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Editor’s Choice Articles

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

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34 pages, 15236 KiB  
Article
Performance Evaluation of Bias Correction Methods for Climate Change Monthly Precipitation Projections over Costa Rica
by Maikel Mendez, Ben Maathuis, David Hein-Griggs and Luis-Fernando Alvarado-Gamboa
Water 2020, 12(2), 482; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020482 - 11 Feb 2020
Cited by 141 | Viewed by 12861
Abstract
Six bias correction (BC) methods; delta-method (DT), linear scaling (LS), power transformation of precipitation (PTR), empirical quantile mapping (EQM), gamma quantile mapping (GQM) and gamma-pareto quantile mapping (GPQM) were applied to adjust the biases of historical monthly precipitation outputs from five General Circulation [...] Read more.
Six bias correction (BC) methods; delta-method (DT), linear scaling (LS), power transformation of precipitation (PTR), empirical quantile mapping (EQM), gamma quantile mapping (GQM) and gamma-pareto quantile mapping (GPQM) were applied to adjust the biases of historical monthly precipitation outputs from five General Circulation Models (GCMs) dynamically downscaled by two Regional Climate Models (RCMs) for a total of seven different GCM-RCM pairs over Costa Rica. High-resolution gridded precipitation observations were used for the control period 1951–1980 and validated over the period 1981–1995. Results show that considerable biases exist between uncorrected GCM-RCM outputs and observations, which largely depend on GCM-RCM pair, seasonality, climatic region and spatial resolution. After the application of bias correction, substantial biases reductions and comparable performances among most BC methods were observed for most GCM-RCM pairs; with EQM and DT marginally outperforming the remaining methods. Consequently, EQM and DT were selectively applied to correct the biases of precipitation projections from each individual GCM-RCM pair for a near-future (2011–2040), mid-future (2041–2070) and far-future (2071–2100) period under Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) 2.6, 4.5 and 8.5 using the control period 1961–1990. Results from the bias-corrected future ensemble-mean anticipate a marked decreasing trend in precipitation from near to far-future periods during the dry season (December, January, February (DJF) and March, April, May (MAM)) for RCP4.5 and 8.5; with pronounced drier conditions for those climatic regions draining towards the Pacific Ocean. In contrast, mostly wetter conditions are expected during the dry season under RCP2.6, particularly for the Caribbean region. In most of the country, the greatest decrease in precipitation is projected at the beginning of the rainy season (June, July, August (JJA)) for the far-future period under RCP8.5, except for the Caribbean region where mostly wetter conditions are anticipated. Regardless of future period, slight increases in precipitation with higher radiative forcing are expected for SON excluding the Caribbean region, where precipitation is likely to increase with increasing radiative forcing and future period. This study demonstrates that bias correction should be considered before direct application of GCM-RCM precipitation projections over complex territories such as Costa Rica. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Hydrology)
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23 pages, 1538 KiB  
Article
Environmental Sustainability Assessment of a New Sewage Treatment Plant in China Based on Infrastructure Construction and Operation Phases Emergy Analysis
by Junxue Zhang and Lin Ma
Water 2020, 12(2), 484; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020484 - 11 Feb 2020
Cited by 41 | Viewed by 13142
Abstract
Due to excessive resource consumption and pressing environmental issues of the sewage treatment industry, there is extensive attention in China. Given the unique craft production process in the sewage treatment system, a series of integral emergy indicators have been used to evaluate the [...] Read more.
Due to excessive resource consumption and pressing environmental issues of the sewage treatment industry, there is extensive attention in China. Given the unique craft production process in the sewage treatment system, a series of integral emergy indicators have been used to evaluate the environmental sustainability based on infrastructure construction and operation stage emergy analysis. Taking a new typical sewage treatment plant as an example, this paper performed a case study. The results illustrate that (1) the infrastructure construction process emergy (approximate 92.6%) is more critical than sewage treatment process emergy; (2) nonrenewable resource is the primary factor for the emergy analysis, followed by energy (23.5%) and purchased supply (7%); (3) cement, steel, and gravel have dominant impacts on the nonrenewable resource emergy; (4) the emergy sustainability index is 0.001101, which displays weak environmental sustainability; (5) the unit emergy value (UEV) of the new sewage treatment plant is 3.40 × 1012 sej/m3; (6) sensitivity analysis results of the hypothesis demonstrate that nonrenewable resources have significant fluctuations (6.903%) while, for the indicators, emergy sustainability index (ESI) (4.8072%) has the most significant impact; and (7) wastewater is a major contributor. In light of comprehensive discussions, two positive measures are proposed in order to ameliorate the environmental sustainability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Wastewater Treatment and Reuse)
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15 pages, 1528 KiB  
Article
Performance Behavior of Participatory Water Institutions in Eastern India: A Study through Structural Equation Modelling
by Nicky Johnson, Vasant P. Gandhi and Dinesh Jain
Water 2020, 12(2), 485; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020485 - 11 Feb 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3374
Abstract
The paper examines the nature and performance of participatory water institutions in eastern India using structural equation modelling. There is a crisis in the management of water in India, and this is often not about having too little water but about managing it [...] Read more.
The paper examines the nature and performance of participatory water institutions in eastern India using structural equation modelling. There is a crisis in the management of water in India, and this is often not about having too little water but about managing it poorly. It is now being widely recognized that engineering structures and solutions are not enough, and having effective water institutions is critical. These are urgently needed in eastern India for helping lift the region out of low incomes and poverty. However, creating good institutions is complex, and in this context, the fundamentals of new institutional economics, and management governance theory have suggested the importance of a number of key factors including five institutional features and eight rationalities. Based on this, a study was conducted in eastern India, sampling from the states of Assam and Bihar, covering 510 farm households across 51 water institutions. In order to understand and map the relationship and pathways across these key factors, a structural equation model is hypothesized. In the model, the five institutional features are considered determinants of the eight rationalities, and the rationalities are considered determinants of four performance goals. The performance on the goals determines the overall performance/success of the institution. Besides this, the institutional features and rationalities can also directly influence performance on the goals and the overall performance. The model is tested with data from the survey and different pathways that are robust are identified. The results can provide useful insights into the interlinkages and pathways of institutional behavior and can help policy and institution design for delivering more robust performance. The results show that one of the most important factors determining overall performance/success is technical rationality, and this deserves great attention. It includes technical expertise, sound location and quality of structures and equipment, and good maintenance. However, success is also strongly linked to performance on production/income goals, equity, and environment goals. These are, in turn, strongly related to achievement of economic, social, technical, and organizational rationalities, which call for attention to economic aspects such as crop choice and marketing, besides social aspects such as inclusion of women and poorer social groups, and organizational aspects such as member involvement and regular meetings. Further, the institutional features of clear objectives, good interactions, adaptive, correct scale, and compliance are important for achievement of almost all rationalities through various pathways, and should be strongly focused on in all the institutions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Using Applied Economics to Study Participatory Irrigation Institutions and their Impact in South Asia)
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16 pages, 8073 KiB  
Article
Drought Trends in Balochistan
by Falak Naz, Ghulam Hussain Dars, Kamran Ansari, Shoaib Jamro and Nir Y. Krakauer
Water 2020, 12(2), 470; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020470 - 10 Feb 2020
Cited by 59 | Viewed by 15784
Abstract
Drought is a severe threat, especially in the arid regions of Pakistan, such as the Balochistan Province. The aim of this study is to analyze drought trends in Balochistan using Standard Precipitation Index (SPI) at the 3-month accumulation timescale. The monthly rainfall data [...] Read more.
