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Editor’s Choice Articles

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

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16 pages, 1997 KB  
Article
A 3D-Printed PMMA Microneedle-Based TSA-ELISA Platform for Noninvasive Inflammatory Biomarker Detection
by Minghui Xu, Qingyu Ruan and Yukun Ren
Micromachines 2025, 16(11), 1286; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16111286 - 14 Nov 2025
Viewed by 372
Abstract
Inflammatory cytokines and proteins are essential indicators of immune status and disease progression; however, conventional assays rely on invasive sampling and complex processing, restricting their use in real-time monitoring. Here, we present a 3D-printed poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) microneedle-based biosensing platform integrated with a [...] Read more.
Inflammatory cytokines and proteins are essential indicators of immune status and disease progression; however, conventional assays rely on invasive sampling and complex processing, restricting their use in real-time monitoring. Here, we present a 3D-printed poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) microneedle-based biosensing platform integrated with a tyramide signal amplification–enhanced enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (TSA–ELISA) for noninvasive and highly sensitive detection of inflammatory biomarkers in interstitial fluid. The microneedles exhibit precise geometry, adequate mechanical strength, and excellent biocompatibility, facilitating efficient skin penetration and biomarker capture. Stepwise chemical functionalization ensured stable antibody immobilization, while TSA significantly amplified detection signals. The platform achieved reliable, reproducible, and multiplex detection of cytokines and albumin in both healthy individuals and patients with inflammatory skin conditions. Notably, the measured cytokine level in lesional skin of eczema patients was 97.7 pg/mL, showing a significant difference from the 62.8 pg/mL observed in healthy subjects. This MN-based TSA–ELISA system offers a robust and minimally invasive strategy for monitoring inflammation-related biomarkers, holding great potential for clinical diagnostics and personalized healthcare applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section B1: Biosensors)
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11 pages, 3075 KB  
Communication
Highly Sensitive Si-Based Electrolyte-Gated Transistor Array for Multiplexed Detection of Arboviruses
by Seonghwan Shin, Jeonghyeon Do, Jongmin Son and Jeong-Soo Lee
Micromachines 2025, 16(11), 1279; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16111279 - 13 Nov 2025
Viewed by 310
Abstract
Multiplexed detection of arboviruses using a 4 × 4 Si-based electrolyte-gated transistor (EGT) array functionalized with specific aptamers has been investigated. The Si-based EGTs were fabricated using conventional Si microfabrication processes. The EGTs showed excellent intrinsic electrical characteristics, including a low threshold voltage [...] Read more.
Multiplexed detection of arboviruses using a 4 × 4 Si-based electrolyte-gated transistor (EGT) array functionalized with specific aptamers has been investigated. The Si-based EGTs were fabricated using conventional Si microfabrication processes. The EGTs showed excellent intrinsic electrical characteristics, including a low threshold voltage of 0.8 V, a sub-threshold swing of 75 mV/dec, and a gate leakage of <10 pA, ensuring uniform device performance with low device-to-device variation. Aptamers specific to the yellow fever virus nonstructural protein 1 (YF), dengue virus nonstructural protein 1 (DN), and chikungunya virus envelope protein 2 (CHK) were functionalized on EGT arrays to evaluate individual and multiplexed detection. In individual-target detections, concentration-dependent negative shifts in threshold voltage were observed, and relevant limits of detection (LOD) as low as 38.6 pg/mL, 95.2 pg/mL, and 1.6 ng/mL were extracted for YF, DN, and CHK, respectively. In multiplexed detections, sensitivities decreased and variations increased relative to the individual responses, resulting in higher LODs. The extracted LODs were 0.2 ng/mL, 0.6 ng/mL, and 2.8 ng/mL for YF, DN, and CHK, respectively, which are lower than those reported for other methods. These results suggest that Si-based EGT arrays are promising as a scalable, low-cost, and highly sensitive biosensing platform for multiplexed arbovirus detection and point-of-care diagnostics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microsystems for Point-of-Care Testing and Diagnostics)
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15 pages, 2988 KB  
Article
Microhand Platform Equipped with Plate-Shaped End-Effectors Enables Precise Probing of Intracellular Structure Contribution to Whole-Cell Mechanical Properties
by Masahiro Kawakami, Masaru Kojima, Toshihiko Ogura, Atsushi Kubo, Tatsuo Arai and Shinji Sakai
Micromachines 2025, 16(11), 1272; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16111272 - 12 Nov 2025
Viewed by 373
Abstract
Cellular mechanical properties are critical indicators of cellular state and promising disease biomarkers. This study introduces a novel microhand system, featuring chopstick-like plate-shaped end-effectors, designed for stable and high-precision single-cell mechanical characterization. First, we automated the force sensor calibration to overcome the inefficiency [...] Read more.
Cellular mechanical properties are critical indicators of cellular state and promising disease biomarkers. This study introduces a novel microhand system, featuring chopstick-like plate-shaped end-effectors, designed for stable and high-precision single-cell mechanical characterization. First, we automated the force sensor calibration to overcome the inefficiency and unreliability of conventional manual methods. To validate the system’s sensitivity, we precisely quantified the mechanical contributions of subcellular components, such as the actin cytoskeleton and chromatin, by measuring stiffness reductions after treatment with Cytochalasin D and Trichostatin A, respectively. Notably, when applied to a cellular model of Hutchinson–Gilford progeria syndrome, we successfully captured disease-induced mechanical alterations. A distinct population of high-stiffness cells was detected in progerin-overexpressing cells, a feature not observed in the control groups. Furthermore, by controlling the indentation speed and depth, the mechanical properties of the cytoplasm and nucleus could be distinctly evaluated. These results demonstrate that our microhand system is a highly sensitive and robust platform, capable of detecting subtle, disease-related changes and elucidating the contributions of specific subcellular structures to cell mechanics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Next-Generation Biomedical Devices)
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12 pages, 2307 KB  
Article
Application of Droplet-Array Sandwiching Technology to Click Reactions for High-Throughput Screening
by Yoshinori Miyata, Shoma Nishimura, Sora Kawakami, Yuriko Higuchi and Satoshi Konishi
Micromachines 2025, 16(11), 1270; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16111270 - 12 Nov 2025
Viewed by 383
Abstract
High-throughput screening (HTS) is an essential process in drug discovery, requiring platforms that ensure reagent economy, high efficiency, and resistance to cross-contamination. Click chemistry is well suited for HTS because of its biocompatibility, high selectivity, and quantitative fluorescent readout. We focus on droplet-array [...] Read more.
High-throughput screening (HTS) is an essential process in drug discovery, requiring platforms that ensure reagent economy, high efficiency, and resistance to cross-contamination. Click chemistry is well suited for HTS because of its biocompatibility, high selectivity, and quantitative fluorescent readout. We focus on droplet-array sandwiching technology (DAST), in which two droplet microarrays (DMAs) are vertically opposed to achieve solute transport and reagent mixing by controlled contact and separation. Herein, we integrate click chemistry with DAST and evaluate its feasibility as a HTS platform. In DAST, DMAs are formed on wettability-patterned (WP; hydrophilic/hydrophobic) substrates, preserving resistance to cross-contamination. First, we immobilized dibenzocyclooctyne (DBCO) on a WP substrate and verified the occurrence of DBCO–azide reaction using an azide-functional fluorescent dye. The fluorescence intensity increased with concentration and reached a plateau at higher concentrations, indicating saturation behavior in the DBCO–azide click reaction. Second, acoustic mixing with repeated droplet contact–separation was applied to generate concentration gradients on a single substrate while maintaining droplet independence. Third, we qualitatively reproduced the expected concentration dependence of manual handling by combining DAST-based gradient formation with click reaction fluorescence readout. These results reveal that DAST enables a reagent-efficient, cross-contamination-resistant, and low-instrument-dependent HTS foundation for click-chemistry-based assays. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Developments in Droplet Microfluidics)
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11 pages, 1931 KB  
Article
A Novel Nano-Scale Biosensor for Measuring Hemoglobin Oxygen Saturation Using Carbon Quantum Dots
by Jeehyun Lee, Xuan Ru Liew, Justin Kok Soon Tan and Sangho Kim
Micromachines 2025, 16(11), 1261; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16111261 - 6 Nov 2025
Viewed by 464
Abstract
Hemoglobin oxygen (HbO2) saturation is a critical biomarker in patient care, yet conventional measurement approaches are often costly and require extensive calibration. To address these limitations, the present study proposes a novel biosensor derived from paper-based carbon quantum dots (CQDs) fabricated [...] Read more.
Hemoglobin oxygen (HbO2) saturation is a critical biomarker in patient care, yet conventional measurement approaches are often costly and require extensive calibration. To address these limitations, the present study proposes a novel biosensor derived from paper-based carbon quantum dots (CQDs) fabricated through a one-step thermal treatment. CQDs are carbon-based nanoparticles renowned for their excellent biocompatibility, low toxicity, thermal stability, and remarkable optical properties. To quantify HbO2 saturation, we exploit their photoluminescence, which enables photoinduced electron transfer and fluorescence quenching with hemoglobin. Our results demonstrated that the peak fluorescence intensity of CQDs shows a strong linear correlation with HbO2 saturation. Variations in HbO2 saturation levels were achieved with sodium dithionite and determined using Winterbourn’s equations. Our CQD-based HbO2 saturation measurements closely agreed with those obtained from conventional spectrophotometric analysis. Thus, this investigation highlights the potential of CQDs as a biosensor for effective HbO2 saturation measuring without extensive calibration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Low-Dimensional Materials: Synthesis, Characterization and Device Application, 2nd Edition)
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26 pages, 23199 KB  
Article
Development and Validation of a Multimodal Wearable Belt for Abdominal Biosignal Monitoring with Application to Irritable Bowel Syndrome
by Amir Mohammad Karimi Forood, Sibi M. Pandian, Riley Q. McNaboe, Thuany De Carvalho Lachos, Daniel Octavio Lantigua and Hugo F. Posada-Quintero
Micromachines 2025, 16(11), 1255; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16111255 - 1 Nov 2025
Viewed by 691
Abstract
Visceral pain in Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) is difficult to evaluate objectively due to its complex physiological nature and lack of reliable biomarkers. Given the complexity of IBS, a multimodal physiological monitoring approach, combining electrodermal activity (EDA), electrocardiogram (ECG), and surface electromyography (sEMG), [...] Read more.
Visceral pain in Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) is difficult to evaluate objectively due to its complex physiological nature and lack of reliable biomarkers. Given the complexity of IBS, a multimodal physiological monitoring approach, combining electrodermal activity (EDA), electrocardiogram (ECG), and surface electromyography (sEMG), offers a promising approach to capture the autonomic and muscular responses linked to visceral pain. However, no existing wearable device supports simultaneous EDA, ECG, and sEMG acquisition from the abdomen in a format suitable for long-term, real-world use. This study presents the development and validation of a novel wearable belt for concurrent ECG, sEMG, and EDA monitoring, with EDA measured at both the torso and wrist. The system was built using modified BITalino platforms with custom-fabricated reusable electrodes and Bluetooth connectivity for real-time smartphone display. Signal quality was validated against laboratory-grade systems in 20 healthy participants during a four-stage protocol involving cognitive, orthostatic, muscular, and combined stress tasks. Time and frequency-domain analyses showed high correlations and comparable spectral features across all modalities. The belt maintained stable skin contact even during movement-intensive tasks. By enabling anatomically targeted, multimodal data acquisition, this wearable system supports real-world visceral pain assessment in IBS and is ready for deployment in ambulatory and home-based monitoring scenarios. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Next-Generation Wearable Technologies: Integrating Smart Sensing, Biomedical Innovation, and Sustainable Energy Solutions)
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14 pages, 16744 KB  
Article
Robotic Drop-Coating Graphite–Copper PDMS Soft Pressure Sensor with Fabric-Integrated Electrodes for Wearable Devices
by Zeping Yu, Yunhao Zhang, Lingpu Ge, Daisuke Miyata, Zhongnan Pu, Chenghong Lu and Lei Jing
Micromachines 2025, 16(11), 1247; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16111247 - 31 Oct 2025
Viewed by 777
Abstract
Flexible pressure sensors are essential for wearable electronics, human–machine interfaces, and soft robotics. However, conventional Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)-based sensors often suffer from limited conductivity, poor filler dispersion, and low structural integration with textile substrates. In this work, we present a robotic drop-coating approach for [...] Read more.
