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Editor’s Choice Articles

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

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24 pages, 12344 KB  
Article
A Full Polymer Piezoelectric Flextensional Energy Harvester
by Nadia Ahbab, Sidra Naz, Bingqi Zhao and Tian-Bing Xu
Micromachines 2026, 17(8), 955; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17080955 (registering DOI) - 12 Aug 2026
Viewed by 281
Abstract
This study presents a full polymer piezoelectric flextensional energy harvester (FPPFEH) comprising a single-layer poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) film bonded to a 3D-printed polylactic acid (PLA) flextensional frame. For an arm inclination angle of θ=10°, the free-body model gives a [...] Read more.
This study presents a full polymer piezoelectric flextensional energy harvester (FPPFEH) comprising a single-layer poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) film bonded to a 3D-printed polylactic acid (PLA) flextensional frame. For an arm inclination angle of θ=10°, the free-body model gives a theoretical geometric force-amplification factor of MF=cotθ≈5.67; this value represents an ideal upper bound and was not independently validated by local force or strain measurements. During assembly, the film was tensioned only to remove visible slack and maintain a flat configuration. No intentional pretension was applied, and any residual tension was not measured. Off-resonance force-controlled tests showed that the generated voltage was approximately proportional to the dynamic input force and nearly independent of frequency after accounting for attenuation caused by the finite measurement-input impedance. The ideal quasi-static model overpredicted the absolute voltage by a nearly constant factor across the tested force range. This offset is consistent with a lumped reduction associated with frame compliance and the in-plane anisotropy of the PVDF film, neither of which was independently measured. At 30Hz and 12.32Nrms, the rectified output charged a 6600μF supercapacitor to 2.10V in 14min, corresponding to 14.55mJ of stored energy. Under base-acceleration excitation from 0.05 g to 1 g, the voltage peak occurred between 112.88 and 116.49Hz, close to the electrical anti-resonance near 114Hz, and reached 12.11Vpeak at 1 g. Near resonance, the highest measured power among the tested resistive loads occurred between 150 and 200kΩ; however, the exact optimal resistance could not be resolved from the four tested loads. These results demonstrate off-resonance force-driven energy storage and resonance-mode vibration energy harvesting within the tested conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Conversion Materials and Energy-Harvesting Devices)
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12 pages, 3927 KB  
Article
High-Sensitivity AlGaN/GaN HFET Implantable Neural Probe Without Gate Control Enabled by Photoelectrochemical Etching
by Yanyuan Ding, Xin Cao, Yang Li, Xien Yang, Ye Wen, Xiaodong Li, Xilei Huang, Zeyi Li, Jiefeng Weng and Baijun Zhang
Micromachines 2026, 17(8), 956; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17080956 (registering DOI) - 12 Aug 2026
Viewed by 250
Abstract
Implantable neural probes that can simultaneously possess biocompatibility, electrochemical stability, and high signal fidelity are the core devices in neuroelectrophysiological research. In this article, AlGaN/GaN heterojunction field-effect transistors are used instead of traditional metal microelectrodes to prepare brain nerve probes. By photoelectrochemical etching [...] Read more.
Implantable neural probes that can simultaneously possess biocompatibility, electrochemical stability, and high signal fidelity are the core devices in neuroelectrophysiological research. In this article, AlGaN/GaN heterojunction field-effect transistors are used instead of traditional metal microelectrodes to prepare brain nerve probes. By photoelectrochemical etching and optimization of sensing area size, the probes have the maximum transconductance value, i.e., the highest sensitivity, under no gate control. After digital filtering processing, the neural probe achieved a signal-to-noise ratio of 8.04 dB on biological analog signals as low as 50 µV, confirming its ability to detect microvolt-level signals. The ex vivo recording of the bullfrog sciatic nerve further validated its biosensing performance, demonstrating the selective capture of composite action potentials from active neural tissue. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue GaN Heterostructure Devices: From Materials to Application, 2nd Edition)
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18 pages, 13658 KB  
Article
Programmable Magnetic Soft Robots via Assembled Magnetization and Joint-Mediated Symmetry Breaking
by Rufei Cui, Boqi Ding, Xiaoyu Zhao, Jiangxing Chen, Yongjun Zhang, Xinyu Wang, Yaxin Wang, Renxian Gao, Kun Zhang, Fengyi Zhang and Zhe Kong
Micromachines 2026, 17(8), 927; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17080927 (registering DOI) - 1 Aug 2026
Viewed by 346
Abstract
Magnetically actuated soft robots enable untethered operation in confined and complex environments; however, achieving controllable directional locomotion in structurally symmetric systems remains a fundamental challenge due to intrinsic force cancellation under uniform fields. Here, we present a modular strategy that integrates assembled programmable [...] Read more.
Magnetically actuated soft robots enable untethered operation in confined and complex environments; however, achieving controllable directional locomotion in structurally symmetric systems remains a fundamental challenge due to intrinsic force cancellation under uniform fields. Here, we present a modular strategy that integrates assembled programmable magnetization with energy-biased symmetry-breaking joints to overcome this limitation. By embedding hard-magnetic NdFeB microparticles into an Ecoflex matrix, discrete magnetic units with programmable magnetization are fabricated and assembled into higher-order architectures. We show that asymmetric film constraints prescribe joint polarity and bias strain-energy distribution during actuation, producing distinct deformation modes (folding versus bending) under identical magnetic inputs. This energy asymmetry breaks the balanced response of symmetric structures, enabling net directional motion under spatially uniform magnetic fields. Based on this principle, a segmented crawler achieves a maximum speed of 5.42 mm s−1 under a half-wave magnetic field, while a quadruped robot realizes programmable multi-directional locomotion (±X, ±Y) via dual-field coupling, reaching a maximum speed of 3.125 mm s−1. These results demonstrate that modular magnetization and joint-mediated energy bias can cooperatively generate controllable directional locomotion through mechanically encoded symmetry breaking. This work provides a scalable design framework for programmable magnetic soft robots under spatially uniform magnetic fields. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microrobots: Design, Fabrication and Application)
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20 pages, 29214 KB  
Article
Magnetic Milligripper Platform for Biomedical and Biological Applications
by Doha Abdelrahman, Alain Savary, Bernard Feuillard, Marc Heuschkel, Dario Principi, Adrien Roux and Christophe Besson
Micromachines 2026, 17(8), 926; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17080926 (registering DOI) - 31 Jul 2026
Viewed by 379
Abstract
Achieving precise, untethered manipulation at the millimeter scale remains a fundamental challenge in minimally invasive medicine. Magnetic milligrippers have emerged as promising untethered tools for grasping, transporting, and releasing objects in confined anatomical environments, yet most existing rigid designs rely on multi-component assemblies [...] Read more.
Achieving precise, untethered manipulation at the millimeter scale remains a fundamental challenge in minimally invasive medicine. Magnetic milligrippers have emerged as promising untethered tools for grasping, transporting, and releasing objects in confined anatomical environments, yet most existing rigid designs rely on multi-component assemblies with dedicated hinges or joints that require complex fabrication processes. Here, we present a simple, cost-effective rigid magnetic milligripper based on a folded titanium structure with two inclined permanent magnets. Actuated by a three-axis Helmholtz–Maxwell coil system, it enables orientation and translation control, as well as reversible opening. The actuation platform is coupled to a joystick-based control interface, allowing intuitive, real-time steering and opening of the milligripper by a single operator. The design is established with an analytical magnetic dipole model and validated through both finite-element simulations and experimental characterization, which together confirm reproducible, fully elastic operation across the investigated actuation range. The strong agreement between analytical, numerical, and experimental results establishes this architecture as a mechanically robust and scalable proof-of-concept platform for magnetic micromanipulation, with direct relevance to future minimally invasive biomedical applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section B：Biology and Biomedicine)
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11 pages, 13408 KB  
Article
High-Gain Photonic Crystal Antenna Based on Tamm Plasmon Polaritons
by Mingyang Liu, Guang Lu, Bing Wang and Hao Zhang
Micromachines 2026, 17(8), 914; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17080914 (registering DOI) - 29 Jul 2026
Viewed by 315
Abstract
To overcome the large size of conventional high-gain antennas and the structural complexity of typical photonic crystal antennas, this paper proposes a cavity-free photonic crystal (PC) antenna driven by microwave-band Tamm plasmon polaritons (TPPs), which eliminates the conventional half-wavelength resonant cavity while maintaining [...] Read more.
To overcome the large size of conventional high-gain antennas and the structural complexity of typical photonic crystal antennas, this paper proposes a cavity-free photonic crystal (PC) antenna driven by microwave-band Tamm plasmon polaritons (TPPs), which eliminates the conventional half-wavelength resonant cavity while maintaining a moderate total height (38.4 mm, ~2.1λ0). The core innovation of this work lies in shifting the gain-enhancement paradigm from traditional bulky, volume-based spatial resonances to a direct 2-D interface feeding strategy. By rigorously satisfying the phase-matching condition between a one-dimensional PC and a highly reflective substrate, a strong TPP mode is excited. Distinct from conventional designs, we embed a simple microstrip patch exactly at this phase-matched boundary to directly exploit the extreme electric field localization of TPPs. This novel mechanism enables a cavity-free architecture that achieves highly directional emission without complex feeding networks or metallic cavities. Simulations and measurements exhibit excellent agreement. At 16.43 GHz, the measured peak gain reaches 16.4 dBi, with 3-dB beamwidths of 13.5° and 18.5°. Ultimately, this TPP-driven paradigm offers a practical solution tailored for advanced wireless communications and radio astronomy. Full article
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14 pages, 2531 KB  
Article
Charge-Trapping-Enhanced Resistive Switching and Charge Storage in Silk Fibroin–TiO2 Composite Memristors
by Seungmin Song, JunHyeong Park, JungBeen Cho, Seyeon Tak, Taehun Kim, Kyungtaek Min and Sung-Nam Lee
Micromachines 2026, 17(8), 880; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17080880 (registering DOI) - 24 Jul 2026
Viewed by 651
Abstract
Silk fibroin (SF) is a promising bio-compatible material for transient and bio-integrated memory devices; however, its relatively high leakage current and limited resistance state stability remain critical issues. In this study, Ag/SF–TiO2/Pt bio-memristors were fabricated using SF–TiO2 composite films with [...] Read more.
Silk fibroin (SF) is a promising bio-compatible material for transient and bio-integrated memory devices; however, its relatively high leakage current and limited resistance state stability remain critical issues. In this study, Ag/SF–TiO2/Pt bio-memristors were fabricated using SF–TiO2 composite films with TiO2 nanoparticle concentrations of 0, 0.25, 0.5, and 1.0 wt%. SEM analysis showed that TiO2 incorporation increased particle aggregation while maintaining continuous film morphology. Optical analyses revealed that TiO2 nanoparticles reduced the apparent optical gap, enhanced sub-bandgap absorption, and suppressed photoluminescence intensity, indicating the formation of defect- and trap-related states. Electrical measurements demonstrated that TiO2 incorporation effectively reduced leakage current and stabilized the high-resistance state. The devices exhibited stable bipolar resistive switching within ±1 V, with enhanced Ion/Ioff ratios of approximately 104–105 after TiO2 addition. Endurance and retention measurements confirmed reliable switching over 100 cycles and stable resistance states up to 104 s. Capacitance analysis further revealed resistance state-dependent charge storage behavior, with higher capacitance in the low-resistance state due to conductive filament formation and TiO2-assisted interfacial polarization. These results indicate that TiO2 nanoparticles effectively modulate charge trapping, leakage suppression, and memory stability in SF-based bio-memristors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Manufacturing and Application of Advanced Thin-Film-Based Device, Second Edition)
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27 pages, 11607 KB  
Article
Design and Experimental Validation of a Piezoelectrically Controlled Micro-Newton Cold-Gas Thruster Head
by Xiaocheng Zhu, Oleksii Cherkun, Jie Xu, Zhan Hu, Bin Wang, Haiying Hu, Zhiming Cai and Bin Guo
Micromachines 2026, 17(8), 876; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17080876 (registering DOI) - 23 Jul 2026
Viewed by 322
Abstract
Micro-Newton cold-gas thrusters are promising actuators for precision space missions, but their performance is strongly influenced by the integrated head architecture. This study presents the design, fabrication, and experimental validation of a piezoelectrically controlled cold-gas microthruster head for space-based gravitational-wave detection missions. The [...] Read more.