Drought is a severe threat, especially in the arid regions of Pakistan, such as the Balochistan Province. The aim of this study is to analyze drought trends in Balochistan using Standard Precipitation Index (SPI) at the 3-month accumulation timescale. The monthly rainfall data of 10 stations were collected from the Pakistan Meteorological Department (PMD) for 37 years (1980–2017). Drought trends were analyzed at each station using the Mann-Kendall test. The SPI identified extreme drought events in 1996, 2001, 2002, 2004, 2009, and 2014. Barkhan was the station that most frequently experienced extreme to severe drought events, as defined using SPI. A statistically significant decreasing precipitation trend was found in four stations (Dalbandin, Jiwani, Quetta, and Zhob). The analysis of drought characteristics showed Barkhan faced the most prolonged drought, of 22 months from 1999 to 2001. The findings from the present study can give guidance on how strategies of water management should be adjusted based on the changing patterns of droughts in the Balochistan Province. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Climate Change on Water Resources)
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16 pages, 7377 KiB  
Article
Mapping of Groundwater Potential Zones in Crystalline Terrain Using Remote Sensing, GIS Techniques, and Multicriteria Data Analysis (Case of the Ighrem Region, Western Anti-Atlas, Morocco)
by Khalid Benjmel, Fouad Amraoui, Said Boutaleb, Mohammed Ouchchen, Amine Tahiri and Amine Touab
Water 2020, 12(2), 471; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020471 - 10 Feb 2020
Cited by 139 | Viewed by 9027
Abstract
This research work is intended as a contribution to the development of a multicriteria methodology, combining several factors to control the availability of groundwater resources, in order to optimize the choice of location of future drilling and increase the chances to take water [...] Read more.
This research work is intended as a contribution to the development of a multicriteria methodology, combining several factors to control the availability of groundwater resources, in order to optimize the choice of location of future drilling and increase the chances to take water from productive structures which will satisfy the ever-increasing water demand of local population (Arghen basin in the Western Anti-Atlas chain of Morocco). The geographic information system is used to develop thematic maps describing the geometry and the hydrodynamic functioning of the aquifer. In this study, 11 factors including geology, topography, and hydrology, influencing the distribution of water resources were used. Based on the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) model, GIS, and remote sensing, the study mapped and classified areas according to their hydrogeological potential. The favorable potential sectors cover 17% of the total area of the basin. The medium potential sectors account for 64%, while the unfavorable areas cover 18% of the basin area. The groundwater potential map of the study area has been validated by comparing with data from 159 boreholes scattered throughout the basin. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Resilience to Climate Change and High Pressure)
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23 pages, 2679 KiB  
Article
Modeling of Future Extreme Storm Surges at the NW Mediterranean Coast (Spain)
by Jue Lin-Ye, Manuel García-León, Vicente Gràcia, María Isabel Ortego, Piero Lionello, Dario Conte, Begoña Pérez-Gómez and Agustín Sánchez-Arcilla
Water 2020, 12(2), 472; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020472 - 10 Feb 2020
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4160
Abstract
Storm surges are one of the main drivers for extreme flooding at the coastal areas. Such events can be characterized with the maximum level in an extreme storm surge event (surge peak), as well as the duration of the event. Surge projections come [...] Read more.
Storm surges are one of the main drivers for extreme flooding at the coastal areas. Such events can be characterized with the maximum level in an extreme storm surge event (surge peak), as well as the duration of the event. Surge projections come from a barotropic model for the 1950–2100 period, under a severe climate change scenario (RCP 8.5) at the northeastern Spanish coast. The relationship of extreme storm surges to three large-scale climate patterns was assessed: North Atlantic Oscillation ( N A O ), East Atlantic Pattern ( E A W R ), and Scandinavian Pattern ( S C ). The statistical model was built using two different strategies. In Strategy #1, the joint probability density was characterized by a moving-average series of stationary Archimedean copula, whereas in Strategy #2, the joint probability density was characterized by a non-stationary probit copula. The parameters of the marginal distribution and the copula were defined with generalized additive models. The analysis showed that the mean values of surge peak and event duration were constant and were independent of the proposed climate patterns. However, the values of N A O and S C influenced the threshold and the storminess of extreme events. According to Strategy #1, the variance of the surge peak and event duration increased with a fast shift of negative S C and a positive N A O , respectively. Alternatively, Strategy #2 showed that the variance of the surge peak increased with a positive E A W R . Both strategies coincided in that the joint dependence of the maximum surge level and the duration of extreme surges ranged from low to medium degree. Its mean value was stationary, and its variability was linked to the geographical location. Finally, Strategy #2 helped determine that this dependence increased with negative N A O . Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Climate Change on Coastal Hydrodynamics)
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13 pages, 2309 KiB  
Article
Eco-Efficiency of End-of-Pipe Systems: An Extended Environmental Cost Efficiency Framework for Wastewater Treatment
by Xinyue Zhao, Chaofan Zhang and Shunwen Bai
Water 2020, 12(2), 454; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020454 - 8 Feb 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2987
Abstract
As a method for eco-efficiency analysis, environmental cost efficiency (ECE) indicators have been proposed for the end-of-pipe (EOP) systems that referred to the techniques achieving environmental benefit under economic cost. The wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) belongs to the EOP systems; however, few studies [...] Read more.