Flexible pressure sensors are essential for wearable electronics, human–machine interfaces, and soft robotics. However, conventional Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)-based sensors often suffer from limited conductivity, poor filler dispersion, and low structural integration with textile substrates. In this work, we present a robotic drop-coating approach for fabricating graphite–copper nanoparticle (G-CuNP)/PDMS composite pressure sensors with textile-integrated electrodes. By precisely controlling droplet deposition, a three-layer sandwiched structure was realized that ensures uniformity and scalability while avoiding the drawbacks of conventional full-line coating. The effects of filler loading and graphite nanoparticle (GNP) and copper nanoparticle (CuNP) ratios were systematically investigated, and the optimized sensor was obtained at 40 wt% total fillers with a graphite content of 55 wt%. The fabricated device exhibited high sensitivity in the low-pressure region, stable performance in the medium- and high-pressure ranges, and an exponential saturation fitting with R2 = 0.998. The average hysteresis was 7.42%, with excellent cyclic stability over 1000 loading cycles. Furthermore, a hand-shaped sensor matrix composed of five distributed sensing units successfully distinguished grasping behaviors of lightweight and heavyweight objects, demonstrating multipoint force mapping capability. This study highlights the advantages of robotic drop-coating for scalable fabrication and provides a promising pathway toward low-cost, reliable, and wearable soft pressure sensors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section A：Physics)
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29 pages, 2301 KB  
Review
Advances in Impedimetric Biosensors: Current Applications and Future Directions
by Ashmit Verma, Mohammad Arqam and Arwa Fraiwan
Micromachines 2025, 16(11), 1244; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16111244 - 31 Oct 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 876
Abstract
Impedimetric biosensors have emerged as a versatile class of electrochemical devices, enabling highly sensitive and real-time detection of diverse analytes. Their applications extend across healthcare diagnostics, environmental monitoring, food safety, and agriculture. By virtue of their compact size, high sensitivity, selectivity, portability, and [...] Read more.
Impedimetric biosensors have emerged as a versatile class of electrochemical devices, enabling highly sensitive and real-time detection of diverse analytes. Their applications extend across healthcare diagnostics, environmental monitoring, food safety, and agriculture. By virtue of their compact size, high sensitivity, selectivity, portability, and ease of operation, these sensors have advanced rapidly in both research and practical applications. This review consolidates the wide spectrum of current applications and technological advances reported in the literature. Additionally, it examines the prospects of integrating impedimetric biosensors with emerging technology fields, including artificial intelligence, machine learning, and flexible and wearable devices. By providing an overview of the different categories of impedimetric biosensors, their detection strategies, sensing modalities, and applications, this review presents a comprehensive perspective on the current progress and future opportunities in impedimetric biosensing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biosensors and Their Applications in Disease Characterization and Diagnosis)
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46 pages, 13590 KB  
Review
A Review of Optical Metrology Techniques for Advanced Manufacturing Applications
by Fangyuan Zhao, Hanyao Tang, Xuerong Zou and Xinghui Li
Micromachines 2025, 16(11), 1224; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16111224 - 28 Oct 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2934
Abstract
Advanced manufacturing places stringent demands on measurement technologies, requiring ultra-high precision, non-contact operation, high throughput, and real-time adaptability. Optical metrology, with its distinct advantages, has become a key enabler in this context. This paper reviews optical metrology techniques from the perspective of precision [...] Read more.
Advanced manufacturing places stringent demands on measurement technologies, requiring ultra-high precision, non-contact operation, high throughput, and real-time adaptability. Optical metrology, with its distinct advantages, has become a key enabler in this context. This paper reviews optical metrology techniques from the perspective of precision manufacturing applications, emphasizing precision positioning and surface topography measurement while noting the limitations of traditional contact-based methods. For positioning, interferometers, optical encoders, and time-of-flight methods enable accurate linear and angular measurements. For surface characterization, techniques such as interferometry, structured light profilometry, and confocal microscopy provide reliable evaluation across scales, from large structures to micro- and nano-scale features. By integrating these approaches, optical metrology is shown to play a central role in bridging macroscopic and nano-scale characterization, supporting both structural assessment and process optimization. This review highlights its essential contribution to advanced manufacturing, and offers a concise reference for future progress in high-precision and intelligent production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section A：Physics)
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33 pages, 3868 KB  
Review
Application of Polymer Lubricants in Triboelectric Energy Harvesting: A Review
by Ali Nawaz and Hong-Joon Yoon
Micromachines 2025, 16(11), 1195; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16111195 - 22 Oct 2025
Viewed by 648
Abstract
The range of lubricant applications has broadened to include multiple sectors, aiming to optimize the operational efficiency of mechanical systems. Given their adaptable friction-reducing properties, lubricants have recently been incorporated into energy harvesting technologies such as triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs). In such devices, lubricants [...] Read more.
The range of lubricant applications has broadened to include multiple sectors, aiming to optimize the operational efficiency of mechanical systems. Given their adaptable friction-reducing properties, lubricants have recently been incorporated into energy harvesting technologies such as triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs). In such devices, lubricants are essential for mitigating wear, facilitating heat dissipation, eliminating contaminants, and prolonging the service life of mechanically actuated energy harvesters. Notably, emerging developments in sliding and rotational-mode TENGs leverage lubricants to improve electrical output while reducing interface degradation. However, despite significant potential, TENGs still face inherent challenges, including interface friction and energy losses from air breakdown. Recent research indicates that these drawbacks can be effectively addressed by the intentional use of polymer-based lubricants, which contribute to maintaining micro/nanostructured surfaces and minimizing air breakdown, thereby enhancing charge storage capability and increasing device robustness. This review systematically examines the categories, physicochemical attributes, and operational roles of polymeric lubricants used in TENG technology. It underscores their combined function is both primary and support materials to augment triboelectric efficiency. In addition, the article assesses how different lubricants impact device performance and durability, providing a critical analysis of their suitability based on the operational benchmarks of lubricant-embedded TENG configurations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Progress in Energy Harvesters and Self-Powered Sensors)
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30 pages, 7417 KB  
Review
Towards Advanced Materials: Functional Perspectives of Co-Doped ZnO Thin Films
by Mariuca Gartner, Mariana Chelu, Anna Szekeres and Peter Petrik
Micromachines 2025, 16(10), 1179; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16101179 - 18 Oct 2025
Viewed by 1120
Abstract
Zinc oxide (ZnO) thin films have attracted increasing attention as promising materials for sensing applications due to their wide band gap, high exciton binding energy, and remarkable chemical stability. However, the inherent limitations of pure ZnO, such as moderate sensitivity, selectivity, and relatively [...] Read more.
Zinc oxide (ZnO) thin films have attracted increasing attention as promising materials for sensing applications due to their wide band gap, high exciton binding energy, and remarkable chemical stability. However, the inherent limitations of pure ZnO, such as moderate sensitivity, selectivity, and relatively high operating temperatures, limit its widespread use in advanced sensing technologies. Co-doping, or dual doping with two distinct elements, has emerged as an effective strategy to overcome these challenges by synergistically tailoring the structural, electronic, and surface properties of ZnO thin films. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent advances in the development of co-doped ZnO thin films for sensing applications. The focus is on the role of different combinations of dopants, including transition metals, rare earth elements, and non-metals, in modulating the charge carrier concentration, oxygen vacancy density, and adsorption dynamics. These effects collectively enhance the sensing properties and long-term stability and reduce detection limits. The analysis highlights the correlations between synthesis methods, dopant incorporation mechanisms, and resulting sensor performance. Key challenges such as dopant clustering, reproducibility, and scalability are discussed, along with emerging opportunities in flexible room-temperature sensor platforms. Overall, it has been demonstrated that co-doped ZnO thin films represent a versatile and tunable class of sensing materials with strong potential for next-generation environmental and biomedical monitoring. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Thin Films in Semiconductor Devices and Various Sensing Technologies)
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23 pages, 18716 KB  
Review
Electromagnetic Tracking System for Medical Micro Devices: A Review
by Mingshan He, Aoji Zhu and Lidong Yang
Micromachines 2025, 16(10), 1175; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16101175 - 16 Oct 2025
Viewed by 1709
Abstract
Minimally invasive surgery (MIS) has become increasingly favored by both patients and surgeons owing to its advantages such as shortened recovery times and reduced surgical trauma. To enhance intraoperative feedback from surgical instruments while minimizing harmful radiation exposure, a wide range of electromagnetic [...] Read more.
Minimally invasive surgery (MIS) has become increasingly favored by both patients and surgeons owing to its advantages such as shortened recovery times and reduced surgical trauma. To enhance intraoperative feedback from surgical instruments while minimizing harmful radiation exposure, a wide range of electromagnetic tracking systems (EMTS) has been developed at micro scales for medical applications. This review provides a comprehensive summary of advances in the field over the past five years, with an emphasis on the working principles of EMTS, system architecture, current research progress, and clinical applications. In comparison to other review papers, this article focuses specifically on EMTS for medical micro-devices, such as robotic catheters, endoscopes, and capsule robots. Moreover, Representative research studies and commercial systems are presented along with their clinical implementations, placing greater emphasis on the translation of EMTS into medical applications. Finally, this review outlines and discusses future research directions, highlighting major challenges and potential opportunities for advancing the integration of EMTS into routine clinical workflows. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design and Real Time Implementation of Intelligent Control Schemes for Actuators)
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13 pages, 3442 KB  
Article
Patterning Fidelity Enhancement and Aberration Mitigation in EUV Lithography Through Source–Mask Optimization
by Qi Wang, Qiang Wu, Ying Li, Xianhe Liu and Yanli Li
Micromachines 2025, 16(10), 1166; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16101166 - 14 Oct 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1054
Abstract
Extreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithography faces critical challenges in aberration control and patterning fidelity as technology nodes shrink below 3 nm. This work demonstrates how Source–Mask Optimization (SMO) simultaneously addresses both illumination and mask design to enhance pattern transfer accuracy and mitigate aberrations. Through [...] Read more.
Extreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithography faces critical challenges in aberration control and patterning fidelity as technology nodes shrink below 3 nm. This work demonstrates how Source–Mask Optimization (SMO) simultaneously addresses both illumination and mask design to enhance pattern transfer accuracy and mitigate aberrations. Through a comprehensive optimization framework incorporating key process metrics, including critical dimension (CD), exposure latitude (EL), and mask error factor (MEF), we achieve significant improvements in imaging quality and process window for 40 nm minimum pitch patterns, representative of 2 nm node back-end-of-line (BEOL) requirements. Our analysis reveals that intelligent SMO implementation not only enables robust patterning solutions but also compensates for inherent EUV aberrations by balancing source characteristics with mask modifications. On average, our results show a 4.02% reduction in CD uniformity variation, concurrent with a 1.48% improvement in exposure latitude and a 5.45% reduction in MEF. The proposed methodology provides actionable insights for aberration-aware SMO strategies, offering a pathway to maintain lithographic performance as feature sizes continue to scale. These results underscore SMO’s indispensable role in advancing EUV lithography capabilities for next-generation semiconductor manufacturing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Lithography)
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14 pages, 4357 KB  
Article
Thermal Gas Flow Sensor Using SiGe HBT Oscillators Based on GaN/Si SAW Resonators
by Wenpu Cui, Jie Cui, Wenchao Zhang, Guofang Yu, Di Zhao, Jingqing Du, Zhen Li, Jun Fu and Tianling Ren
Micromachines 2025, 16(10), 1151; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16101151 - 10 Oct 2025
Viewed by 460
Abstract
This paper presents a thermal gas flow sensing system, from surface acoustic wave (SAW) temperature sensor to oscillation circuit and multi-module miniaturization integration. A single-port GaN/Si SAW resonator with single resonant mode and excellent characteristics was fabricated. Combined with an in-house-developed SiGe HBT, [...] Read more.