Micro-Newton cold-gas thrusters are promising actuators for precision space missions, but their performance is strongly influenced by the integrated head architecture. This study presents the design, fabrication, and experimental validation of a piezoelectrically controlled cold-gas microthruster head for space-based gravitational-wave detection missions. The proposed head integrates a cone-needle throttle, a micro-orifice interface, and a downstream micro-nozzle, thereby converting actuator displacement into a regulated mass flow and ultimately into thrust. One-dimensional theory was first used for preliminary sizing, and Direct Simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) analysis of the complete throttle-nozzle geometry was then applied to determine the final design parameters under rarefied-flow conditions. The selected design uses a throat radius of 29 μm and a needle half-angle of 10 degrees. Following fabrication and structural characterization, the integrated device was validated through mass-flow calibration and vacuum thrust testing. The experimental results show that the pressure-decay-based calibration provides a consistent mapping between actuation command, calibrated flow rate, and thrust output. The measured flow–thrust relation preserves the high linearity predicted by simulation, while the experimentally evaluated specific impulse meets the specified design target over the tested range. In addition, thrust-resolution testing at a baseline thrust of approximately 98.4 micro-Newton demonstrates a minimum resolvable step of 50 nano-Newton, and the measured thrust-noise amplitude spectral density remains below 0.07 micro-Newton/sqrt(Hz) over the 10 mHz–1 Hz band for the tested thrust levels. These results support the feasibility of the proposed integrated cold-gas microthruster head and its device-level validation approach for future space-based gravitational-wave detection applications. Full article
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14 pages, 4386 KB  
Article
Sezawa-Mode Surface Acoustic Wave Resonators in Pulsed-Laser-Deposited Pb0.9Ba0.1(Zr0.52,Ti0.48)O3 on Bulk Silicon
by Yves Janssens, Erwin Berenschot, Minh Nguyen and Niels Tas
Micromachines 2026, 17(7), 868; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17070868 - 22 Jul 2026
Viewed by 594
Abstract
Barium-doped Lead Zirconate Titanate Pb0.9Ba0.1(Zr0.53Ti0.47)O3 films with a (001)-dominant orientation were deposited on bulk silicon (Si) substrates using pulsed laser deposition (PLD). Due to the large electromechanical coupling coefficient (K2) of [...] Read more.
Barium-doped Lead Zirconate Titanate Pb0.9Ba0.1(Zr0.53Ti0.47)O3 films with a (001)-dominant orientation were deposited on bulk silicon (Si) substrates using pulsed laser deposition (PLD). Due to the large electromechanical coupling coefficient (K2) of the P(B)ZT layer and the larger shear modulus of the Si substrate compared to the P(B)ZT film, it is possible to obtain higher-order acoustic-resonant modes (Sezawa mode) with SAW wavelength (λ)–piezoelectric film thickness (h) ratios below h/λ < 0.2. Due to the ferroelectric properties of the P(B)ZT film, the resonator’s performance can be improved by increasing the electric polarization. Consequently, the measured quality (Q) factors can be improved from 50 to 200 and the K2 values can be improved from 2 to 5% with the resonance frequency ranging from 275 to 500 MHz. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Materials, Devices, and Integrated Systems: From Fundamentals to Applications)
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14 pages, 4345 KB  
Article
Enhancing Bandwidth of Cantilever-Based Energy Harvester Using a Passive Multi-Chamber Movable Mass Repositioning Mechanism
by Nico E. Galarza and Nathan Jackson
Micromachines 2026, 17(7), 849; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17070849 - 17 Jul 2026
Viewed by 320
Abstract
Piezoelectric energy harvesters (PEHs) have emerged as a promising solution for self-powered small-scale electronic systems; however, their narrow operational bandwidth limits performance under varying excitation conditions commonly found in ambient environments. To address this limitation, this study proposes a passive multi-chamber proof-mass design [...] Read more.
Piezoelectric energy harvesters (PEHs) have emerged as a promising solution for self-powered small-scale electronic systems; however, their narrow operational bandwidth limits performance under varying excitation conditions commonly found in ambient environments. To address this limitation, this study proposes a passive multi-chamber proof-mass design containing internal free-moving masses to enhance the frequency bandwidth of a PEH through nonlinear dynamics. Multiple proof-mass models were designed and experimentally evaluated using tungsten and Teflon spherical movable masses under 0.5 g and 1 g excitation levels. Design alterations include varying the number of chambers, which in essence reduces the maximum lateral displacement of the movable mass. Baseline characterization was first conducted using empty proof-mass configurations, followed by fixed-mass and free-mass testing to isolate the effects of dynamic mass repositioning. The results demonstrate that baseline and fixed-mass configurations remained limited to bandwidths in the 5–8 Hz range. In contrast, free-mass configurations produced significant bandwidth enhancement across all models. The largest bandwidth increase consisted of a multiple-chamber proof-mass design, which resulted in a bandwidth of 72 Hz using tungsten rolling spheres at 1 g excitation, corresponding to a 1400% increase relative to the baseline conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Advanced Energy Harvesting Technology, 2nd Edition)
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13 pages, 2709 KB  
Article
Lithography-Free Electrical Contact Method for Optoelectronic and Flexible Devices Based on Mechanically Exfoliated 2D Materials
by Paolo Salvemme, Diego Vennarini and Riccardo Frisenda
Micromachines 2026, 17(7), 844; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17070844 - 16 Jul 2026
Viewed by 451
Abstract
We report a tabletop, versatile and lithography-free electrical contacting method for two-dimensional (2D) materials and van der Waals (vdW) heterostructures based on silver paint micromanipulation (SPMM). Operated under an ambient optical microscope, this additive, room-temperature approach circumvents the chemical solvents and high temperatures [...] Read more.
We report a tabletop, versatile and lithography-free electrical contacting method for two-dimensional (2D) materials and van der Waals (vdW) heterostructures based on silver paint micromanipulation (SPMM). Operated under an ambient optical microscope, this additive, room-temperature approach circumvents the chemical solvents and high temperatures associated with conventional cleanroom processing used in electrode fabrication. We validate the efficacy of this strategy by fabricating devices based on high-quality mechanically exfoliated thin flakes on both rigid SiO2/Si and flexible polycarbonate substrates. On rigid supports, SPMM-contact multilayer graphene devices exhibit linear Ohmic behavior with excellent environmental stability over multiple days and an ambipolar field effect. Gate-tunable multilayer graphene/few-layer MoS2/multilayer graphene field-effect transistors demonstrate n-type gating with a two-terminal carrier mobility of 60 cm2Vs and time-resolved photoresponse under 660 nm and 415 nm illumination, with responsivities as high as 10 A/W at the lowest incident powers. The SPMM method can also be carried out on flexible polymeric substrates such as polycarbonate, which is notoriously difficult to work with in microfabrication. We demonstrate a flexible multilayer graphene device that functions as highly responsive piezoresistive strain sensors at low deformations with a gauge factor of 50. Finally, a fully integrated flexible vdW photodetector is tested up to 1.2% uniaxial tensile strain. Despite experiencing local micro-fracturing of the MoS2 channel, the localized vdW junctions maintain robust charge collection, yielding photodetecting capabilities under tensile strain. This simple and cost-effective electrical contacting technique establishes a highly accessible platform for the rapid prototyping and mechanical testing of next-generation optoelectronics and flexible electronics based on 2D materials and vdW heterostructures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Micro/Nanofabrication of 2D Materials and Devices)
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19 pages, 12754 KB  
Article
A Self-Centering, Blade-Assisted, Electrowetting-Enabled Strategy for Precise Droplet Splitting on Open Digital Microfluidic Platforms
by Hao Liang, Liang Chen, Haifeng Zhang and Xiaowei Liu
Micromachines 2026, 17(7), 839; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17070839 - 15 Jul 2026
Viewed by 400
Abstract
Droplet splitting technology on open digital microfluidic platforms still faces significant challenges in terms of process complexity, the degree of automation, and operating conditions, which hinder its further development. This study proposes a fully automated method for precise droplet splitting based on printed [...] Read more.
Droplet splitting technology on open digital microfluidic platforms still faces significant challenges in terms of process complexity, the degree of automation, and operating conditions, which hinder its further development. This study proposes a fully automated method for precise droplet splitting based on printed circuit boards with open-coplanar asymmetric electrodes and a slippery liquid-infused porous surface. This method uses simple square electrodes arranged in a 3 × 5 array, combined with low-adhesion blade-assisted cutting and electrowetting-on-dielectric to drive droplet splitting, enabling accurate, stable, and repeatable automated droplet splitting on an open digital microfluidic platform. It has the advantages of a simple method, easy maintenance and integration, and high automation. This study systematically investigated the effects of droplet volume, applied voltage, blade thickness, cutting speed, and electrode shape on droplet splitting performance. We developed an active droplet position calibration method based on a simple 3 × 3 square electrode array combined with an enveloping voltage configuration strategy. For droplets with a volume of 10 μL, the positioning error can be controlled to within 0.06 mm, representing a reduction of more than 95% compared to the conventional EWOD free drive method. The experimental results show that to achieve stable and approximately equal-volume droplet splitting, the cutting speed needs to exceed the critical value related to the blade thickness. Among the square, zigzag, and hexagonal electrode shapes tested, the square electrode required the lowest splitting voltage. When the blade thickness is 0.3 mm, the droplets can be successfully split at a minimum voltage of 165 V. After increasing the splitting voltage to 400 V, the droplet splitting time was reduced from 5.57 s to 0.27 s, with a reduction of 95.2%, which significantly improves droplet splitting efficiency. This method provides a practical, stable, automated, and precise droplet splitting method for sample preparation, biochemical reactions, and portable droplet analysis systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Biosensors: Nanomaterials, Micro/Nano Devices and Applications)
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20 pages, 7199 KB  
Article
An Open-Access Dialysis Membrane-Integrated Microfluidic Device for Generating Drug Exposure Profiles Through Molecular-Weight-Dependent Transport
by Hajime Miyashita, Kenta Shinha, Hiroko Nakamura, Moeno Kadoguchi, Hiroshi Arakawa and Hiroshi Kimura
Micromachines 2026, 17(7), 835; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17070835 - 14 Jul 2026
Viewed by 480
Abstract
Conventional in vitro assays and many microphysiological systems struggle to generate time-dependent drug exposure profiles because medium replacement simultaneously removes or re-adds drugs in the culture compartment. Here, we developed an Open-access Dialysis Membrane-integrated Microfluidic Device (O-DMiMD) that uses molecular weight-dependent transport across [...] Read more.