As a method for eco-efficiency analysis, environmental cost efficiency (ECE) indicators have been proposed for the end-of-pipe (EOP) systems that referred to the techniques achieving environmental benefit under economic cost. The wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) belongs to the EOP systems; however, few studies used the ECE indicators for the sustainability evaluation. Here, this study first proposed the following processes that had been excluded in the current ECE framework and thus limited the potential application in WWTP: (1) the direct impact of wastewater on receiving water, (2) the migration and transformation of water pollutants affected by the self-purification mechanisms of receiving water. To address the aforementioned processes, this study extended the framework of ECE indicators by means of incorporating the potential growth of microorganisms as the characterization state and integrating the water quality models with the characterization models. To investigate the applicability, a full-scale WWTP was selected as the study case and the eco-efficiency of the increasing levels of sewage treatment was evaluated. The case outcome showed that, with the extended ECE indicators, the analysis of eco-efficiency could be directly related to the specific locations and could determine the specific distance ranges within which the scenarios changing were considered efficient. Moreover, the eco-efficiency could be investigated under more concrete and flexible situations because the extended framework of ECE indicators was able to include more information, such as different types of receiving water or different environmental conditions of certain water body. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Wastewater Treatment and Reuse)
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13 pages, 6356 KiB  
Article
Adsorption Properties of Magnetic Magnetite Nanoparticle for Coexistent Cr(VI) and Cu(II) in Mixed Solution
by Jin Zhang, Shuang Lin, Meiling Han, Qing Su, Lianqiu Xia and Zhaocong Hui
Water 2020, 12(2), 446; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020446 - 7 Feb 2020
Cited by 98 | Viewed by 5981
Abstract
The adsorption properties of coexistent Cr(VI) and Cu(II) in mixed solution on magnetic magnetite (Fe3O4) nanoparticle were studied in batch experiments. The influences of various factors, such as pH, adsorbent dose, temperature, initial concentration of metal ions, and coexisting [...] Read more.
The adsorption properties of coexistent Cr(VI) and Cu(II) in mixed solution on magnetic magnetite (Fe3O4) nanoparticle were studied in batch experiments. The influences of various factors, such as pH, adsorbent dose, temperature, initial concentration of metal ions, and coexisting ions in water were investigated. At the same time, the adsorption kinetics and adsorption isotherms were studied. The mechanism of adsorption for Cr(VI) and Cu(II) was investigated through the study of surface properties of Fe3O4, the presence of ions, and the influence of pH and zeta potential. The results indicate that pH has an influence on adsorption for Cr(VI) and Cu(II), and the optimal pH value for Cr(VI) and Cu(II) adsorption is 4.0. The adsorption efficiency increased with the increase of the adsorbent dose. Temperature under experimental design had no obvious effect. With 2.0 g/dm3 Fe3O4, the maximum adsorption capacity for Cr(VI) and Cu(II) reached 8.67 mg/g and 18.61 mg/g in mixed solution of 80 mg/dm3 Cr(VI) and Cu(II), respectively. Phosphorus had some influence on the adsorption for Cr(VI), and other coexisting anions and cations had no influence on the adsorption for Cr(VI) and Cu(II). The adsorption data for Cr(VI) and Cu(II) were nicely fit to the Langmuir adsorption equation and the pseudo-second-order model. As a multifunctional material, nano-Fe3O4 exhibited good adsorption performance for coexistent Cr(VI) and Cu(II) and could easily be separated and recovered under magnetic field. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Removal of Heavy Metals from Wastewater)
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7 pages, 620 KiB  
Article
The Occurrence of Antibiotic Resistance Genes in an Urban River in Nepal
by Ocean Thakali, Sarmila Tandukar, John P. Brooks, Samendra P. Sherchan, Jeevan B. Sherchand and Eiji Haramoto
Water 2020, 12(2), 450; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020450 - 7 Feb 2020
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 6011
Abstract
Urban rivers affected by anthropogenic activities can act as reservoirs of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). This study aimed to describe the occurrence of selected ARGs (blaTEM, ermF, mecA, and tetA) and a class 1 integron (intI1 [...] Read more.
Urban rivers affected by anthropogenic activities can act as reservoirs of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). This study aimed to describe the occurrence of selected ARGs (blaTEM, ermF, mecA, and tetA) and a class 1 integron (intI1) in an urban river in Nepal. A total of 18 water samples were collected periodically from upstream, midstream, and downstream sites along the Bagmati River over a 1-year period. All ARGs except mecA and intI1 were consistently detected by a quantitative polymerase chain reaction in the midstream and downstream sites, with concentrations ranging from 3.1 to 7.8 log copies/mL. ARG abundance was significantly lower at the upstream site (p < 0.05), reflecting the impact of anthropogenic activities on increasing concentrations of ARGs at midstream and downstream sites. Our findings demonstrate the presence of clinically relevant ARGs in the urban river water of Nepal, suggesting a need for mitigating strategies to prevent the spread of antibiotic resistance in the environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Water Quality and Contamination)
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14 pages, 2360 KiB  
Article
Heavy Metals Distribution, Sources, and Ecological Risk Assessment in Huixian Wetland, South China
by Liangliang Huang, Saeed Rad, Li Xu, Liangying Gui, Xiaohong Song, Yanhong Li, Zhiqiang Wu and Zhongbing Chen
Water 2020, 12(2), 431; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020431 - 6 Feb 2020
Cited by 117 | Viewed by 6882
Abstract
This research has focused on the source identification, concentration, and ecological risk assessment of eight heavy metals in the largest karst wetland (Huixian) of south China. Numerous samples from superficial soil and sediment within ten representative landuse types were collected and examined, and [...] Read more.
This research has focused on the source identification, concentration, and ecological risk assessment of eight heavy metals in the largest karst wetland (Huixian) of south China. Numerous samples from superficial soil and sediment within ten representative landuse types were collected and examined, and the results were analyzed using multiple methods. Single pollution index (Pi) results were underpinned by the Geoaccumulation index (Igeo) method, in which Cd was observed as the priority pollutant with the highest contamination degree in this area. As for the most polluted landuse type, via applying Nemerow’s synthetical contamination index (PN) and Potential ecological risk index (RI), the river and rape field posed the highest ecological risks, while moderate for the rest. To quantify the drivers of the contaminants, a principal component analysis (PCA) was carried out and weathering of the watershed’s parent carbonate rocks was found to be the main possible origin, followed by anthropogenic sources induced by agricultural fertilizer. Considering the impacts of these potentially toxic elements on public health, the results of this study are essential to take preventive actions for environmental protection and sustainable development in the region. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wetlands in Action: Sustainable Water Management and Resource Recovery)
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21 pages, 3563 KiB  
Article
The Applicability of LSTM-KNN Model for Real-Time Flood Forecasting in Different Climate Zones in China
by Moyang Liu, Yingchun Huang, Zhijia Li, Bingxing Tong, Zhentao Liu, Mingkun Sun, Feiqing Jiang and Hanchen Zhang
Water 2020, 12(2), 440; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020440 - 6 Feb 2020
Cited by 87 | Viewed by 8270
Abstract
Flow forecasting is an essential topic for flood prevention and mitigation. This study utilizes a data-driven approach, the Long Short-Term Memory neural network (LSTM), to simulate rainfall–runoff relationships for catchments with different climate conditions. The LSTM method presented was tested in three catchments [...] Read more.
