Wave Wireless Communications and Networks)

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12 pages, 2896 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Photometric Calibration and Image Stitching for a Large Field of View Multi-Camera System

by Yu Lu, Keyi Wang and Gongshu Fan

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 516; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040516 - 11 Apr 2016

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 8185

Abstract

A new compact large field of view (FOV) multi-camera system is introduced. The camera is based on seven tiny complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor sensor modules covering over 160° × 160° FOV. Although image stitching has been studied extensively, sensor and lens differences have not been [...] Read more.

A new compact large field of view (FOV) multi-camera system is introduced. The camera is based on seven tiny complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor sensor modules covering over 160° × 160° FOV. Although image stitching has been studied extensively, sensor and lens differences have not been considered in previous multi-camera devices. In this study, we have calibrated the photometric characteristics of the multi-camera device. Lenses were not mounted on the sensor in the process of radiometric response calibration to eliminate the influence of the focusing effect of uniform light from an integrating sphere. Linearity range of the radiometric response, non-linearity response characteristics, sensitivity, and dark current of the camera response function are presented. The R, G, and B channels have different responses for the same illuminance. Vignetting artifact patterns have been tested. The actual luminance of the object is retrieved by sensor calibration results, and is used to blend images to make panoramas reflect the objective luminance more objectively. This compensates for the limitation of stitching images that are more realistic only through the smoothing method. The dynamic range limitation of can be resolved by using multiple cameras that cover a large field of view instead of a single image sensor with a wide-angle lens. The dynamic range is expanded by 48-fold in this system. We can obtain seven images in one shot with this multi-camera system, at 13 frames per second. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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16 pages, 8499 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reduction of CMOS Image Sensor Read Noise to Enable Photon Counting

by Michael Guidash, Jiaju Ma, Thomas Vogelsang and Jay Endsley

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 517; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040517 - 9 Apr 2016

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 14731

Abstract

Recent activity in photon counting CMOS image sensors (CIS) has been directed to reduction of read noise. Many approaches and methods have been reported. This work is focused on providing sub 1 e⁻ read noise by design and operation of the binary [...] Read more.

Recent activity in photon counting CMOS image sensors (CIS) has been directed to reduction of read noise. Many approaches and methods have been reported. This work is focused on providing sub 1 e⁻ read noise by design and operation of the binary and small signal readout of photon counting CIS. Compensation of transfer gate feed-through was used to provide substantially reduced CDS time and source follower (SF) bandwidth. SF read noise was reduced by a factor of 3 with this method. This method can be applied broadly to CIS devices to reduce the read noise for small signals to enable use as a photon counting sensor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photon-Counting Image Sensors)

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11 pages, 4274 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Calibration of a CdTe Photon Counting Spectral Detector with Consideration of its Non-Convergent Behavior

by Jeong Seok Lee, Dong-Goo Kang, Seung Oh Jin, Insoo Kim and Soo Yeol Lee

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 518; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040518 - 11 Apr 2016

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6116

Abstract

Fast and accurate energy calibration of photon counting spectral detectors (PCSDs) is essential for their biomedical applications to identify and characterize bio-components or contrast agents in tissues. Using the x-ray tube voltage as a reference for energy calibration is known to be an [...] Read more.

Fast and accurate energy calibration of photon counting spectral detectors (PCSDs) is essential for their biomedical applications to identify and characterize bio-components or contrast agents in tissues. Using the x-ray tube voltage as a reference for energy calibration is known to be an efficient method, but there has been no consideration in the energy calibration of non-convergent behavior of PCSDs. We observed that a single pixel mode (SPM) CdTe PCSD based on Medipix-2 shows some non-convergent behaviors in turning off the detector elements when a high enough threshold is applied to the comparator that produces a binary photon count pulse. More specifically, the detector elements are supposed to stop producing photon count pulses once the threshold reaches a point of the highest photon energy determined by the tube voltage. However, as the x-ray exposure time increases, the threshold giving 50% of off pixels also increases without converging to a point. We established a method to take account of the non-convergent behavior in the energy calibration. With the threshold-to-photon energy mapping function established by the proposed method, we could better identify iodine component in a phantom consisting of iodine and other components. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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15 pages, 3549 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sample-Wise Aiding in GPS/INS Ultra-Tight Integration for High-Dynamic, High-Precision Tracking

by Yanhong Kou and Han Zhang

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 519; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040519 - 11 Apr 2016

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5435

Abstract

By aiding GPS receiver tracking loops with INS estimates of signal dynamics, GPS/INS ultra-tight coupling can improve the navigation performance in challenging environments. Traditionally the INS data are injected into the loops once every loop update interval, which limits the levels of dynamics [...] Read more.

By aiding GPS receiver tracking loops with INS estimates of signal dynamics, GPS/INS ultra-tight coupling can improve the navigation performance in challenging environments. Traditionally the INS data are injected into the loops once every loop update interval, which limits the levels of dynamics accommodated. This paper presents a sample-wise aiding method, which interpolates the aiding Doppler into each digital sample of the local signal to further eliminate the dynamic errors. The relationship between the tracking error and the aiding rate is derived analytically. Moreover, the effects of sample-wise aiding using linear and spline interpolations are simulated and compared with traditional aiding under different INS data update rates. Finally, extensive tests based on a digital IF (intermediate frequency) signal simulator and a software receiver validate the theoretical equations and demonstrate that the dynamic stress error can be significantly reduced by sample-wise aiding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inertial Sensors and Systems 2016)

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15 pages, 1280 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Electronic Nose Performance Based on a Novel QPSO-KELM Model

by Chao Peng, Jia Yan, Shukai Duan, Lidan Wang, Pengfei Jia and Songlin Zhang

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 520; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040520 - 11 Apr 2016

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 7760

Abstract

A novel multi-class classification method for bacteria detection termed quantum-behaved particle swarm optimization-based kernel extreme learning machine (QPSO-KELM) based on an electronic nose (E-nose) technology is proposed in this paper. Time and frequency domain features are extracted from E-nose signals used for detecting [...] Read more.

A novel multi-class classification method for bacteria detection termed quantum-behaved particle swarm optimization-based kernel extreme learning machine (QPSO-KELM) based on an electronic nose (E-nose) technology is proposed in this paper. Time and frequency domain features are extracted from E-nose signals used for detecting four different classes of wounds (uninfected and infected with Staphylococcu aureus, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) in this experiment. In addition, KELM is compared with five existing classification methods: Linear discriminant analysis (LDA), quadratic discriminant analysis (QDA), extreme learning machine (ELM), k-nearest neighbor (KNN) and support vector machine (SVM). Meanwhile, three traditional optimization methods including particle swarm optimization algorithm (PSO), genetic algorithm (GA) and grid search algorithm (GS) and four kernel functions (Gaussian kernel, linear kernel, polynomial kernel and wavelet kernel) for KELM are discussed in this experiment. Finally, the QPSO-KELM model is also used to deal with another two experimental E-nose datasets in the previous experiments. The experimental results demonstrate the superiority of QPSO-KELM in various E-nose applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Olfactory and Gustatory Sensors)

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12 pages, 4267 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stretchable Metamaterial Absorber Using Liquid Metal-Filled Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)

by Kyeongseob Kim, Dongju Lee, Seunghyun Eom and Sungjoon Lim

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 521; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040521 - 11 Apr 2016

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 10787

Abstract

A stretchable metamaterial absorber is proposed in this study. The stretchability was achieved by liquid metal and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). To inject liquid metal, microfluidic channels were fabricated using PDMS powers and microfluidic-channel frames, which were built using a three-dimensional printer. A top conductive [...] Read more.

A stretchable metamaterial absorber is proposed in this study. The stretchability was achieved by liquid metal and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). To inject liquid metal, microfluidic channels were fabricated using PDMS powers and microfluidic-channel frames, which were built using a three-dimensional printer. A top conductive pattern and ground plane were designed after considering the easy injection of liquid metal. The proposed metamaterial absorber comprises three layers of PDMS substrate. The top layer is for the top conductive pattern, and the bottom layer is for the meandered ground plane. Flat PDMS layers were inserted between the top and bottom PDMS layers. The measured absorptivity of the fabricated absorber was 97.8% at 18.5 GHz, and the absorption frequency increased from 18.5 to 18.65 GHz as the absorber was stretched from its original length (5.2 cm) to 6.4 cm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies and Techniques for Microwave and Wireless Sensors)

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18 pages, 1906 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Optimal Joint Resource Allocation Method in Cooperative Multicarrier Networks: Theory and Practice

by Yuan Gao, Weigui Zhou, Hong Ao, Jian Chu, Quan Zhou, Bo Zhou, Kang Wang, Yi Li and Peng Xue

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 522; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040522 - 12 Apr 2016

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 6129

Abstract

With the increasing demands for better transmission speed and robust quality of service (QoS), the capacity constrained backhaul gradually becomes a bottleneck in cooperative wireless networks, e.g., in the Internet of Things (IoT) scenario in joint processing mode of LTE-Advanced Pro. This paper [...] Read more.

With the increasing demands for better transmission speed and robust quality of service (QoS), the capacity constrained backhaul gradually becomes a bottleneck in cooperative wireless networks, e.g., in the Internet of Things (IoT) scenario in joint processing mode of LTE-Advanced Pro. This paper focuses on resource allocation within capacity constrained backhaul in uplink cooperative wireless networks, where two base stations (BSs) equipped with single antennae serve multiple single-antennae users via multi-carrier transmission mode. In this work, we propose a novel cooperative transmission scheme based on compress-and-forward with user pairing to solve the joint mixed integer programming problem. To maximize the system capacity under the limited backhaul, we formulate the joint optimization problem of user sorting, subcarrier mapping and backhaul resource sharing among different pairs (subcarriers for users). A novel robust and efficient centralized algorithm based on alternating optimization strategy and perfect mapping is proposed. Simulations show that our novel method can improve the system capacity significantly under the constraint of the backhaul resource compared with the blind alternatives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Identification, Information & Knowledge in the Internet of Things)

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10 pages, 2158 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In situ Stiffness Adjustment of AFM Probes by Two Orders of Magnitude

by Marcel Lambertus Cornelis De Laat, Héctor Hugo Pérez Garza and Murali Krishna Ghatkesar

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 523; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040523 - 12 Apr 2016

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5585

Abstract

The choice on which type of cantilever to use for Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) depends on the type of the experiment being done. Typically, the cantilever has to be exchanged when a different stiffness is required and the entire alignment has to be [...] Read more.

The choice on which type of cantilever to use for Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) depends on the type of the experiment being done. Typically, the cantilever has to be exchanged when a different stiffness is required and the entire alignment has to be repeated. In the present work, a method to adjust the stiffness in situ of a commercial AFM cantilever is developed. The adjustment is achieved by changing the effective length of the cantilever by electrostatic pull-in. By applying a voltage between the cantilever and an electrode (with an insulating layer at the point of contact), the cantilever snaps to the electrode, reducing the cantilever’s effective length. An analytical model was developed to find the pull-in voltage of the system. Subsequently, a finite element model was developed to study the pull-in behavior. The working principle of this concept is demonstrated with a proof-of-concept experiment. The electrode was positioned close to the cantilever by using a robotic nanomanipulator. To confirm the change in stiffness, the fundamental resonance frequency of the cantilever was measured for varying electrode positions. The results match with the theoretical expectations. The stiffness was adjusted in situ in the range of 0.2 N/m to 27 N/m, covering two orders of magnitude in one single cantilever. This proof-of-concept is the first step towards a micro fabricated prototype, that integrates the electrode positioning system and cantilever that can be used for actual AFM experiments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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15 pages, 2724 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Measurements of Generated Energy/Electrical Quantities from Locomotion Activities Using Piezoelectric Wearable Sensors for Body Motion Energy Harvesting

by Antonino Proto, Marek Penhaker, Daniele Bibbo, David Vala, Silvia Conforto and Maurizio Schmid

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 524; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040524 - 12 Apr 2016

Cited by 64 | Viewed by 9552

Abstract

In this paper, two different piezoelectric transducers—a ceramic piezoelectric, lead zirconate titanate (PZT), and a polymeric piezoelectric, polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)—were compared in terms of energy that could be harvested during locomotion activities. The transducers were placed into a tight suit in proximity of [...] Read more.

In this paper, two different piezoelectric transducers—a ceramic piezoelectric, lead zirconate titanate (PZT), and a polymeric piezoelectric, polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)—were compared in terms of energy that could be harvested during locomotion activities. The transducers were placed into a tight suit in proximity of the main body joints. Initial testing was performed by placing the transducers on the neck, shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip, knee and ankle; then, five locomotion activities—walking, walking up and down stairs, jogging and running—were chosen for the tests. The values of the power output measured during the five activities were in the range 6 µW–74 µW using both transducers for each joint. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable Biomedical Sensors)

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20 pages, 2800 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Outline of Data Aggregation Security in Heterogeneous Wireless Sensor Networks

by Sabrina Boubiche, Djallel Eddine Boubiche, Azzedine Bilami and Homero Toral-Cruz

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 525; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040525 - 12 Apr 2016

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 8390

Abstract

Data aggregation processes aim to reduce the amount of exchanged data in wireless sensor networks and consequently minimize the packet overhead and optimize energy efficiency. Securing the data aggregation process is a real challenge since the aggregation nodes must access the relayed data [...] Read more.

Data aggregation processes aim to reduce the amount of exchanged data in wireless sensor networks and consequently minimize the packet overhead and optimize energy efficiency. Securing the data aggregation process is a real challenge since the aggregation nodes must access the relayed data to apply the aggregation functions. The data aggregation security problem has been widely addressed in classical homogeneous wireless sensor networks, however, most of the proposed security protocols cannot guarantee a high level of security since the sensor node resources are limited. Heterogeneous wireless sensor networks have recently emerged as a new wireless sensor network category which expands the sensor nodes’ resources and capabilities. These new kinds of WSNs have opened new research opportunities where security represents a most attractive area. Indeed, robust and high security level algorithms can be used to secure the data aggregation at the heterogeneous aggregation nodes which is impossible in classical homogeneous WSNs. Contrary to the homogeneous sensor networks, the data aggregation security problem is still not sufficiently covered and the proposed data aggregation security protocols are numberless. To address this recent research area, this paper describes the data aggregation security problem in heterogeneous wireless sensor networks and surveys a few proposed security protocols. A classification and evaluation of the existing protocols is also introduced based on the adopted data aggregation security approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Underwater Sensor Nodes and Underwater Sensor Networks 2016)

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10 pages, 2856 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Characterization of Surface Acoustic Wave Devices Based on AlN-Metal Structures

by Lin Shu, Bin Peng, Chuan Li, Dongdong Gong, Zhengbing Yang, Xingzhao Liu and Wanli Zhang

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 526; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040526 - 12 Apr 2016

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 9402

Abstract

We report in this paper on the study of surface acoustic wave (SAW) resonators based on an AlN/titanium alloy (TC4) structure. The AlN/TC4 structure with different thicknesses of AlN films was simulated, and the acoustic propagating modes were discussed. Based on the simulation [...] Read more.