Conventional in vitro assays and many microphysiological systems struggle to generate time-dependent drug exposure profiles because medium replacement simultaneously removes or re-adds drugs in the culture compartment. Here, we developed an Open-access Dialysis Membrane-integrated Microfluidic Device (O-DMiMD) that uses molecular weight-dependent transport across a dialysis membrane to decouple nutrient supply from drug exposure control. The device comprises a cell culture compartment (CCC) and a donor compartment (DC) separated by a dialysis membrane. Transport functions were evaluated using Lucifer Yellow, FITC-dextran, and glucose, followed by drug-response studies using SN-38 and T-DM1 under different medium change conditions. Lucifer Yellow and glucose permeated through the dialysis membrane, whereas FITC-dextran was retained. DC medium change supplied glucose to the CCC and maintained A549/HepG2 co-culture proliferation comparably to direct CCC medium replacement. For SN-38, partial transport to the DC and retention in the CCC generated time-dependent exposure profiles; in A549/HepaRG co-culture, medium change conditions altered A549 viability. For T-DM1, conditions with or without re-addition to the CCC produced different SK-BR-3 responses, suggesting exposure-dependent effects for high-molecular-weight drugs. The O-DMiMD provides an open-access in vitro platform for evaluating drug responses under exposure profiles governed by molecular weights, protein binding, medium changes, and metabolic cell contexts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microfluidics for Cells and Other Organisms, 4th Edition)
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12 pages, 10776 KB  
Article
Flexible ACEK-Enhanced Capacitive Aptasensor for Rapid Cortisol Detection in Sweat
by Jiuyi Wang, Xiao Lv, Mengjie Yang, Xiaogang Lin, Zhizeng Wang and Jie Jayne Wu
Micromachines 2026, 17(7), 800; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17070800 - 30 Jun 2026
Viewed by 1187
Abstract
Cortisol, as a crucial biomarker reflecting psychological stress and physiological status, requires rapid and sensitive detection for health assessment and disease diagnosis. Conventional methods are time-consuming, operationally complex, and costly, limiting their use for point-of-care testing. This study reports a flexible, aptamer-based capacitive [...] Read more.
Cortisol, as a crucial biomarker reflecting psychological stress and physiological status, requires rapid and sensitive detection for health assessment and disease diagnosis. Conventional methods are time-consuming, operationally complex, and costly, limiting their use for point-of-care testing. This study reports a flexible, aptamer-based capacitive biosensor that exploits alternating current electrokinetics for ultrafast detection of cortisol in small-volume samples. Aptamers are immobilized via Au-S self-assembly on gold interdigitated electrodes on a PET substrate, and ACEK-induced fluid motion and dielectrophoresis rapidly enrich cortisol at the electrode interface, producing measurable interfacial capacitance changes ΔC/C0. The experimental results demonstrate that the sensor achieves a detection limit of 0.337 ng/mL in artificial sweat, with a response time within 1 min and a good linear response across the concentration range of 1 to 1000 ng/mL. Requiring only 10 μL of sample, the sensor exhibits good repeatability, specificity, and interference resistance, making it suitable for rapid cortisol level detection. To enhance detection stability, this study designed and integrated a microfluidic chip, enabling efficient sample delivery and stable detection. The system demonstrates strong interference resistance, revealing potential applications in health management and disease monitoring. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soft Sensors and Soft Circuits: Design, Implementation and Applications)
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14 pages, 1754 KB  
Article
Bovine Serum Albumin Enhances the Quantitative Performance of Polydimethylsiloxane-Based Chamber Digital PCR by Suppressing Surface Adsorption
by Eri Tsunoi, Kazuo Hosokawa, Hitoshi Ohmori and Kae Sato
Micromachines 2026, 17(7), 791; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17070791 - 28 Jun 2026
Viewed by 536
Abstract
Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) surfaces are highly hydrophobic, and non-specific biomolecule adsorption is a well-known limitation in microfluidic PCR systems. Flow-based microfluidic PCR has been extensively studied, but the impact of surface adsorption on quantitative performance in closed-chamber digital PCR (dPCR) platforms remains poorly characterized. [...] Read more.
Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) surfaces are highly hydrophobic, and non-specific biomolecule adsorption is a well-known limitation in microfluidic PCR systems. Flow-based microfluidic PCR has been extensively studied, but the impact of surface adsorption on quantitative performance in closed-chamber digital PCR (dPCR) platforms remains poorly characterized. This adsorption may reduce the effective concentrations of key reaction components and compromise quantification accuracy. Therefore, in this study, we evaluated two approaches to prevent molecular adsorption in PDMS-based cdPCR systems: (i) the addition of chemical additives to the PCR reaction mixture and (ii) the incorporation of hydrophilizing agents into PDMS, with solution-phase additives proving more effective in this system. We investigated the effects of the reaction additives bovine serum albumin (BSA), Blocking One-P, and dextran on DNA quantification using a PDMS-based dPCR chip. A single-concentration comparison showed that 1.1% BSA produced the highest average DNA copy number (0.091 ± 0.010 copies/well), compared to the no-additive condition (0.039 ± 0.010 copies/well), corresponding to an approximately 2.3-fold increase, whereas Blocking One-P and dextran had no substantial effects. Dilution series experiments were then conducted under BSA-added and BSA-free conditions using plasmid DNA and cDNA derived from HSC4 cells as templates. In both cases, BSA improved quantitative linearity, as reflected by the increased slopes and coefficients of determination. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microfluidic Chips for Biomedical Applications)
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21 pages, 23838 KB  
Article
From Simulation to Application: Droplet-Based Microfluidics for Thermal Targeting of Cancer Cells
by Zsombor Szomor, Eszter L. Tóth, János M. Bozorádi, Tamás Pardy, Rauno Jõemaa and Péter Fürjes
Micromachines 2026, 17(7), 782; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17070782 - 27 Jun 2026
Viewed by 1472
Abstract
This paper presents the development, fabrication, and characterization of a droplet-based microfluidic platform designed for precise local thermal treatment of cancer cells, with prospective chemical targeting as a future application. The workflow begins with a finite element model (FEM) using COMSOL Multiphysics 6.0 [...] Read more.
This paper presents the development, fabrication, and characterization of a droplet-based microfluidic platform designed for precise local thermal treatment of cancer cells, with prospective chemical targeting as a future application. The workflow begins with a finite element model (FEM) using COMSOL Multiphysics 6.0 to characterize coupled hydrodynamic and thermal behavior, specifically analyzing temperature distributions across single-phase and three-phase regimes. Following the simulation, work has progressed to the fabrication of a microfluidic device and the characterization of its platinum heat source and temperature detector to ensure precise thermal control. To replicate realistic biochemical conditions, experiments have employed a three-phase configuration of oil, water, and fluorescent BSA solution. In the final stage, DX5-GFP MES-SA cancer cells have replaced the BSA solution to complete the measurements. To ensure reagent homogenization and consistent cellular exposure, a serpentine channel design was utilized to induce Dean vortices, which significantly enhanced internal mixing within the droplets. Fluorescence-loss experiments demonstrated that localized heating above ~60 °C induces irreversible thermal damage in both model proteins (fluorescent BSA) and cancer cells, establishing a proof-of-concept basis for precise thermal regulation at the single-droplet level. By deactivating specific thermo-sensitive proteins responsible for drug resistance, this integrated approach to thermal and hydrodynamic optimization enhances the efficacy of chemical stimuli and provides a robust platform for investigating the modulation of cellular defense mechanisms in future biotechnological applications. The platform holds significant potential for advancing precision oncology by enabling systematic, single-cell-level investigation of heat-shock-mediated drug sensitization, with long-term implications for overcoming multidrug resistance in aggressive cancer therapies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microfluidic Droplet Array)
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10 pages, 7286 KB  
Article
Enhanced Red Color Conversion via Mixing Green and Red Quantum Dots in a Polydimethylsiloxane-Based Color Conversion Layer
by Sang-Uk Byun, Su-Been Lee, Seo-Young Kim, Yu-Lim Seok, Gun Park and Dae-Gyu Moon
Micromachines 2026, 17(7), 762; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17070762 - 23 Jun 2026
Viewed by 447
Abstract
Quantum dot (QD) color conversion technology has attracted considerable attention in QD-OLED displays because it enables the generation of highly pure red and green emissions from blue OLED excitation with reduced fabrication complexity. Mixed QD color conversion layers consisting of red and green [...] Read more.
Quantum dot (QD) color conversion technology has attracted considerable attention in QD-OLED displays because it enables the generation of highly pure red and green emissions from blue OLED excitation with reduced fabrication complexity. Mixed QD color conversion layers consisting of red and green QDs dispersed in a polydimethylsiloxane matrix were fabricated to improve red color conversion efficiency and suppress blue leakage. The color conversion characteristics of the mixed QD layers were investigated by varying the QD contents and layer thicknesses. The color conversion spectra, blue leakage characteristics, color conversion efficiency, and output/input efficiency were systematically analyzed. Compared with red QD-only layers, the mixed QD layers exhibited more effective suppression of blue leakage and stronger red emission even at relatively small layer thicknesses. The red QD-only layer containing 100 mg of red QDs exhibited a color conversion efficiency of 16.7% at a thickness of 38 µm, whereas the mixed QD layer with the same red QD content achieved a higher color conversion efficiency of 19.3% at a thickness of only 5.6 µm. The enhanced color conversion efficiency of the mixed QD layers is likely associated with increased absorption of blue photons and additional excitation of red QDs through photon reabsorption and possible energy transfer processes between the green and red QDs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photonic and Optoelectronic Devices and Systems, 5th Edition)
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17 pages, 2310 KB  
Article
Quantifying and Minimizing the Variance of Gradient Insulator-Based Dielectrophoresis
by Hoai Nguyen, A. K. M. Fazlul Karim Rasel and Mark A. Hayes
Micromachines 2026, 17(5), 600; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17050600 - 14 May 2026
Viewed by 745
Abstract
Opportunities abound in microfluidic technologies to impact how we understand extremely complex systems with many constituents which change with time and space. In these technologies, separation science plays a central role towards understanding everything from biology and healthcare to environmental monitoring to the [...] Read more.
Opportunities abound in microfluidic technologies to impact how we understand extremely complex systems with many constituents which change with time and space. In these technologies, separation science plays a central role towards understanding everything from biology and healthcare to environmental monitoring to the search for life in the Solar system. Separations can amplify the capabilities of detection modalities by isolating targets and/or increasing their concentration while removing background constituents which can interfere with their sensing. In essence, separations increase the amount of information that can be gathered from a sample. The ideal features of next-generation separations capability are present in gradient insulator-based dielectrophoresis (g-iDEP), enabled by the length scale and precision of microfluidics. It acts through electric field interactions with particles, which enables unbiased (label-free) separations since all relevant particles, from atoms to cells, have an accessible response to electricity—either through linear (electrophoresis) or higher-order gradient (dielectrophoresis and related) effects. The technique isolates and concentrates, enabling improved detection function and multidimensional separations. Its foundational theoretical capabilities give it separations power on the order of 1:108, beyond the resolving power of the best mass spectrometers and ultra-high resolution spectroscopies. Experimental evidence is amassing that shows it to be a powerful tool that can resolve tiny differences in cells (antibiotic resistance versus susceptible in unlabeled paired isolates across many species) and differentiate single-point mutations in proteins. Its capabilities are still emerging, and this work aims to quantify the current practice and connect those approaches to the ultimate capabilities of the technique towards quantifying the dynamic range and resolving power of the strategy as a whole. The technique uses two methods of quantifying the electrophysical properties of the target, voltage sweep and spatial methods. The voltage sweep method is lower-resolution and serves as a search mode, while the spatial method is higher-resolution and quantifies the properties over a smaller defined range determined via the sweep method. These quantification methods are examined by collating existing experimental data, performing relevant Monte Carlo simulations, and finite element model calculations. These are summarized to understand the mechanisms currently limiting the technique, facilitate quantitative comparisons with traditional separation science capabilities in terms of resolution and dynamic range, and compare them to the theoretical limits of the strategy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Micro/Nanoscale Electrokinetics)
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19 pages, 6276 KB  
Article
Misalignment Decoupling and Tilt-to-Length Suppression in a Micro-Actuated Beam Steering Mechanism via Nonlinear Cyclic Modulation
by Yang Li, Changkang Fu, Hongming Zhang, Hongyang Guo, Zhiqiang Zhao, Mengyang Zhao, Ruihong Gao, Qiang Wang, Chen Wang, Caiwen Ma, Dong He and Yongmei Huang
Micromachines 2026, 17(5), 587; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17050587 - 10 May 2026
Viewed by 438
Abstract
Tilt-to-length (TTL) coupling is a critical noise source in high-precision interferometric measurements, particularly in systems involving angular actuation and beam steering. This paper proposes a nonlinear cyclic modulation method to identify lateral misalignment and suppress the associated TTL coupling. By applying controlled sinusoidal [...] Read more.