Flow forecasting is an essential topic for flood prevention and mitigation. This study utilizes a data-driven approach, the Long Short-Term Memory neural network (LSTM), to simulate rainfall–runoff relationships for catchments with different climate conditions. The LSTM method presented was tested in three catchments with distinct climate zones in China. The recurrent neural network (RNN) was adopted for comparison to verify the superiority of the LSTM model in terms of time series prediction problems. The results of LSTM were also compared with a widely used process-based model, the Xinanjiang model (XAJ), as a benchmark to test the applicability of this novel method. The results suggest that LSTM could provide comparable quality predictions as the XAJ model and can be considered an efficient hydrology modeling approach. A real-time forecasting approach coupled with the k-nearest neighbor (KNN) algorithm as an updating method was proposed in this study to generalize the plausibility of the LSTM method for flood forecasting in a decision support system. We compared the simulation results of the LSTM and the LSTM-KNN model, which demonstrated the effectiveness of the LSTM-KNN model in the study areas and underscored the potential of the proposed model for real-time flood forecasting. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Hydrology)
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16 pages, 3303 KiB  
Article
Forcing for a Cascaded Lattice Boltzmann Shallow Water Model
by Sara Venturi, Silvia Di Francesco, Martin Geier and Piergiorgio Manciola
Water 2020, 12(2), 439; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020439 - 6 Feb 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3452
Abstract
This work compares three forcing schemes for a recently introduced cascaded lattice Boltzmann shallow water model: a basic scheme, a second-order scheme, and a centred scheme. Although the force is applied in the streaming step of the lattice Boltzmann model, the acceleration is [...] Read more.
This work compares three forcing schemes for a recently introduced cascaded lattice Boltzmann shallow water model: a basic scheme, a second-order scheme, and a centred scheme. Although the force is applied in the streaming step of the lattice Boltzmann model, the acceleration is also considered in the transformation to central moments. The model performance is tested for one and two dimensional benchmarks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Combined Numerical and Experimental Methodology for Fluid–Structure Interactions in Free Surface Flows)
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21 pages, 557 KiB  
Article
Regarding Groundwater and Drinking Water Access through A Human Rights Lens: Self-Supply as A Norm
by Jenny Grönwall and Kerstin Danert
Water 2020, 12(2), 419; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020419 - 5 Feb 2020
Cited by 137 | Viewed by 17689
Abstract
Globally, some 2.5 billion people depend solely on groundwater to satisfy their daily drinking water needs. The reliance on this resource and its centrality to realize the human right to ‘safe’ drinking water has increased manifold, but this is yet to be fully [...] Read more.
Globally, some 2.5 billion people depend solely on groundwater to satisfy their daily drinking water needs. The reliance on this resource and its centrality to realize the human right to ‘safe’ drinking water has increased manifold, but this is yet to be fully acknowledged globally or by governments and political leaders at the national level. This paper analyses the interface of international human rights law, as corresponding to the obligations and responsibilities of different actors, regarding groundwater resources planning, management and protection. Drawing on the literature, we discuss the State’s duties to respect, protect and fulfil this right especially in relation to the freedom of end-users to self-supply from groundwater sources; the training and regulation of non-State service providers including drillers and private vendors; and health and safety concerns. Interpreting the State’s duty to ‘fulfil’ through direct water service provision ‘as a last resort’, this paper suggests that self-provision is the original norm for enjoying the right to water. This has significant implications for the State’s role in raising awareness concerning point source protection and aquifer recharge for water resources management and in decisions concerning water allocation. By ignoring self-provision, which is primarily from groundwater, the State is not only missing a tremendous opportunity but is jeopardizing the water security of future generations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Rights to Water and Sanitation)
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18 pages, 2557 KiB  
Article
A Three-Stage Hybrid Model for Space-Time Analysis of Water Resources Carrying Capacity: A Case Study of Jilin Province, China
by Tong Liu, Xiaohua Yang, Leihua Geng and Boyang Sun
Water 2020, 12(2), 426; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020426 - 5 Feb 2020
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3766
Abstract
Water shortage, water pollution, shrinking water area and water mobility are the main contents of the water resources crisis, which are widespread in the social and economic development of Jilin Province. In this paper, a three-stage hybrid model integrating evaluation, prediction and regulation [...] Read more.
Water shortage, water pollution, shrinking water area and water mobility are the main contents of the water resources crisis, which are widespread in the social and economic development of Jilin Province. In this paper, a three-stage hybrid model integrating evaluation, prediction and regulation is constructed by combining the load-balance method and the system dynamics method. Using this model, the current states of water resources carrying capacity (WRCC) in 2017 and the trend of water demand/available from 2018 to 2030 were obtained. Using the orthogonal test method, the optimal combination program of agricultural and industrial water efficiency regulation and water resources allocation was selected. The results show that the pressure of the human–water resources system in Changchun, Liaoyuan and Baicheng is greater than the support, and the other six cities are not overloaded. The water demand in Jilin Province and its nine cities will increase from 2018 to 2030, if the current socio-economic development pattern is maintained. Therefore, we change the water quantity carrying capacity index by controlling agriculture, industrial water efficiency and trans-regional water transfer. Compared with 2015, among the optimal program obtained, the change range of the water use per 10,000 RMB of agricultural output is (−5%, 25%), and the water use per 10,000 RMB of industrial added value is (−45%, −35%), and the maximum water transfer is 1.5 billion m3 per year in 2030. This study analyzes the development pattern of WRCC in the process of water conservancy modernization in Jilin Province and provides reference for other provinces to make the similar plan. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Urban Groundwater and Sustainable Water Resources Management and Planning)
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16 pages, 8669 KiB  
Article
Flooding of Piazza San Marco (Venice): Physical Model Tests to Evaluate the Overtopping Discharge
by Piero Ruol, Chiara Favaretto, Matteo Volpato and Luca Martinelli
Water 2020, 12(2), 427; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020427 - 5 Feb 2020
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5973
Abstract
This paper aims at evaluating the wave overtopping discharge over the pavement of “Piazza S. Marco” (Venice) in order to select the best option to mitigate the risk of flooding of the Piazza and to protect the monuments and historic buildings, e.g., the [...] Read more.