This paper presents a thermal gas flow sensing system, from surface acoustic wave (SAW) temperature sensor to oscillation circuit and multi-module miniaturization integration. A single-port GaN/Si SAW resonator with single resonant mode and excellent characteristics was fabricated. Combined with an in-house-developed SiGe HBT, a temperature-sensitive high-frequency oscillator was constructed. Under constant temperature control, system-level flow measurement was achieved through dual-oscillation configuration and modular integration. The fabricated SAW device shows a temperature coefficient of frequency (TCF) −28.29 ppm/K and temperature linearity 0.998. The oscillator operates at 1.91 GHz with phase noise of −97.72/−118.62 dBc/Hz at 10/100 kHz offsets. The system demonstrates excellent dynamic response and repeatability, directly measuring 0–50 sccm flows. For higher flows (>50 sccm), a shunt technique extends the test range based on the 0–10 sccm linear region, where response time is <1 s with error <0.9%. Non-contact operation ensures high stability and long lifespan. The sensor shows outstanding performance and broad application prospects in flow measurement. Full article
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32 pages, 4265 KB  
Review
A Review on Biomedical, Biomolecular, and Environmental Monitoring Applications of Cysteamine Functionalized Nanomaterials
by Muthaiah Shellaiah
Micromachines 2025, 16(10), 1144; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16101144 - 8 Oct 2025
Viewed by 963
Abstract
Functionalizing agents enhance the photophysical properties of nanomaterials, thereby broadening their applications. Among these agents, cysteamine (SH-(CH2)2-NH2) is unique because of its free thiol (-SH) and amino (-NH2) groups. The presence of free -SH or [...] Read more.
Functionalizing agents enhance the photophysical properties of nanomaterials, thereby broadening their applications. Among these agents, cysteamine (SH-(CH2)2-NH2) is unique because of its free thiol (-SH) and amino (-NH2) groups. The presence of free -SH or -NH2 groups significantly enhances the functionalization of highly stable nanomaterials. These stable nanomaterials, which contain free -SH or -NH2 groups, can effectively bind with biomedical, biomolecular, and environmental analytes, improving sensor performance and making them valuable materials. In this context, cysteamine-functionalized nanoparticles (NPs), quantum dots (QDs), nanoclusters (NCs), nanocomposites, and other nanostructures have been demonstrated to be useful for quantifying biomedical, biomolecular, and environmental analytes. To date, no review has outlined the functionalizing ability of cysteamine or the application of cysteamine-functionalized nanomaterials in biomedical, biomolecular, and environmental analyte monitoring. This review emphasizes the role of cysteamine in producing stable nanomaterials and detecting specific biomedical, biomolecular, and ecological analytes. It also covers general protocols for functionalizing with cysteamine, the mechanistic basis of analyte detection, and their advantages, limitations, and prospects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanoparticle-Based (Bio)Sensors for Biomedical and Environmental Monitoring)
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20 pages, 4013 KB  
Review
Bioengineering 3D Pancreatic Cancer Models with Fibrotic Stroma for In Vitro Cancer Modeling
by Xingrun Lan, Keke Chen and Xiaoyun Wei
Micromachines 2025, 16(10), 1140; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16101140 - 2 Oct 2025
Viewed by 1283
Abstract
Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) remains highly lethal due to late diagnosis, high malignancy, and profound resistance to therapy. Traditional two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures fail to recapitulate the complex tumor microenvironment (TME), especially the fibrotic stroma, which is crucial for the progression of PDAC [...] Read more.
Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) remains highly lethal due to late diagnosis, high malignancy, and profound resistance to therapy. Traditional two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures fail to recapitulate the complex tumor microenvironment (TME), especially the fibrotic stroma, which is crucial for the progression of PDAC and drug response. In vitro three-dimensional (3D) models, which provide more physiologically relevant features such as tight cell–cell and cell-extracellular matrix (ECM) interactions, as well as 3D architecture, have been regarded as highly promising models in PDAC research. This review summarizes some representative in vitro PDAC models, including 3D spheroids, tumor-on-a-chip, bioprinted constructs, and patient-derived organoids (PDOs), particularly focused on the advances in bioengineering strategies for the integration of the key stomal components for microenvironment recapitulation and their applications. Additionally, we discuss the current challenges facing 3D models and propose potential strategies for constructing in vitro models that more accurately simulate the pathophysiology of the fibrotic stroma, aiming for their application in clinical settings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Tissue Engineering Techniques and Their Applications)
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28 pages, 3829 KB  
Review
Automated Platforms in C. elegans Research: Integration of Microfluidics, Robotics, and Artificial Intelligence
by Tasnuva Binte Mahbub, Parsa Safaeian and Salman Sohrabi
Micromachines 2025, 16(10), 1138; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16101138 - 1 Oct 2025
Viewed by 3772
Abstract
Caenorhabditis elegans is one of the most extensively studied model organisms in biology. Its advantageous features, including genetic homology with humans, conservation of disease pathways, transparency, short lifespan, small size and ease of maintenance have established it as a powerful system for research [...] Read more.
Caenorhabditis elegans is one of the most extensively studied model organisms in biology. Its advantageous features, including genetic homology with humans, conservation of disease pathways, transparency, short lifespan, small size and ease of maintenance have established it as a powerful system for research in aging, genetics, molecular biology, disease modeling and drug discovery. However, traditional methods for worm handling, culturing, scoring and imaging are labor-intensive, low throughput, time consuming, susceptible to operator variability and environmental influences. Addressing these challenges, recent years have seen rapid innovation spanning microfluidics, robotics, imaging platforms and AI-driven analysis in C. elegans-based research. Advances include micromanipulation devices, robotic microinjection systems, automated worm assays and high-throughput screening platforms. In this review, we first summarize foundational developments prior to 2020 that shaped the field, then highlight breakthroughs from the past five years that address key limitations in throughput, reproducibility and scalability. Finally, we discuss ongoing challenges and future directions for integrating these technologies into next-generation automated C. elegans research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Microfluidic Chips for Chemical and Biomedical Applications)
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28 pages, 5109 KB  
Review
Advances in Silicon-Based UV Light Detection
by Arif Kamal, Seongin Hong and Heongkyu Ju
Micromachines 2025, 16(10), 1130; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16101130 - 30 Sep 2025
Viewed by 1194
Abstract
Silicon (Si), the cornerstone semiconductor in the micro-electronics industry, can provide a cost-efficient platform with mature technologies for photodetection in visible and near-infrared regions. However, its intrinsic properties, such as a narrow bandgap and the shallow penetration depth of ultraviolet (UV) light into [...] Read more.
Silicon (Si), the cornerstone semiconductor in the micro-electronics industry, can provide a cost-efficient platform with mature technologies for photodetection in visible and near-infrared regions. However, its intrinsic properties, such as a narrow bandgap and the shallow penetration depth of ultraviolet (UV) light into its surface with surface trap states, remain challenges, rendering it unsuitable for effective UV light detection. Various techniques have been reported to circumvent these surface defect-induced difficulties. In addition, wide-bandgap semiconductors that favor UV light absorption in a solar-blind way have been combined with Si for UV light detection in order to retain the device’s compatibility with Si-CMOS processes, though it still faces challenges that need to be overcome. This review starts with concepts of basic parameters of photodetectors and categorizes UV photodetectors according to their detection mechanisms. We also present a review of wide-bandgap semiconductor-based UV light detectors and those based on Si, with a discussion of surface defect minimization. In addition, we review the hybrid structure of the two kinds, i.e., wide-bandgap semiconductors and Si, and discuss their properties that produce synergistic effects. Lastly, we provide conclusions and outlooks for the possible development of next-generation UV light detectors based on Si. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photodetectors and Their Applications)
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25 pages, 9895 KB  
Review
Harnessing Microfluidics for the Effective and Precise Synthesis of Advanced Materials
by Xinlei Qi and Guoqing Hu
Micromachines 2025, 16(10), 1106; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16101106 - 28 Sep 2025
Viewed by 1601
Abstract
Microfluidic methods are powerful platforms for synthesizing advanced functional materials because they allow for precise control of microscale reaction environments. Microfluidics manipulates reactants in lab-on-a-chip systems to enable the fabrication of highly uniform materials with tunable properties, which are crucial for drug delivery, [...] Read more.
Microfluidic methods are powerful platforms for synthesizing advanced functional materials because they allow for precise control of microscale reaction environments. Microfluidics manipulates reactants in lab-on-a-chip systems to enable the fabrication of highly uniform materials with tunable properties, which are crucial for drug delivery, diagnostics, catalysis, and nanomaterial design. This review emphasizes recent progress in microfluidic technologies for synthesizing functional materials, with a focus on polymeric, hydrogel, lipid-based, and inorganic particles. Microfluidics provides exceptional control over the size, morphology, composition, and surface chemistry of materials, thereby enhancing their performance through uniformity, tunability, hierarchical structuring, and on-chip functionalization. Our review provides novel insights by linking material design strategies with fabrication methods tailored to biomedical applications. We also discuss emerging trends, such as AI-driven optimization, automation, and sustainable microfluidic practices, offering a practical and forward-looking perspective. As the field advances toward robust, standardized, and user-friendly platforms, microfluidics has the potential to increase industrial adoption and enable on-demand solutions in nanotechnology and personalized medicine. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Microfluidic Chips for Chemical and Biomedical Applications)
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19 pages, 7670 KB  
Article
A CMOS Hybrid System for Non-Invasive Hemoglobin and Oxygen Saturation Monitoring with Super Wavelength Infrared Light Emitting Diodes
by Hyunjin Park, Seoyeon Kang, Jiwon Kim, Jeena Lee, Somi Park and Sung-Min Park
Micromachines 2025, 16(10), 1086; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16101086 - 25 Sep 2025
Viewed by 723
Abstract
This paper presents a CMOS-based hybrid system capable of noninvasively quantifying the total hemoglobin (tHb), the oxygen saturation (SpO2), and the heart rate (HR) by utilizing five-wavelength (670, 770, 810, 850, and 950 nm) photoplethysmography. Conventional pulse oximeters are limited to [...] Read more.