We report in this paper on the study of surface acoustic wave (SAW) resonators based on an AlN/titanium alloy (TC4) structure. The AlN/TC4 structure with different thicknesses of AlN films was simulated, and the acoustic propagating modes were discussed. Based on the simulation results, interdigital transducers with a periodic length of 24 μm were patterned by lift-off photolithography techniques on the AlN films/TC4 structure, while the AlN film thickness was in the range 1.5–3.5 μm. The device performances in terms of quality factor (Q-factor) and electromechanical coupling coefficient (k²) were determined from the measure S₁₁ parameters. The Q-factor and k² were strongly dependent not only on the normalized AlN film thickness but also on the full-width at half-maximum (FWHM) of AlN (002) peak. The dispersion curve of the SAW phase velocity was analyzed, and the experimental results showed a good agreement with simulations. The temperature behaviors of the devices were also presented and discussed. The prepared SAW resonators based on AlN/TC4 structure have potential applications in integrated micromechanical sensing systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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21 pages, 10345 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Character Segmentation Proposal for High-Speed Visual Monitoring of Expiration Codes on Beverage Cans

by José C. Rodríguez-Rodríguez, Alexis Quesada-Arencibia, Roberto Jr. Moreno-Díaz and Carmelo R. García

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 527; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040527 - 13 Apr 2016

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5017

Abstract

Expiration date labels are ubiquitous in the food industry. With the passage of time, almost any food becomes unhealthy, even when well preserved. The expiration date is estimated based on the type and manufacture/packaging time of that particular food unit. This date is [...] Read more.

Expiration date labels are ubiquitous in the food industry. With the passage of time, almost any food becomes unhealthy, even when well preserved. The expiration date is estimated based on the type and manufacture/packaging time of that particular food unit. This date is then printed on the container so it is available to the end user at the time of consumption. MONICOD (MONItoring of CODes); an industrial validator of expiration codes; allows the expiration code printed on a drink can to be read. This verification occurs immediately after printing. MONICOD faces difficulties due to the high printing rate (35 cans per second) and problematic lighting caused by the metallic surface on which the code is printed. This article describes a solution that allows MONICOD to extract shapes and presents quantitative results for the speed and quality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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16 pages, 3387 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Low-Cost Arduino-Based Sonde for Coastal Applications

by Grant Lockridge, Brian Dzwonkowski, Reid Nelson and Sean Powers

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 528; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040528 - 13 Apr 2016

Cited by 80 | Viewed by 18672

Abstract

This project addresses the need for an expansion in the monitoring of marine environments by providing a detailed description of a low cost, robust, user friendly sonde, built on Arduino Mega 2560 (Mega) and Arduino Uno (Uno) platforms. The sonde can be made [...] Read more.

This project addresses the need for an expansion in the monitoring of marine environments by providing a detailed description of a low cost, robust, user friendly sonde, built on Arduino Mega 2560 (Mega) and Arduino Uno (Uno) platforms. The sonde can be made without specialized tools or training and can be easily modified to meet individual application requirements. The platform allows for internal logging of multiple parameters of which conductivity, temperature, and GPS position are demonstrated. Two design configurations for different coastal hydrographic applications are highlighted to show the robust and versatile nature of this sensor platform. The initial sonde design was intended for use on a Lagrangian style surface drifter that recorded measurements of temperature; salinity; and position for a deployment duration of less than 24 h. Functional testing of the sensor consisted of a 55 h comparison with a regularly maintained water quality sensor (i.e., YSI 6600 sonde) in Mobile Bay, AL. The temperature and salinity data were highly correlated and had acceptable RMS errors of 0.154 °C and 1.35 psu for the environmental conditions. A second application using the sonde platform was designed for longer duration (~3–4 weeks); subsurface (1.5–4.0 m depths) deployment, moored to permanent structures. Design alterations reflected an emphasis on minimizing power consumption, which included the elimination of the GPS capabilities, increased battery capacity, and power-saving software modifications. The sonde designs presented serve as templates that will expand the hydrographic measurement capabilities of ocean scientists, students, and teachers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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14 pages, 1880 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Artificial Intelligence Approach for Gears Diagnostics in AUVs

by Graciliano Nicolás Marichal, María Lourdes Del Castillo, Jesús López, Isidro Padrón and Mariano Artés

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 529; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040529 - 12 Apr 2016

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 6484

Abstract

In this paper, an intelligent scheme for detecting incipient defects in spur gears is presented. In fact, the study has been undertaken to determine these defects in a single propeller system of a small-sized unmanned helicopter. It is important to remark that although [...] Read more.

In this paper, an intelligent scheme for detecting incipient defects in spur gears is presented. In fact, the study has been undertaken to determine these defects in a single propeller system of a small-sized unmanned helicopter. It is important to remark that although the study focused on this particular system, the obtained results could be extended to other systems known as AUVs (Autonomous Unmanned Vehicles), where the usage of polymer gears in the vehicle transmission is frequent. Few studies have been carried out on these kinds of gears. In this paper, an experimental platform has been adapted for the study and several samples have been prepared. Moreover, several vibration signals have been measured and their time-frequency characteristics have been taken as inputs to the diagnostic system. In fact, a diagnostic system based on an artificial intelligence strategy has been devised. Furthermore, techniques based on several paradigms of the Artificial Intelligence (Neural Networks, Fuzzy systems and Genetic Algorithms) have been applied altogether in order to design an efficient fault diagnostic system. A hybrid Genetic Neuro-Fuzzy system has been developed, where it is possible, at the final stage of the learning process, to express the fault diagnostic system as a set of fuzzy rules. Several trials have been carried out and satisfactory results have been achieved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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25 pages, 1172 KiB

Open AccessArticle

MGRA: Motion Gesture Recognition via Accelerometer

by Feng Hong, Shujuan You, Meiyu Wei, Yongtuo Zhang and Zhongwen Guo

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 530; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040530 - 13 Apr 2016

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 7045

Abstract

Accelerometers have been widely embedded in most current mobile devices, enabling easy and intuitive operations. This paper proposes a Motion Gesture Recognition system (MGRA) based on accelerometer data only, which is entirely implemented on mobile devices and can provide users with real-time interactions. [...] Read more.

Accelerometers have been widely embedded in most current mobile devices, enabling easy and intuitive operations. This paper proposes a Motion Gesture Recognition system (MGRA) based on accelerometer data only, which is entirely implemented on mobile devices and can provide users with real-time interactions. A robust and unique feature set is enumerated through the time domain, the frequency domain and singular value decomposition analysis using our motion gesture set containing 11,110 traces. The best feature vector for classification is selected, taking both static and mobile scenarios into consideration. MGRA exploits support vector machine as the classifier with the best feature vector. Evaluations confirm that MGRA can accommodate a broad set of gesture variations within each class, including execution time, amplitude and non-gestural movement. Extensive evaluations confirm that MGRA achieves higher accuracy under both static and mobile scenarios and costs less computation time and energy on an LG Nexus 5 than previous methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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17 pages, 3314 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Towards A Self Adaptive System for Social Wellness

by Asad Masood Khattak, Wajahat Ali Khan, Zeeshan Pervez, Farkhund Iqbal and Sungyoung Lee

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 531; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040531 - 13 Apr 2016

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 8614

Abstract

Advancements in science and technology have highlighted the importance of robust healthcare services, lifestyle services and personalized recommendations. For this purpose patient daily life activity recognition, profile information, and patient personal experience are required. In this research work we focus on the improvement [...] Read more.

Advancements in science and technology have highlighted the importance of robust healthcare services, lifestyle services and personalized recommendations. For this purpose patient daily life activity recognition, profile information, and patient personal experience are required. In this research work we focus on the improvement in general health and life status of the elderly through the use of an innovative services to align dietary intake with daily life and health activity information. Dynamic provisioning of personalized healthcare and life-care services are based on the patient daily life activities recognized using smart phone. To achieve this, an ontology-based approach is proposed, where all the daily life activities and patient profile information are modeled in ontology. Then the semantic context is exploited with an inference mechanism that enables fine-grained situation analysis for personalized service recommendations. A generic system architecture is proposed that facilitates context information storage and exchange, profile information, and the newly recognized activities. The system exploits the patient’s situation using semantic inference and provides recommendations for appropriate nutrition and activity related services. The proposed system is extensively evaluated for the claims and for its dynamic nature. The experimental results are very encouraging and have shown better accuracy than the existing system. The proposed system has also performed better in terms of the system support for a dynamic knowledge-base and the personalized recommendations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Identification, Information & Knowledge in the Internet of Things)

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16 pages, 13707 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Stimulated Raman Scattering CMOS Pixel Using a High-Speed Charge Modulator and Lock-in Amplifier

by De Xing Lioe, Kamel Mars, Shoji Kawahito, Keita Yasutomi, Keiichiro Kagawa, Takahiro Yamada and Mamoru Hashimoto

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 532; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040532 - 13 Apr 2016

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 10167

Abstract

A complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) lock-in pixel to observe stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) using a high speed lateral electric field modulator (LEFM) for photo-generated charges and in-pixel readout circuits is presented. An effective SRS signal generated after the SRS process is very small [...] Read more.

A complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) lock-in pixel to observe stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) using a high speed lateral electric field modulator (LEFM) for photo-generated charges and in-pixel readout circuits is presented. An effective SRS signal generated after the SRS process is very small and needs to be extracted from an extremely large offset due to a probing laser signal. In order to suppress the offset components while amplifying high-frequency modulated small SRS signal components, the lock-in pixel uses a high-speed LEFM for demodulating the SRS signal, resistor-capacitor low-pass filter (RC-LPF) and switched-capacitor (SC) integrator with a fully CMOS differential amplifier. AC (modulated) components remained in the RC-LPF outputs are eliminated by the phase-adjusted sampling with the SC integrator and the demodulated DC (unmodulated) components due to the SRS signal are integrated over many samples in the SC integrator. In order to suppress further the residual offset and the low frequency noise (1/f noise) components, a double modulation technique is introduced in the SRS signal measurements, where the phase of high-frequency modulated laser beam before irradiation of a specimen is modulated at an intermediate frequency and the demodulation is done at the lock-in pixel output. A prototype chip for characterizing the SRS lock-in pixel is implemented and a successful operation is demonstrated. The reduction effects of residual offset and 1/f noise components are confirmed by the measurements. A ratio of the detected small SRS to offset a signal of less than 10⁻⁵ is experimentally demonstrated, and the SRS spectrum of a Benzonitrile sample is successfully observed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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11 pages, 2873 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Low-Loss Coupling of Quantum Cascade Lasers into Hollow-Core Waveguides with Single-Mode Output in the 3.7–7.6 μm Spectral Range

by Pietro Patimisco, Angelo Sampaolo, Laura Mihai, Marilena Giglio, Jason Kriesel, Dan Sporea, Gaetano Scamarcio, Frank K. Tittel and Vincenzo Spagnolo

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 533; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040533 - 13 Apr 2016

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 7880

Abstract

We demonstrated low-loss and single-mode laser beam delivery through hollow-core waveguides (HCWs) operating in the 3.7–7.6 μm spectral range. The employed HCWs have a circular cross section with a bore diameter of 200 μm and metallic/dielectric internal coatings deposited inside a glass capillary [...] Read more.

We demonstrated low-loss and single-mode laser beam delivery through hollow-core waveguides (HCWs) operating in the 3.7–7.6 μm spectral range. The employed HCWs have a circular cross section with a bore diameter of 200 μm and metallic/dielectric internal coatings deposited inside a glass capillary tube. The internal coatings have been produced to enhance the spectral response of the HCWs in the range 3.5–12 µm. We demonstrated Gaussian-like outputs throughout the 4.5–7.6 µm spectral range. A quasi single-mode output beam with only small beam distortions was achieved when the wavelength was reduced to 3.7 μm. With a 15-cm-long HCW and optimized coupling conditions, we measured coupling efficiencies of >88% and transmission losses of <1 dB in the investigated infrared spectral range. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infrared and THz Sensing and Imaging)

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11 pages, 2945 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Simulation Study of a Radiofrequency Localization System for Tracking Patient Motion in Radiotherapy

by Mark Ostyn, Siyong Kim and Woon-Hong Yeo

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 534; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040534 - 13 Apr 2016

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 6683

Abstract

One of the most widely used tools in cancer treatment is external beam radiotherapy. However, the major risk involved in radiotherapy is excess radiation dose to healthy tissue, exacerbated by patient motion. Here, we present a simulation study of a potential radiofrequency (RF) [...] Read more.

One of the most widely used tools in cancer treatment is external beam radiotherapy. However, the major risk involved in radiotherapy is excess radiation dose to healthy tissue, exacerbated by patient motion. Here, we present a simulation study of a potential radiofrequency (RF) localization system designed to track intrafraction motion (target motion during the radiation treatment). This system includes skin-wearable RF beacons and an external tracking system. We develop an analytical model for direction of arrival measurement with radio frequencies (GHz range) for use in a localization estimate. We use a Monte Carlo simulation to investigate the relationship between a localization estimate and angular resolution of sensors (signal receivers) in a simulated room. The results indicate that the external sensor needs an angular resolution of about 0.03 degrees to achieve millimeter-level localization accuracy in a treatment room. This fundamental study of a novel RF localization system offers the groundwork to design a radiotherapy-compatible patient positioning system for active motion compensation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Non-Contact Sensing)

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14 pages, 2486 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Easily Fabricated Electrochemical Sensor Based on a Graphene-Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode for Determination of Octopamine and Tyramine

by Yang Zhang, Meiqin Zhang, Qianhui Wei, Yongjie Gao, Lijuan Guo, Khalid A. Al-Ghanim, Shahid Mahboob and Xueji Zhang

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 535; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040535 - 13 Apr 2016

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 8505

Abstract

A simple electrochemical sensor has been developed for highly sensitive detection of octopamine and tyramine by electrodepositing reduced graphene oxide (ERGO) nanosheets onto the surface of a glassy carbon electrode (GCE). The electrocatalytic oxidation of octopamine and tyramine is individually investigated at the [...] Read more.