This paper aims at evaluating the wave overtopping discharge over the pavement of “Piazza S. Marco” (Venice) in order to select the best option to mitigate the risk of flooding of the Piazza and to protect the monuments and historic buildings, e.g., the “Basilica S. Marco”. In fact, the MO.S.E. (MOdulo Sperimentale Elettromeccanico) system is designed to keep the water level below a certain value, for the safety of the lagoon, but it does not guarantee the defence of the Piazza, where flooding is still possible, being its pavement locally much lower than the maximum expected water level. To completely defend the Piazza, specific additional works are planned to prevent the back-flow through the natural drainage system (now the primary pathway) or by filtration or by overtopping. This paper investigates on the overtopping mechanism, under conditions compatible with a fully operational MO.S.E. system, through 2-D experiments. The pavement of the Piazza is gently sloping towards the masonry quay which, in some parts is formed by 5 descending steps, and in some other parts, is just a vertical wall. Close to the “Marciana” Library, a critical part is present, with a slightly lower crest freeboard. In total, three cross-sections were examined in the 36 m long wave flume of the Padova University. The test programme includes 10 irregular wave attacks and three different water levels. The test results differ considerably from the results of the available formulas, since the investigated cross-sections by far exceed their range of applicability. The presence of the steps affects only the reflection coefficient rather than the overtopping discharges. In general, if the waves incident to the Piazza are higher than 40 cm, which is a possible scenario, some other adaptation works must be considered, such as the pavement rise, temporary barriers or the reduction of the waves impacting the quay through, for instance, floating breakwaters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interaction between Waves and Maritime Structures)
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25 pages, 2815 KiB  
Review
Rethinking the Framework of Smart Water System: A Review
by Jiada Li, Xiafei Yang and Robert Sitzenfrei
Water 2020, 12(2), 412; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020412 - 4 Feb 2020
Cited by 88 | Viewed by 16179
Abstract
Throughout the past years, governments, industries, and researchers have shown increasing interest in incorporating smart techniques, including sensor monitoring, real-time data transmitting, and real-time controlling into water systems. However, the design and construction of such a smart water system are still not quite [...] Read more.
Throughout the past years, governments, industries, and researchers have shown increasing interest in incorporating smart techniques, including sensor monitoring, real-time data transmitting, and real-time controlling into water systems. However, the design and construction of such a smart water system are still not quite standardized for massive applications due to the lack of consensus on the framework. The major challenge impeding wide application of the smart water network is the unavailability of a systematic framework to guide real-world design and deployment. To address this challenge, this review study aims to facilitate more extensive adoption of the smart water system, to increase effectiveness and efficiency in real-world water system contexts. A total of 32 literature pieces including 1 international forum, 17 peer-reviewed papers, 10 reports, and 4 presentations that are directly related to frameworks of smart water system have been reviewed. A new and comprehensive smart water framework, including definition and architecture, was proposed in this review paper. Two conceptual metrics (smartness and cyber wellness) were defined to evaluate the performance of smart water systems. Additionally, three pieces of future research suggestions were discussed, calling for broader collaboration in the community of researchers, engineers, and industrial and governmental sectors to promote smart water system applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Urban Water Networks)
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26 pages, 2401 KiB  
Review
The Science behind Scour at Bridge Foundations: A Review
by Alonso Pizarro, Salvatore Manfreda and Enrico Tubaldi
Water 2020, 12(2), 374; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020374 - 30 Jan 2020
Cited by 126 | Viewed by 14938
Abstract
Foundation scour is among the main causes of bridge collapse worldwide, resulting in significant direct and indirect losses. A vast amount of research has been carried out during the last decades on the physics and modelling of this phenomenon. The purpose of this [...] Read more.
Foundation scour is among the main causes of bridge collapse worldwide, resulting in significant direct and indirect losses. A vast amount of research has been carried out during the last decades on the physics and modelling of this phenomenon. The purpose of this paper is, therefore, to provide an up-to-date, comprehensive, and holistic literature review of the problem of scour at bridge foundations, with a focus on the following topics: (i) sediment particle motion; (ii) physical modelling and controlling dimensionless scour parameters; (iii) scour estimates encompassing empirical models, numerical frameworks, data-driven methods, and non-deterministic approaches; (iv) bridge scour monitoring including successful examples of case studies; (v) current approach for assessment and design of bridges against scour; and, (vi) research needs and future avenues. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bridge Hydraulics: Current State of the Knowledge and Perspectives)
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23 pages, 902 KiB  
Article
An Innovative Tool for the Management of the Surface Drinking Water Resources at European Level: GOWARE—Transnational Guide Towards an Optimal WAter REgime
by Angela Rizzo, Primoz Banovec, Ajda Cilenšek, Guido Rianna and Monia Santini
Water 2020, 12(2), 370; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020370 - 29 Jan 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4566
Abstract
GOWARE (transnational Guide toward an Optimal WAter REgime) represents a Decision Support Tool (DST) developed to support the implementation of innovative Best Management Practices (BMPs) for drinking water protection and flood/drought risk mitigation. The tool is one of the main outputs of the [...] Read more.
GOWARE (transnational Guide toward an Optimal WAter REgime) represents a Decision Support Tool (DST) developed to support the implementation of innovative Best Management Practices (BMPs) for drinking water protection and flood/drought risk mitigation. The tool is one of the main outputs of the PROLINE-CE Project, an EU project funded within the Interreg Central Europe (CE) Programme (2014–2020). The aim of this paper is illustrating the design and the methodological approaches proposed for the operative development of the tool. Furthermore, the paper provides the results of a number of tests carried out to evaluate the understandability of the analysis’s processes and assessing the stakeholders’ acceptance. Specifically, GOWARE-DST has been developed for supporting single users or groups of users in the decision-making process. The tool has been provided with a catalogue of 92 BMPs to handle water issues in different land use contexts. The selection of practices suitable for addressing the specific user’s requirements is supported by the Analytic Hierarchy Process, a method that allows filtering a subset of BMPs by accounting for the relative importance that the user assigns to each characterizing criterion. GOWARE-DST represents an innovative tool for supporting users at different levels of planning (operational and strategic) by promoting sustainable land and water management and defining long-term governance activities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Efficient Practices of Land Use Management for Water Resources Protection)
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11 pages, 3306 KiB  
Article
Assessing Aquifer Water Level and Salinity for a Managed Artificial Recharge Site Using Reclaimed Water
by Faten Jarraya Horriche and Sihem Benabdallah
Water 2020, 12(2), 341; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020341 - 25 Jan 2020
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 5304
Abstract
This study was carried out to examine the impact of an artificial recharge site on groundwater level and salinity using treated domestic wastewater for the Korba aquifer (north eastern Tunisia). The site is located in a semi-arid region affected by seawater intrusion, inducing [...] Read more.