This paper presents a CMOS-based hybrid system capable of noninvasively quantifying the total hemoglobin (tHb), the oxygen saturation (SpO2), and the heart rate (HR) by utilizing five-wavelength (670, 770, 810, 850, and 950 nm) photoplethysmography. Conventional pulse oximeters are limited to the measurements of SpO2 and heart rate, therefore hindering the real-time estimation of tHb that is clinically essential for monitoring anemia, chronic diseases, and postoperative recovery. Therefore, the proposed hybrid system enables us to distinguish between the concentrations of oxygenated (HbO2) and deoxygenated hemoglobin (Hb) by using the absorption characteristics of five wavelengths from the visible to near-infrared range. This CMOS hybrid mixed-signal architecture includes a light emitting diode (LED) driver as a transmitter and an optoelectronic receiver with on-chip avalanche photodiodes, followed by a field-programmable gate array (FPGA) for a real-time signal processing pipeline. The proposed hybrid system, validated through post-layout simulations and algorithmic verification, achieves high precision with ±0.3 g/dL accuracy for tHb and ±1.5% for SpO2, while the heart rate is extracted via 1024-point Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) with an error below ±0.2%. These results demonstrate the potential of a CMOS-based hybrid system as a feasible solution to achieve real-time, low-power, and high-accuracy analysis of bio-signals for clinical and home-use applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Celebration of 60th Anniversary of Moore's Law: The Significant Milestone in Micromachines)
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23 pages, 4516 KB  
Review
Photoelectrochemical Oxidation and Etching Methods Used in Fabrication of GaN-Based Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor High-Electron Mobility Transistors and Integrated Circuits: A Review
by Ching-Ting Lee and Hsin-Ying Lee
Micromachines 2025, 16(10), 1077; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16101077 - 23 Sep 2025
Viewed by 623
Abstract
The photoelectrochemical oxidation method was utilized to directly grow a gate oxide layer and simultaneously create gate-recessed regions for fabricating GaN-based depletion-mode metal-oxide-semiconductor high-electron mobility transistors (D-mode MOSHEMTs). The LiNbO3 gate ferroelectric layer and stacked gate oxide layers of LiNbO3/HfO [...] Read more.
The photoelectrochemical oxidation method was utilized to directly grow a gate oxide layer and simultaneously create gate-recessed regions for fabricating GaN-based depletion-mode metal-oxide-semiconductor high-electron mobility transistors (D-mode MOSHEMTs). The LiNbO3 gate ferroelectric layer and stacked gate oxide layers of LiNbO3/HfO2/Al2O3 were respectively deposited on the created gate-recessed regions using the photoelectrochemical etching method to fabricate the GaN-based enhancement mode MOSHEMTs (E-mode MOSHEMTs). GaN-based complementary integrated circuits were realized by monolithically integrating the D-mode MOSHEMTs and the E-mode MOSHEMTs. The performances of the inverter circuit manufactured using the integrated GaN-based complementary MOSHEMTs were measured and analyzed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue III-V Optoelectronics and Semiconductor Process Technology, Second Edition)
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14 pages, 3445 KB  
Article
Hybrid Actuation MEMS Micromirror with Decoupled Piezoelectric Fast Axis and Electromagnetic Slow Axis for Crosstalk Suppression
by Haoxiang Li, Jiapeng Hou, Zheng Gong, Huijun Yu, Yue Liu and Wenjiang Shen
Micromachines 2025, 16(9), 1072; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16091072 - 22 Sep 2025
Viewed by 3251
Abstract
Electromagnetic micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) micromirrors are widely used in optical scanning systems but often encounter mechanical crosstalk due to the use of shared drive coils. This phenomenon leads to parasitic motion along the slow axis during fast-axis operation, resulting in undesirable elliptical scanning [...] Read more.
Electromagnetic micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) micromirrors are widely used in optical scanning systems but often encounter mechanical crosstalk due to the use of shared drive coils. This phenomenon leads to parasitic motion along the slow axis during fast-axis operation, resulting in undesirable elliptical scanning patterns that degrade image quality. To tackle this issue, a hybrid actuation scheme is proposed in which a piezoelectric actuator drives the fast axis through an S-shaped spring structure, achieving a resonance frequency of 792 Hz, while the slow axis is independently driven by an electromagnetic actuator operating in quasi-static mode. Finite element simulations and experimental measurements validate that the proposed decoupled design significantly suppresses mechanical crosstalk. When the fast axis is driven to a 40° optical scan angle, the hybrid system reduces the parasitic slow-axis deflection (typically around 1.43°) to a negligible level, thereby producing a clean single-line scan. The piezoelectric fast axis exhibits a quality factor of Q = 110, while the electromagnetic slow axis achieves a linear 20° deflection at 20 Hz. This hybrid design facilitates a distortion-free field of view measuring 40° × 20° with uniform line spacing, presenting a straightforward and effective solution for high-precision scanning applications such as LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) and structured light projection. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric MEMS/NEMS—Materials, Devices, and Applications, Third Edition)
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23 pages, 8269 KB  
Article
A Novel Double-Diamond Microreactor Design for Enhanced Mixing and Nanomaterial Synthesis
by Qian Peng, Guangzu Wang, Chao Sheng, Haonan Wang, Yao Fu and Shenghong Huang
Micromachines 2025, 16(9), 1058; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16091058 - 18 Sep 2025
Viewed by 850
Abstract
This study introduces the Double-Diamond Reactor (DDR), a novel planar passive microreactor designed to overcome the following conventional limitations: inefficient mass transfer, high flow resistance, and clogging. The DDR integrates splitting–turning–impinging (STI) hydrodynamic principles via CFD-guided optimization, generating chaotic advection to enhance mixing. [...] Read more.
This study introduces the Double-Diamond Reactor (DDR), a novel planar passive microreactor designed to overcome the following conventional limitations: inefficient mass transfer, high flow resistance, and clogging. The DDR integrates splitting–turning–impinging (STI) hydrodynamic principles via CFD-guided optimization, generating chaotic advection to enhance mixing. Experimental evaluations using Villermaux–Dushman tests showed a segregation index (Xs) as low as 0.027 at 100 mL·min−1, indicating near-perfect mixing. In BaSO4 nanoparticle synthesis, the DDR achieved a 46% smaller average particle size (95 nm) and narrower distribution (σg=1.27) compared to reference designs (AFR-1), while maintaining low pressure drops (<20 kPa at 60 mL·min−1). The DDR’s superior performance stems from its hierarchical flow division and concave-induced vortices, which eliminate stagnant zones. This work demonstrates the DDR’s potential for high-throughput nanomaterial synthesis with precise control over particle characteristics, offering a scalable and energy-efficient solution for advanced chemical processes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section E：Engineering and Technology)
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16 pages, 1847 KB  
Article
The Fluidic Shear Stress Loading Method Enables Mechanobiological Stimulation in an On-Chip Pump-Integrated Microphysiological System
by Jin Hong Yap, Satoshi Ishizaki, Hiroko Nakamura, Kenta Shinha and Hiroshi Kimura
Micromachines 2025, 16(9), 1051; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16091051 - 15 Sep 2025
Viewed by 1037
Abstract
Microphysiological systems (MPSs), such as organ-on-a-chip platforms, are promising alternatives to animal testing for drug development and physiological research. The BioStellar™ Plate is a commercial MPS platform featuring an open-top culture chamber design with on-chip stirrer pumps that circulate culture medium through six [...] Read more.
Microphysiological systems (MPSs), such as organ-on-a-chip platforms, are promising alternatives to animal testing for drug development and physiological research. The BioStellar™ Plate is a commercial MPS platform featuring an open-top culture chamber design with on-chip stirrer pumps that circulate culture medium through six independent, dual microchannel-connected chamber multiorgan units. Although this design enables a circular flow, the open-top culture chamber format prevents the application of fluidic shear stress, a force that cells experience in vivo, which affects their behavior and function. To address this, we developed two fluidic shear stress attachments for the BioStellar™ Plate. These attachment channel fluids provide controlled mechanical stimulation to cultured cells. The flow dynamics were simulated using COMSOL Multiphysics to estimate shear stress levels. The attachments were fabricated and validated through fluorescent bead tracking and biological assays. The FSSA-D is designed for flat-bottom standard cell cultures, while the FSSA-I is designed for epithelial monolayers, enabling the application of fluidic shear stress across the basal membrane. Experiments with intestinal epithelial cells (Caco-2) demonstrated that both attachments enhanced cell barrier function under a fluidic environment, as indicated by higher transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER). These findings demonstrate that the attachments are practical tools for mechanobiology research with MPS platforms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Micro-/Nanofluidic and Lab-on-a-Chip Devices for Biomedical Applications, 3rd Edition)
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53 pages, 2691 KB  
Review
Heterogeneous Integration Technology Drives the Evolution of Co-Packaged Optics
by Han Gao, Wanyi Yan, Dan Zhang and Daquan Yu
Micromachines 2025, 16(9), 1037; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16091037 - 10 Sep 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4866
Abstract
The rapid growth of artificial intelligence (AI), data centers, and high-performance computing (HPC) has increased the demand for large bandwidth, high energy efficiency, and high-density optical interconnects. Co-packaged optics (CPO) technology offers a promising solution by integrating photonic integrated circuits (PICs) directly within [...] Read more.
The rapid growth of artificial intelligence (AI), data centers, and high-performance computing (HPC) has increased the demand for large bandwidth, high energy efficiency, and high-density optical interconnects. Co-packaged optics (CPO) technology offers a promising solution by integrating photonic integrated circuits (PICs) directly within or close to electronic integrated circuit (EIC) packages. This paper explores the evolution of CPO performance from various perspectives, including fan-out wafer level packaging (FOWLP), through-silicon via (TSV)-based packaging, through-glass via (TGV)-based packaging, femtosecond laser direct writing waveguides, ion-exchange glass waveguides, and optical coupling. Micro ring resonators (MRRs) are a high-density integration solution due to their compact size, excellent energy efficiency, and compatibility with CMOS processes. However, traditional thermal tuning methods face limitations such as high static power consumption and severe thermal crosstalk. To address these issues, non-volatile neuromorphic photonics has made breakthroughs using phase-change materials (PCMs). By combining the integrated storage and computing capabilities of photonic memory with the efficient optoelectronic interconnects of CPO, this deep integration is expected to work synergistically to overcome material, integration, and architectural challenges, driving the development of a new generation of computing hardware with high energy efficiency, low latency, and large bandwidth. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Packaging and Interconnection Technology, Second Edition)
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22 pages, 4991 KB  
Review
Meta-Optics for Optical Engineering of Next-Generation AR/VR Near-Eye Displays
by Junoh Lee and Sun-Je Kim
Micromachines 2025, 16(9), 1026; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16091026 - 7 Sep 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3012
Abstract
Meta-optics, enabled by metasurfaces consisting of two-dimensional arrays of meta-atoms, offers ultrathin and multi-functional control over the vectorial wavefront of light at subwavelength scales. The unprecedented optical element technology is a promising candidate to overcome key limitations in augmented reality (AR) and virtual [...] Read more.
Meta-optics, enabled by metasurfaces consisting of two-dimensional arrays of meta-atoms, offers ultrathin and multi-functional control over the vectorial wavefront of light at subwavelength scales. The unprecedented optical element technology is a promising candidate to overcome key limitations in augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) near-eye displays particularly in achieving compact, eyeglass-type form factors with a wide field-of-view, a large eyebox, high resolution, high brightness, and reduced optical aberrations, at the same time. This review highlights key performance bottlenecks of AR/VR displays in the perspective of optical design, with an emphasis on their practical significance for advancing current technologies. We then examine how meta-optical elements are applied to VR and AR systems by introducing and analyzing the major milestone studies. In case of AR systems, particularly, two different categories, free-space and waveguide-based architectures, are introduced. For each category, we summarize studies using metasurfaces as lenses, combiners, or waveguide couplers. While meta-optics enables unprecedented miniaturization and functionality, it also faces several remaining challenges. The authors suggest potential technological directions to address such issues. By surveying recent progress and design strategies, this review provides a comprehensive perspective on the role of meta-optics in advancing the optical engineering of next-generation AR/VR near-eye displays. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Nanophotonics: Physics, Materials, and Applications)
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19 pages, 5988 KB  
Article
Design of Hydrogel Microneedle Arrays for Physiology Monitoring of Farm Animals
by Laurabelle Gautier, Sandra Wiart-Letort, Alexandra Massé, Caroline Xavier, Lorraine Novais-Gameiro, Antoine Hoang, Marie Escudé, Ilaria Sorrentino, Muriel Bonnet, Florence Gondret, Claire Verplanck and Isabelle Texier
Micromachines 2025, 16(9), 1015; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16091015 - 31 Aug 2025
Viewed by 1221
Abstract
For monitoring animal adaptation when facing environmental challenges, and more specifically when addressing the impacts of global warming—particularly responses to heat stress and short-term fluctuations in osmotic regulations in the different organs influencing animal physiology—there is an increasing demand for digital tools to [...] Read more.