Tilt-to-length (TTL) coupling is a critical noise source in high-precision interferometric measurements, particularly in systems involving angular actuation and beam steering. This paper proposes a nonlinear cyclic modulation method to identify lateral misalignment and suppress the associated TTL coupling. By applying controlled sinusoidal angular excitation and evaluating the complex modulus ratio between the optical path difference (OPD) and the beam angle at the modulation frequency, the TTL noise induced by the point-ahead angle mechanism (PAAM) is separated and quantified in the frequency domain. Experimental results demonstrate that lateral offset correction reduces TTL noise by 94%, corresponding to a suppression factor of 15.5 and enabling pointing control better than 21 µm/rad. Meanwhile, the parasitic displacement noise of the PAAM is reduced from 10 pm/Hz1/2 to below 4 pm/Hz1/2. These results validate the effectiveness of the proposed modulation-based identification framework and demonstrate its applicability to precision interferometric systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section A1: Optical MEMS and Photonic Microsystems)
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34 pages, 4399 KB  
Review
Optical Biosensors—Principles of Operation and Applications
by Tomasz Blachowicz, Guido Ehrmann, Elzbieta Stepula and Andrea Ehrmann
Micromachines 2026, 17(5), 579; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17050579 - 7 May 2026
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1808
Abstract
Biosensors have a recognition element that detects a bioanalyte as well as a transducer that transfers the measured physicochemical properties into an electric signal, which is amplified, processed, and depicted on a user interface and usually stored in a data storage system. Such [...] Read more.
Biosensors have a recognition element that detects a bioanalyte as well as a transducer that transfers the measured physicochemical properties into an electric signal, which is amplified, processed, and depicted on a user interface and usually stored in a data storage system. Such biosensors can be used in a broad range of applications, from personalized medicine to drug discovery, and from food safety to plant disease diagnosis. Portable biosensors are often based on microfluidic systems or micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS), measuring physical or chemical parameters. In spite of their importance for diverse applications, there are still several limits regarding the portability of biosensors, which is often necessary. Besides the required miniaturization of the components and the limited lifetime of some biological reagents, sample preparation and handling can be problematic. This review gives an overview of recent biosensor research, concentrating on optical measurements, and shows the possibilities and limits of the biosensors developed during the last few years. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Portable Sensing Systems in Biological and Chemical Analysis)
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14 pages, 11091 KB  
Article
A Double-Layer Parallel MEMS Inductor with Enhanced Current-Carrying Capacity and Thermal Stability
by Xingyu Pi, Jiao Li, Hongyu Chen, Chunming Ren, Zhuoqing Yang, Chong Lei, Aiying Guo and Xuecheng Sun
Micromachines 2026, 17(5), 571; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17050571 - 4 May 2026
Viewed by 1352
Abstract
As a core component in electronic circuits, the size of inductors is crucial for the thin-film integration and miniaturization of circuits. Although various miniaturized inductors have been fabricated by using integrated circuit technology, their low current-carrying capacity and small inductance values cannot meet [...] Read more.
As a core component in electronic circuits, the size of inductors is crucial for the thin-film integration and miniaturization of circuits. Although various miniaturized inductors have been fabricated by using integrated circuit technology, their low current-carrying capacity and small inductance values cannot meet current application requirements. Therefore, this paper designs an inductor chip based on a double-layer parallel (DLP) array microcoil structure. Experimental verification demonstrates that the developed DLP inductor exhibits a far superior rated energy storage capability per unit area compared to other single-layer inductors, along with excellent thermal performance. Meanwhile, the 4 × 3 DLP array can withstand a maximum DC current of 4.25 A. This structural innovation provides a meaningful thermal–electromagnetic co-design reference solution for highly reliable integrated power modules. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section A：Physics)
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13 pages, 2460 KB  
Article
Multifunctional Magnetic Droplet Robots for Urological Applications: From Drug Delivery to Stone Retrieval
by Angelina Lin, Joanna Tang, Chunlian Zhong, Shanshan Yao and Zhaoqing Cong
Micromachines 2026, 17(5), 569; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17050569 - 3 May 2026
Viewed by 934
Abstract
Therapeutic interventions within the urinary system are often limited by the complex and tortuous anatomy of the renal pelvis and ureters, restricting access to deep regions and increasing the risk of mucosal trauma. In this study, we present a multifunctional, magnetically controlled ferrofluid [...] Read more.
Therapeutic interventions within the urinary system are often limited by the complex and tortuous anatomy of the renal pelvis and ureters, restricting access to deep regions and increasing the risk of mucosal trauma. In this study, we present a multifunctional, magnetically controlled ferrofluid droplet robotic platform engineered for high deformability and precision navigation. A custom electromagnetic actuation system was developed and optimized via COMSOL Multiphysics (version 6.3, COMSOL Inc., Stockholm, Sweden) simulations to generate programmable magnetic fields. Experimental validation in both simplified environments and anatomically realistic 3D-printed urinary tract models demonstrated the droplets’ capacity for controlled locomotion, reversible deformation, and traversing constrictions significantly smaller than their resting diameter. The droplets’ locomotion and extreme deformability are governed by the dynamic balance between the applied magnetic gradient forces, the restoring interfacial tension of the ferrofluid, and the fluidic viscous drag. Quantitatively, the droplets achieved robust translational velocities up to 260 mm/s under single-coil actuation (51 mT, 20 Hz) and 108 mm/s under a more stable dual-coil configuration (51 mT, 8.3 Hz). Furthermore, two clinically relevant functionalities were successfully executed: rapid vibration-induced release of encapsulated dye for targeted drug delivery, and the precise mechanical capture and transport of artificial kidney stones. These results establish a highly versatile platform for minimally invasive urological procedures, highlighting the immense potential of soft magnetic microrobotics for integrated therapeutic applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Soft Miniature Robotics: Design, Fabrication, Control, and Application)
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17 pages, 6590 KB  
Article
Nanogroove-Induced Enhancement of Neural Spike Activity in Stem Cell-Derived Networks
by Rahman Sabahi-Kaviani, Marina A. Shiryaeva and Regina Luttge
Micromachines 2026, 17(5), 524; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17050524 - 25 Apr 2026
Viewed by 819
Abstract
Nanogrooves provide instructive cues to cells in culture. Several nanofabrication techniques have been developed to create biomimetic substrates, advancing our understanding of cell adhesion. Their integration into nervous system models highlights the critical role of the extracellular matrix (ECM) in developing functional tissue [...] Read more.
Nanogrooves provide instructive cues to cells in culture. Several nanofabrication techniques have been developed to create biomimetic substrates, advancing our understanding of cell adhesion. Their integration into nervous system models highlights the critical role of the extracellular matrix (ECM) in developing functional tissue constructs for in vitro platforms such as Brain-on-Chip (BoC) and Nervous System-on-Chip (NoC). This study presents a nanofabrication approach that integrates photolithography and microtransfer molding (μTM) to pattern nanogrooves using photocurable polymer NOA81 onto microelectrode array (MEA) plates. The resulting nanogrooves exhibited a pattern periodicity of 976 nm and a ridge width of 232 nm, as confirmed by scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy. We assessed the biocompatibility and functional impact of these modified substrates using human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived neuronal cultures. Neurons cultured on nanogroove-modified MEAs exhibited aligned neural processes due to the anisotropic surface features and expressed vivid spiking behavior and higher burst frequency compared to randomly cultured neuronal networks. In conclusion, the proposed fabrication technique integrates nanogrooves with commercial MEAs using a combination of microtransfer molding and photolithography, resulting in modified culture substrates that enhance spike activity and network organization, aiding in the development of more in vivo-like neural models. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microfluidics in Biomedical Research)
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12 pages, 12276 KB  
Article
An Integrated Photo-Magnetic Sensor Chip Using Giant Magnetoresistance (GMR) and Light-Dependent Resistor (LDR) Technologies Based on Microfabrication Compatibility
by Xuecheng Sun, Xiaolong Chen, Jiao Li, Chunming Ren, Tian Tian, Aiying Guo and Chong Lei
Micromachines 2026, 17(5), 511; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17050511 - 22 Apr 2026
Viewed by 899
Abstract
Single-chip integration technology for multifunctional sensors has become an important development direction due to its low power consumption and versatile functionality. However, the fabrication compatibility between different sensing components remains a key challenge for high-performance integrated sensors, often leading to complex processes and [...] Read more.
Single-chip integration technology for multifunctional sensors has become an important development direction due to its low power consumption and versatile functionality. However, the fabrication compatibility between different sensing components remains a key challenge for high-performance integrated sensors, often leading to complex processes and increased costs. This work presents a microfabrication-compatible photo-magnetic integrated sensor chip based on micro–nano processing methods. The integrated sensor chip includes giant magnetoresistance (GMR) and a light-dependent resistor (LDR). The fabrication process was based on standard MEMS fabrication with compatibility and cost-effectiveness. The experimental results demonstrated that the chip can simultaneously realize both optical and magnetic detection with magnetic field sensitivity of 3.74 mV/Oe and photodetection sensitivity of 0.79 μA/(μW/cm2) at a 5 V bias. The integrated sensor features high-sensitivity magnetic performance and weak-light detection capability, with promising application in robotics and advanced manufacturing fields. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Micro/Nano Manufacturing of Electronic Devices)
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15 pages, 2135 KB  
Article
An Electrohydrodynamic Phase-Field Model for Contact Angle Hysteresis in Electrowetting Pixels: Decoupling Physical Pinning and Charge Trapping
by Qingsong Lu, Li Wang, Feng Li, Yanjun Yang, Qifu Liu, Xinying Wang, Feng Chi, Liming Liu and Zichuan Yi
Micromachines 2026, 17(4), 480; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17040480 - 15 Apr 2026
Viewed by 839
Abstract
Precise manipulation of two-phase flow in micro-confined electrowetting pixels is limited by contact angle hysteresis (CAH). To elucidate this non-equilibrium process, we establish a high-fidelity electrohydrodynamic (EHD) phase-field simulation framework. The model rigorously couples Navier–Stokes equations with molecular kinetic theory (MKT) to characterize [...] Read more.
Precise manipulation of two-phase flow in micro-confined electrowetting pixels is limited by contact angle hysteresis (CAH). To elucidate this non-equilibrium process, we establish a high-fidelity electrohydrodynamic (EHD) phase-field simulation framework. The model rigorously couples Navier–Stokes equations with molecular kinetic theory (MKT) to characterize energy dissipation at the three-phase contact line (TCL) and further integrates charge transport kinetics. Numerical results reveal CAH is driven by physical pinning and interfacial charge trapping, with the latter dominating interfacial retreat and causing significant residual displacement. Furthermore, analysis shows alternating current (AC) waveforms mitigate charge accumulation and promote depinning via micro-oscillations, minimizing the hysteresis loop compared to direct current (DC) waveforms. Additionally, an overdrive strategy utilizing a suprathreshold Maxwell stress pulse rapidly overcomes static friction. This strategy significantly improves transient dynamics, substantially reducing the time to reach 90% of the steady-state target from 19.6 ms (under standard DC waveform driving) to 7.4 ms. This work provides a comprehensive theoretical basis and design criteria for optimizing active driving strategies in optofluidic and digital microfluidic systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Optoelectronic Devices, 3rd Edition)
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17 pages, 3453 KB  
Article
A Cascaded Dual Spiral Microfluidic Chip for Continuous Separation of Multicomponent Microparticles
by Renxuan Zhang, Ting Liu, Jianlong Zhao and Gaozhe Cai
Micromachines 2026, 17(4), 469; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17040469 - 13 Apr 2026
Viewed by 748
Abstract
Inertial microfluidics is promising for the high throughput, label-free continuous separation of multicomponent microparticles. However, conventional single spiral microchannels struggle to separate three or more particle types, while traditional cascaded systems relying on sheath fluids or multiple pumps suffer from increased operational complexity. [...] Read more.