This study was carried out to examine the impact of an artificial recharge site on groundwater level and salinity using treated domestic wastewater for the Korba aquifer (north eastern Tunisia). The site is located in a semi-arid region affected by seawater intrusion, inducing an increase in groundwater salinity. Investigation of the subsurface enabled the identification of suitable areas for aquifer recharge mainly composed of sand formations. Groundwater flow and solute transport models (MODFLOW and MT3DMS) were then setup and calibrated for steady and transient states from 1971 to 2005 and used to assess the impact of the artificial recharge site. Results showed that artificial recharge, with a rate of 1500 m3/day and a salinity of 3.3 g/L, could produce a recovery in groundwater level by up to 2.7 m and a reduction in groundwater salinity by as much as 5.7 g/L over an extended simulation period. Groundwater monitoring for 2007–2014, used for model validation, allowed one to confirm that the effective recharge, reaching the water table, is less than the planned values. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of the Systems Approach to the Management of Complex Water Systems)
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26 pages, 5893 KiB  
Article
Coastal Flooding and Erosion under a Changing Climate: Implications at a Low-Lying Coast (Ebro Delta)
by Albert Grases, Vicente Gracia, Manuel García-León, Jue Lin-Ye and Joan Pau Sierra
Water 2020, 12(2), 346; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020346 - 25 Jan 2020
Cited by 63 | Viewed by 7477
Abstract
Episodic coastal hazards associated to sea storms are responsible for sudden and intense changes in coastal morphology. Climate change and local anthropogenic activities such as river regulation and urban growth are raising risk levels in coastal hotspots, like low-lying areas of river deltas. [...] Read more.
Episodic coastal hazards associated to sea storms are responsible for sudden and intense changes in coastal morphology. Climate change and local anthropogenic activities such as river regulation and urban growth are raising risk levels in coastal hotspots, like low-lying areas of river deltas. This urges to revise present management strategies to guarantee their future sustainability, demanding a detailed diagnostic of the hazard evolution. In this paper, flooding and erosion under current and future conditions have been assessed at local scale at the urban area of Riumar, a touristic enclave placed at the Ebro Delta (Spain). Process-based models have been used to address the interaction between beach morphology and storm waves, as well as the influence of coastal environment complexity. Storm waves have been propagated with SWAN wave model and have provided the forcings for XBeach, a 2DH hydro-morphodynamic model. Results show that future trends in sea level rise and wave forcing produce non-linear variations of the flooded area and the volume of mobilized sediment resulting from marine storms. In particular, the balance between flooding and sediment transport will shift depending on the relative sea level. Wave induced flooding and long-shore sand transport seem to be diminished in the future, whereas static sea level flooding and cross-shore sediment transport are exacerbated. Therefore, the characterization of tipping points in the coastal response can help to develop robust and adaptive plans to manage climate change impact in sandy wave dominated coasts with a low-lying hinterland and a complex shoreline morphology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Climate Change on Coastal Hydrodynamics)
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16 pages, 1043 KiB  
Article
Human Health Risks Associated with Recreational Waters: Preliminary Approach of Integrating Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment with Microbial Source Tracking
by Anna Gitter, Kristina D. Mena, Kevin L. Wagner, Diane E. Boellstorff, Kyna E. Borel, Lucas F. Gregory, Terry J. Gentry and Raghupathy Karthikeyan
Water 2020, 12(2), 327; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020327 - 23 Jan 2020
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5284
Abstract
Gastrointestinal (GI) illness risks associated with exposure to waters impacted by human and nonhuman fecal sources were estimated using quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA). Microbial source tracking (MST) results had identified Escherichia coli (E. coli) contributors to the waterbody as human [...] Read more.
Gastrointestinal (GI) illness risks associated with exposure to waters impacted by human and nonhuman fecal sources were estimated using quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA). Microbial source tracking (MST) results had identified Escherichia coli (E. coli) contributors to the waterbody as human and unidentified (10%), cattle and domestic animals (25%), and wildlife (65%) in a rural watershed. The illness risks associated with ingestion during recreation were calculated by assigning reference pathogens for each contributing source and using pathogen dose–response relationships. The risk of GI illness was calculated for a specific sampling site with a geometric mean of E. coli of 163 colony forming units (cfu) 100 mL−1, and the recreational standard of E. coli, 126 cfu 100 mL−1. While the most frequent sources of fecal indicator bacteria at the sampling site were nonhuman, the risk of illness from norovirus, the reference pathogen representing human waste, contributed the greatest risk to human health. This study serves as a preliminary review regarding the potential for incorporating results from library-dependent MST to inform a QMRA for recreational waters. The simulations indicated that identifying the sources contributing to the bacterial impairment is critical to estimate the human health risk associated with recreation in a waterbody. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Water Quality and Contamination)
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21 pages, 2610 KiB  
Article
Roof-Harvested Rainwater Use in Household Agriculture: Contributions to the Sustainable Development Goals
by Caleb Christian Amos, Ataur Rahman, John Mwangi Gathenya, Eran Friedler, Fazlul Karim and Andre Renzaho
Water 2020, 12(2), 332; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020332 - 23 Jan 2020
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 6460
Abstract
Food and water are at the heart of sustainable development. Roof-harvested rainwater kept in rainwater storage systems (RSS) and used in household agriculture (HA) has the potential to increase yields and supplement household nutrition. Combined systems may contribute to at least eight of [...] Read more.
Food and water are at the heart of sustainable development. Roof-harvested rainwater kept in rainwater storage systems (RSS) and used in household agriculture (HA) has the potential to increase yields and supplement household nutrition. Combined systems may contribute to at least eight of the United Nations’ 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). In this paper, a daily analysis tool, ERain, is used to assess what area of vegetables can be reliably irrigated by roof-harvested rainwater. A socio-economic context is built around an orphanage in the semi-humid region of Nakuru, Kenya. Comparisons are made with the semi-arid region of East Pokot. A 225 kL closed masonry tank and a 1 ML open reservoir with an additional 8 kL/day of recycled water entering are analyzed for various roof sizes. The 225 kL RSS connected to 1000 m2 of roof and irrigating 1000 m2 could increase yields from 1850 to 4200 kg/year in Nakuru. If evaporation was controlled, the 1 mL RSS and recycled water system could support 4000 m2 of land, yielding nearly 20,000 kg/year, which is enough to meet the WHO recommended vegetable dietary requirements of the orphanage. A combination of crops, some for consumption and some for sale, could be grown. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rainwater and Stormwater Harvesting for Sustainable Water Cycle Management)
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20 pages, 2007 KiB  
Article
Impact of Sequential Treatments with Natural and Na-Exchanged Chabazite Zeolite-Rich Tuff on Pig-Slurry Chemical Composition
by Giacomo Ferretti, Giulio Galamini, Valeria Medoro, Massimo Coltorti, Dario Di Giuseppe and Barbara Faccini
Water 2020, 12(2), 310; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020310 - 21 Jan 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3228
Abstract
Notwithstanding the widespread use of natural and pre-exchanged zeolites for zootechnical effluent treatment, little attention has been dedicated to the variation in the chemical composition of the treated slurries, besides the effects on their NH4+ content. This paper aimed at elucidating [...] Read more.