A simple electrochemical sensor has been developed for highly sensitive detection of octopamine and tyramine by electrodepositing reduced graphene oxide (ERGO) nanosheets onto the surface of a glassy carbon electrode (GCE). The electrocatalytic oxidation of octopamine and tyramine is individually investigated at the surface of the ERGO modified glassy carbon electrode (ERGO/GCE) by using cyclic voltammetry (CV) and differential pulse voltammetry (DPV). Several essential factors including the deposition cycle of reduced graphene oxide nanosheets and the pH of the running buffer were investigated in order to determine the optimum conditions. Furthermore, the sensor was applied to the quantification of octopamine and tyramine by DPV in the concentration ranges from 0.5 to 40 μM and 0.1 to 25 μM, respectively. In addition, the limits of detection of octopamine and tyramine were calculated to be 0.1 μM and 0.03 μM (S/N = 3), respectively. The sensor showed good reproducibility, selectivity and stability. Finally, the sensor successfully detected octopamine and tyramine in commercially available beer with satisfactory recovery ranges which were 98.5%–104.7% and 102.2%–103.1%, respectively. These results indicate the ERGO/GCE based sensor is suitable for the detection of octopamine and tyramine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Graphene and 2D Material Bionanosensors: Chemistry Matters)

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21 pages, 8664 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Alignment Method for the Integration of Underwater 3D Data Captured by a Stereovision System and an Acoustic Camera

by Antonio Lagudi, Gianfranco Bianco, Maurizio Muzzupappa and Fabio Bruno

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 536; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040536 - 14 Apr 2016

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 8195

Abstract

The integration of underwater 3D data captured by acoustic and optical systems is a promising technique in various applications such as mapping or vehicle navigation. It allows for compensating the drawbacks of the low resolution of acoustic sensors and the limitations of optical [...] Read more.

The integration of underwater 3D data captured by acoustic and optical systems is a promising technique in various applications such as mapping or vehicle navigation. It allows for compensating the drawbacks of the low resolution of acoustic sensors and the limitations of optical sensors in bad visibility conditions. Aligning these data is a challenging problem, as it is hard to make a point-to-point correspondence. This paper presents a multi-sensor registration for the automatic integration of 3D data acquired from a stereovision system and a 3D acoustic camera in close-range acquisition. An appropriate rig has been used in the laboratory tests to determine the relative position between the two sensor frames. The experimental results show that our alignment approach, based on the acquisition of a rig in several poses, can be adopted to estimate the rigid transformation between the two heterogeneous sensors. A first estimation of the unknown geometric transformation is obtained by a registration of the two 3D point clouds, but it ends up to be strongly affected by noise and data dispersion. A robust and optimal estimation is obtained by a statistical processing of the transformations computed for each pose. The effectiveness of the method has been demonstrated in this first experimentation of the proposed 3D opto-acoustic camera. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Techniques for 3D Object Modeling in Underwater Environments)

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19 pages, 1418 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spacecraft Angular Rates Estimation with Gyrowheel Based on Extended High Gain Observer

by Xiaokun Liu, Yu Yao, Kemao Ma, Hui Zhao and Fenghua He

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 537; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040537 - 14 Apr 2016

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5066

Abstract

A gyrowheel (GW) is a kind of electronic electric-mechanical servo system, which can be applied to a spacecraft attitude control system (ACS) as both an actuator and a sensor simultaneously. In order to solve the problem of two-dimensional spacecraft angular rate sensing as [...] Read more.

A gyrowheel (GW) is a kind of electronic electric-mechanical servo system, which can be applied to a spacecraft attitude control system (ACS) as both an actuator and a sensor simultaneously. In order to solve the problem of two-dimensional spacecraft angular rate sensing as a GW outputting three-dimensional control torque, this paper proposed a method of an extended high gain observer (EHGO) with the derived GW mathematical model to implement the spacecraft angular rate estimation when the GW rotor is working at large angles. For this purpose, the GW dynamic equation is firstly derived with the second kind Lagrange method, and the relationship between the measurable and unmeasurable variables is built. Then, the EHGO is designed to estimate and calculate spacecraft angular rates with the GW, and the stability of the designed EHGO is proven by the Lyapunov function. Moreover, considering the engineering application, the effect of measurement noise in the tilt angle sensors on the estimation accuracy of the EHGO is analyzed. Finally, the numerical simulation is performed to illustrate the validity of the method proposed in this paper. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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17 pages, 5669 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Repeated Projection Lithography for High-Precision Linear Scale Based on Average Homogenization Effect

by Dongxu Ren, Huiying Zhao, Chupeng Zhang, Daocheng Yuan, Jianpu Xi, Xueliang Zhu, Xinxing Ban, Longchao Dong, Yawen Gu and Chunye Jiang

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 538; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040538 - 14 Apr 2016

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 6060

Abstract

A multi-repeated photolithography method for manufacturing an incremental linear scale using projection lithography is presented. The method is based on the average homogenization effect that periodically superposes the light intensity of different locations of pitches in the mask to make a consistent energy [...] Read more.

A multi-repeated photolithography method for manufacturing an incremental linear scale using projection lithography is presented. The method is based on the average homogenization effect that periodically superposes the light intensity of different locations of pitches in the mask to make a consistent energy distribution at a specific wavelength, from which the accuracy of a linear scale can be improved precisely using the average pitch with different step distances. The method’s theoretical error is within 0.01 µm for a periodic mask with a 2-µm sine-wave error. The intensity error models in the focal plane include the rectangular grating error on the mask, static positioning error, and lithography lens focal plane alignment error, which affect pitch uniformity less than in the common linear scale projection lithography splicing process. It was analyzed and confirmed that increasing the repeat exposure number of a single stripe could improve accuracy, as could adjusting the exposure spacing to achieve a set proportion of black and white stripes. According to the experimental results, the effectiveness of the multi-repeated photolithography method is confirmed to easily realize a pitch accuracy of 43 nm in any 10 locations of 1 m, and the whole length accuracy of the linear scale is less than 1 µm/m. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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13 pages, 364 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sparsity-Aware DOA Estimation Scheme for Noncircular Source in MIMO Radar

by Xianpeng Wang, Wei Wang, Xin Li, Qi Liu and Jing Liu

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 539; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040539 - 14 Apr 2016

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 6053

Abstract

In this paper, a novel sparsity-aware direction of arrival (DOA) estimation scheme for a noncircular source is proposed in multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) radar. In the proposed method, the reduced-dimensional transformation technique is adopted to eliminate the redundant elements. Then, exploiting the noncircularity of [...] Read more.

In this paper, a novel sparsity-aware direction of arrival (DOA) estimation scheme for a noncircular source is proposed in multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) radar. In the proposed method, the reduced-dimensional transformation technique is adopted to eliminate the redundant elements. Then, exploiting the noncircularity of signals, a joint sparsity-aware scheme based on the reweighted

l_{1}

norm penalty is formulated for DOA estimation, in which the diagonal elements of the weight matrix are the coefficients of the noncircular MUSIC-like (NC MUSIC-like) spectrum. Compared to the existing

l_{1}

norm penalty-based methods, the proposed scheme provides higher angular resolution and better DOA estimation performance. Results from numerical experiments are used to show the effectiveness of our proposed method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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14 pages, 3049 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Acute Sleep Deprivation Induces a Local Brain Transfer Information Increase in the Frontal Cortex in a Widespread Decrease Context

by Joan F. Alonso, Sergio Romero, Miguel A. Mañanas, Marta Alcalá, Rosa M. Antonijoan and Sandra Giménez

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 540; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040540 - 14 Apr 2016

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6326

Abstract

Sleep deprivation (SD) has adverse effects on mental and physical health, affecting the cognitive abilities and emotional states. Specifically, cognitive functions and alertness are known to decrease after SD. The aim of this work was to identify the directional information transfer after SD [...] Read more.

Sleep deprivation (SD) has adverse effects on mental and physical health, affecting the cognitive abilities and emotional states. Specifically, cognitive functions and alertness are known to decrease after SD. The aim of this work was to identify the directional information transfer after SD on scalp EEG signals using transfer entropy (TE). Using a robust methodology based on EEG recordings of 18 volunteers deprived from sleep for 36 h, TE and spectral analysis were performed to characterize EEG data acquired every 2 h. Correlation between connectivity measures and subjective somnolence was assessed. In general, TE showed medium- and long-range significant decreases originated at the occipital areas and directed towards different regions, which could be interpreted as the transfer of predictive information from parieto-occipital activity to the rest of the head. Simultaneously, short-range increases were obtained for the frontal areas, following a consistent and robust time course with significant maps after 20 h of sleep deprivation. Changes during sleep deprivation in brain network were measured effectively by TE, which showed increased local connectivity and diminished global integration. TE is an objective measure that could be used as a potential measure of sleep pressure and somnolence with the additional property of directed relationships. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Noninvasive Biomedical Sensors)

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11 pages, 5714 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antenna Deployment for the Localization of Partial Discharges in Open-Air Substations

by Guillermo Robles, José Manuel Fresno, Matilde Sánchez-Fernández and Juan Manuel Martínez-Tarifa

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 541; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040541 - 15 Apr 2016

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 6139

Abstract

Partial discharges are ionization processes inside or on the surface of dielectrics that can unveil insulation problems in electrical equipment. The charge accumulated is released under certain environmental and voltage conditions attacking the insulation both physically and chemically. The final consequence of a [...] Read more.

Partial discharges are ionization processes inside or on the surface of dielectrics that can unveil insulation problems in electrical equipment. The charge accumulated is released under certain environmental and voltage conditions attacking the insulation both physically and chemically. The final consequence of a continuous occurrence of these events is the breakdown of the dielectric. The electron avalanche provokes a derivative of the electric field with respect to time, creating an electromagnetic impulse that can be detected with antennas. The localization of the source helps in the identification of the piece of equipment that has to be decommissioned. This can be done by deploying antennas and calculating the time difference of arrival (TDOA) of the electromagnetic pulses. However, small errors in this parameter can lead to great displacements of the calculated position of the source. Usually, four antennas are used to find the source but the array geometry has to be correctly deployed to have minimal errors in the localization. This paper demonstrates, by an analysis based on simulation and also experimentally, that the most common layouts are not always the best options and proposes a simple antenna layout to reduce the systematic error in the TDOA calculation due to the positions of the antennas in the array. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 2nd International Electronic Conference on Sensors and Applications)

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16 pages, 5888 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Graphite Based Electrode for ECG Monitoring: Evaluation under Freshwater and Saltwater Conditions

by Tharoeun Thap, Kwon-Ha Yoon and Jinseok Lee

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 542; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040542 - 15 Apr 2016

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 12768

Abstract

We proposed new electrodes that are applicable for electrocardiogram (ECG) monitoring under freshwater- and saltwater-immersion conditions. Our proposed electrodes are made of graphite pencil lead (GPL), a general-purpose writing pencil. We have fabricated two types of electrode: a pencil lead solid type (PLS) [...] Read more.

We proposed new electrodes that are applicable for electrocardiogram (ECG) monitoring under freshwater- and saltwater-immersion conditions. Our proposed electrodes are made of graphite pencil lead (GPL), a general-purpose writing pencil. We have fabricated two types of electrode: a pencil lead solid type (PLS) electrode and a pencil lead powder type (PLP) electrode. In order to assess the qualities of the PLS and PLP electrodes, we compared their performance with that of a commercial Ag/AgCl electrode, under a total of seven different conditions: dry, freshwater immersion with/without movement, post-freshwater wet condition, saltwater immersion with/without movement, and post-saltwater wet condition. In both dry and post-freshwater wet conditions, all ECG-recorded PQRST waves were clearly discernible, with all types of electrodes, Ag/AgCl, PLS, and PLP. On the other hand, under the freshwater- and saltwater-immersion conditions with/without movement, as well as post-saltwater wet conditions, we found that the proposed PLS and PLP electrodes provided better ECG waveform quality, with significant statistical differences compared with the quality provided by Ag/AgCl electrodes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Noninvasive Biomedical Sensors)

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18 pages, 5947 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Sea-Sky Line Detection Method for Unmanned Surface Vehicles Based on Gradient Saliency

by Bo Wang, Yumin Su and Lei Wan

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 543; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040543 - 15 Apr 2016

Cited by 44 | Viewed by 6895

Abstract

Special features in real marine environments such as cloud clutter, sea glint and weather conditions always result in various kinds of interference in optical images, which make it very difficult for unmanned surface vehicles (USVs) to detect the sea-sky line (SSL) accurately. To [...] Read more.

Special features in real marine environments such as cloud clutter, sea glint and weather conditions always result in various kinds of interference in optical images, which make it very difficult for unmanned surface vehicles (USVs) to detect the sea-sky line (SSL) accurately. To solve this problem a saliency-based SSL detection method is proposed. Through the computation of gradient saliency the line features of SSL are enhanced effectively, while other interference factors are relatively suppressed, and line support regions are obtained by a region growing method on gradient orientation. The SSL identification is achieved according to region contrast, line segment length and orientation features, and optimal state estimation of SSL detection is implemented by introducing a cubature Kalman filter (CKF). In the end, the proposed method is tested on a benchmark dataset from the “XL” USV in a real marine environment, and the experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method is significantly superior to other state-of-the-art methods in terms of accuracy rate and real-time performance, and its accuracy and stability are effectively improved by the CKF. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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11 pages, 1942 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Intra-Tissue Pressure Measurement in Ex Vivo Liver Undergoing Laser Ablation with Fiber-Optic Fabry-Perot Probe

by Daniele Tosi, Paola Saccomandi, Emiliano Schena, Dinesh Babu Duraibabu, Sven Poeggel, Gabriel Leen and Elfed Lewis

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 544; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040544 - 15 Apr 2016

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 7232

Abstract

We report the first-ever intra-tissue pressure measurement performed during 1064 nm laser ablation (LA) of an ex vivo porcine liver. Pressure detection has been performed with a biocompatible, all-glass, temperature-insensitive Extrinsic Fabry-Perot Interferometry (EFPI) miniature probe; the proposed methodology mimics in-vivo treatment. Four [...] Read more.