Inertial microfluidics is promising for the high throughput, label-free continuous separation of multicomponent microparticles. However, conventional single spiral microchannels struggle to separate three or more particle types, while traditional cascaded systems relying on sheath fluids or multiple pumps suffer from increased operational complexity. To address this, we propose a cascaded dual spiral microfluidic chip based on passive flow resistance matching. Driven by a single syringe pump without sheath flow, it achieves continuous sorting of three particle types. An adaptive flow resistance network is incorporated: the first stage channel maintains high velocity to preferentially extract large particles via strong inertial lift forces. The fluid then enters the second stage through a predetermined geometric resistance for automatic deceleration. Experiments demonstrate that at 1.6 mL/min, the system achieves continuous separation of a 1:10:10 mixture of 15, 10, and 5 µm microparticles. The 15 µm target recovery rate reaches 92%, while the collection purities for 10 µm and 5 µm particles exceed 98% and 99%, respectively. This purely passive fluidic architecture simplifies cascaded sorting, providing a robust engineering solution for complex multicomponent sample preprocessing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Optical, Electrochemical, and Electrical Biomicrofluidics)
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13 pages, 1340 KB  
Article
Method for Patterning of Conductive Polymers on Flexible Substrates with Possible Applications for Wearable Sensing
by Mariya Aleksandrova, Georgi Nikolov, Valentin Mateev, Rade Tomov and Ivo Iliev
Micromachines 2026, 17(4), 467; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17040467 - 12 Apr 2026
Viewed by 659
Abstract
This study presents a novel fabrication approach for the precise patterning of conductive polymer coatings (graphene/PEDOT:PSS) on flexible substrates. Traditional lithographic methods often result in chemical or thermal degradation of polymer chains, compromising electrical conductivity. The proposed method utilizes an inversely structured gold [...] Read more.
This study presents a novel fabrication approach for the precise patterning of conductive polymer coatings (graphene/PEDOT:PSS) on flexible substrates. Traditional lithographic methods often result in chemical or thermal degradation of polymer chains, compromising electrical conductivity. The proposed method utilizes an inversely structured gold nanocoating (400–450 nm) as a sacrificial template. By employing a selective lift-off process in a potassium iodide solution, high-resolution polymer topologies are achieved without damaging the active material. The resulting structures exhibit a sheet resistance of 90–100 Ω/sq and maintain linear sensitivity to temperature and humidity, making them suitable for next-generation wearable medical diagnostics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable Biosensors: From Materials to Systems)
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17 pages, 4742 KB  
Article
Compact High-Q Bandpass Filter Using 3-D Stacked Stripline
by Yu Cao, Yong Liu, Junling He and Xin Xu
Micromachines 2026, 17(4), 460; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17040460 - 9 Apr 2026
Viewed by 844
Abstract
This article presents a novel compact high-Q bandpass filter (BPF) utilizing a 3-D stacked stripline configuration. T-shaped stepped impedance resonators (SIRs) are employed to achieve miniaturization. By folding the filter geometry from an inline arrangement into a U-shape along the broadside direction, [...] Read more.
This article presents a novel compact high-Q bandpass filter (BPF) utilizing a 3-D stacked stripline configuration. T-shaped stepped impedance resonators (SIRs) are employed to achieve miniaturization. By folding the filter geometry from an inline arrangement into a U-shape along the broadside direction, both broadside and edge coupling structures are realized, enabling various cross-coupling schemes for flexible placement of transmission zeros (TZs). A comprehensive analysis of both electric and magnetic coupling structures is conducted to support the overall filter design. To validate the concept, a tenth-order general Chebyshev BPF prototype centered at 3.485 GHz with a 1 dB bandwidth of 380 MHz is designed, fabricated, and measured. The filter is constructed by vertically soldering two patterned sheet metal layers together with three stacked cavities. Despite having an electrical size of only 0.58 × 0.23 × 0.19 λg3, the filter exhibits a high unloaded Q-factor (Qu) of 1200, along with up to six TZs and a spurious-free frequency range extending to 12 GHz. Measured results show an insertion loss of 0.58 dB at the center frequency and a return loss of better than 20 dB within the passband, demonstrating favorable agreement with simulations. Featuring solid electrical performance, the proposed filter is ideally suited for 5G and 5G-Advanced (5G-A) communication base stations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Microwave Components and Devices: Emerging Technologies and Applications)
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38 pages, 681 KB  
Review
Reduction in Dark Current in Photodiodes: A Review
by Alper Ülkü, Ralph Potztal, Tobias Blaettler, Cengiz Tuğsav Küpçü, Reto Besserer, Dietmar Bertsch, Tina Strüning and Samuel Huber
Micromachines 2026, 17(4), 458; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17040458 - 8 Apr 2026
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3357
Abstract
Dark current represents a fundamental limiting factor in photodiode performance, establishing the noise floor and constraining detectivity in low-light applications. This comprehensive literature review examines publications covering the physical mechanisms underlying dark current generation and diverse techniques employed for its reduction. Covered mechanisms [...] Read more.
Dark current represents a fundamental limiting factor in photodiode performance, establishing the noise floor and constraining detectivity in low-light applications. This comprehensive literature review examines publications covering the physical mechanisms underlying dark current generation and diverse techniques employed for its reduction. Covered mechanisms include diffusion current, Shockley–Read–Hall (SRH) generation–recombination, trap-assisted tunneling, band-to-band tunneling, and surface leakage, each examined with respect to its physical origin and characteristic signatures. Reduction strategies are categorized into thermal management approaches, surface passivation techniques including atomic-layer-deposited aluminum oxide (ALD Al2O3), guard ring architectures (attached, floating, and combined configurations), gettering and defect engineering methods, doping profile optimization, bias voltage management, and advanced device architectures such as pinned photodiodes and black silicon structures. A classification table organizes all the reviewed literature by material system, reduction technique, and key findings. Special emphasis is placed on silicon, germanium, III–V compounds, and emerging material photodiodes relevant to near-infrared detection, CMOS imaging, single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs), and Time-of-Flight (ToF) applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optoelectronic Integration Devices and Their Applications)
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16 pages, 33118 KB  
Article
Rapid and High-Fidelity Fabrication of Embedded Elastomeric Photomask for Wafer-Scale Sub-Micrometer Conformal Contact Photolithography
by Huikang Liang, Bingquan Lei, Zhiwen Shu, Lei Chen and Huigao Duan
Micromachines 2026, 17(4), 456; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17040456 - 8 Apr 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 806
Abstract
Photolithography is the mainstream technology used in micro/nanofabrication. While projection photolithography is widely used in production, with a resolution close to the wavelength of the light source, its processes are complicated and expensive. Moreover, in projection photolithography, scanning and splicing are required to [...] Read more.
Photolithography is the mainstream technology used in micro/nanofabrication. While projection photolithography is widely used in production, with a resolution close to the wavelength of the light source, its processes are complicated and expensive. Moreover, in projection photolithography, scanning and splicing are required to achieve large-area exposure at the wafer level, which reduces throughput in production. Contact photolithography offers a cost-effective and parallel exposure solution, but achieving uniform resolution over large areas with micrometer or sub-micrometer resolution remains a challenge. In this study, we propose a conformal contact photolithography strategy based on a wafer-scale embedded elastomeric mask. By optimizing metal patterning and embedding transfer processes, we significantly improve the area (wafer-scale) and efficiency (lift-off and metal transfer process within seconds) of metal-embedded elastomeric mask fabrication. This method enables the rapid and cost-effective fabrication of large-area sub-micrometer-resolution structures, with broad applications in the production of sub-micrometer devices and academic research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section E：Engineering and Technology)
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17 pages, 811 KB  
Article
A Microfabricated Branch Selection Platform for Quantitative Measurement of Leader–Follower Interaction Strength and Interaction Range in Collective Cell Migration
by Taichi Ashizawa, Kei Yamamoto, Kazuhiro Tsuneishi and Kenji Yasuda
Micromachines 2026, 17(4), 449; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17040449 - 5 Apr 2026
Viewed by 1332
Abstract
Collective cell migration plays essential roles in morphogenesis, wound healing, angiogenesis, and cancer invasion, yet quantitative measurement of leader–follower interaction strength and range remains challenging due to the lack of direct and scalable methods. Here, we present a microfabricated branch selection platform combined [...] Read more.
Collective cell migration plays essential roles in morphogenesis, wound healing, angiogenesis, and cancer invasion, yet quantitative measurement of leader–follower interaction strength and range remains challenging due to the lack of direct and scalable methods. Here, we present a microfabricated branch selection platform combined with a probabilistic analysis framework to quantitatively measure intercellular coupling in migrating single-cell trains. Cells migrate through microchannels with a width of one cell and encounter symmetric T-junctions at which each follower cell selects either the same branch as the preceding cell or the opposite branch. We show that branch selection sequences are captured by a first-order Markov process, with the resulting run length (cluster size) statistics following a geometric form determined by an interaction-dependent transition probability. This relationship enables direct estimation of an effective interaction parameter without requiring force measurements or molecular labeling. Monte Carlo simulations confirm that interaction strength is primarily encoded in run length statistics rather than overall left/right occupancy in symmetric junctions. Experiments with epithelial MDCK cells and endothelial MS-1 cells reveal distinct interaction signatures: MS-1 cells show significant repulsive coupling, whereas MDCK cells exhibit at most a weak attractive tendency at the leader-first follower interface, while rear clusters display repulsive signatures. Cluster order-resolved analysis further indicates that interaction effects are spatially localized near the front and do not propagate as sustained attraction along the train. These results establish the proposed platform as a scalable method for quantitative measurement of interaction strength and interaction localization in collective cell migration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Biomaterials, Biodevices, and Their Application)
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23 pages, 6178 KB  
Article
Design and Modeling of Piezoelectric Nanofilm Actuators for Low-Voltage Powered Microrobots
by Jingxian Lin, Ze Chen and Qingkun Liu
Micromachines 2026, 17(4), 434; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17040434 - 31 Mar 2026
Viewed by 1043
Abstract
Piezoelectric actuators are essential for sub-millimeter robots and reconfigurable microstructures owing to their advantages, including the ability to operate in air and high-speed response. However, the substantial performance degradation observed in piezoelectric actuators with sub-micrometer thickness poses a critical challenge for the design [...] Read more.