For monitoring animal adaptation when facing environmental challenges, and more specifically when addressing the impacts of global warming—particularly responses to heat stress and short-term fluctuations in osmotic regulations in the different organs influencing animal physiology—there is an increasing demand for digital tools to understand and monitor a range of biomarkers. Microneedle arrays (MNAs) have recently emerged as promising devices minimally invasively penetrating human skin to access dermal interstitial fluid (ISF) to monitor deviations in physiology and consequences on health. The ISF is a blood filtrate where the concentrations of ions, low molecular weight metabolites (<70 kDa), hormones, and drugs, often closely correlate with those in blood. However, anatomical skin differences between human and farm animals, especially large animals, as well as divergent tolerances of such devices among species with behavior specificities, motivate new MNA designs. We addressed technological challenges to design higher microneedles for farm animal (pigs and cattle) measurements. We designed microneedle arrays composed of 37 microneedles, each 2.8 mm in height, using dextran-methacrylate, a photo-crosslinked biocompatible biopolymer-based hydrogel. The arrays were characterized geometrically and mechanically. Their abilities to perforate pig and cow skin were demonstrated through histological analysis. The MNAs successfully absorbed approximately 10 µL of fluid within 3 h of application. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biosensors for Biomedical, Agricultural and Environmental Applications)
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46 pages, 3495 KB  
Review
Assembly and Interconnection Technologies for 3D Plastic Circuit Carriers: An Overview of Technologies, Materials, and Applications
by Kai Werum, Wolfgang Eberhardt, Dieter Reenaers, Thomas Mager, Mika Endl, André Zimmermann and Wim Deferme
Micromachines 2025, 16(9), 980; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16090980 - 26 Aug 2025
Viewed by 2418
Abstract
This paper aims to present an overview of the state-of-the-art materials and technologies that can be used to create electronic circuits on 3D plastic carriers also known as 3D electronics. Strategies for print-based and laser-based 3D electronics will be discussed as well as [...] Read more.
This paper aims to present an overview of the state-of-the-art materials and technologies that can be used to create electronic circuits on 3D plastic carriers also known as 3D electronics. Strategies for print-based and laser-based 3D electronics will be discussed as well as the techniques to apply the circuit carrier and the way interconnection technology can be used to combine electronic components on top of the circuit carrier. A basic explanation of the functional principles, materials, and applications is given for different substrate and interconnection technologies. The aim is to make it easier to compare different technologies and its required materials to make the right decisions on what technology is best suited for the job. For this purpose, comparison tables for 3D plastic circuit carrier technologies and substrate materials considering their temperature stability were created. It can be concluded that there are a lot of influencing factors that determine which technologies are best suited for application. The most important factors are the 3D complexity and the field of application, the required structure size of the circuit, and the required production quantity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section D：Materials and Processing)
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23 pages, 3673 KB  
Article
Backpropagation Neural Network-Based Prediction Model of Marble Surface Quality Cut by Diamond Wire Saw
by Hui Dong, Fan Cui, Zhipu Huo and Yufei Gao
Micromachines 2025, 16(9), 971; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16090971 - 23 Aug 2025
Viewed by 877
Abstract
Marble is widely used in the field of construction and home decoration because of its high strength, high hardness and good wear resistance. Diamond wire sawing has been applied in marble cutting in industry due to its features such as low material loss, [...] Read more.
Marble is widely used in the field of construction and home decoration because of its high strength, high hardness and good wear resistance. Diamond wire sawing has been applied in marble cutting in industry due to its features such as low material loss, high cutting accuracy and low noise. The sawing surface quality directly affects the subsequent processing efficiency and economic benefit of marble products. The surface quality is affected by multiple parameters such as process parameters and workpiece sizes, making it difficult to accurately predict through traditional empirical equations or linear models. To improve prediction accuracy, this paper proposes a prediction model based on backpropagation (BP) neural network. Firstly, through the experiments of sawing marbles with the diamond wire saw, the datasets of surface roughness and waviness under different process parameters were obtained. Secondly, a BP neural network model was established, and the mixed-strategy-improved whale optimization algorithm (IWOA) was used to optimize the initial weight and threshold of the network, and established the IWOA-BP neural network model. Finally, the performance of the model was verified by comparison with the traditional models. The results showed that the IWOA-BP neural network model demonstrated the optimal prediction performance in both the surface roughness Ra and waviness Wa. The minimum predicted values of the root mean square error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE), and mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) were 0.0342%, 0.0284% and 1.5614%, respectively, which proved that the model had higher prediction accuracy. This study provides experimental basis and technical support for the prediction of the surface quality of marble material cut by diamond wire saw. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section D：Materials and Processing)
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14 pages, 2055 KB  
Article
Paperclip-Type Flexible Inductive Sensor Based on Liquid Metal Coils for Simple Fabrication and Multifunctional Applications
by Xun Sun, Kaixin Li, Zifeng Zhang, Linling Xiang, Yihao Zhou and Bin Sheng
Micromachines 2025, 16(8), 965; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16080965 - 21 Aug 2025
Viewed by 1191
Abstract
At present, high-resolution and reliable inductive sensors have increasingly emerged as a pivotal component in the advancement of flexible electronic devices. The integration of liquid metal with flexible substrates presents a promising approach for the fabrication of inductive sensors. This paper introduces a [...] Read more.
At present, high-resolution and reliable inductive sensors have increasingly emerged as a pivotal component in the advancement of flexible electronic devices. The integration of liquid metal with flexible substrates presents a promising approach for the fabrication of inductive sensors. This paper introduces a novel paperclip-type helical coil inductive sensor, characterized by advancements in both structural design and a simplified manufacturing process. The sensor comprises a fine silicone tube filled with liquid metal, encapsulated within polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) glue. A significant innovation of this design is its complete elimination of the need for high-precision sacrificial metal molds. This approach bypasses complex processes such as precision mold machining, demolding, and post-mold residue cleaning, thereby significantly streamlining the production work-flow. We optimized the parameters of the paperclip-type helical coil, the aspect ratio, and the number of turns, achieving the maximum sensitivity under limited conditions. Experimental results demonstrate that this sensor is capable of tensile, pressure, and non-contact distance sensing. The linearity of the tensile sensing is exceptional (R2=0.999), with consistent performance observed after 800 tensile cycles. The pressure sensing range extends from 0 to 230 kPa, and the non-contact distance sensing is effective within a range of 10 mm. Furthermore, the sensor exhibits strong performance in monitoring human physiological activities and metal distance detection, demonstrating significant application potential in flexible electronics and wearable devices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Analyses and Designs for Flexible/Stretchable Electronics, 3rd Edition)
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23 pages, 7663 KB  
Review
Advances in 3D Printing: Microfabrication Techniques and Forming Applications
by Di Pan, Fanghui Jia, Muyuan Zhou, Hao Liu, Jingru Yan, Lisong Zhu, Ming Yang and Zhengyi Jiang
Micromachines 2025, 16(8), 940; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16080940 - 15 Aug 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1306
Abstract
Stainless steel is essential in high-performance industries due to its strength, corrosion resistance, and biocompatibility. However, conventional manufacturing methods limit material efficiency, design complexity, and customization. Additive manufacturing (AM) has emerged as a powerful alternative, enabling the production of stainless-steel components with complex [...] Read more.
Stainless steel is essential in high-performance industries due to its strength, corrosion resistance, and biocompatibility. However, conventional manufacturing methods limit material efficiency, design complexity, and customization. Additive manufacturing (AM) has emerged as a powerful alternative, enabling the production of stainless-steel components with complex geometries, tailored microstructures, and integrated functionalities. Key AM methodologies, including laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF), binder jetting, and directed energy deposition (DED), are evaluated for their effectiveness in producing stainless-steel components with optimal performance characteristics. This review highlights innovations in stainless-steel AM, focusing on microfabrication, multi-material approaches, and post-processing strategies such as heat treatment, hot isostatic pressing (HIP), and surface finishing. It also examines the impact of process parameters on microstructure, mechanical anisotropy, and defects. Emerging trends include AM-specific alloy design, functionally graded structures, and AI-based control. Applications span biomedical implants, micro-tooling, energy systems, and automotive parts, with emphasis on microfabrication for biomedical micromachines and precision microforming. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations in 3D Printing Technologies: From Microfabrication to Functional Applications)
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23 pages, 4352 KB  
Article
Nondestructive Mechanical and Electrical Characterization of Piezoelectric Zinc Oxide Nanowires for Energy Harvesting
by Frank Eric Boye Anang, Markys Cain, Min Xu, Zhi Li, Uwe Brand, Darshit Jangid, Sebastian Seibert, Chris Schwalb and Erwin Peiner
Micromachines 2025, 16(8), 927; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16080927 - 12 Aug 2025
Viewed by 1125
Abstract
In this study we report on the structural, mechanical, and electrical characterization of different structures of vertically aligned zinc oxide (ZnO) nanowires (NWs) synthesized using hydrothermal methods. By optimizing the growth conditions, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micrographs show that the ZnO NWs could [...] Read more.
In this study we report on the structural, mechanical, and electrical characterization of different structures of vertically aligned zinc oxide (ZnO) nanowires (NWs) synthesized using hydrothermal methods. By optimizing the growth conditions, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micrographs show that the ZnO NWs could reach an astounding 51.9 ± 0.82 µm in length, 0.7 ± 0.08 µm in diameter, and 3.3 ± 2.1 µm−2 density of the number of NWs per area within 24 h of growth time, compared with a reported value of ~26.8 µm in length for the same period. The indentation modulus of the as-grown ZnO NWs was determined using contact resonance (CR) measurements using atomic force microscopy (AFM). An indentation modulus of 122.2 ± 2.3 GPa for the NW array sample with an average diameter of ~690 nm was found to be close to the reference bulk ZnO value of 125 GPa. Furthermore, the measurement of the piezoelectric coefficient (d33) using the traceable ESPY33 tool under cyclic compressive stress gave a value of 1.6 ± 0.4 pC/N at 0.02 N with ZnO NWs of 100 ± 10 nm and 2.69 ± 0.05 µm in diameter and length, respectively, which were embedded in an S1818 polymer. Current–voltage (I-V) measurements of the ZnO NWs fabricated on an n-type silicon (Si) substrate utilizing a micromanipulator integrated with a tungsten (W) probe exhibits Ohmic behavior, revealing an important phenomenon which can be attributed to the generated electric field by the tungsten probe, dielectric residue, or conductive material. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Progress on Advanced Piezoelectric Energy Harvesters)
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15 pages, 6688 KB  
Article
Integrated Additive Manufacturing of TGV Interconnects and High-Frequency Circuits via Bipolar-Controlled EHD Jetting
by Dongqiao Bai, Jin Huang, Hongxiao Gong, Jianjun Wang, Yunna Pu, Jiaying Zhang, Peng Sun, Zihan Zhu, Pan Li, Huagui Wang, Pengbing Zhao and Chaoyu Liang
Micromachines 2025, 16(8), 907; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16080907 - 2 Aug 2025
Viewed by 1001
Abstract
Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) printing offers mask-free, high-resolution deposition across a broad range of ink viscosities, yet combining void-free filling of high-aspect-ratio through-glass vias (TGVs) with ultrafine drop-on-demand (DOD) line printing on the same platform requires balancing conflicting requirements: for example, high field strengths to [...] Read more.
Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) printing offers mask-free, high-resolution deposition across a broad range of ink viscosities, yet combining void-free filling of high-aspect-ratio through-glass vias (TGVs) with ultrafine drop-on-demand (DOD) line printing on the same platform requires balancing conflicting requirements: for example, high field strengths to drive ink into deep and narrow vias; sufficiently high ink viscosity to prevent gravity-induced leakage; and stable meniscus dynamics to avoid satellite droplets and charge accumulation on the glass surface. By coupling electrostatic field analysis with transient level-set simulations, we establish a dimensionless regime map that delineates stable cone-jetting regime; these predictions are validated by high-speed imaging and surface profilometry. Operating within this window, the platform achieves complete, void-free filling of 200 µm × 1.52 mm TGVs and continuous 10 µm-wide traces in a single print pass. Demonstrating its capabilities, we fabricate transparent Ku-band substrate-integrated waveguide antennas on borosilicate glass: the printed vias and arc feed elements exhibit a reflection coefficient minimum of −18 dB at 14.2 GHz, a −10 dB bandwidth of 12.8–16.2 GHz, and an 8 dBi peak gain with 37° beam tilt, closely matching full-wave predictions. This physics-driven, all-in-one EHD approach provides a scalable route to high-performance, glass-integrated RF devices and transparent electronics. Full article
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16 pages, 2715 KB  
Article
Composite Behavior of Nanopore Array Large Memristors
by Ian Reistroffer, Jaden Tolbert, Jeffrey Osterberg and Pingshan Wang
Micromachines 2025, 16(8), 882; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16080882 - 29 Jul 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 835
Abstract
Synthetic nanopores were recently demonstrated with memristive and nonlinear voltage-current behaviors, akin to ion channels in a cell membrane. Such ionic devices are considered a promising candidate for the development of brain-inspired neuromorphic computing techniques. In this work, we show the composite behavior [...] Read more.
Synthetic nanopores were recently demonstrated with memristive and nonlinear voltage-current behaviors, akin to ion channels in a cell membrane. Such ionic devices are considered a promising candidate for the development of brain-inspired neuromorphic computing techniques. In this work, we show the composite behavior of nanopore-array large memristors, formed with different membrane materials, pore sizes, electrolytes, and device arrangements. Anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) membranes with 5 nm and 20 nm diameter pores and track-etched polycarbonate (PCTE) membranes with 10 nm diameter pores are tested and shown to demonstrate memristive and nonlinear behaviors with approximately 107–1010 pores in parallel when electrolyte concentration across the membranes is asymmetric. Ion diffusion through the large number of channels induces time-dependent electrolyte asymmetry that drives the system through different memristive states. The behaviors of series composite memristors with different configurations are also presented. In addition to helping understand fluidic devices and circuits for neuromorphic computing, the results also shed light on the development of field-assisted ion-selection-membrane filtration techniques as well as the investigations of large neurons and giant synapses. Further work is needed to de-embed parasitic components of the measurement setup to obtain intrinsic large memristor properties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section D4: Glassy Materials and Micro/Nano Devices)
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31 pages, 11019 KB  
Review
A Review of Tunnel Field-Effect Transistors: Materials, Structures, and Applications
by Shupeng Chen, Yourui An, Shulong Wang and Hongxia Liu
Micromachines 2025, 16(8), 881; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16080881 - 29 Jul 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4457
Abstract
The development of an integrated circuit faces the challenge of the physical limit of Moore’s Law. One of the most important “Beyond Moore” challenges is the scaling down of Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) versus their increasing static power consumption. This is because, at [...] Read more.
The development of an integrated circuit faces the challenge of the physical limit of Moore’s Law. One of the most important “Beyond Moore” challenges is the scaling down of Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) versus their increasing static power consumption. This is because, at room temperature, the thermal emission transportation mechanism will cause a physical limitation on subthreshold swing (SS), which is fundamentally limited to a minimum value of 60 mV/decade for MOSFETs, and accompanied by an increase in off-state leakage current with the process of scaling down. Moreover, the impacts of short-channel effects on device performance also become an increasingly severe problem with channel length scaling down. Due to the band-to-band tunneling mechanism, Tunnel Field-Effect Transistors (TFETs) can reach a far lower SS than MOSFETs. Recent research works indicated that TFETs are already becoming some of the promising candidates of conventional MOSFETs for ultra-low-power applications. This paper provides a review of some advances in materials and structures along the evolutionary process of TFETs. An in-depth discussion of both experimental works and simulation works is conducted. Furthermore, the performance of TFETs with different structures and materials is explored in detail as well, covering Si, Ge, III-V compounds and 2D materials, alongside different innovative device structures. Additionally, this work provides an outlook on the prospects of TFETs in future ultra-low-power electronics and biosensor applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue MEMS/NEMS Devices and Applications, 3rd Edition)
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29 pages, 14906 KB  
Article
Hydrothermal Engineering of Ferroelectric PZT Thin Films Tailoring Electrical and Ferroelectric Properties via TiO2 and SrTiO3 Interlayers for Advanced MEMS
by Chun-Lin Li and Guo-Hua Feng
Micromachines 2025, 16(8), 879; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16080879 - 29 Jul 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1352
Abstract
This work presents an innovative hydrothermal approach for fabricating flexible piezoelectric PZT thin films on 20 μm titanium foil substrates using TiO2 and SrTiO3 (STO) interlayers. Three heterostructures (Ti/PZT, Ti/TiO2/PZT, and Ti/TiO2/STO/PZT) were synthesized to enable low-temperature [...] Read more.
This work presents an innovative hydrothermal approach for fabricating flexible piezoelectric PZT thin films on 20 μm titanium foil substrates using TiO2 and SrTiO3 (STO) interlayers. Three heterostructures (Ti/PZT, Ti/TiO2/PZT, and Ti/TiO2/STO/PZT) were synthesized to enable low-temperature growth and improve ferroelectric performance for advanced flexible MEMS. Characterizations including XRD, PFM, and P–E loop analysis evaluated crystallinity, piezoelectric coefficient d33, and polarization behavior. The results demonstrate that the multilayered Ti/TiO2/STO/PZT structure significantly enhances performance. XRD confirmed the STO buffer layer effectively reduces lattice mismatch with PZT to ~0.76%, promoting stable morphotropic phase boundary (MPB) composition formation. This optimized film exhibited superior piezoelectric and ferroelectric properties, with a high d33 of 113.42 pm/V, representing an ~8.65% increase over unbuffered Ti/PZT samples, and displayed more uniform domain behavior in PFM imaging. Impedance spectroscopy showed the lowest minimum impedance of 8.96 Ω at 10.19 MHz, indicating strong electromechanical coupling. Furthermore, I–V measurements demonstrated significantly suppressed leakage currents in the STO-buffered samples, with current levels ranging from 10−12 A to 10−9 A over ±3 V. This structure also showed excellent fatigue endurance through one million electrical cycles, confirming its mechanical and electrical stability. These findings highlight the potential of this hydrothermally engineered flexible heterostructure for high-performance actuators and sensors in advanced MEMS applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Manufacturing and Application of Advanced Thin-Film-Based Device)
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38 pages, 21156 KB  
Review
A Review of the Application of Seal Whiskers in Vortex-Induced Vibration Suppression and Bionic Sensor Research
by Jinying Zhang, Zhongwei Gao, Jiacheng Wang, Yexiaotong Zhang, Jialin Chen, Ruiheng Zhang and Jiaxing Yang
Micromachines 2025, 16(8), 870; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16080870 - 28 Jul 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1429
Abstract
Harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) have excellent perception of water disturbances and can still sense targets as far as 180 m away, even when they lose their vision and hearing. This exceptional capability is attributed to the undulating structure of its vibrissae. [...] Read more.
Harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) have excellent perception of water disturbances and can still sense targets as far as 180 m away, even when they lose their vision and hearing. This exceptional capability is attributed to the undulating structure of its vibrissae. These specialized whiskers not only effectively suppress vortex-induced vibrations (VIVs) during locomotion but also amplify the vortex street signals generated by the wake of a target, thereby enhancing the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). In recent years, researchers in fluid mechanics, bionics, and sensory biology have focused on analyzing the hydrodynamic characteristics of seal vibrissae. Based on bionic principles, various underwater biomimetic seal whisker sensors have been developed that mimic this unique geometry. This review comprehensively discusses research on the hydrodynamic properties of seal whiskers, the construction of three-dimensional geometric models, the theoretical foundations of fluid–structure interactions, the advantages and engineering applications of seal whisker structures in suppressing VIVs, and the design of sensors inspired by bionic principles. Full article
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18 pages, 3371 KB  
Article
Insight into the Propagation of Interface Acoustic Waves in Rotated YX-LiNbO3/SU-8/Si Structures
by Cinzia Caliendo, Massimiliano Benetti, Domenico Cannatà and Farouk Laidoudi
Micromachines 2025, 16(8), 861; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16080861 - 26 Jul 2025
Viewed by 2850
Abstract
The propagation of interface acoustic waves (IAWs) along rotated YX-LiNbO3/SU-8/ZX-Si structures is theoretically investigated to identify the Y-rotation angles that support the efficient propagation of low-loss modes guided along the structure’s interface. A three-dimensional finite element analysis was performed to simulate [...] Read more.
The propagation of interface acoustic waves (IAWs) along rotated YX-LiNbO3/SU-8/ZX-Si structures is theoretically investigated to identify the Y-rotation angles that support the efficient propagation of low-loss modes guided along the structure’s interface. A three-dimensional finite element analysis was performed to simulate IAW propagation in the layered structure and to optimize design parameters, specifically the thicknesses of the platinum (Pt) interdigital transducers (IDTs) and the SU-8 adhesive layer. The simulations revealed the existence of two types of IAWs travelling at different velocities under specific Y-rotated cuts of the LiNbO3 half-space. These IAWs are faster than the surface acoustic wave (SAW) and slower than the leaky SAW (LSAW) propagating on the surface of the bare LiNbO3 half-space. The mechanical displacement fields of both IAWs exhibit a rapid decay to zero within a few wavelengths from the LiNbO3 surface. The piezoelectric coupling coefficients of the IAWs were found to be as high as approximately 7% and 31%, depending on the Y-rotation angle. The theoretical results were experimentally validated by measuring the velocities of the SAW and LSAW on a bare 90° YX-LiNbO3 substrate, and the velocities of the IAWs in a 90° YX-LiNbO3/SU-8/Si structure featuring 330 nm thick Pt IDTs, a 200 µm wavelength, and a 15 µm thick SU-8 layer. The experimental data showed good agreement with the theoretical predictions. These combined theoretical and experimental findings establish design principles for exciting two interface waves with elliptical and quasi-shear polarization, offering enhanced flexibility for fluidic manipulation and the integration of sensing functionalities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Surface and Bulk Acoustic Wave Devices, Second Edition)
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15 pages, 4646 KB  
Article
A Wideband Magneto-Electric (ME) Dipole Antenna Enabled by ME Resonance and Aperture-Coupled Excitation
by Hyojin Jang, Seyeon Park, Junghyeon Kim, Kyounghwan Kim and Sungjoon Lim
Micromachines 2025, 16(8), 853; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16080853 - 24 Jul 2025
Viewed by 1656
Abstract
In this study, we propose a novel wideband aperture-coupled magneto-electric (ME) dipole antenna that achieves enhanced bandwidth by simultaneously leveraging ME resonance and aperture-coupled excitation. Building upon the conventional ME dipole architecture, the antenna integrates a pair of horizontal metal patches forming the [...] Read more.