We report the first-ever intra-tissue pressure measurement performed during 1064 nm laser ablation (LA) of an ex vivo porcine liver. Pressure detection has been performed with a biocompatible, all-glass, temperature-insensitive Extrinsic Fabry-Perot Interferometry (EFPI) miniature probe; the proposed methodology mimics in-vivo treatment. Four experiments have been performed, positioning the probe at different positions from the laser applicator tip (from 0.5 mm to 5 mm). Pressure levels increase during ablation time, and decrease with distance from applicator tip: the recorded peak parenchymal pressure levels range from 1.9 kPa to 71.6 kPa. Different pressure evolutions have been recorded, as pressure rises earlier in proximity of the tip. The present study is the first investigation of parenchymal pressure detection in liver undergoing LA: the successful detection of intra-tissue pressure may be a key asset for improving LA, as pressure levels have been correlated to scattered recurrences of tumors by different studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Fiber Sensors 2016)

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18 pages, 5752 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancement of ELDA Tracker Based on CNN Features and Adaptive Model Update

by Changxin Gao, Huizhang Shi, Jin-Gang Yu and Nong Sang

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 545; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040545 - 15 Apr 2016

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 6054

Abstract

Appearance representation and the observation model are the most important components in designing a robust visual tracking algorithm for video-based sensors. Additionally, the exemplar-based linear discriminant analysis (ELDA) model has shown good performance in object tracking. Based on that, we improve the ELDA [...] Read more.

Appearance representation and the observation model are the most important components in designing a robust visual tracking algorithm for video-based sensors. Additionally, the exemplar-based linear discriminant analysis (ELDA) model has shown good performance in object tracking. Based on that, we improve the ELDA tracking algorithm by deep convolutional neural network (CNN) features and adaptive model update. Deep CNN features have been successfully used in various computer vision tasks. Extracting CNN features on all of the candidate windows is time consuming. To address this problem, a two-step CNN feature extraction method is proposed by separately computing convolutional layers and fully-connected layers. Due to the strong discriminative ability of CNN features and the exemplar-based model, we update both object and background models to improve their adaptivity and to deal with the tradeoff between discriminative ability and adaptivity. An object updating method is proposed to select the “good” models (detectors), which are quite discriminative and uncorrelated to other selected models. Meanwhile, we build the background model as a Gaussian mixture model (GMM) to adapt to complex scenes, which is initialized offline and updated online. The proposed tracker is evaluated on a benchmark dataset of 50 video sequences with various challenges. It achieves the best overall performance among the compared state-of-the-art trackers, which demonstrates the effectiveness and robustness of our tracking algorithm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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17 pages, 1749 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effectiveness of a Batteryless and Wireless Wearable Sensor System for Identifying Bed and Chair Exits in Healthy Older People

by Roberto Luis Shinmoto Torres, Renuka Visvanathan, Stephen Hoskins, Anton Van den Hengel and Damith C. Ranasinghe

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 546; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040546 - 15 Apr 2016

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 10558

Abstract

Aging populations are increasing worldwide and strategies to minimize the impact of falls on older people need to be examined. Falls in hospitals are common and current hospital technological implementations use localized sensors on beds and chairs to alert caregivers of unsupervised patient [...] Read more.

Aging populations are increasing worldwide and strategies to minimize the impact of falls on older people need to be examined. Falls in hospitals are common and current hospital technological implementations use localized sensors on beds and chairs to alert caregivers of unsupervised patient ambulations; however, such systems have high false alarm rates. We investigate the recognition of bed and chair exits in real-time using a wireless wearable sensor worn by healthy older volunteers. Fourteen healthy older participants joined in supervised trials. They wore a batteryless, lightweight and wireless sensor over their attire and performed a set of broadly scripted activities. We developed a movement monitoring approach for the recognition of bed and chair exits based on a machine learning activity predictor. We investigated the effectiveness of our approach in generating bed and chair exit alerts in two possible clinical deployments (Room 1 and Room 2). The system obtained recall results above 93% (Room 2) and 94% (Room 1) for bed and chair exits, respectively. Precision was >78% and 67%, respectively, while F-score was >84% and 77% for bed and chair exits, respectively. This system has potential for real-time monitoring but further research in the final target population of older people is necessary. Full article

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14 pages, 5435 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Fiber Bragg Grating Sensing-Based Micro-Vibration Sensor and Its Application

by Tianliang Li, Yuegang Tan and Zude Zhou

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 547; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040547 - 15 Apr 2016

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 9313

Abstract

This paper proposes a fiber Bragg grating sensing-based micro-vibration sensor. The optical fiber has been directly treated as an elastomer to design the micro-vibration sensor, which possesses two FBGs. The mass is fixed on the middle of the fiber, and the vertical vibration [...] Read more.

This paper proposes a fiber Bragg grating sensing-based micro-vibration sensor. The optical fiber has been directly treated as an elastomer to design the micro-vibration sensor, which possesses two FBGs. The mass is fixed on the middle of the fiber, and the vertical vibration of the mass has been converted into the axial tension/compression of the fiber. The principle of the sensor has been introduced, and the experiment conclusions show that the sensor sensitivity is 2362 pm/g within the range of 200–1200 mm/s², which is consistent with theoretical analysis sensitivity of 2532.6 pm/g, and it shows an excellent linearity of 1.376%, while the resonant frequency of the sensor is 34 Hz, and the flat frequency range resides in the 0–22 Hz range. When used to measure micro-vibrations, its measured frequency relative error is less than 1.69% compared with the values acquired with a MEMS accelerometer, and the amplitude values of its measured vibration signal are consistent with the MEMS accelerometer under different excitation conditions too, so it can effectively realize the micro-vibration measurements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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17 pages, 1073 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Resilient Sensor Networks with Spatiotemporal Interpolation of Missing Sensors: An Example of Space Weather Forecasting by Multiple Satellites

by Masahiro Tokumitsu, Keisuke Hasegawa and Yoshiteru Ishida

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 548; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040548 - 15 Apr 2016

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5013

Abstract

This paper attempts to construct a resilient sensor network model with an example of space weather forecasting. The proposed model is based on a dynamic relational network. Space weather forecasting is vital for a satellite operation because an operational team needs to make [...] Read more.

This paper attempts to construct a resilient sensor network model with an example of space weather forecasting. The proposed model is based on a dynamic relational network. Space weather forecasting is vital for a satellite operation because an operational team needs to make a decision for providing its satellite service. The proposed model is resilient to failures of sensors or missing data due to the satellite operation. In the proposed model, the missing data of a sensor is interpolated by other sensors associated. This paper demonstrates two examples of space weather forecasting that involves the missing observations in some test cases. In these examples, the sensor network for space weather forecasting continues a diagnosis by replacing faulted sensors with virtual ones. The demonstrations showed that the proposed model is resilient against sensor failures due to suspension of hardware failures or technical reasons. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Japan 2015)

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12 pages, 6002 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fault Detection and Diagnosis of Railway Point Machines by Sound Analysis

by Jonguk Lee, Heesu Choi, Daihee Park, Yongwha Chung, Hee-Young Kim and Sukhan Yoon

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 549; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040549 - 16 Apr 2016

Cited by 124 | Viewed by 15390

Abstract

Railway point devices act as actuators that provide different routes to trains by driving switchblades from the current position to the opposite one. Point failure can significantly affect railway operations, with potentially disastrous consequences. Therefore, early detection of anomalies is critical for monitoring [...] Read more.

Railway point devices act as actuators that provide different routes to trains by driving switchblades from the current position to the opposite one. Point failure can significantly affect railway operations, with potentially disastrous consequences. Therefore, early detection of anomalies is critical for monitoring and managing the condition of rail infrastructure. We present a data mining solution that utilizes audio data to efficiently detect and diagnose faults in railway condition monitoring systems. The system enables extracting mel-frequency cepstrum coefficients (MFCCs) from audio data with reduced feature dimensions using attribute subset selection, and employs support vector machines (SVMs) for early detection and classification of anomalies. Experimental results show that the system enables cost-effective detection and diagnosis of faults using a cheap microphone, with accuracy exceeding 94.1% whether used alone or in combination with other known methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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7 pages, 1991 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Polymer-Particle Pressure-Sensitive Paint with High Photostability

by Yu Matsuda, Kenta Uchida, Yasuhiro Egami, Hiroki Yamaguchi and Tomohide Niimi

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 550; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040550 - 16 Apr 2016

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 6596

Abstract

We propose a novel fast-responding and paintable pressure-sensitive paint (PSP) based on polymer particles, i.e. polymer-particle (pp-)PSP. As a fast-responding PSP, polymer-ceramic (PC-)PSP is widely studied. Since PC-PSP generally consists of titanium (IV) oxide (TiO₂) particles, a large reduction in the [...] Read more.

We propose a novel fast-responding and paintable pressure-sensitive paint (PSP) based on polymer particles, i.e. polymer-particle (pp-)PSP. As a fast-responding PSP, polymer-ceramic (PC-)PSP is widely studied. Since PC-PSP generally consists of titanium (IV) oxide (TiO₂) particles, a large reduction in the luminescent intensity will occur due to the photocatalytic action of TiO₂. We propose the usage of polymer particles instead of TiO₂ particles to prevent the reduction in the luminescent intensity. Here, we fabricate pp-PSP based on the polystyrene particle with a diameter of 1 μm, and investigate the pressure- and temperature-sensitives, the response time, and the photostability. The performances of pp-PSP are compared with those of PC-PSP, indicating the high photostability with the other characteristics comparable to PC-PSP. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)

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9 pages, 1338 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rapid Detection of Glycogen Synthase Kinase-3 Activity in Mouse Sperm Using Fluorescent Gel Shift Electrophoresis

by Hoseok Choi, Bomi Choi, Ju Tae Seo, Kyung Jin Lee, Myung Chan Gye and Young-Pil Kim

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 551; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040551 - 16 Apr 2016

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 6759

Abstract

Assaying the glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK3) activity in sperm is of great importance because it is closely implicated in sperm motility and male infertility. While a number of studies on GSK3 activity have relied on labor-intensive immunoblotting to identify phosphorylated GSK3, here we [...] Read more.

Assaying the glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK3) activity in sperm is of great importance because it is closely implicated in sperm motility and male infertility. While a number of studies on GSK3 activity have relied on labor-intensive immunoblotting to identify phosphorylated GSK3, here we report the simple and rapid detection of GSK3 activity in mouse sperm using conventional agarose gel electrophoresis and a fluorescent peptide substrate. When a dye-tethered and prephosphorylated (primed) peptide substrate for GSK3 was employed, a distinct mobility shift in the fluorescent bands on the agarose was observed by GSK3-induced phosphorylation of the primed peptides. The GSK3 activity in mouse testes and sperm were quantifiable by gel shift assay with low sample consumption and were significantly correlated with the expression levels of GSK3 and p-GSK3. We suggest that our assay can be used for reliable and rapid detection of GSK3 activity in cells and tissue extracts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Colorimetric and Fluorescent Sensor)

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14 pages, 4298 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Compact Reconfigurable Antenna with an Omnidirectional Pattern and Four Directional Patterns for Wireless Sensor Systems

by Ren Wang, Bing-Zhong Wang, Wei-Ying Huang and Xiao Ding

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 552; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040552 - 16 Apr 2016

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 8715

Abstract

A compact reconfigurable antenna with an omnidirectional mode and four directional modes is proposed. The antenna has a main radiator and four parasitic elements printed on a dielectric substrate. By changing the status of diodes soldered on the parasitic elements, the proposed antenna [...] Read more.

A compact reconfigurable antenna with an omnidirectional mode and four directional modes is proposed. The antenna has a main radiator and four parasitic elements printed on a dielectric substrate. By changing the status of diodes soldered on the parasitic elements, the proposed antenna can generate four directional radiation patterns and one omnidirectional radiation pattern. The main beam directions of the four directional modes are almost orthogonal and the four directional beams can jointly cover a 360° range in the horizontal plane, i.e., the main radiation plane of omnidirectional mode. The whole volume of the antenna and the control network is approximately 0.70 λ × 0.53 λ × 0.02 λ, where λ is the wavelength corresponding to the center frequency. The proposed antenna has a simple structure and small dimensions under the requirement that the directional radiation patterns can jointly cover the main radiation plane of the omnidirectional mode, therefore, it can be used in smart wireless sensor systems for different application scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies and Techniques for Microwave and Wireless Sensors)

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11 pages, 2374 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Anisotropic Model for Magnetostriction and Magnetization Computing for Noise Generation in Electric Devices

by Serigne Saliou Mbengue, Nicolas Buiron and Vincent Lanfranchi

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 553; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040553 - 16 Apr 2016

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6357

Abstract

During the manufacturing process and use of ferromagnetic sheets, operations such as rolling, cutting, and tightening induce anisotropy that changes the material’s behavior. Consequently for more accuracy in magnetization and magnetostriction calculations in electric devices such as transformers, anisotropic effects should be considered. [...] Read more.

During the manufacturing process and use of ferromagnetic sheets, operations such as rolling, cutting, and tightening induce anisotropy that changes the material’s behavior. Consequently for more accuracy in magnetization and magnetostriction calculations in electric devices such as transformers, anisotropic effects should be considered. In the following sections, we give an overview of a macroscopic model which takes into account the magnetic and magnetoelastic anisotropy of the material for both magnetization and magnetostriction computing. Firstly, a comparison between the model results and measurements from a Single Sheet Tester (SST) and values will be shown. Secondly, the model is integrated in a finite elements code to predict magnetostrictive deformation of an in-house test bench which is a stack of 40 sheets glued together by the Vacuum-Pressure Impregnation (VPI) method. Measurements on the test bench and Finite Elements results are presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Components of Mechatronics and Micro-Electro-Mechanical-Systems (MEMS) – Modeling and Design)

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14 pages, 3602 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Error Analysis of Clay-Rock Water Content Estimation with Broadband High-Frequency Electromagnetic Sensors—Air Gap Effect

by Thierry Bore, Norman Wagner, Sylvie Delepine Lesoille, Frederic Taillade, Gonzague Six, Franck Daout and Dominique Placko

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 554; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040554 - 18 Apr 2016

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5936

Abstract

Broadband electromagnetic frequency or time domain sensor techniques present high potential for quantitative water content monitoring in porous media. Prior to in situ application, the impact of the relationship between the broadband electromagnetic properties of the porous material (clay-rock) and the water content [...] Read more.