Piezoelectric actuators are essential for sub-millimeter robots and reconfigurable microstructures owing to their advantages, including the ability to operate in air and high-speed response. However, the substantial performance degradation observed in piezoelectric actuators with sub-micrometer thickness poses a critical challenge for the design of low-voltage microactuators capable of achieving large bending curvature. Here we develop a coupled analytical–numerical framework for designing multilayer lead zirconate titanate (PZT) nanofilm microactuators under a low voltage constraint (≤5 V). An analytical multilayer beam model is extended to incorporate thickness-dependent material properties and an interfacial dead layer that reduces the effective electric field at small thicknesses. This enables rapid exploration of curvature and the neutral-axis position as functions of the thicknesses of PZT, electrodes, and the dielectric layer. Two- and three-dimensional finite-element simulations provide complementary predictions of neutral-axis location, voltage-dependent curvature response, and eigenmode shapes. The resulting design maps reveal a non-monotonic optimum for PZT thickness in the few-hundred-nanometer range to maximize the curvature change at low voltages and identify ultrathin top electrodes as a key design lever that enhances bending by reducing parasitic stiffness while shifting the neutral axis favorably. These findings offer quantitative guidelines for designing low-voltage, high-curvature piezoelectric microactuators for microrobotic systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design and Applications of Smart Piezoelectric Sensors and Actuators)
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16 pages, 4120 KB  
Article
High-Precision Salt Concentration Detection Using a CMUT Array with Temperature Compensation
by Hanchi Chai, Changde He, Mengke Luo, Guojun Zhang, Hongliang Wang, Renxin Wang, Yuhua Yang, Jiangong Cui, Wendong Zhang and Licheng Jia
Micromachines 2026, 17(4), 424; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17040424 - 30 Mar 2026
Viewed by 1669
Abstract
This paper presents a miniaturized and highly accurate saltwater concentration monitoring system based on Capacitive Micromachined Ultrasonic Transducer (CMUT) array technology. The system incorporates a highly integrated CMUT array with a compact footprint of 5 mm × 5 mm, capable of both transmitting [...] Read more.
This paper presents a miniaturized and highly accurate saltwater concentration monitoring system based on Capacitive Micromachined Ultrasonic Transducer (CMUT) array technology. The system incorporates a highly integrated CMUT array with a compact footprint of 5 mm × 5 mm, capable of both transmitting and receiving ultrasonic signals, which significantly contributes to the system’s miniaturization and portability. To ensure accurate compensation for temperature-dependent variations in sound velocity, a TA610A temperature sensor is integrated for continuous real-time monitoring of the salt solution temperature. By acquiring ultrasonic echo signals, the system calculates the time-of-flight (TOF) of the acoustic waves. Based on the TOF and real-time temperature data, the sound velocity is determined, and the salt concentration is subsequently derived with temperature compensation applied to enhance measurement accuracy. Experimental results show a measurement precision of 0.1% and a maximum absolute error of 0.02%, confirming the system’s high accuracy and robustness. Combining stability, reliability, and a compact real-time sensing design, the proposed CMUT-based system holds significant promise for practical deployment in various industrial and environmental monitoring scenarios. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue MEMS/NEMS Devices and Applications, 4th Edition)
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15 pages, 5404 KB  
Article
Microneedle-Based Analysis Reveals Polarity-Dependent Spatial Regulation of Macrophage Phagocytosis
by Dan Horonushi, Haruka Yuki, Kaho Noumi, Shinya Kato and Kenji Yasuda
Micromachines 2026, 17(4), 413; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17040413 - 28 Mar 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1081
Abstract
Phagocytosis and migration in macrophages share key regulators, including Rho family GTPases; however, whether phagocytic membrane extension generates a transient, whole-cell polarity that coordinates migration and spatial prioritization of engulfment remains unclear. Here, we investigated the spatiotemporal coupling between membrane extension and cell [...] Read more.
Phagocytosis and migration in macrophages share key regulators, including Rho family GTPases; however, whether phagocytic membrane extension generates a transient, whole-cell polarity that coordinates migration and spatial prioritization of engulfment remains unclear. Here, we investigated the spatiotemporal coupling between membrane extension and cell migration using opsonized microneedles, which enable controlled stimulation together with long-range membrane extension and backtracking dynamics. During single-needle stimulation, membrane extension was tightly coupled to directional migration, whereas membrane retraction showed weaker coupling. In sequential stimulation with two microneedles, ongoing phagocytosis suppressed competing membrane extension at spatially opposite locations, and a reversal in migration direction was accompanied by initiation of membrane extension toward the second needle. Third-needle experiments further revealed a polarized spatial distribution of phagocytic responsiveness across the cell surface. Consistently, uniform stimulation with multiple opsonized microbeads demonstrated sequential, one-at-a-time engulfment even under near-simultaneous target attachment. These results support a model in which phagocytic membrane extension establishes transient, whole-cell polarity that spatially gates engulfment and coordinates whole-cell migration. The microneedle manipulation platform provides a powerful approach for dissecting the spatiotemporal regulation of phagocytosis and for understanding macrophages as adaptive living micromachines integrating mechanical inputs, transient polarity formation, and sequential target processing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Trends in Microneedles: Design, Fabrication and Applications, Second Edition)
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13 pages, 2119 KB  
Article
Using Bayes’ Rule for Analysis of Microfluidic Particle and Cluster Sorting
by Elham Akbari, Esra Yilmaz, Christelle N. Prinz, Jason P. Beech and Jonas O. Tegenfeldt
Micromachines 2026, 17(4), 396; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17040396 - 25 Mar 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1038
Abstract
Deterministic lateral displacement (DLD) and related microfluidic sorting devices are typically evaluated based on the size distributions of particles collected at each outlet, even though the more relevant measure of performance is the probability that a particle of a given size ends up [...] Read more.
Deterministic lateral displacement (DLD) and related microfluidic sorting devices are typically evaluated based on the size distributions of particles collected at each outlet, even though the more relevant measure of performance is the probability that a particle of a given size ends up in a specific outlet. Here, we use Bayes’ rule to infer these size-dependent routing probabilities from experimentally accessible measurements of outlet size distributions, inlet size distributions, and outlet subpopulations. Using a DLD array designed to separate microspheres and microsphere clusters, we determine the probabilities that particles of different sizes are directed to each outlet and define a probabilistic critical size (DC) at which particles are equally likely to follow a zigzag and a displacement trajectory. Based on this, we calculate key performance metrics, purity, and yield. Our results demonstrate high-quality separations and show that routing probabilities provide a general and robust framework for benchmarking microfluidic sorting devices beyond traditional outlet-based analyses. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section A：Physics)
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19 pages, 14641 KB  
Article
Moisture-Controlled Electrolyte Engineering Enables Durable Calcium-Ion Batteries
by Yeon Jwoong Kim, Tejaswi Tanaji Salunkhe and Il Tae Kim
Micromachines 2026, 17(4), 390; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17040390 - 24 Mar 2026
Viewed by 870
Abstract
Calcium-ion batteries (CIBs) offer several advantages. CIBs are viable alternatives to lithium-based battery systems owing to the natural abundance, low cost, and high volumetric capacity of calcium. However, their development has been severely constrained by electrolyte instability and water sensitivity. We conducted a [...] Read more.
Calcium-ion batteries (CIBs) offer several advantages. CIBs are viable alternatives to lithium-based battery systems owing to the natural abundance, low cost, and high volumetric capacity of calcium. However, their development has been severely constrained by electrolyte instability and water sensitivity. We conducted a systematic examination of Ca(ClO4)2 and Ca(PF6)2 electrolytes, focusing on low-cost salt production, solvent selection, and stringent dehydration procedures. Acetonitrile (ACN) was the ideal solvent for high salt solubility and reversible Ca2+ electrochemistry, while carbonate solvents failed rapidly. We found that even a small amount of moisture in the electrolyte significantly affected the electrochemical performance. This study improved the dehydration process by using 3 Å molecular sieve (MS3A) and vacuum drying to reduce moisture to ppm levels, stabilizing the electrolyte. Prussian blue (PB) half cells exhibited reversible capacities of up to ≈95 mAh g−1, whereas PB-hard carbon full cells utilizing dried Ca(ClO4)2 showed stable cycling over 240 cycles with a Coulombic efficiency of ≈99% and capacity loss of only ≈17%. This study establishes a moisture-controlled electrolyte as a critical enabler for practical CIBs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microdevices and Electrode Materials for Electrochemical Applications)
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11 pages, 2565 KB  
Article
Germanium-on-Silicon Waveguide-Integrated Photodiode with Dual Optical Inputs for Datacenter Applications
by Itamar-Mano Priel, Shai Cohen, Liron Gantz and Yael Nemirovsky
Micromachines 2026, 17(3), 386; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17030386 - 23 Mar 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 906
Abstract
As the exponential growth in advanced compute workloads drives intra-datacenter interconnects to ever increasing bitrates, optical networking equipment has risen to the challenge by shifting from NRZ signaling to bandwidth efficient modulation methods such as PAM4. As these modulation schemes introduce an inherent [...] Read more.
As the exponential growth in advanced compute workloads drives intra-datacenter interconnects to ever increasing bitrates, optical networking equipment has risen to the challenge by shifting from NRZ signaling to bandwidth efficient modulation methods such as PAM4. As these modulation schemes introduce an inherent SNR penalty, maintaining low bit error rates (BER) forces optical links to operate at significantly higher optical powers. However, increasing the optical power leads to photodetectors reaching one of their fundamental bottlenecks caused by the space-charge effect, limiting their ability to provide a high-speed response under high-power illumination. This work presents the design, fabrication, and characterization of a waveguide-integrated photodiode with dual optical inputs (DIPD) designed to overcome this limitation. Specifically, we demonstrate that combining a dual-fed architecture with targeted cross-sectional geometric optimizations effectively distributes the photocurrent density to delay the onset of space-charge saturation. Experimental validation demonstrates a high responsivity of ≈0.91 [A/W] (for O-band wavelengths) and a large electro-optic bandwidth (EOBW) of ≈58 [GHz], all under high-power illumination and CMOS driving voltages. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section A：Physics)
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21 pages, 1146 KB  
Article
Integrated Size-Selective Cell Purification and Electroporation for Genetic Manipulation of Primary Cells
by Hyun Woo Sung and Soojung Claire Hur
Micromachines 2026, 17(3), 359; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17030359 - 15 Mar 2026
Viewed by 752
Abstract
Biologically relevant primary cell samples are inherently heterogeneous and often require selective enrichment prior to genetic manipulation. We previously demonstrated a vortex-assisted microfluidic platform that integrates size-selective cell trapping with electroporation; however, its limited processing capacity constrained applications requiring larger sample volumes. Here, [...] Read more.
Biologically relevant primary cell samples are inherently heterogeneous and often require selective enrichment prior to genetic manipulation. We previously demonstrated a vortex-assisted microfluidic platform that integrates size-selective cell trapping with electroporation; however, its limited processing capacity constrained applications requiring larger sample volumes. Here, we present a scaled version of this integrated system achieved through electrode array redesign and electrical optimization. The updated architecture increases processing capacity while preserving size-selective trapping behavior, electric field uniformity, and device stability. Systematic optimization of electrical and buffer conditions enables efficient delivery of plasmid DNA and in vitro-transcribed mRNA into primary human cells, with performance approaching benchmark chemical transfection methods. By scaling an integrated trapping–electroporation workflow without compromising delivery performance, this platform advances microfluidic cell engineering toward practical processing of heterogeneous primary cell samples. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microfluidic Chips for Biomedical Applications)
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25 pages, 2904 KB  
Article
Modeling and Design of a Soft Capacitive Slip Sensor with Fluid Dielectric Interlayer
by Elia Landi, Tommaso Lisini Baldi, Michele Pallaoro, Federico Micheletti, Federico Carli and Ada Fort
Micromachines 2026, 17(3), 349; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17030349 - 12 Mar 2026
Viewed by 723
Abstract
This paper presents the design, modeling, and experimental validation of a capacitive tactile sensor specifically conceived to sense shear-driven contact dynamics in robotic manipulation. The proposed device is a layered flexible capacitive structure, in which controlled tangential interactions are induced. The electrode design [...] Read more.