In this study, we propose a novel wideband aperture-coupled magneto-electric (ME) dipole antenna that achieves enhanced bandwidth by simultaneously leveraging ME resonance and aperture-coupled excitation. Building upon the conventional ME dipole architecture, the antenna integrates a pair of horizontal metal patches forming the electric dipole and a pair of vertical metal patches forming the magnetic dipole. A key innovation is the aperture-coupled feeding mechanism, where electromagnetic energy is transferred from a tapered microstrip line to the dipole structure through a slot etched in the ground plane. This design not only excites the characteristic ME resonances effectively but also significantly improves impedance matching, delivering a markedly broader impedance bandwidth. To validate the proposed concept, a prototype antenna was fabricated and experimentally characterized. Measurements show an impedance bandwidth of 84.48% (3.61–8.89 GHz) for S11 ≤ −10 dB and a maximum in-band gain of 7.88 dBi. The antenna also maintains a stable, unidirectional radiation pattern across the operating band, confirming its potential for wideband applications such as 5G wireless communications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue RF Devices: Technology and Progress)
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16 pages, 6885 KB  
Article
Research on Optimized Design of In Situ Dynamic Variable-Aperture Device for Variable-Spot Ion Beam Figuring
by Hongyu Zou, Hao Hu, Xiaoqiang Peng, Meng Liu, Pengxiang Wang and Chaoliang Guan
Micromachines 2025, 16(8), 849; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16080849 - 24 Jul 2025
Viewed by 687
Abstract
Ion beam figuring (IBF) is an ultra-high-precision surface finishing technology characterized by a distinct trade-off between the spot size of the removal function and its corresponding figuring capabilities. A larger spot size for the removal function leads to higher processing efficiency but lower [...] Read more.
Ion beam figuring (IBF) is an ultra-high-precision surface finishing technology characterized by a distinct trade-off between the spot size of the removal function and its corresponding figuring capabilities. A larger spot size for the removal function leads to higher processing efficiency but lower figuring ability. Conversely, a smaller spot size results in higher figuring ability but lower efficiency. Adjusting the spot size of the removal function using tools with an aperture is a possible approach. However, existing variable-aperture tools have certain limitations in IBF processing. To leverage the advantages of both large and small spot sizes for the removal function during IBF processing, an in situ dynamic beam variable-aperture device has been designed. This device optimizes the parameters of diaphragm sheets and employs FOC for dynamic aperture adjustment. Simulations show that 12 numbers of 0.1 mm-thick sheets minimize removal function distortion, with the thermal strain-induced area variation being <5%. FOC enables rapid (≤0.45 s full range) and precise aperture control. Experiments confirm adjustable spot sizes (FWHM 0.7–17.2 mm) with Gaussian distribution (correlation >96.7%), operational parameter stability (relative change rate ≤5%), and high repeatable positioning precision (relative change rate ≤3.2% in repeated adjustments). The design enhances IBF efficiency, flexibility, and accuracy by enabling in situ spot size optimization, overcoming conventional limitations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Micro/Nanofabrication, 2nd Edition)
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23 pages, 3253 KB  
Review
Overcoming Challenges in Silicon Anodes: The Role of Electrolyte Additives and Solid-State Electrolytes
by Jinsik Nam, Hanbyeol Lee and Oh B. Chae
Micromachines 2025, 16(7), 800; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16070800 - 9 Jul 2025
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5404
Abstract
Silicon-based anodes have emerged as promising candidates for advanced lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) owing to their outstanding lithium storage capacity; however, the commercial implementation of silicon-based anodes is hindered primarily by their significant volumetric changes and the resulting solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) instability during [...] Read more.
Silicon-based anodes have emerged as promising candidates for advanced lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) owing to their outstanding lithium storage capacity; however, the commercial implementation of silicon-based anodes is hindered primarily by their significant volumetric changes and the resulting solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) instability during the lithiation/delithiation process. To overcome these issues, electrolyte optimization, particularly through the use of functional additives and solid-state electrolytes, has attracted significant research attention. In this paper, we review the recent developments in electrolyte additives, such as vinylene carbonate, fluoroethylene carbonate, and silane-based additives, and new additives, such as dimethylacetamide, that improve the SEI stability and overall electrochemical performance of silicon-based anodes. We also discuss the role of solid electrolytes, including oxides, sulfides, and polymer-based systems, in mitigating the volume changes in Si and improving safety. Such approaches can effectively enhance both the longevity and capacity retention of silicon-based anodes. Despite significant progress, further studies are essential to optimize electrolyte formulation and solve interfacial problems. Integrating these advances with improved electrode designs and anode materials is critical for realizing the full potential of silicon-based anodes in high-performance LIBs, particularly in electric vehicles and portable electronics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanomaterials for Micro/Nano Devices, 2nd Edition)
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20 pages, 23523 KB  
Article
A Wrist Brace with Integrated Piezoelectric Sensors for Real-Time Biomechanical Monitoring in Weightlifting
by Sofia Garcia, Ethan Ortega, Mohammad Alghamaz, Alwathiqbellah Ibrahim and En-Tze Chong
Micromachines 2025, 16(7), 775; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16070775 - 30 Jun 2025
Viewed by 1143
Abstract
This study presents a self-powered smart wrist brace integrated with a piezoelectric sensor for real-time biomechanical monitoring during weightlifting activities. The system was designed to quantify wrist flexion across multiple loading conditions (0 kg, 0.5 kg, and 1.0 kg), leveraging mechanical strain-induced voltage [...] Read more.
This study presents a self-powered smart wrist brace integrated with a piezoelectric sensor for real-time biomechanical monitoring during weightlifting activities. The system was designed to quantify wrist flexion across multiple loading conditions (0 kg, 0.5 kg, and 1.0 kg), leveraging mechanical strain-induced voltage generation to capture angular displacement. A flexible PVDF film was embedded within a custom-fitted wrist brace and tested on male and female participants performing controlled wrist flexion. The resulting voltage signals were analyzed to extract root-mean-square (RMS) outputs, calibration curves, and sensitivity metrics. To interpret the experimental results analytically, a lumped-parameter cantilever beam model was developed, linking wrist flexion angles to piezoelectric voltage output based on mechanical deformation theory. The model assumed a linear relationship between wrist angle and induced strain, enabling theoretical voltage prediction through simplified material and geometric parameters. Model-predicted voltage responses were compared with experimental measurements, demonstrating a good agreement and validating the mechanical-electrical coupling approach. Experimental results revealed consistent voltage increases with both wrist angle and applied load, and regression analysis demonstrated strong linear or mildly nonlinear fits with high R2 values (up to 0.994) across all conditions. Furthermore, surface plots and strain sensitivity analyses highlighted the system’s responsiveness to simultaneous angular and loading changes. These findings validate the smart wrist brace as a reliable, low-power biomechanical monitoring tool, with promising applications in injury prevention, rehabilitation, and real-time athletic performance feedback. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Next-Generation Wearable Technologies: Integrating Smart Sensing, Biomedical Innovation, and Sustainable Energy Solutions)
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39 pages, 7348 KB  
Review
Artificial Intelligence Control Methodologies for Shape Memory Alloy Actuators: A Systematic Review and Performance Analysis
by Stefano Rodinò, Giuseppe Rota, Matteo Chiodo, Antonio Corigliano and Carmine Maletta
Micromachines 2025, 16(7), 780; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16070780 - 30 Jun 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1713
Abstract
Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) actuators are pivotal in modern engineering due to their unique thermomechanical properties, but their inherent non-linearities, hysteresis, and temperature sensitivity pose significant control challenges. This systematic review evaluates artificial intelligence (AI)-based control methodologies to address these limitations, analyzing their [...] Read more.
Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) actuators are pivotal in modern engineering due to their unique thermomechanical properties, but their inherent non-linearities, hysteresis, and temperature sensitivity pose significant control challenges. This systematic review evaluates artificial intelligence (AI)-based control methodologies to address these limitations, analyzing their efficacy in enhancing precision, adaptability, and reliability for SMA and Magnetic SMA (MSMA) systems. A PRISMA-guided literature review (2003–2025) identified 24 studies, which were categorized by control architectures (hybrid AI-linear, pure AI, adaptive, and model predictive control) and evaluated through quantitative metrics, including Root Mean Square Error (RMSE%) and a weighted scoring system for experimental rigor. Results revealed hybrid AI-linear controllers as the dominant approach (36%), with online-trained neural networks achieving superior accuracy (+2.4%) over offline methods. Feedforward neural networks outperformed recurrent architectures (+3.1%), while Model Predictive Control (MPC) excelled for SMA actuators (+5.8% accuracy) but underperformed for MSMAs (−7.7%). Sensorless strategies proved advantageous for MSMAs (+5.0%), leveraging intrinsic material properties like electrical resistance for state estimation. The analysis underscores AI’s capacity to mitigate hysteresis and non-linear dynamics, though material-specific optimization is critical: SMA systems favor dynamic control and MPC, whereas MSMAs benefit from sensorless AI and pure neural networks. Challenges persist in computational demands for online training and reinforcement learning’s exploration–exploitation trade-offs. Future research should prioritize adaptive algorithms for fatigue compensation, lightweight AI models for embedded deployment, and standardized benchmarking to bridge material-specific performance gaps. This synthesis establishes AI as a transformative paradigm for SMA actuation, enabling precise control in aerospace, biomedical, and soft robotics applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design and Real Time Implementation of Intelligent Control Schemes for Actuators)
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23 pages, 4929 KB  
Article
Low Phase Noise, Dual-Frequency Pierce MEMS Oscillators with Direct Print Additively Manufactured Amplifier Circuits
by Liguan Li, Di Lan, Xu Han, Tinghung Liu, Julio Dewdney, Adnan Zaman, Ugur Guneroglu, Carlos Molina Martinez and Jing Wang
Micromachines 2025, 16(7), 755; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16070755 - 26 Jun 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1582
Abstract
This paper presents the first demonstration and comparison of two identical oscillator circuits employing piezoelectric zinc oxide (ZnO) microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) resonators, implemented on conventional printed-circuit-board (PCB) and three-dimensional (3D)-printed acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) substrates. Both oscillators operate simultaneously at dual frequencies (260 [...] Read more.
This paper presents the first demonstration and comparison of two identical oscillator circuits employing piezoelectric zinc oxide (ZnO) microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) resonators, implemented on conventional printed-circuit-board (PCB) and three-dimensional (3D)-printed acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) substrates. Both oscillators operate simultaneously at dual frequencies (260 MHz and 437 MHz) without the need for additional circuitry. The MEMS resonators, fabricated on silicon-on-insulator (SOI) wafers, exhibit high-quality factors (Q), ensuring superior phase noise performance. Experimental results indicate that the oscillator packaged using 3D-printed chip-carrier assembly achieves a 2–3 dB improvement in phase noise compared to the PCB-based oscillator, attributed to the ABS substrate’s lower dielectric loss and reduced parasitic effects at radio frequency (RF). Specifically, phase noise values between −84 and −77 dBc/Hz at 1 kHz offset and a noise floor of −163 dBc/Hz at far-from-carrier offset were achieved. Additionally, the 3D-printed ABS-based oscillator delivers notably higher output power (4.575 dBm at 260 MHz and 0.147 dBm at 437 MHz). To facilitate modular characterization, advanced packaging techniques leveraging precise 3D-printed encapsulation with sub-100 μm lateral interconnects were employed. These ensured robust packaging integrity without compromising oscillator performance. Furthermore, a comparison between two transistor technologies—a silicon germanium (SiGe) heterojunction bipolar transistor (HBT) and an enhancement-mode pseudomorphic high-electron-mobility transistor (E-pHEMT)—demonstrated that SiGe HBT transistors provide superior phase noise characteristics at close-to-carrier offset frequencies, with a significant 11 dB improvement observed at 1 kHz offset. These results highlight the promising potential of 3D-printed chip-carrier packaging techniques in high-performance MEMS oscillator applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section E：Engineering and Technology)
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24 pages, 11574 KB  
Article
Using Adaptive Surrogate Models to Accelerate Multi-Objective Design Optimization of MEMS
by Ali Nazari, Armin Aghajani, Phiona Buhr, Byoungyoul Park, Yunli Wang and Cyrus Shafai
Micromachines 2025, 16(7), 753; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16070753 - 26 Jun 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3889
Abstract
This study presents a comprehensive multi-objective optimization framework specifically designed for micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS). The framework integrates both traditional and adaptive optimization techniques, named Surrogate-Assisted Multi-Objective Optimization (SAMOO) and Adaptive-SAMOO (A-SAMOO), respectively. By addressing key limitations of traditional approaches, such as the consideration [...] Read more.