Notwithstanding the widespread use of natural and pre-exchanged zeolites for zootechnical effluent treatment, little attention has been dedicated to the variation in the chemical composition of the treated slurries, besides the effects on their NH4+ content. This paper aimed at elucidating the compositional variations in terms of major and trace elements of a raw pig-slurry (PS) after three sequential treatment cycles (TC) with three different grain sizes of natural and Na-exchanged zeolite-rich volcanic tuffs (natural ZTs and NaZTs). A series of laboratory batch experiments revealed that all ZTs had profoundly influenced the final PS chemical composition. As expected, the NaZTs were more efficient in terms of NH4+ removal than the natural ZTs, reaching almost 60% reduction of the initial content after three TCs. A parallel effect of this efficient removal was the remarkable increase in Na+. The Na-forms of ZTs led also to stronger competition with K+ ions, resulting in adsorption of this macronutrient and hence in a reduction of the fertilization value of the PS. In terms of heavy metals and other trace elements, all the treatments with ZTs had significantly increased the Li, Ba, Rb, Sr, Ga, and U content in the PS. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Wastewater Treatment and Reuse)
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20 pages, 959 KiB  
Article
Comprehensive Assessment Methodology for Urban Residential Rainwater Tank Implementation
by Ashok K. Sharma and Ted Gardner
Water 2020, 12(2), 315; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020315 - 21 Jan 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4612
Abstract
Rainwater tanks are increasingly being implemented as part of the integrated urban water management paradigm where all sources of water, including potable, stormwater and recycled, are considered eligible to contribute to the urban water supply. Over the last decade or so, there has [...] Read more.
Rainwater tanks are increasingly being implemented as part of the integrated urban water management paradigm where all sources of water, including potable, stormwater and recycled, are considered eligible to contribute to the urban water supply. Over the last decade or so, there has been a rapid uptake of rainwater tank systems in urban areas, especially in Australian cities, encouraged through financial incentives, but more importantly, from change in residential building codes effectively mandating the installation of rainwater tanks. Homes with rainwater tanks in Australian cities have increased from 15% to 28% over six years to 2013. These building codes specify certain rainwater tank specifications to achieve a stated rainwater use, and hence potable water savings. These specifications include minimum rainwater tank size, minimum connected roof area, plumbing for internal supply for toilets and washing machines, and external supply for garden watering. These expected potable water savings from households are often factored into regional strategic water planning objectives. Hence if rainwater tanks do not deliver the expected saving due to sub-standard installation and/or poor maintenance, it will have an adverse impact on the regional water plan in the longer term. In this paper, a methodology to assess the effectiveness of a government rainwater tank policy in achieving predicted potable water savings is described and illustrated with a case study from South East Queensland, Australia. It is anticipated that water professionals across the globe should be able to use the same methodology to assess the effectiveness of similar rainwater policies, or indeed any other distributed water saving policy, in their local planning communities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Technologies and Water Supply Planning)
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18 pages, 2803 KiB  
Article
Reuse of Waste Geothermal Brine: Process, Thermodynamic and Economic Analysis
by Mauro Capocelli, Eugenio Moliterni, Vincenzo Piemonte and Marcello De Falco
Water 2020, 12(2), 316; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020316 - 21 Jan 2020
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 6404
Abstract
Geothermal brines can be a resource of energy, freshwater and minerals. Even when rejected after their exploitation to produce energy in a power plant, the brines can be a source of freshwater and minerals, and can have a residual enthalpy that can be [...] Read more.
Geothermal brines can be a resource of energy, freshwater and minerals. Even when rejected after their exploitation to produce energy in a power plant, the brines can be a source of freshwater and minerals, and can have a residual enthalpy that can be recovered to produce additional power. The different reuse scenarios of these wasted brines depend on the composition and temperature at which they must be reinjected into the wells. On this basis, geothermal energy production is a perfect case study to investigate the water–energy nexus and to optimize the integrated energy- and water-production processes. In this paper, two case studies of brine reuse for both energy and water production are presented with the related process analysis, basic design and technical–economic analysis. A methodology to evaluate the exergy efficiency of the processes is presented by analyzing minimum work of separation, the maximum achievable work and the additional primary energy required for integrated production. The novel approach to estimate the process efficiency for integrated geothermal energy and desalination plants is applied to the case studies and discussed in light of literature results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Technologies for Water Reuse: Current Status and Future Challenges)
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26 pages, 2419 KiB  
Review
Machine Learning and Data Analytic Techniques in Digital Water Metering: A Review
by Md Shamsur Rahim, Khoi Anh Nguyen, Rodney Anthony Stewart, Damien Giurco and Michael Blumenstein
Water 2020, 12(1), 294; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010294 - 19 Jan 2020
Cited by 64 | Viewed by 12118
Abstract
Digital or intelligent water meters are being rolled out globally as a crucial component in improving urban water management. This is because of their ability to frequently send water consumption information electronically and later utilise the information to generate insights or provide feedback [...] Read more.
Digital or intelligent water meters are being rolled out globally as a crucial component in improving urban water management. This is because of their ability to frequently send water consumption information electronically and later utilise the information to generate insights or provide feedback to consumers. Recent advances in machine learning (ML) and data analytic (DA) technologies have provided the opportunity to more effectively utilise the vast amount of data generated by these meters. Several studies have been conducted to promote water conservation by analysing the data generated by digital meters and providing feedback to consumers and water utilities. The purpose of this review was to inform scholars and practitioners about the contributions and limitations of ML and DA techniques by critically analysing the relevant literature. We categorised studies into five main themes: (1) water demand forecasting; (2) socioeconomic analysis; (3) behaviour analysis; (4) water event categorisation; and (5) water-use feedback. The review identified significant research gaps in terms of the adoption of advanced ML and DA techniques, which could potentially lead to water savings and more efficient demand management. We concluded that further investigations are required into highly personalised feedback systems, such as recommender systems, to promote water-conscious behaviour. In addition, advanced data management solutions, effective user profiles, and the clustering of consumers based on their profiles require more attention to promote water-conscious behaviours. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Role of Intelligent Sensor Networks and Big Data Informatics for Enhanced Management of Urban Water and Energy Resources)
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13 pages, 3155 KiB  
Article
Interactions between Microalgae and Bacteria in the Treatment of Wastewater from Milk Whey Processing
by Francesca Marazzi, Micol Bellucci, Tania Fantasia, Elena Ficara and Valeria Mezzanotte
Water 2020, 12(1), 297; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010297 - 19 Jan 2020
Cited by 52 | Viewed by 6932
Abstract
Milk whey processing wastewaters (MWPWs) are characterized by high COD and organic nitrogen content; the concentrations of phosphorus are also relevant. A microalgal-based process was tested at lab scale in order to assess the feasibility of treating MWPW without any dilution or pre-treatment. [...] Read more.