Broadband electromagnetic frequency or time domain sensor techniques present high potential for quantitative water content monitoring in porous media. Prior to in situ application, the impact of the relationship between the broadband electromagnetic properties of the porous material (clay-rock) and the water content on the frequency or time domain sensor response is required. For this purpose, dielectric properties of intact clay rock samples experimental determined in the frequency range from 1 MHz to 10 GHz were used as input data in 3-D numerical frequency domain finite element field calculations to model the one port broadband frequency or time domain transfer function for a three rods based sensor embedded in the clay-rock. The sensor response in terms of the reflection factor was analyzed in time domain with classical travel time analysis in combination with an empirical model according to Topp equation, as well as the theoretical Lichtenecker and Rother model (LRM) to estimate the volumetric water content. The mixture equation considering the appropriate porosity of the investigated material provide a practical and efficient approach for water content estimation based on classical travel time analysis with the onset-method. The inflection method is not recommended for water content estimation in electrical dispersive and absorptive material. Moreover, the results clearly indicate that effects due to coupling of the sensor to the material cannot be neglected. Coupling problems caused by an air gap lead to dramatic effects on water content estimation, even for submillimeter gaps. Thus, the quantitative determination of the in situ water content requires careful sensor installation in order to reach a perfect probe clay rock coupling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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22 pages, 5331 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Verification of a Digital Controller for a 2-Piece Hemispherical Resonator Gyroscope

by Jungshin Lee, Sung Wook Yun and Jaewook Rhim

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 555; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040555 - 20 Apr 2016

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 8223

Abstract

A Hemispherical Resonator Gyro (HRG) is the Coriolis Vibratory Gyro (CVG) that measures rotation angle or angular velocity using Coriolis force acting the vibrating mass. A HRG can be used as a rate gyro or integrating gyro without structural modification by simply changing [...] Read more.

A Hemispherical Resonator Gyro (HRG) is the Coriolis Vibratory Gyro (CVG) that measures rotation angle or angular velocity using Coriolis force acting the vibrating mass. A HRG can be used as a rate gyro or integrating gyro without structural modification by simply changing the control scheme. In this paper, differential control algorithms are designed for a 2-piece HRG. To design a precision controller, the electromechanical modelling and signal processing must be pre-performed accurately. Therefore, the equations of motion for the HRG resonator with switched harmonic excitations are derived with the Duhamel Integral method. Electromechanical modeling of the resonator, electric module and charge amplifier is performed by considering the mode shape of a thin hemispherical shell. Further, signal processing and control algorithms are designed. The multi-flexing scheme of sensing, driving cycles and x, y-axis switching cycles is appropriate for high precision and low maneuverability systems. The differential control scheme is easily capable of rejecting the common mode errors of x, y-axis signals and changing the rate integrating mode on basis of these studies. In the rate gyro mode the controller is composed of Phase-Locked Loop (PLL), amplitude, quadrature and rate control loop. All controllers are designed on basis of a digital PI controller. The signal processing and control algorithms are verified through Matlab/Simulink simulations. Finally, a FPGA and DSP board with these algorithms is verified through experiments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Resonator Sensors)

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16 pages, 12810 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Component-Based Vocabulary-Extensible Sign Language Gesture Recognition Framework

by Shengjing Wei, Xiang Chen, Xidong Yang, Shuai Cao and Xu Zhang

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 556; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040556 - 19 Apr 2016

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 7033

Abstract

Sign language recognition (SLR) can provide a helpful tool for the communication between the deaf and the external world. This paper proposed a component-based vocabulary extensible SLR framework using data from surface electromyographic (sEMG) sensors, accelerometers (ACC), and gyroscopes (GYRO). In this framework, [...] Read more.

Sign language recognition (SLR) can provide a helpful tool for the communication between the deaf and the external world. This paper proposed a component-based vocabulary extensible SLR framework using data from surface electromyographic (sEMG) sensors, accelerometers (ACC), and gyroscopes (GYRO). In this framework, a sign word was considered to be a combination of five common sign components, including hand shape, axis, orientation, rotation, and trajectory, and sign classification was implemented based on the recognition of five components. Especially, the proposed SLR framework consisted of two major parts. The first part was to obtain the component-based form of sign gestures and establish the code table of target sign gesture set using data from a reference subject. In the second part, which was designed for new users, component classifiers were trained using a training set suggested by the reference subject and the classification of unknown gestures was performed with a code matching method. Five subjects participated in this study and recognition experiments under different size of training sets were implemented on a target gesture set consisting of 110 frequently-used Chinese Sign Language (CSL) sign words. The experimental results demonstrated that the proposed framework can realize large-scale gesture set recognition with a small-scale training set. With the smallest training sets (containing about one-third gestures of the target gesture set) suggested by two reference subjects, (82.6 ± 13.2)% and (79.7 ± 13.4)% average recognition accuracy were obtained for 110 words respectively, and the average recognition accuracy climbed up to (88 ± 13.7)% and (86.3 ± 13.7)% when the training set included 50~60 gestures (about half of the target gesture set). The proposed framework can significantly reduce the user’s training burden in large-scale gesture recognition, which will facilitate the implementation of a practical SLR system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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21 pages, 6213 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Multiple Cropping Indices in the North China Plain Using a Long Remote Sensing Data Time Series

by Yan Zhao, Linyan Bai, Jianzhong Feng, Xiaosong Lin, Li Wang, Lijun Xu, Qiyun Ran and Kui Wang

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 557; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040557 - 19 Apr 2016

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 6532

Abstract

Multiple cropping provides China with a very important system of intensive cultivation, and can effectively enhance the efficiency of farmland use while improving regional food production and security. A multiple cropping index (MCI), which represents the intensity of multiple cropping and reflects the [...] Read more.

Multiple cropping provides China with a very important system of intensive cultivation, and can effectively enhance the efficiency of farmland use while improving regional food production and security. A multiple cropping index (MCI), which represents the intensity of multiple cropping and reflects the effects of climate change on agricultural production and cropping systems, often serves as a useful parameter. Therefore, monitoring the dynamic changes in the MCI of farmland over a large area using remote sensing data is essential. For this purpose, nearly 30 years of MCIs related to dry land in the North China Plain (NCP) were efficiently extracted from remotely sensed leaf area index (LAI) data from the Global LAnd Surface Satellite (GLASS). Next, the characteristics of the spatial-temporal change in MCI were analyzed. First, 2162 typical arable sample sites were selected based on a gridded spatial sampling strategy, and then the LAI information was extracted from the samples. Second, the Savizky-Golay filter was used to smooth the LAI time-series data of the samples, and then the MCIs of the samples were obtained using a second-order difference algorithm. Finally, the geo-statistical Kriging method was employed to map the spatial distribution of the MCIs and to obtain a time-series dataset of the MCIs of dry land over the NCP. The results showed that all of the MCIs in the NCP showed an increasing trend over the entire study period and increased most rapidly from 1982 to 2002. Spatially, MCIs decreased from south to north; also, high MCIs were mainly concentrated in the relatively flat areas. In addition, the partial spatial changes of MCIs had clear geographical characteristics, with the largest change in Henan Province. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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16 pages, 7295 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High Resolution Trichromatic Road Surface Scanning with a Line Scan Camera and Light Emitting Diode Lighting for Road-Kill Detection

by Gil Lopes, A. Fernando Ribeiro, Neftalí Sillero, Luís Gonçalves-Seco, Cristiano Silva, Marc Franch and Paulo Trigueiros

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 558; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040558 - 19 Apr 2016

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 8588

Abstract

This paper presents a road surface scanning system that operates with a trichromatic line scan camera with light emitting diode (LED) lighting achieving road surface resolution under a millimeter. It was part of a project named Roadkills—Intelligent systems for surveying mortality of amphibians [...] Read more.

This paper presents a road surface scanning system that operates with a trichromatic line scan camera with light emitting diode (LED) lighting achieving road surface resolution under a millimeter. It was part of a project named Roadkills—Intelligent systems for surveying mortality of amphibians in Portuguese roads, sponsored by the Portuguese Science and Technology Foundation. A trailer was developed in order to accommodate the complete system with standalone power generation, computer image capture and recording, controlled lighting to operate day or night without disturbance, incremental encoder with 5000 pulses per revolution attached to one of the trailer wheels, under a meter Global Positioning System (GPS) localization, easy to utilize with any vehicle with a trailer towing system and focused on a complete low cost solution. The paper describes the system architecture of the developed prototype, its calibration procedure, the performed experimentation and some obtained results, along with a discussion and comparison with existing systems. Sustained operating trailer speeds of up to 30 km/h are achievable without loss of quality at 4096 pixels’ image width (1 m width of road surface) with 250 µm/pixel resolution. Higher scanning speeds can be achieved by lowering the image resolution (120 km/h with 1 mm/pixel). Computer vision algorithms are under development to operate on the captured images in order to automatically detect road-kills of amphibians. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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14 pages, 2501 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reducing Sweeping Frequencies in Microwave NDT Employing Machine Learning Feature Selection

by Abdelniser Moomen, Abdulbaset Ali and Omar M. Ramahi

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 559; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040559 - 19 Apr 2016

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6449

Abstract

Nondestructive Testing (NDT) assessment of materials’ health condition is useful for classifying healthy from unhealthy structures or detecting flaws in metallic or dielectric structures. Performing structural health testing for coated/uncoated metallic or dielectric materials with the same testing equipment requires a testing method [...] Read more.

Nondestructive Testing (NDT) assessment of materials’ health condition is useful for classifying healthy from unhealthy structures or detecting flaws in metallic or dielectric structures. Performing structural health testing for coated/uncoated metallic or dielectric materials with the same testing equipment requires a testing method that can work on metallics and dielectrics such as microwave testing. Reducing complexity and expenses associated with current diagnostic practices of microwave NDT of structural health requires an effective and intelligent approach based on feature selection and classification techniques of machine learning. Current microwave NDT methods in general based on measuring variation in the S-matrix over the entire operating frequency ranges of the sensors. For instance, assessing the health of metallic structures using a microwave sensor depends on the reflection or/and transmission coefficient measurements as a function of the sweeping frequencies of the operating band. The aim of this work is reducing sweeping frequencies using machine learning feature selection techniques. By treating sweeping frequencies as features, the number of top important features can be identified, then only the most influential features (frequencies) are considered when building the microwave NDT equipment. The proposed method of reducing sweeping frequencies was validated experimentally using a waveguide sensor and a metallic plate with different cracks. Among the investigated feature selection techniques are information gain, gain ratio, relief, chi-squared. The effectiveness of the selected features were validated through performance evaluations of various classification models; namely, Nearest Neighbor, Neural Networks, Random Forest, and Support Vector Machine. Results showed good crack classification accuracy rates after employing feature selection algorithms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies and Techniques for Microwave and Wireless Sensors)

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23 pages, 9494 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multibeam 3D Underwater SLAM with Probabilistic Registration

by Albert Palomer, Pere Ridao and David Ribas

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 560; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040560 - 20 Apr 2016

Cited by 68 | Viewed by 12301

Abstract

This paper describes a pose-based underwater 3D Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM) using a multibeam echosounder to produce high consistency underwater maps. The proposed algorithm compounds swath profiles of the seafloor with dead reckoning localization to build surface patches (i.e., point [...] Read more.

This paper describes a pose-based underwater 3D Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM) using a multibeam echosounder to produce high consistency underwater maps. The proposed algorithm compounds swath profiles of the seafloor with dead reckoning localization to build surface patches (i.e., point clouds). An Iterative Closest Point (ICP) with a probabilistic implementation is then used to register the point clouds, taking into account their uncertainties. The registration process is divided in two steps: (1) point-to-point association for coarse registration and (2) point-to-plane association for fine registration. The point clouds of the surfaces to be registered are sub-sampled in order to decrease both the computation time and also the potential of falling into local minima during the registration. In addition, a heuristic is used to decrease the complexity of the association step of the ICP from

O (n^{2})

to

O (n)

. The performance of the SLAM framework is tested using two real world datasets: First, a 2.5D bathymetric dataset obtained with the usual down-looking multibeam sonar configuration, and second, a full 3D underwater dataset acquired with a multibeam sonar mounted on a pan and tilt unit. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Underwater Sensor Nodes and Underwater Sensor Networks 2016)

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27 pages, 921 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Realistic Simulation for Body Area and Body-To-Body Networks

by Muhammad Mahtab Alam, Elyes Ben Hamida, Dhafer Ben Arbia, Mickael Maman, Francesco Mani, Benoit Denis and Raffaele D’Errico

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 561; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040561 - 20 Apr 2016

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 6963

Abstract

In this paper, we present an accurate and realistic simulation for body area networks (BAN) and body-to-body networks (BBN) using deterministic and semi-deterministic approaches. First, in the semi-deterministic approach, a real-time measurement campaign is performed, which is further characterized through statistical analysis. It [...] Read more.

In this paper, we present an accurate and realistic simulation for body area networks (BAN) and body-to-body networks (BBN) using deterministic and semi-deterministic approaches. First, in the semi-deterministic approach, a real-time measurement campaign is performed, which is further characterized through statistical analysis. It is able to generate link-correlated and time-varying realistic traces (i.e., with consistent mobility patterns) for on-body and body-to-body shadowing and fading, including body orientations and rotations, by means of stochastic channel models. The full deterministic approach is particularly targeted to enhance IEEE 802.15.6 proposed channel models by introducing space and time variations (i.e., dynamic distances) through biomechanical modeling. In addition, it helps to accurately model the radio link by identifying the link types and corresponding path loss factors for line of sight (LOS) and non-line of sight (NLOS). This approach is particularly important for links that vary over time due to mobility. It is also important to add that the communication and protocol stack, including the physical (PHY), medium access control (MAC) and networking models, is developed for BAN and BBN, and the IEEE 802.15.6 compliance standard is provided as a benchmark for future research works of the community. Finally, the two approaches are compared in terms of the successful packet delivery ratio, packet delay and energy efficiency. The results show that the semi-deterministic approach is the best option; however, for the diversity of the mobility patterns and scenarios applicable, biomechanical modeling and the deterministic approach are better choices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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14 pages, 12062 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mass Sensitivity Optimization of a Surface Acoustic Wave Sensor Incorporating a Resonator Configuration

by Wenchang Hao, Jiuling Liu, Minghua Liu, Yong Liang and Shitang He

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 562; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040562 - 20 Apr 2016

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 8747

Abstract

The effect of the sensitive area of the two-port resonator configuration on the mass sensitivity of a Rayleigh surface acoustic wave (R-SAW) sensor was investigated theoretically, and verified in experiments. A theoretical model utilizing a 3-dimensional finite element method (FEM) approach was established [...] Read more.