This paper presents the design, modeling, and experimental validation of a capacitive tactile sensor specifically conceived to sense shear-driven contact dynamics in robotic manipulation. The proposed device is a layered flexible capacitive structure, in which controlled tangential interactions are induced. The electrode design maximizes sensitivity to shear motion and promotes an isotropic response with respect to slip direction, thereby addressing two key limitations that affect the majority of existing slip-sensing technologies. An analytical model was developed to describe the essential relationship between shear-induced displacements and the electrical response, providing insight into the design parameters and supporting the selection of geometry and materials. To test the sensor in real conditions, a dedicated capacitive readout circuit based on high-frequency excitation and synchronous demodulation was developed to robustly acquire capacitance variations while rejecting static offsets and parasitic effects. Several formulations for the interposed dielectric layer material were investigated, including viscous fluids and composite mixtures with high-permittivity nanoparticles, with the aim of improving electrical sensitivity while preserving mechanical stability. Experimental results obtained under controlled loading and sliding conditions demonstrate that the sensor is highly sensitive to changes in contact state and tangential interaction dynamics. The sensor responded consistently to both load-induced shear and slip-related phenomena, enabling the reliable monitoring of contact dynamics rather than binary slip detection. A proof-of-concept integration into a robotic finger confirms the suitability of the proposed approach for grasp monitoring. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Trends in Soft Robotics and Bioinspired Technologies)
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31 pages, 6044 KB  
Review
From Physical Replacement to Biological Symbiosis: Evolutionary Paradigms and Future Prospects of Auditory Reconstruction Brain–Computer Interfaces
by Li Shang, Juntao Liu, Shiya Lv, Longhui Jiang, Yu Liu, Sihan Hua, Jinping Luo and Xinxia Cai
Micromachines 2026, 17(3), 343; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17030343 - 11 Mar 2026
Viewed by 1629
Abstract
Auditory Brain–Computer Interfaces (BCIs) constitute the vital intervention for profound sensorineural hearing loss where the auditory nerve is compromised, yet their clinical efficacy remains restricted by substantial biological bottlenecks and limited spectral resolution. This review critically examines the evolutionary paradigm of auditory restoration, [...] Read more.
Auditory Brain–Computer Interfaces (BCIs) constitute the vital intervention for profound sensorineural hearing loss where the auditory nerve is compromised, yet their clinical efficacy remains restricted by substantial biological bottlenecks and limited spectral resolution. This review critically examines the evolutionary paradigm of auditory restoration, tracing the transition from static physical replacement to dynamic biological symbiosis. We systematically analyze physiological barriers across cochlear, brainstem, and cortical levels, elucidating how rigid interfaces provoke chronic tissue responses and why linear encoding protocols fail in distorted central tonotopy. The article synthesizes emerging methodologies in material science, demonstrating how soft, bio-integrated electronics and biomimetic topologies effectively address mechanical impedance mismatches. Furthermore, the trajectory of neural encoding is evaluated, highlighting the paradigm shift from traditional envelope extraction to deep learning-driven non-linear mapping and adaptive closed-loop neuromodulation. Finally, the potential of high-resolution modulation techniques, including optogenetics and sonogenetics, alongside AI-facilitated intent perception for active listening, is assessed. It is concluded that future neuroprostheses must evolve into symbiotic systems capable of seamlessly integrating with neural plasticity to enable high-fidelity cognitive reconstruction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section B：Biology and Biomedicine)
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17 pages, 5188 KB  
Article
Selective Magnetic Field Generation Method for Effective Manipulation of Two-Dimensional Magnetic Microrobots Using a Triad of Electromagnetic Coils
by Dongjun Lee, Yonghun Lee and Seungmun Jeon
Micromachines 2026, 17(3), 337; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17030337 - 10 Mar 2026
Viewed by 670
Abstract
This study proposes a new method for effectively manipulating a magnetic microrobot in a two-dimensional manner using a triad of electromagnetic coils (TEC). A TEC is a system consisting of three circular coils of the same type arranged in the form of a [...] Read more.
This study proposes a new method for effectively manipulating a magnetic microrobot in a two-dimensional manner using a triad of electromagnetic coils (TEC). A TEC is a system consisting of three circular coils of the same type arranged in the form of a triangle. It has a simple structure and exhibits magnetic symmetry. This study sought to develop a method to more accurately manipulate and reduce the energy consumption of microrobots using a TEC. This was accomplished by selectively using individual coils of a TEC with respect to the robot’s position, moving direction, and other manipulating conditions based on the structural characteristics and magnetic field distribution pattern of the TEC. Effective calculation methods and operating procedures are also proposed. The proposed method was found to effectively generate the necessary actuation force to control microrobots by using either one or two of the coils of a TEC, depending on the given conditions. This type of process results in improved precision in magnetic field generation and a reduction in energy consumption while making it easier to control microrobots. Magnetic fields and actuation forces were generated using the proposed method under various experimental conditions, and these results were verified through simulations to confirm the validity of the proposed method. In addition, a TEC and a closed-loop control system were built and used to test the actuation of microrobots over various paths, and the results confirmed the superiority of the proposed method compared to existing methods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microrobots: Design, Fabrication and Application)
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21 pages, 6629 KB  
Article
A Comb-Shaped Flexible Microelectrode Array for Simultaneous Multi-Scale Cortical Recording
by Suyi Zhang, Jin Shan, Shiya Lv, Yu Liu, Jian Miao, Ziyu Liu, Ezhu Ning, Zhaojie Xu, Juntao Liu, Mixia Wang, Hongyan Jin, Xinxia Cai and Yilin Song
Micromachines 2026, 17(3), 301; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17030301 - 28 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1401
Abstract
High-resolution, multi-modal neural interfaces are essential for advancing systems neuroscience and brain–computer interface technologies. This study designed and fabricated a 128-channel comb-shaped flexible micro-electrode array. The device integrates a biocompatible Parylene substrate with a flexible thin-film microprobe array, enabling simultaneous recording of electrocorticography [...] Read more.
High-resolution, multi-modal neural interfaces are essential for advancing systems neuroscience and brain–computer interface technologies. This study designed and fabricated a 128-channel comb-shaped flexible micro-electrode array. The device integrates a biocompatible Parylene substrate with a flexible thin-film microprobe array, enabling simultaneous recording of electrocorticography (ECoG), intracortical local field potentials (LFP), and neuronal action potentials (spikes) from the cortical surface and superficial layers. Microelectrode sites were modified with platinum black nanoparticles, significantly reducing impedance. In vivo experiments in rats demonstrated the array’s ability to capture high-fidelity signals across different recording depths. Key findings included the acquisition of opposing LFP trends and polarity reversals between adjacent channels, reflecting local microcircuit dynamics. The array also reliably recorded neural activity during audiovisual cross-modal sensory stimulation. These results validate the device as an effective tool for multi-scale electrophysiology, successfully balancing high spatial resolution and signal quality with minimal tissue invasiveness, thereby offering significant potential for fundamental research and neural engineering applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neural Microelectrodes for Brain–Computer Interfaces)
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14 pages, 3318 KB  
Article
A Quasi-Lumped Element Tunable Bandpass Filter Based on GaAs Technology
by Xulei Cheng and Bin You
Micromachines 2026, 17(3), 292; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17030292 - 27 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1067
Abstract
This paper presents a miniaturized tunable bandpass filter chip fabricated using a gallium arsenide (GaAs) technology. In the layout design, a quasi-lumped element is utilized to replace conventional spiral inductors, complemented by on-chip PN-junction varactor diodes and Metal-Insulator-Metal (MIM) capacitors. The integration of [...] Read more.
This paper presents a miniaturized tunable bandpass filter chip fabricated using a gallium arsenide (GaAs) technology. In the layout design, a quasi-lumped element is utilized to replace conventional spiral inductors, complemented by on-chip PN-junction varactor diodes and Metal-Insulator-Metal (MIM) capacitors. The integration of a source-load coupling structure and grounded series LC resonators introduces three transmission zeros (TZs), enhancing the frequency selectivity. By independently tuning the coupling capacitance and the grounded series LC resonant structures, the operating frequency of the filter achieves continuous tunability. An equivalent circuit model is established to analyze the filter’s performance. For experimental verification, the proposed filter was fabricated and measured, occupying a compact die area of 1.35 × 1.365 mm2. The measured results demonstrate a center frequency tuning range from 5.4 to 6.2 GHz, showing good agreement with simulation and thus validating the proposed miniaturized continuously tunable filter. Full article
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22 pages, 3343 KB  
Article
Post-Release Metallization in MEMS Silicon-to-Silicon Contact Switches for On-Resistance Improvement
by Abdurrashid Hassan Shuaibu, Almur A. S. Rabih, Yves Blaquière and Frederic Nabki
Micromachines 2026, 17(3), 288; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17030288 - 26 Feb 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1915
Abstract
This work reports a post-release sputter-metallization process for microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) switches with silicon-to-silicon (Si-to-Si) contacts fabricated by deep reactive ion etching. Platinum (Pt) was selectively deposited on the contacting platforms through a perforated mask. Alternatively, aluminum (Al) was deposited over a thin [...] Read more.
This work reports a post-release sputter-metallization process for microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) switches with silicon-to-silicon (Si-to-Si) contacts fabricated by deep reactive ion etching. Platinum (Pt) was selectively deposited on the contacting platforms through a perforated mask. Alternatively, aluminum (Al) was deposited over a thin chromium (Cr) adhesion layer. Electrical measurements showed that Pt enabled a contact resistance on the order of 406 Ω at a 1 mA test current, whereas the resistance of Al/Cr coatings decreased from 7.94 kΩ at 1 mA to 270 Ω at 25 mA, a change that was potentially linked to oxidation of the Al. These results demonstrated successful coating, with uniform top-surface and edge coverage as revealed by energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy imaging. Overall, the results indicate that post-release metallization has the potential to improve the operational repeatability of Si-to-Si contact MEMS switches in static and dynamic tests; the findings also point to process refinements to further optimize contact resistance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Technologies and Applications for Semiconductor Industry)
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45 pages, 2668 KB  
Review
Advances in 3D Bioprinting: Materials, Processes, and Emerging Applications
by Subin Antony Jose, Antonia Evtimow and Pradeep L. Menezes
Micromachines 2026, 17(3), 282; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17030282 - 25 Feb 2026
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 7856
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting has rapidly emerged as a transformative technology at the interface of biomedical engineering and regenerative medicine. By enabling the spatially controlled deposition of living cells, biomaterials, and bioactive molecules, it offers an unprecedented potential to fabricate functional tissues and potentially [...] Read more.
Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting has rapidly emerged as a transformative technology at the interface of biomedical engineering and regenerative medicine. By enabling the spatially controlled deposition of living cells, biomaterials, and bioactive molecules, it offers an unprecedented potential to fabricate functional tissues and potentially whole organs in the future. This review explores recent advances in bioprinting materials, processes, and applications, emphasizing the integration of bioinks, printing methods, and mechanical design principles that underpin tissue functionality. Natural and synthetic biomaterials such as hydrogels (e.g., collagen, alginate), polyethylene glycol (PEG), and polyesters like PLGA are evaluated in terms of biocompatibility, printability, and degradation behavior. Key bioprinting modalities, including extrusion, inkjet, and laser-assisted bioprinting, are compared based on printing resolution, cell viability, and scalability. Structural considerations such as scaffold architecture, mechanical stability, and biomimetic design are discussed in relation to native tissue mechanics and requirements. The review also surveys emerging applications in tissue engineering (e.g., bone, cartilage, skin replacements), organ-on-a-chip systems for drug testing, and patient-specific implants, while addressing persistent challenges such as standardization of biofabrication, regulatory and ethical considerations, and manufacturing scale-up. Finally, future trends, including the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and robotic automation, multi-material and four-dimensional (4D) bioprinting, and the maturation of personalized bioprinting strategies, are highlighted as pathways toward more autonomous and clinically relevant bioprinting systems. Collectively, these developments signify a paradigm shift in how biological constructs are designed and manufactured, bridging the gap between laboratory research and clinical translation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Progress on Advanced Additive Manufacturing Technologies)
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30 pages, 10883 KB  
Review
MXene- and MOF-Based Hydrogels: Emerging Platforms for Electrochemical Biosensing and Health Monitoring
by Kandaswamy Theyagarajan, Sairaman Saikrithika and Young-Joon Kim
Micromachines 2026, 17(2), 267; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17020267 - 20 Feb 2026
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1327
Abstract
Smart healthcare is rapidly emerging as a transformative paradigm, enabling simultaneous health monitoring, therapeutic intervention, and early prediction of disease onset. In this context, electrochemical monitoring systems have attracted growing interest due to their cost-effectiveness, ease of operation, miniaturization and compatibility with wearable [...] Read more.