This study presents a comprehensive multi-objective optimization framework specifically designed for micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS). The framework integrates both traditional and adaptive optimization techniques, named Surrogate-Assisted Multi-Objective Optimization (SAMOO) and Adaptive-SAMOO (A-SAMOO), respectively. By addressing key limitations of traditional approaches, such as the consideration of objective constraints and the provision of multiple design options, the proposed framework enhances both flexibility and practical applicability. Results show that adaptive optimization outperforms traditional offline methods by delivering a greater number and higher quality of optimal solutions while requiring fewer finite element method simulations. The adaptive approach showed a significant advantage by attaining high-quality solutions while requiring only 2.8% of the finite element method (FEM) evaluations compared to traditional methods that do not incorporate surrogate models. This performance boost highlights the advantages of online learning in enhancing the accuracy, speed, and diversity of solutions in MEMS optimization. These optimization schemes were tested on multiple MEMS devices with varying physics and complexities, specifically the U-shaped Lorentz force actuator, serpentine Lorentz force actuator, and thermal actuator. The results highlight the robustness and versatility of the proposed methods, particularly in addressing cases involving discrete design variables and strict objective constraints. This comprehensive, step-by-step framework serves as a valuable resource for researchers and practitioners aiming to optimize MEMS designs from the ground up, providing a reliable and effective approach to multi-objective optimization in MEMS applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue MEMS Actuators and Their Applications)
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13 pages, 4027 KB  
Article
A Dialysis Membrane-Integrated Microfluidic Device for Controlled Drug Retention and Nutrient Supply
by Hajime Miyashita, Yuya Ito, Kenta Shinha, Hiroko Nakamura and Hiroshi Kimura
Micromachines 2025, 16(7), 745; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16070745 - 25 Jun 2025
Viewed by 1273
Abstract
Traditional pre-clinical drug evaluation methods, including animal experiments and static cell cultures using human-derived cells, face critical limitations such as interspecies differences, ethical concerns, and poor physiological relevance. More recently, microphysiological systems (MPSs) that use microfluidic devices to mimic in vivo conditions have [...] Read more.
Traditional pre-clinical drug evaluation methods, including animal experiments and static cell cultures using human-derived cells, face critical limitations such as interspecies differences, ethical concerns, and poor physiological relevance. More recently, microphysiological systems (MPSs) that use microfluidic devices to mimic in vivo conditions have emerged as promising platforms. By enabling perfusion cell culture and incorporating human-derived cells, MPSs can evaluate drug efficacy and toxicity in a more human-relevant manner. However, standard MPS protocols rely on discrete medium changes, causing abrupt changes in drug concentrations that do not reflect the continuous pharmacokinetics seen in vivo. To overcome this limitation, we developed a Dialysis Membrane-integrated Microfluidic Device (DMiMD) which maintains continuous drug concentrations through selective medium change via a dialysis membrane. The membrane’s molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) enables the retention of high-molecular-weight drugs while facilitating the passage of essential low-molecular-weight nutrients such as glucose. We validated the membrane’s molecular selectivity and confirmed effective nutrient supply using cells. Additionally, anticancer drug efficacy was evaluated under continuously changing drug concentrations, demonstrating that the DMiMD successfully mimics in vivo drug exposure dynamics. These results indicate that the DMiMD offers a robust in vitro platform for accurate assessment of drug efficacy and toxicity, bridging the gap between conventional static assays and the physiological complexities of the human body. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microfluidic Chips for Biomedical Applications)
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14 pages, 2324 KB  
Article
An Organ-on-a-Chip Modular Platform with Integrated Immunobiosensors for Monitoring the Extracellular Environment
by Anastasia Kanioura, Myrto Kyriaki Filippidou, Dimitra Tsounidi, Panagiota S. Petrou, Stavros Chatzandroulis and Angeliki Tserepi
Micromachines 2025, 16(7), 740; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16070740 - 25 Jun 2025
Viewed by 2340
Abstract
OoC systems employing human cells mirror the functionality of human organs and faithfully simulate their physiological microfluidic environment. Despite the potential of OoC technology in emulating tissue complexity, a significant gap persists in the continuous real-time monitoring of cellular behaviors and their responses [...] Read more.
OoC systems employing human cells mirror the functionality of human organs and faithfully simulate their physiological microfluidic environment. Despite the potential of OoC technology in emulating tissue complexity, a significant gap persists in the continuous real-time monitoring of cellular behaviors and their responses to external stimuli, arising from the lack of biosensors integrated onto OoC microfluidic platforms. Addressing this limitation constitutes the primary objective of this study. By developing and incorporating biosensors onto a modular integrated OoC platform, we aim to enable the monitoring of changes taking place in the cellular environment under various stimuli in real time. An in-series modular integration of a biosensor array into an OoC platform is demonstrated herein, along with its potential to sustain human cell proliferation and accommodate the detection of IL-6, as an example of a mediator protein secreted as part of the immune response to inflammation. The implementation of commercially fabricated PCB components also addresses the issue of cost efficiency and manufacturing scaling-up of sensor-integrated OoCs. This advancement will not only enhance the accuracy and reliability of preclinical studies, but also pave the way for improved drug development and disease treatment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microfluidic Chips for Biomedical Applications)
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32 pages, 5584 KB  
Review
Recent Advancements in Metal–Organic Framework-Based Microfluidic Chips for Biomedical Applications
by Alemayehu Kidanemariam and Sungbo Cho
Micromachines 2025, 16(7), 736; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16070736 - 24 Jun 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3346
Abstract
The integration of metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) with microfluidic technologies has opened new frontiers in biomedical diagnostics and therapeutics. Microfluidic chips offer precise fluid control, low reagent use, and high-throughput capabilities features further enhanced by MOFs’ ample surface area, adjustable porosity, and catalytic activity. [...] Read more.
The integration of metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) with microfluidic technologies has opened new frontiers in biomedical diagnostics and therapeutics. Microfluidic chips offer precise fluid control, low reagent use, and high-throughput capabilities features further enhanced by MOFs’ ample surface area, adjustable porosity, and catalytic activity. Together, they form powerful lab-on-a-chip platforms for sensitive biosensing, drug delivery, tissue engineering, and microbial detection. This review highlights recent advances in MOF-based microfluidic systems, focusing on material innovations, fabrication methods, and diagnostic applications. Particular emphasis is placed on MOF nanozymes, which enhance biochemical reactions for multiplexed testing and rapid pathogen identification. Challenges such as stability, biocompatibility, and manufacturing scalability are addressed, along with emerging trends like responsive MOFs, AI-assisted design, and clinical translation strategies. By bridging MOF chemistry and microfluidic engineering, these systems hold great promise for next-generation biomedical technologies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microfluidic Chips for Biomedical Applications)
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16 pages, 3111 KB  
Article
Parametric Rule-Based Intelligent System (PRISM) for Design and Analysis of High-Strength Separable Microneedles
by Sanghwi Ju, Seung-hyun Im, Kyungsun Seo, Junhyeok Lee, Seokjae Kim, Tongil Park, Taeksu Lee, Byungjeon Kang, Jayoung Kim, Ryong Sung, Jong-Oh Park and Doyeon Bang
Micromachines 2025, 16(7), 726; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16070726 - 21 Jun 2025
Viewed by 1134
Abstract
Transdermal microneedle systems have received great attention due to their minimally invasive way of delivering biomolecules through the skin with reduced pain. However, designing high-strength separable microneedles, which enable easy skin penetration and easy patch detachment, is challenging. Here, we present a Parametric [...] Read more.
Transdermal microneedle systems have received great attention due to their minimally invasive way of delivering biomolecules through the skin with reduced pain. However, designing high-strength separable microneedles, which enable easy skin penetration and easy patch detachment, is challenging. Here, we present a Parametric Rule-based Intelligent System (PRISM), which generates the design of and analyzes high-strength separable microneedles. The PRISM platform integrates parametric 3D modeling, geometry-based structural analysis, and high-resolution micro-3D printing for the creation of high-strength separable microneedles. We fabricated prototype microneedle arrays via microscale stereolithographic printing (pµSL) and demonstrated separation of microneedle tips in a skin-mimicking phantom sample. Mechanical testing showed that the suggested design achieved 2.13 ± 0.51 N axial resistance and 73.92 ± 34.77 mN shear fracture force; this surpasses that of conventional designs. Finally, an experiment using a skin-mimicking artificial phantom sample confirmed that only the PRISM-designed separable microneedles could have been inserted and separated at the target depth, whereas conventional designs failed to detach. This approach addresses the development of microneedle systems, which achieve both robust skin phantom penetration and reliable separable delivery, presenting an efficient development tool in transdermal drug delivery technology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section D3: 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing)
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Article
Roll-to-Roll (R2R) High-Throughput Manufacturing of Foil-Based Microfluidic Chips for Neurite Outgrowth Studies
by Nihan Atak, Martin Smolka, Anja Haase, Alexandra Lorenz, Silvia Schobesberger, Stephan Ruttloff, Christian Wolf, Ana Ayerdi-Izquierdo, Peter Ertl, Nerea Briz Iceta, Jan Hesse and Martin Frauenlob
Micromachines 2025, 16(6), 713; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16060713 - 16 Jun 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3929
Abstract
Microfluidic devices have emerged as a pivotal in vitro technology for axon outgrowth studies, facilitating the separation of the cell body from the neurites by geometric constraints. However, traditional microfabrication techniques fall short in terms of scalability for large-scale production, hindering widespread application. [...] Read more.
Microfluidic devices have emerged as a pivotal in vitro technology for axon outgrowth studies, facilitating the separation of the cell body from the neurites by geometric constraints. However, traditional microfabrication techniques fall short in terms of scalability for large-scale production, hindering widespread application. This study presents the development of foil-based cell culture chips, made of polyethylene terephthalate and in-house formulated ultraviolet curable liquid resin by high-throughput roll-to-roll (R2R) manufacturing. Here, two microchannel designs were tested to optimize manufacturing quality and assess the neurite outgrowth behavior. The fabricated neuron-foil chips demonstrated biocompatibility and supported neurite outgrowth within microchannels under static cell culture conditions. Furthermore, fluidic flow, oriented either perpendicular or parallel to the microchannel direction, was applied to enhance the biological reproducibility within the neuron-foil chips. These findings suggest that R2R manufacturing offers a promising approach for the high-throughput production of biocompatible microfluidic devices, advancing their potential application in modeling neurological diseases within the biomedical industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section B2: Biofabrication and Tissue Engineering)
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