The effect of the sensitive area of the two-port resonator configuration on the mass sensitivity of a Rayleigh surface acoustic wave (R-SAW) sensor was investigated theoretically, and verified in experiments. A theoretical model utilizing a 3-dimensional finite element method (FEM) approach was established to extract the coupling-of-modes (COM) parameters in the absence and presence of mass loading covering the electrode structures. The COM model was used to simulate the frequency response of an R-SAW resonator by a P-matrix cascading technique. Cascading the P-matrixes of unloaded areas with mass loaded areas, the sensitivity for different sensitive areas was obtained by analyzing the frequency shift. The performance of the sensitivity analysis was confirmed by the measured responses from the silicon dioxide (SiO₂) deposited on different sensitive areas of R-SAW resonators. It is shown that the mass sensitivity varies strongly for different sensitive areas, and the optimal sensitive area lies towards the center of the device. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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13 pages, 2164 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Stimuli-Responsive Biosensor of Glucose on Layer-by-Layer Films Assembled through Specific Lectin-Glycoenzyme Recognition

by Huiqin Yao, Qianqian Gan, Juan Peng, Shan Huang, Meilin Zhu and Keren Shi

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 563; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040563 - 20 Apr 2016

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6734

Abstract

The research on intelligent bioelectrocatalysis based on stimuli-responsive materials or interfaces is of great significance for biosensors and other bioelectronic devices. In the present work, lectin protein concanavalin A (Con A) and glycoenzyme glucose oxidase (GOD) were assembled into {Con A/GOD}_n layer-by-layer [...] Read more.

The research on intelligent bioelectrocatalysis based on stimuli-responsive materials or interfaces is of great significance for biosensors and other bioelectronic devices. In the present work, lectin protein concanavalin A (Con A) and glycoenzyme glucose oxidase (GOD) were assembled into {Con A/GOD}_n layer-by-layer (LbL) films by taking advantage of the biospecific lectin-glycoenzyme affinity between them. These film electrodes possess stimuli-responsive properties toward electroactive probes such as ferrocenedicarboxylic acid (Fc(COOH)₂) by modulating the surrounding pH. The CV peak currents of Fc(COOH)₂ were quite large at pH 4.0 but significantly suppressed at pH 8.0, demonstrating reversible stimuli-responsive on-off behavior. The mechanism of stimuli-responsive property of the films was explored by comparative experiments and attributed to the different electrostatic interaction between the films and the probes at different pH. This stimuli-responsive films could be used to realize active/inactive electrocatalytic oxidation of glucose by GOD in the films and mediated by Fc(COOH)₂ in solution, which may establish a foundation for fabricating novel stimuli-responsive electrochemical biosensors based on bioelectrocatalysis with immobilized enzymes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbial and Enzymatic Biosensors)

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19 pages, 8754 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Measurement for the Diameter of A Train Wheel Based on Structured-Light Vision

by Zheng Gong, Junhua Sun and Guangjun Zhang

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 564; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040564 - 20 Apr 2016

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 14252

Abstract

Wheels are very important for the safety of a train. The diameter of the wheel is a significant parameter that needs regular inspection. Traditional methods only use the contact points of the wheel tread to fit the rolling round. However, the wheel tread [...] Read more.

Wheels are very important for the safety of a train. The diameter of the wheel is a significant parameter that needs regular inspection. Traditional methods only use the contact points of the wheel tread to fit the rolling round. However, the wheel tread is easily influenced by peeling or scraping. Meanwhile, the circle fitting algorithm is sensitive to noise when only three points are used. This paper proposes a dynamic measurement method based on structured-light vision. The axle of the wheelset and the tread are both employed. The center of the rolling round is determined by the axle rather than the tread only. Then, the diameter is calculated using the center and the contact points together. Simulations are performed to help design the layout of the sensors, and the influences of different noise sources are also analyzed. Static and field experiments are both performed, and the results show it to be quite stable and accurate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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14 pages, 3754 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparative Study of the Applied Methods for Estimating Deflection of the Vertical in Terrestrial Geodetic Measurements

by Luca Vittuari, Maria Alessandra Tini, Pierguido Sarti, Eugenio Serantoni, Alessandra Borghi, Monia Negusini and Sébastien Guillaume

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 565; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040565 - 20 Apr 2016

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 7428

Abstract

This paper compares three different methods capable of estimating the deflection of the vertical (DoV): one is based on the joint use of high precision spirit leveling and Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS), a second uses astro-geodetic measurements and the third gravimetric geoid [...] Read more.

This paper compares three different methods capable of estimating the deflection of the vertical (DoV): one is based on the joint use of high precision spirit leveling and Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS), a second uses astro-geodetic measurements and the third gravimetric geoid models. The working data sets refer to the geodetic International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF) co-location sites of Medicina (Northern, Italy) and Noto (Sicily), these latter being excellent test beds for our investigations. The measurements were planned and realized to estimate the DoV with a level of precision comparable to the angular accuracy achievable in high precision network measured by modern high-end total stations. The three methods are in excellent agreement, with an operational supremacy of the astro-geodetic method, being faster and more precise than the others. The method that combines leveling and GNSS has slightly larger standard deviations; although well within the 1 arcsec level, which was assumed as threshold. Finally, the geoid model based method, whose 2.5 arcsec standard deviations exceed this threshold, is also statistically consistent with the others and should be used to determine the DoV components where local ad hoc measurements are lacking. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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17 pages, 981 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stability Analysis of Multi-Sensor Kalman Filtering over Lossy Networks

by Shouwan Gao, Pengpeng Chen, Dan Huang and Qiang Niu

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 566; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040566 - 20 Apr 2016

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4850

Abstract

This paper studies the remote Kalman filtering problem for a distributed system setting with multiple sensors that are located at different physical locations. Each sensor encapsulates its own measurement data into one single packet and transmits the packet to the remote filter via [...] Read more.

This paper studies the remote Kalman filtering problem for a distributed system setting with multiple sensors that are located at different physical locations. Each sensor encapsulates its own measurement data into one single packet and transmits the packet to the remote filter via a lossy distinct channel. For each communication channel, a time-homogeneous Markov chain is used to model the normal operating condition of packet delivery and losses. Based on the Markov model, a necessary and sufficient condition is obtained, which can guarantee the stability of the mean estimation error covariance. Especially, the stability condition is explicitly expressed as a simple inequality whose parameters are the spectral radius of the system state matrix and transition probabilities of the Markov chains. In contrast to the existing related results, our method imposes less restrictive conditions on systems. Finally, the results are illustrated by simulation examples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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17 pages, 4807 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Method to Enhance Pipeline Trajectory Determination Using Pipeline Junctions

by Hussein Sahli and Naser El-Sheimy

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 567; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040567 - 21 Apr 2016

Cited by 43 | Viewed by 7176

Abstract

Pipeline inspection gauges (pigs) have been used for many years to perform various maintenance operations in oil and gas pipelines. Different pipeline parameters can be inspected during the pig journey. Although pigs use many sensors to detect the required pipeline parameters, matching these [...] Read more.

Pipeline inspection gauges (pigs) have been used for many years to perform various maintenance operations in oil and gas pipelines. Different pipeline parameters can be inspected during the pig journey. Although pigs use many sensors to detect the required pipeline parameters, matching these data with the corresponding pipeline location is considered a very important parameter. High-end, tactical-grade inertial measurement units (IMUs) are used in pigging applications to locate the detected problems of pipeline using other sensors, and to reconstruct the trajectories of the pig. These IMUs are accurate; however, their high cost and large sizes limit their use in small diameter pipelines (8″ or less). This paper describes a new methodology for the use of MEMS-based IMUs using an extended Kalman filter (EKF) and the pipeline junctions to increase the position parameters’ accuracy and to reduce the total RMS errors even during the unavailability of above ground markers (AGMs). The results of this new proposed method using a micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS)-based IMU revealed that the position RMS errors were reduced by approximately 85% compared to the standard EKF solution. Therefore, this approach will enable the mapping of small diameter pipelines, which was not possible before. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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16 pages, 2248 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reconstructing Face Image from the Thermal Infrared Spectrum to the Visible Spectrum

by Brahmastro Kresnaraman, Daisuke Deguchi, Tomokazu Takahashi, Yoshito Mekada, Ichiro Ide and Hiroshi Murase

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 568; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040568 - 21 Apr 2016

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 7369

Abstract

During the night or in poorly lit areas, thermal cameras are a better choice instead of normal cameras for security surveillance because they do not rely on illumination. A thermal camera is able to detect a person within its view, but identification from [...] Read more.

During the night or in poorly lit areas, thermal cameras are a better choice instead of normal cameras for security surveillance because they do not rely on illumination. A thermal camera is able to detect a person within its view, but identification from only thermal information is not an easy task. The purpose of this paper is to reconstruct the face image of a person from the thermal spectrum to the visible spectrum. After the reconstruction, further image processing can be employed, including identification/recognition. Concretely, we propose a two-step thermal-to-visible-spectrum reconstruction method based on Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA). The reconstruction is done by utilizing the relationship between images in both thermal infrared and visible spectra obtained by CCA. The whole image is processed in the first step while the second step processes patches in an image. Results show that the proposed method gives satisfying results with the two-step approach and outperforms comparative methods in both quality and recognition evaluations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infrared and THz Sensing and Imaging)

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14 pages, 3945 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impulse Magnetization of Nd-Fe-B Sintered Magnets for Sensors

by Marek Przybylski, Dariusz Kapelski, Barbara Ślusarek and Sławomir Wiak

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 569; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040569 - 21 Apr 2016

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 9278

Abstract

Magnetization of large Nd-Fe-B sintered permanent magnets is still challenging. This type of permanent magnet is electrically conductive, so impulse magnetization causes a flow of eddy currents which prevent magnetization of the whole volume of the magnet. The paper deals with the impulse [...] Read more.

Magnetization of large Nd-Fe-B sintered permanent magnets is still challenging. This type of permanent magnet is electrically conductive, so impulse magnetization causes a flow of eddy currents which prevent magnetization of the whole volume of the magnet. The paper deals with the impulse magnetization of sintered Nd-Fe-B permanent magnets and shows a method for the determination of suitable parameters for the supply system. The necessary magnetic field strength for magnetization of the magnet to saturation was determined. The optimal magnetizing fixture supply voltage for magnetization to saturation was determined from simulations in PSpice software, finite element analyses in Maxwell 15 and measurements. Measurements of magnetic induction on the surface of the Nd-Fe-B magnet are also presented to ensure that a magnet with 70 mm diameter and 20 mm in height is fully saturated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Components of Mechatronics and Micro-Electro-Mechanical-Systems (MEMS) – Modeling and Design)

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21 pages, 1084 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design of Secure ECG-Based Biometric Authentication in Body Area Sensor Networks

by Steffen Peter, Bhanu Pratap Reddy, Farshad Momtaz and Tony Givargis

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 570; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040570 - 22 Apr 2016

Cited by 50 | Viewed by 10984

Abstract

Body area sensor networks (BANs) utilize wireless communicating sensor nodes attached to a human body for convenience, safety, and health applications. Physiological characteristics of the body, such as the heart rate or Electrocardiogram (ECG) signals, are promising means to simplify the setup process [...] Read more.

Body area sensor networks (BANs) utilize wireless communicating sensor nodes attached to a human body for convenience, safety, and health applications. Physiological characteristics of the body, such as the heart rate or Electrocardiogram (ECG) signals, are promising means to simplify the setup process and to improve security of BANs. This paper describes the design and implementation steps required to realize an ECG-based authentication protocol to identify sensor nodes attached to the same human body. Therefore, the first part of the paper addresses the design of a body-area sensor system, including the hardware setup, analogue and digital signal processing, and required ECG feature detection techniques. A model-based design flow is applied, and strengths and limitations of each design step are discussed. Real-world measured data originating from the implemented sensor system are then used to set up and parametrize a novel physiological authentication protocol for BANs. The authentication protocol utilizes statistical properties of expected and detected deviations to limit the number of false positive and false negative authentication attempts. The result of the described holistic design effort is the first practical implementation of biometric authentication in BANs that reflects timing and data uncertainties in the physical and cyber parts of the system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy in Sensor Networks)

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11 pages, 4113 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vibration Monitoring Using Fiber Optic Sensors in a Lead-Bismuth Eutectic Cooled Nuclear Fuel Assembly

by Ben De Pauw, Alfredo Lamberti, Julien Ertveldt, Ali Rezayat, Katrien Van Tichelen, Steve Vanlanduit and Francis Berghmans

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 571; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040571 - 21 Apr 2016

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 7252

Abstract

Excessive fuel assembly vibrations in nuclear reactor cores should be avoided in order not to compromise the lifetime of the assembly and in order to prevent the occurrence of safety hazards. This issue is particularly relevant to new reactor designs that use liquid [...] Read more.