Smart healthcare is rapidly emerging as a transformative paradigm, enabling simultaneous health monitoring, therapeutic intervention, and early prediction of disease onset. In this context, electrochemical monitoring systems have attracted growing interest due to their cost-effectiveness, ease of operation, miniaturization and compatibility with wearable platforms. Accordingly, conductive hydrogel-based electrochemical (bio)sensors have gained significant attention for health monitoring owing to their soft mechanical properties, high water content, excellent biocompatibility, and ability to form intimate, conformal interfaces with biological tissues. Their three-dimensional polymeric networks facilitate efficient ion transport and mechanical flexibility, making them particularly suitable for wearable and noninvasive sensing and monitoring applications. However, the intrinsically limited conductivity and catalytic activity of pristine hydrogels often constrain their electrochemical performance. To overcome these limitations, functional nanomaterials such as metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) and MXene (MX) nanosheets have been increasingly integrated into hydrogel matrices to enhance conductivity and electrochemical activity. This review provides a comprehensive and critical comparison of recent advances in MOF- and MX-integrated conductive hydrogels for electrochemical health monitoring. In addition to material design strategies and sensing performance, emerging trends in data-driven sensing aimed at improving signal interpretation and multi-analyte discrimination are systematically discussed. Key challenges related to long-term stability, biocompatibility, scalability, and intelligent system integration are critically assessed, and the future potential of these platforms within closed-loop architectures is highlighted, paving the way for next-generation conductive hydrogel-based electrochemical sensors in smart healthcare applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioelectronics and Its Limitless Possibilities)
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38 pages, 7875 KB  
Review
The Evolution of Lithography: From Resolution Scaling to Manufacturing Constraints
by Heejoon Chae, Hyunje Park and Dae Joon Kang
Micromachines 2026, 17(2), 261; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17020261 - 18 Feb 2026
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3497
Abstract
Lithographic patterning continues to evolve under the dual pressure of ever-finer features and manufacturable, cost-effective integration. Beyond headline resolution, industrial adoption is increasingly determined by a small set of coupled metrics: throughput, overlay (registration), defectivity, and cost, as well as by how these [...] Read more.
Lithographic patterning continues to evolve under the dual pressure of ever-finer features and manufacturable, cost-effective integration. Beyond headline resolution, industrial adoption is increasingly determined by a small set of coupled metrics: throughput, overlay (registration), defectivity, and cost, as well as by how these trade-offs shift with materials, substrate form factors, and integration flows. Here, we review lithographic techniques across three eras: traditional methods (pre-1990s), non-conventional innovations (1990s), and contemporary advancements (post-2000s), with an explicit goal that goes beyond compilation. Specifically, we provide a decision framework for interpreting each method using the same manufacturing-relevant criteria. For each class of technique, we summarize the operating principle and representative process routes, then map the dominant bottlenecks to the metric that ultimately limits scale-up. This cross-cutting lens clarifies why many emerging methods are compelling at the physics level yet remain constrained at the system level, where process windows, in-line control, and compatibility with existing fabrication ecosystems govern viability. By connecting mechanism-level innovation to manufacturing-level constraints, this review offers practical guidance for researchers and engineers seeking to position nanolithography options for applications ranging from high-volume semiconductor production to agile prototyping and materials- or substrate-limited devices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanoscale Lithography—Pressing Miniaturization towards Ever Smaller Sizes)
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20 pages, 4253 KB  
Article
Construction of Highly Active Interfaces on Screen-Printed Carbon Electrodes via Controllable Electrochemical Exfoliation for High-Performance Flexible Enzyme-Free Glucose Sensing
by Wenjing Xue, Ziyan Chen, Xiao Peng, Haocheng Yin, Yimeng Zhang and Yuming Zhang
Micromachines 2026, 17(2), 251; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17020251 - 16 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1019
Abstract
Enzyme-free flexible glucose sensors hold great promise in the field of wearable health monitoring. However, their performance is limited by the balance between the catalytic interface activity and stability. This paper reports a strategy for interface gradient roughening of screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCE) [...] Read more.
Enzyme-free flexible glucose sensors hold great promise in the field of wearable health monitoring. However, their performance is limited by the balance between the catalytic interface activity and stability. This paper reports a strategy for interface gradient roughening of screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCE) via controllable electrochemical exfoliation (EE). It systematically reveals the inherent relationships among the degree of EE treatment, electrode morphology, surface chemistry, and electrochemical performance. On this basis, the deposition of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) with high density and uniform distribution is achieved, and a high-performance flexible enzyme-free glucose sensor is constructed. The study finds that EE treatment can significantly increase the true surface area of the electrode and introduce abundant oxygen-containing functional groups, thus effectively reducing the charge transfer resistance. Nevertheless, excessive exfoliation leads to the degradation of the conductive network, indicating the existence of a critical “performance window”. The EE-SPCE optimized with 150 cycles has both a high active area and good electrical conductivity, providing an ideal deposition substrate for AuNPs, increasing their distribution density by approximately 158% and reducing the average particle size to 125 nm. The fabricated AuNPs/EE-SPCE sensor exhibits excellent performance in glucose detection: it has a high sensitivity of 550.766 μA·mM−1·cm−2 in the range of 0.1–3 mM, a detection limit of 0.0998 mM, a wide linear range, excellent selectivity, long-term stability, and good mechanical flexibility. This research not only develops an efficient and scalable method for constructing flexible sensing interfaces but also clarifies the trade-off relationship among “roughening–conductivity–catalytic performance” at the mechanistic level, providing an important theoretical basis and a general strategy for rationally designing high-performance flexible electrochemical devices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microdevices and Electrode Materials for Electrochemical Applications)
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21 pages, 7792 KB  
Article
Optimization of Magnetic Filler Loading and Interstitial Dielectric Percolation for Tunable Triboelectric–Electromagnetic Hybrid Generators
by Geunchul Kim, Jonghwan Lee, Yuseob Lee, Jihwon Keum, Inkyum Kim and Daewon Kim
Micromachines 2026, 17(2), 231; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17020231 - 11 Feb 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1673
Abstract
In this study, a material-driven strategy is presented to realize tunable triboelectric–electromagnetic hybrid generators while overcoming the form-factor limitations of conventional magnet-assisted systems. A magneto-dielectric hybrid generator (MDHG) was constructed using a soft magnetized dielectric composite, where NdFeB microparticles were embedded in an [...] Read more.
In this study, a material-driven strategy is presented to realize tunable triboelectric–electromagnetic hybrid generators while overcoming the form-factor limitations of conventional magnet-assisted systems. A magneto-dielectric hybrid generator (MDHG) was constructed using a soft magnetized dielectric composite, where NdFeB microparticles were embedded in an Ecoflex matrix and activated by pulse magnetization, allowing a single compliant layer to operate simultaneously as a triboelectric contact medium and a magnetic flux source coupled to a coil. The magnetic filler loading was systematically optimized to elucidate the trade-off between enhanced electromagnetic induction and a non-monotonic triboelectric response governed by dielectric polarization, surface potential, and interfacial energetics. To selectively strengthen the triboelectric branch without sacrificing electromagnetic output, nanoscale BaTiO3 was introduced as an interstitial dielectric phase to promote polarization-active pathways and suppress screening-driven charge-utilization loss. Under contact–separation operation, the optimized MDHG produced triboelectric outputs up to a VOC of 400.40 V and ISC of 56.95 μA, while the electromagnetic branch delivered up to a VOC of 260.04 mV and ISC of 0.89 mA, corresponding to 2.87- and 2.62-fold increases in triboelectric VOC and ISC over pristine Ecoflex. Finally, the hybrid signatures enabled a wearable smart-skin interface capable of decoupling touch occurrence, intensity, and counter-material identity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Microdevices for Energy Harvesting)
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14 pages, 5315 KB  
Article
A Triboelectricity-Driven Self-Sustainable System for Removing Heavy Metal from Water
by Jonghyeon Yun, Hyunwoo Cho, Geunchul Kim, Inkyum Kim and Daewon Kim
Micromachines 2026, 17(2), 229; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17020229 - 11 Feb 2026
Viewed by 924
Abstract
As the demand for clean water grows, the strategic management of water resources has become increasingly critical. However, the depletion of these resources is being accelerated by anthropogenic pollutants and resultant internal pipe corrosion within distribution networks. Conventional water treatment methods are characterized [...] Read more.
As the demand for clean water grows, the strategic management of water resources has become increasingly critical. However, the depletion of these resources is being accelerated by anthropogenic pollutants and resultant internal pipe corrosion within distribution networks. Conventional water treatment methods are characterized by high energy consumption, rendering them impractical in environments lacking a continuous external power supply. Consequently, innovative, self-sustained technologies for simultaneously monitoring fluid conditions and purifying water are a necessity. In this work, we present a water-driven triboelectric nanogenerator (W-TENG) used for energy harvesting and water-quality monitoring within pipe networks. Composed of a silicone rubber tube and aluminum electrodes, the optimized W-TENG achieved an open-circuit voltage of 58 V, short-circuit current of 1.1 µA, and 59.5 mW/m2 at a 10 MΩ load. The W-TENG distinguishes pH levels and liquid types based on electrical outputs. Notably, a parallel connection of two W-TENGs enhanced electrical energy by 214% compared to the sum of two units. As an application, a self-powered electrochemical deposition was conducted and copper ions were successfully removed using energy stored in a 1 mF capacitor. These results indicate that the W-TENG is expected to be utilized as a self-powered platform for simultaneous water purification and real-time infrastructure monitoring. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Microdevices for Energy Harvesting)
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44 pages, 5347 KB  
Review
Solution-Processed OLEDs: A Critical Review and Methodology Proposal for Stack Optimization
by Yassine Chiadmi, Paul-Vahe Cicek and Ricardo Izquierdo
Micromachines 2026, 17(2), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17020217 - 5 Feb 2026
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2713
Abstract
Solution-processed OLEDs represent a low-cost, scalable alternative to vacuum-deposited devices, particularly for flexible and large-scale applications. However, selecting compatible materials for each layer remains a complex task, further complicated by inconsistent documentation, solvent interactions, and limited reproducibility across the literature. This work presents [...] Read more.
Solution-processed OLEDs represent a low-cost, scalable alternative to vacuum-deposited devices, particularly for flexible and large-scale applications. However, selecting compatible materials for each layer remains a complex task, further complicated by inconsistent documentation, solvent interactions, and limited reproducibility across the literature. This work presents a literature review and critical analysis of materials, solvents, and fabrication methods involved in solution-processed OLEDs, with particular attention to layer formulation, solvent orthogonality, and processing constraints. A Monte Carlo-based optimization framework is introduced as a proof of concept, aiming to formalize stack selection and explore viable combinations based on empirical constraints. The critical analysis highlights recurring issues in the field and advocates for a more structured, reproducibility-oriented approach to OLED design. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Trends in Optoelectronic Device Engineering, 2nd Edition)
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