Excessive fuel assembly vibrations in nuclear reactor cores should be avoided in order not to compromise the lifetime of the assembly and in order to prevent the occurrence of safety hazards. This issue is particularly relevant to new reactor designs that use liquid metal coolants, such as, for example, a molten lead-bismuth eutectic. The flow of molten heavy metal around and through the fuel assembly may cause the latter to vibrate and hence suffer degradation as a result of, for example, fretting wear or mechanical fatigue. In this paper, we demonstrate the use of optical fiber sensors to measure the fuel assembly vibration in a lead-bismuth eutectic cooled installation which can be used as input to assess vibration-related safety hazards. We show that the vibration characteristics of the fuel pins in the fuel assembly can be experimentally determined with minimal intrusiveness and with high precision owing to the small dimensions and properties of the sensors. In particular, we were able to record local strain level differences of about 0.2 μϵ allowing us to reliably estimate the vibration amplitudes and modal parameters of the fuel assembly based on optical fiber sensor readings during different stages of the operation of the facility, including the onset of the coolant circulation and steady-state operation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 2nd International Electronic Conference on Sensors and Applications)

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17 pages, 7778 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A High-Speed Vision-Based Sensor for Dynamic Vibration Analysis Using Fast Motion Extraction Algorithms

by Dashan Zhang, Jie Guo, Xiujun Lei and Changan Zhu

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 572; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040572 - 22 Apr 2016

Cited by 84 | Viewed by 10279

Abstract

The development of image sensor and optics enables the application of vision-based techniques to the non-contact dynamic vibration analysis of large-scale structures. As an emerging technology, a vision-based approach allows for remote measuring and does not bring any additional mass to the measuring [...] Read more.

The development of image sensor and optics enables the application of vision-based techniques to the non-contact dynamic vibration analysis of large-scale structures. As an emerging technology, a vision-based approach allows for remote measuring and does not bring any additional mass to the measuring object compared with traditional contact measurements. In this study, a high-speed vision-based sensor system is developed to extract structure vibration signals in real time. A fast motion extraction algorithm is required for this system because the maximum sampling frequency of the charge-coupled device (CCD) sensor can reach up to 1000 Hz. Two efficient subpixel level motion extraction algorithms, namely the modified Taylor approximation refinement algorithm and the localization refinement algorithm, are integrated into the proposed vision sensor. Quantitative analysis shows that both of the two modified algorithms are at least five times faster than conventional upsampled cross-correlation approaches and achieve satisfactory error performance. The practicability of the developed sensor is evaluated by an experiment in a laboratory environment and a field test. Experimental results indicate that the developed high-speed vision-based sensor system can extract accurate dynamic structure vibration signals by tracking either artificial targets or natural features. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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18 pages, 3682 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Signal Analysis and Waveform Reconstruction of Shock Waves Generated by Underwater Electrical Wire Explosions with Piezoelectric Pressure Probes

by Haibin Zhou, Yongmin Zhang, Ruoyu Han, Yan Jing, Jiawei Wu, Qiaojue Liu, Weidong Ding and Aici Qiu

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 573; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040573 - 22 Apr 2016

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 10149

Abstract

Underwater shock waves (SWs) generated by underwater electrical wire explosions (UEWEs) have been widely studied and applied. Precise measurement of this kind of SWs is important, but very difficult to accomplish due to their high peak pressure, steep rising edge and very short [...] Read more.

Underwater shock waves (SWs) generated by underwater electrical wire explosions (UEWEs) have been widely studied and applied. Precise measurement of this kind of SWs is important, but very difficult to accomplish due to their high peak pressure, steep rising edge and very short pulse width (on the order of tens of μs). This paper aims to analyze the signals obtained by two kinds of commercial piezoelectric pressure probes, and reconstruct the correct pressure waveform from the distorted one measured by the pressure probes. It is found that both PCB138 and Müller-plate probes can be used to measure the relative SW pressure value because of their good uniformities and linearities, but none of them can obtain precise SW waveforms. In order to approach to the real SW signal better, we propose a new multi-exponential pressure waveform model, which has considered the faster pressure decay at the early stage and the slower pressure decay in longer times. Based on this model and the energy conservation law, the pressure waveform obtained by the PCB138 probe has been reconstructed, and the reconstruction accuracy has been verified by the signals obtained by the Müller-plate probe. Reconstruction results show that the measured SW peak pressures are smaller than the real signal. The waveform reconstruction method is both reasonable and reliable. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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13 pages, 2381 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Protein Chips for Detection of Salmonella spp. from Enrichment Culture

by Palmiro Poltronieri, Fabio Cimaglia, Enrico De Lorenzis, Maurizio Chiesa, Valeria Mezzolla and Ida Barbara Reca

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 574; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040574 - 22 Apr 2016

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 8674

Abstract

Food pathogens are the cause of foodborne epidemics, therefore there is a need to detect the pathogens in food productions rapidly. A pre-enrichment culture followed by selective agar plating are standard detection methods. Molecular methods such as qPCR have provided a first rapid [...] Read more.

Food pathogens are the cause of foodborne epidemics, therefore there is a need to detect the pathogens in food productions rapidly. A pre-enrichment culture followed by selective agar plating are standard detection methods. Molecular methods such as qPCR have provided a first rapid protocol for detection of pathogens within 24 h of enrichment culture. Biosensors also may provide a rapid tool to individuate a source of Salmonella contamination at early times of pre-enrichment culture. Forty mL of Salmonella spp. enrichment culture were processed by immunoseparation using the Pathatrix, as in AFNOR validated qPCR protocols. The Salmonella biosensor combined with immunoseparation showed a limit of detection of 100 bacteria/40 mL, with a 400 fold increase to previous results. qPCR analysis requires processing of bead-bound bacteria with lysis buffer and DNA clean up, with a limit of detection of 2 cfu/50 μL. Finally, a protein chip was developed and tested in screening and identification of 5 common pathogen species, Salmonella spp., E. coli, S. aureus, Campylobacter spp. and Listeria spp. The protein chip, with high specificity in species identification, is proposed to be integrated into a Lab-on-Chip system, for rapid and reproducible screening of Salmonella spp. and other pathogen species contaminating food productions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)

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11 pages, 1999 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Analysis of Cost-Efficient Sensor Deployment for Tracking Small UAS with Agent-Based Modeling

by Sangmi Shin, Seongha Park, Yongho Kim and Eric T. Matson

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 575; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040575 - 22 Apr 2016

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5909

Abstract

Recently, commercial unmanned aerial systems (UAS) have gained popularity. However, these UAS are potential threats to people in terms of safety in public places, such as public parks or stadiums. To reduce such threats, we consider a design, modeling, and evaluation of a [...] Read more.

Recently, commercial unmanned aerial systems (UAS) have gained popularity. However, these UAS are potential threats to people in terms of safety in public places, such as public parks or stadiums. To reduce such threats, we consider a design, modeling, and evaluation of a cost-efficient sensor system that detects and tracks small UAS. In this research, we focus on discovering the best sensor deployments by simulating different types and numbers of sensors in a designated area, which provide reasonable detection rates at low costs. Also, the system should cover the crowded areas more thoroughly than vacant areas to reduce direct threats to people underneath. This research study utilized the Agent-Based Modeling (ABM) technique to model a system consisting of independent and heterogeneous agents that interact with each other. Our previous work presented the ability to apply ABM to analyze the sensor configurations with two types of radars in terms of cost-efficiency. The results from the ABM simulation provide a list of candidate configurations and deployments that can be referred to for applications in the real world environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integration of Sensors in Complex, Intelligent Systems—Selected Papers from the CHARMS 2015 Workshop)

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15 pages, 6345 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Measuring Electrolyte Impedance and Noise Simultaneously by Triangular Waveform Voltage and Principal Component Analysis

by Shanzhi Xu, Peng Wang and Yonggui Dong

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 576; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040576 - 22 Apr 2016

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6601

Abstract

In order to measure the impedance variation process in electrolyte solutions, a method of triangular waveform voltage excitation is investigated together with principal component analysis (PCA). Using triangular waveform voltage as the excitation signal, the response current during one duty cycle is sampled [...] Read more.

In order to measure the impedance variation process in electrolyte solutions, a method of triangular waveform voltage excitation is investigated together with principal component analysis (PCA). Using triangular waveform voltage as the excitation signal, the response current during one duty cycle is sampled to construct a measurement vector. The measurement matrix is then constructed by the measurement vectors obtained from different measurements. After being processed by PCA, the changing information of solution impedance is contained in the loading vectors while the response current and noise information is contained in the score vectors. The measurement results of impedance variation by the proposed signal processing method are independent of the equivalent impedance model. The noise-induced problems encountered during equivalent impedance calculation are therefore avoided, and the real-time variation information of noise in the electrode-electrolyte interface can be extracted at the same time. Planar-interdigitated electrodes are experimentally tested for monitoring the KCl concentration variation process. Experimental results indicate that the measured impedance variation curve reflects the changing process of solution conductivity, and the amplitude distribution of the noise during one duty cycle can be utilized to analyze the contact conditions of the electrode and electrolyte interface. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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12 pages, 492 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A New Elliptical Model for Device-Free Localization

by Qian Lei, Haijian Zhang, Hong Sun and Linling Tang

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 577; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040577 - 22 Apr 2016

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 5651

Abstract

Device-free localization (DFL) based on wireless sensor networks (WSNs) is expected to detect and locate a person without the need for any wireless devices. Radio tomographic imaging (RTI) has attracted wide attention from researchers as an emerging important technology in WSNs. However, there [...] Read more.

Device-free localization (DFL) based on wireless sensor networks (WSNs) is expected to detect and locate a person without the need for any wireless devices. Radio tomographic imaging (RTI) has attracted wide attention from researchers as an emerging important technology in WSNs. However, there is much room for improvement in localization estimation accuracy. In this paper, we propose a geometry-based elliptical model and adopt the orthogonal matching pursuit (OMP) algorithm. The new elliptical model uses not only line-of-sight information, but also non-line-of-sight information, which divides one ellipse into several areas with different weights. Meanwhile the OMP, which can eliminate extra bright spots in image reconstruction, is used to derive an image estimator. The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed algorithm could improve the accuracy of positioning by up to 23.8% for one person and 33.3% for two persons over some state-of-the-art RTI methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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19 pages, 8695 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vision-Based Leader Vehicle Trajectory Tracking for Multiple Agricultural Vehicles

by Linhuan Zhang, Tofael Ahamed, Yan Zhang, Pengbo Gao and Tomohiro Takigawa

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 578; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040578 - 22 Apr 2016

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 7328

Abstract

The aim of this study was to design a navigation system composed of a human-controlled leader vehicle and a follower vehicle. The follower vehicle automatically tracks the leader vehicle. With such a system, a human driver can control two vehicles efficiently in agricultural [...] Read more.

The aim of this study was to design a navigation system composed of a human-controlled leader vehicle and a follower vehicle. The follower vehicle automatically tracks the leader vehicle. With such a system, a human driver can control two vehicles efficiently in agricultural operations. The tracking system was developed for the leader and the follower vehicle, and control of the follower was performed using a camera vision system. A stable and accurate monocular vision-based sensing system was designed, consisting of a camera and rectangular markers. Noise in the data acquisition was reduced by using the least-squares method. A feedback control algorithm was used to allow the follower vehicle to track the trajectory of the leader vehicle. A proportional–integral–derivative (PID) controller was introduced to maintain the required distance between the leader and the follower vehicle. Field experiments were conducted to evaluate the sensing and tracking performances of the leader-follower system while the leader vehicle was driven at an average speed of 0.3 m/s. In the case of linear trajectory tracking, the RMS errors were 6.5 cm, 8.9 cm and 16.4 cm for straight, turning and zigzag paths, respectively. Again, for parallel trajectory tracking, the root mean square (RMS) errors were found to be 7.1 cm, 14.6 cm and 14.0 cm for straight, turning and zigzag paths, respectively. The navigation performances indicated that the autonomous follower vehicle was able to follow the leader vehicle, and the tracking accuracy was found to be satisfactory. Therefore, the developed leader-follower system can be implemented for the harvesting of grains, using a combine as the leader and an unloader as the autonomous follower vehicle. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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12 pages, 3951 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Practical and Portable Solids-State Electronic Terahertz Imaging System

by Ken Smart, Jia Du, Li Li, David Wang, Keith Leslie, Fan Ji, Xiang Dong Li and Da Zhang Zeng

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 579; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040579 - 22 Apr 2016

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 7141

Abstract

A practical compact solid-state terahertz imaging system is presented. Various beam guiding architectures were explored and hardware performance assessed to improve its compactness, robustness, multi-functionality and simplicity of operation. The system performance in terms of image resolution, signal-to-noise ratio, the electronic signal modulation [...] Read more.

A practical compact solid-state terahertz imaging system is presented. Various beam guiding architectures were explored and hardware performance assessed to improve its compactness, robustness, multi-functionality and simplicity of operation. The system performance in terms of image resolution, signal-to-noise ratio, the electronic signal modulation versus optical chopper, is evaluated and discussed. The system can be conveniently switched between transmission and reflection mode according to the application. A range of imaging application scenarios was explored and images of high visual quality were obtained in both transmission and reflection mode. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infrared and THz Sensing and Imaging)

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22 pages, 3734 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Outlier Detection in GNSS Pseudo-Range/Doppler Measurements for Robust Localization

by Salim Zair, Sylvie Le Hégarat-Mascle and Emmanuel Seignez

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 580; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040580 - 22 Apr 2016

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 9354

Abstract

In urban areas or space-constrained environments with obstacles, vehicle localization using Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) data is hindered by Non-Line Of Sight (NLOS) and multipath receptions. These phenomena induce faulty data that disrupt the precise localization of the GNSS receiver. In this [...] Read more.

In urban areas or space-constrained environments with obstacles, vehicle localization using Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) data is hindered by Non-Line Of Sight (NLOS) and multipath receptions. These phenomena induce faulty data that disrupt the precise localization of the GNSS receiver. In this study, we detect the outliers among the observations, Pseudo-Range (PR) and/or Doppler measurements, and we evaluate how discarding them improves the localization. We specify a contrario modeling for GNSS raw data to derive an algorithm that partitions the dataset between inliers and outliers. Then, only the inlier data are considered in the localization process performed either through a classical Particle Filter (PF) or a Rao-Blackwellization (RB) approach. Both localization algorithms exclusively use GNSS data, but they differ by the way Doppler measurements are processed. An experiment has been performed with a GPS receiver aboard a vehicle. Results show that the proposed algorithms are able to detect the ‘outliers’ in the raw data while being robust to non-Gaussian noise and to intermittent satellite blockage. We compare the performance results achieved either estimating only PR outliers or estimating both PR and Doppler outliers. The best localization is achieved using the RB approach coupled with PR-Doppler outlier estimation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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11 pages, 1239 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Localized Electrical Impedance Myography of the Biceps Brachii Muscle during Different Levels of Isometric Contraction and Fatigue

by Le Li, Henry Shin, Xiaoyan Li, Sheng Li and Ping Zhou

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 581; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040581 - 22 Apr 2016

Cited by 56 | Viewed by 9444

Abstract

This study assessed changes in electrical impedance myography (EIM) at different levels of isometric muscle contraction as well as during exhaustive exercise at 60% maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) until task failure. The EIM was performed on the biceps brachii muscle of 19 healthy [...] Read more.

This study assessed changes in electrical impedance myography (EIM) at different levels of isometric muscle contraction as well as during exhaustive exercise at 60% maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) until task failure. The EIM was performed on the biceps brachii muscle of 19 healthy subjects. The results showed that there was a significant difference between the muscle resistance (R) measured during the isometric contraction and when the muscle was completely relaxed. Post hoc analysis shows that the resistance increased at higher contractions (both 60% MVC and MVC), however, there were no significant changes in muscle reactance (X) during the isometric contractions. The resistance also changed during different stages of the fatigue task and there were significant decreases from the beginning of the contraction to task failure as well as between task failure and post fatigue rest. Although our results demonstrated an increase in resistance during isometric contraction, the changes were within 10% of the baseline value. These changes might be related to the modest alterations in muscle architecture during a contraction. The decrease in resistance seen with muscle fatigue may be explained by an accumulation of metabolites in the muscle tissue. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Noninvasive Biomedical Sensors)

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16 pages, 6128 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High Temperature Shear Horizontal Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer for Guided Wave Inspection

by Maria Kogia, Tat-Hean Gan, Wamadeva Balachandran, Makis Livadas, Vassilios Kappatos, Istvan Szabo, Abbas Mohimi and Andrew Round

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 582; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040582 - 22 Apr 2016

Cited by 51 | Viewed by 9628

Abstract

Guided Wave Testing (GWT) using novel Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducers (EMATs) is proposed for the inspection of large structures operating at high temperatures. To date, high temperature EMATs have been developed only for thickness measurements and they are not suitable for GWT. A pair [...] Read more.

Guided Wave Testing (GWT) using novel Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducers (EMATs) is proposed for the inspection of large structures operating at high temperatures. To date, high temperature EMATs have been developed only for thickness measurements and they are not suitable for GWT. A pair of water-cooled EMATs capable of exciting and receiving Shear Horizontal (SH₀) waves for GWT with optimal high temperature properties (up to 500 °C) has been developed. Thermal and Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) simulations of the EMAT design have been performed and experimentally validated. The optimal thermal EMAT design, material selection and operating conditions were calculated. The EMAT was successfully tested regarding its thermal and GWT performance from ambient temperature to 500 °C. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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27 pages, 405 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Secure and Cost-Effective Distributed Aggregation for Mobile Sensor Networks

by Kehua Guo, Ping Zhang and Jianhua Ma

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 583; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040583 - 23 Apr 2016

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5435

Abstract

Secure data aggregation (SDA) schemes are widely used in distributed applications, such as mobile sensor networks, to reduce communication cost, prolong the network life cycle and provide security. However, most SDA are only suited for a single type of statistics (i.e., [...] Read more.

Secure data aggregation (SDA) schemes are widely used in distributed applications, such as mobile sensor networks, to reduce communication cost, prolong the network life cycle and provide security. However, most SDA are only suited for a single type of statistics (i.e., summation-based or comparison-based statistics) and are not applicable to obtaining multiple statistic results. Most SDA are also inefficient for dynamic networks. This paper presents multi-functional secure data aggregation (MFSDA), in which the mapping step and coding step are introduced to provide value-preserving and order-preserving and, later, to enable arbitrary statistics support in the same query. MFSDA is suited for dynamic networks because these active nodes can be counted directly from aggregation data. The proposed scheme is tolerant to many types of attacks. The network load of the proposed scheme is balanced, and no significant bottleneck exists. The MFSDA includes two versions: MFSDA-I and MFSDA-II. The first one can obtain accurate results, while the second one is a more generalized version that can significantly reduce network traffic at the expense of less accuracy loss. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mobile Sensor Computing: Theory and Applications)

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11 pages, 2069 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing Colorimetric Assay Based on V₂O₅ Nanozymes for Sensitive Detection of H₂O₂ and Glucose

by Jiaheng Sun, Chunyan Li, Yanfei Qi, Shuanli Guo and Xue Liang

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 584; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040584 - 22 Apr 2016

Cited by 119 | Viewed by 11547

Abstract

Nanozyme-based chemical sensing is a rapidly emerging field of research. Herein, a simple colorimetric assay for the detection of hydrogen peroxide and glucose based on the peroxidase-like activity of V₂O₅ nanozymes has been established. In this assay, the effects of [...] Read more.

Nanozyme-based chemical sensing is a rapidly emerging field of research. Herein, a simple colorimetric assay for the detection of hydrogen peroxide and glucose based on the peroxidase-like activity of V₂O₅ nanozymes has been established. In this assay, the effects of pH, substrate, nanozyme concentrations and buffer solution have been investigated. It was found that compared with 3,3′,5,5′-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB), the enzyme substrate o-phenylenediamine (OPD) seriously interfered with the H₂O₂ detection. Under the optimal reaction conditions, the resulting sensor displayed a good response to H₂O₂ with a linear range of 1 to 500 μM, and a detection limit of 1 μM at a signal-to-noise ratio of 3. A linear correlation was established between absorbance intensity and concentration of glucose from 10 to 2000 μM, with a detection limit of 10 μM. The current work presents a simple, cheap, more convenient, sensitive, and easy handling colorimetric assay. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Colorimetric and Fluorescent Sensor)

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17 pages, 3124 KiB

Open AccessArticle

VitiCanopy: A Free Computer App to Estimate Canopy Vigor and Porosity for Grapevine

by Roberta De Bei, Sigfredo Fuentes, Matthew Gilliham, Steve Tyerman, Everard Edwards, Nicolò Bianchini, Jason Smith and Cassandra Collins

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 585; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040585 - 23 Apr 2016

Cited by 100 | Viewed by 17298

Abstract

Leaf area index (LAI) and plant area index (PAI) are common and important biophysical parameters used to estimate agronomical variables such as canopy growth, light interception and water requirements of plants and trees. LAI can be either measured directly using destructive methods or [...] Read more.

Leaf area index (LAI) and plant area index (PAI) are common and important biophysical parameters used to estimate agronomical variables such as canopy growth, light interception and water requirements of plants and trees. LAI can be either measured directly using destructive methods or indirectly using dedicated and expensive instrumentation, both of which require a high level of know-how to operate equipment, handle data and interpret results. Recently, a novel smartphone and tablet PC application, VitiCanopy, has been developed by a group of researchers from the University of Adelaide and the University of Melbourne, to estimate grapevine canopy size (LAI and PAI), canopy porosity, canopy cover and clumping index. VitiCanopy uses the front in-built camera and GPS capabilities of smartphones and tablet PCs to automatically implement image analysis algorithms on upward-looking digital images of canopies and calculates relevant canopy architecture parameters. Results from the use of VitiCanopy on grapevines correlated well with traditional methods to measure/estimate LAI and PAI. Like other indirect methods, VitiCanopy does not distinguish between leaf and non-leaf material but it was demonstrated that the non-leaf material could be extracted from the results, if needed, to increase accuracy. VitiCanopy is an accurate, user-friendly and free alternative to current techniques used by scientists and viticultural practitioners to assess the dynamics of LAI, PAI and canopy architecture in vineyards, and has the potential to be adapted for use on other plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Agriculture)

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21 pages, 6652 KiB

Open AccessArticle

HybridPLAY: A New Technology to Foster Outdoors Physical Activity, Verbal Communication and Teamwork

by Diego José Díaz, Clara Boj and Cristina Portalés

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 586; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040586 - 23 Apr 2016

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 8970

Abstract

This paper presents HybridPLAY, a novel technology composed of a sensor and mobile-based video games that transforms urban playgrounds into game scenarios. With this technology we aim to stimulate physical activity and playful learning by creating an entertaining environment in which users can [...] Read more.

This paper presents HybridPLAY, a novel technology composed of a sensor and mobile-based video games that transforms urban playgrounds into game scenarios. With this technology we aim to stimulate physical activity and playful learning by creating an entertaining environment in which users can actively participate and collaborate. HybridPLAY is different from other existing technologies that enhance playgrounds, as it is not integrated in them but can be attached to the different elements of the playgrounds, making its use more ubiquitous (i.e., not restricted to the playgrounds). HybridPLAY was born in 2007 as an artistic concept, and evolved after different phases of research and testing by almost 2000 users around the world (in workshops, artistic events, conferences, etc.). Here, we present the temporal evolution of HybridPLAY with the different versions of the sensors and the video games, and a detailed technical description of the sensors and the way interactions are produced. We also present the outcomes after the evaluation by users at different events and workshops. We believe that HybridPLAY has great potential to contribute to increased physical activity in kids, and also to improve the learning process and monitoring at school centres by letting users create the content of the apps, leading to new narratives and fostering creativity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Entertainment)

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19 pages, 1359 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Healthcare4VideoStorm: Making Smart Decisions Based on Storm Metrics

by Weishan Zhang, Pengcheng Duan, Xiufeng Chen and Qinghua Lu

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 588; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040588 - 23 Apr 2016

Viewed by 6074

Abstract

Storm-based stream processing is widely used for real-time large-scale distributed processing. Knowing the run-time status and ensuring performance is critical to providing expected dependability for some applications, e.g., continuous video processing for security surveillance. The existing scheduling strategies’ granularity is too coarse to [...] Read more.

Storm-based stream processing is widely used for real-time large-scale distributed processing. Knowing the run-time status and ensuring performance is critical to providing expected dependability for some applications, e.g., continuous video processing for security surveillance. The existing scheduling strategies’ granularity is too coarse to have good performance, and mainly considers network resources without computing resources while scheduling. In this paper, we propose Healthcare4Storm, a framework that finds Storm insights based on Storm metrics to gain knowledge from the health status of an application, finally ending up with smart scheduling decisions. It takes into account both network and computing resources and conducts scheduling at a fine-grained level using tuples instead of topologies. The comprehensive evaluation shows that the proposed framework has good performance and can improve the dependability of the Storm-based applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Identification, Information & Knowledge in the Internet of Things)

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13 pages, 217 KiB

Open AccessReview

Sensor Monitoring of Physical Activity to Improve Glucose Management in Diabetic Patients: A Review

by Sandrine Ding and Michael Schumacher

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 589; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040589 - 23 Apr 2016

Cited by 69 | Viewed by 10877

Abstract

Diabetic individuals need to tightly control their blood glucose concentration. Several methods have been developed for this purpose, such as the finger-prick or continuous glucose monitoring systems (CGMs). However, these methods present the disadvantage of being invasive. Moreover, CGMs have limited accuracy, notably [...] Read more.

Diabetic individuals need to tightly control their blood glucose concentration. Several methods have been developed for this purpose, such as the finger-prick or continuous glucose monitoring systems (CGMs). However, these methods present the disadvantage of being invasive. Moreover, CGMs have limited accuracy, notably to detect hypoglycemia. It is also known that physical exercise, and even daily activity, disrupt glucose dynamics and can generate problems with blood glucose regulation during and after exercise. In order to deal with these challenges, devices for monitoring patients’ physical activity are currently under development. This review focuses on non-invasive sensors using physiological parameters related to physical exercise that were used to improve glucose monitoring in type 1 diabetes (T1DM) patients. These devices are promising for diabetes management. Indeed they permit to estimate glucose concentration either based solely on physical activity parameters or in conjunction with CGM or non-invasive CGM (NI-CGM) systems. In these last cases, the vital signals are used to modulate glucose estimations provided by the CGM and NI-CGM devices. Finally, this review indicates possible limitations of these new biosensors and outlines directions for future technologic developments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Noninvasive Biomedical Sensors)

14 pages, 2381 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Unsupervised Event Characterization and Detection in Multichannel Signals: An EEG application

by Angel Mur, Raquel Dormido, Jesús Vega, Natividad Duro and Sebastian Dormido-Canto

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 590; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040590 - 23 Apr 2016

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 9594

Abstract

In this paper, we propose a new unsupervised method to automatically characterize and detect events in multichannel signals. This method is used to identify artifacts in electroencephalogram (EEG) recordings of brain activity. The proposed algorithm has been evaluated and compared with a supervised [...] Read more.

In this paper, we propose a new unsupervised method to automatically characterize and detect events in multichannel signals. This method is used to identify artifacts in electroencephalogram (EEG) recordings of brain activity. The proposed algorithm has been evaluated and compared with a supervised method. To this end an example of the performance of the algorithm to detect artifacts is shown. The results show that although both methods obtain similar classification, the proposed method allows detecting events without training data and can also be applied in signals whose events are unknown a priori. Furthermore, the proposed method provides an optimal window whereby an optimal detection and characterization of events is found. The detection of events can be applied in real-time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Noninvasive Biomedical Sensors)

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10 pages, 4750 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Color-Space-Based Visual-MIMO for V2X Communication

by Jai-Eun Kim, Ji-Won Kim, Youngil Park and Ki-Doo Kim

Sensors 2016, 16(4), 591; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16040591 - 23 Apr 2016

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 7627

Abstract

In this paper, we analyze the applicability of color-space-based, color-independent visual-MIMO for V2X. We aim to achieve a visual-MIMO scheme that can maintain the original color and brightness while performing seamless communication. We consider two scenarios of GCM based visual-MIMO for V2X. One [...] Read more.

In this paper, we analyze the applicability of color-space-based, color-independent visual-MIMO for V2X. We aim to achieve a visual-MIMO scheme that can maintain the original color and brightness while performing seamless communication. We consider two scenarios of GCM based visual-MIMO for V2X. One is a multipath transmission using visual-MIMO networking and the other is multi-node V2X communication. In the scenario of multipath transmission, we analyze the channel capacity numerically and we illustrate the significance of networking information such as distance, reference color (symbol), and multiplexing-diversity mode transitions. In addition, in the V2X scenario of multiple access, we may achieve the simultaneous multiple access communication without node interferences by dividing the communication area using image processing. Finally, through numerical simulation, we show the superior SER performance of the visual-MIMO scheme compared with LED-PD communication and show the numerical result of the GCM based visual-MIMO channel capacity versus distance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Image Sensor Based Optical Wireless Communications– Selected Papers from the 7th International Conference on Ubiquitous and Future Networks and the 3rd International Workshop on Optical-Wireless LED Communication Networks)

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