Milk whey processing wastewaters (MWPWs) are characterized by high COD and organic nitrogen content; the concentrations of phosphorus are also relevant. A microalgal-based process was tested at lab scale in order to assess the feasibility of treating MWPW without any dilution or pre-treatment. Different microalgal strains and populations were tested. Based on the obtained results, Scenedesmus acuminatus (SA) and a mixed population (PM) chiefly made of Chlorella, Scenedesmus, and Chlamydomonas spp. were grown in duplicate for 70 days in Plexiglas column photobioreactors (PBRs), fed continuously (2.5 L culture volume, 7 days hydraulic retention time). Nutrient removal, microalgae growth, photosynthetic efficiency, and the composition of microalgal populations in the columns were monitored. At steady state, the microalgal growth was similar for SA and PM. The average removal efficiencies for the main pollutants were: 93% (SA), 94% (PM) for COD; 88% (SA) and 90% (PM) for total N; and 69% (SA) and 73% (PM) for total P. The residual pollution levels in the effluent from the PBRs were low enough to allow their discharge into surface waters; such good results were achieved thanks to the synergy between the microalgae and bacteria in the CO2 and oxygen production/consumption and in the nitrogen mineralization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integration of Microalgal Based Processes in Wastewater Treatment)
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23 pages, 11215 KiB  
Article
Hydraulic Modeling of Beaver Dams and Evaluation of Their Impacts on Flood Events
by Michael Neumayer, Sonja Teschemacher, Sara Schloemer, Volker Zahner and Wolfgang Rieger
Water 2020, 12(1), 300; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010300 - 19 Jan 2020
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 10989
Abstract
There is a general agreement on the impact of beaver dams regarding the increasing diversity of habitats and the improvement of the water quality, whereas the retention effect during flood events is still being discussed. In this study, we modeled 12 beaver dam [...] Read more.
There is a general agreement on the impact of beaver dams regarding the increasing diversity of habitats and the improvement of the water quality, whereas the retention effect during flood events is still being discussed. In this study, we modeled 12 beaver dam cascade scenarios in two catchments for eight flood events with a two-dimensional (2D) hydrodynamic model. The implementation of the potential cascades in the model is based on the developed three-stage model for predicting location-dependent dam cascades in Bavaria. A Bavaria-wide questionnaire regarding dam occurrences and characteristics in combination with a detailed survey of 51 dams was used to set up a prediction scheme. It was observed that beaver dams are most likely built in rivers with riparian forest, with widths from 2 to 11 m and depths smaller than 1 m. The hydraulic model results showed larger inundation areas (>+300%) for the beaver dam scenarios. There is a noticeable peak attenuation and translation for elevated peak discharges (five times the annual mean discharge: up to ≤13.1% and 2.75 h), but no remarkable effect could be observed for flood events with return periods of more than 2 years. We conclude from the results that beaver dam cascades can have an impact on runoff characteristics, but do not lead to relevant peak reductions during flood events and therefore cannot be counted as flood mitigation measure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process Based Modelling of Natural and Distributed Flood Control Measures)
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14 pages, 1012 KiB  
Communication
Algal Bloom Occurrence and Effects in Russia
by Zorigto Namsaraev, Anna Melnikova, Anastasia Komova, Vasily Ivanov, Anastasia Rudenko and Evgenii Ivanov
Water 2020, 12(1), 285; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010285 - 18 Jan 2020
Cited by 39 | Viewed by 8574
Abstract
Eutrophication caused by the entry of nutrients into a water body may lead to algal bloom. Russia possesses the world’s second highest supply of renewable freshwater resources and has faced the problem of eutrophication for many years. Nevertheless, as far as we know, [...] Read more.
Eutrophication caused by the entry of nutrients into a water body may lead to algal bloom. Russia possesses the world’s second highest supply of renewable freshwater resources and has faced the problem of eutrophication for many years. Nevertheless, as far as we know, no general analysis of Russia’s algal bloom situation has been before carried out. We have analyzed mass media and scientific reports about algal outbreaks from 2016 to 2018, which allowed us to determine the geographical distribution of algal blooms in Russia, as well as the major effects of eutrophication. As a result, we showed that algal blooms happened in all major climate zones and all federal districts. Cyanobacteria are the most frequently reported photosynthetic organisms comprising algal blooms in freshwater reservoirs located in the continental part of Russia and in the Baltic Sea. Dinoflagellate dominated blooms are more characteristic for the coastal parts of the northeastern Pacific Ocean. The largest number of reports comes from the south of the European part of Russia. However, we did not find significant correlations between state statistics data on factors possibly affecting eutrophication (e.g., population, arable land area, fertilizers, livestock, air temperature, etc.) and the number of algal outbreaks in the regions. Mass media analysis showed that algal blooms attract considerable public attention in Russia, which requires the scientific community to actively participate in solving the problem. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pollutant/Nutrient Transport and Fate under Changing Hydroclimatic Conditions)
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24 pages, 4679 KiB  
Article
Temporal Probability Assessment and Its Use in Landslide Susceptibility Mapping for Eastern Bhutan
by Abhirup Dikshit, Raju Sarkar, Biswajeet Pradhan, Ratiranjan Jena, Dowchu Drukpa and Abdullah M. Alamri
Water 2020, 12(1), 267; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010267 - 17 Jan 2020
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 7151
Abstract
Landslides are one of the major natural disasters that Bhutan faces every year. The monsoon season in Bhutan is usually marked by heavy rainfall, which leads to multiple landslides, especially across the highways, and affects the entire transportation network of the nation. The [...] Read more.
Landslides are one of the major natural disasters that Bhutan faces every year. The monsoon season in Bhutan is usually marked by heavy rainfall, which leads to multiple landslides, especially across the highways, and affects the entire transportation network of the nation. The determinations of rainfall thresholds are often used to predict the possible occurrence of landslides. A rainfall threshold was defined along Samdrup Jongkhar–Trashigang highway in eastern Bhutan using cumulated event rainfall and antecedent rainfall conditions. Threshold values were determined using the available daily rainfall and landslide data from 2014 to 2017, and validated using the 2018 dataset. The threshold determined was used to estimate temporal probability using a Poisson probability model. Finally, a landslide susceptibility map using the analytic hierarchy process was developed for the highway to identify the sections of the highway that are more susceptible to landslides. The accuracy of the model was validated using the area under the receiver operating characteristic curves. The results presented here may be regarded as a first step towards understanding of landslide hazards and development of an early warning system for a region where such studies have not previously been conducted. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rainfall Thresholds and Other Approaches for Landslide Prediction and Early Warning)
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20 pages, 5590 KiB  
Article
Hydrological Modeling to Assess the Efficiency of Groundwater Replenishment through Natural Reservoirs in the Hungarian Drava River Floodplain
by Ali Salem, József Dezső, Mustafa El-Rawy and Dénes Lóczy
Water 2020, 12(1), 250; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010250 - 16 Jan 2020
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 5299
Abstract
Growing drought hazard and water demand for agriculture, ecosystem conservation, and tourism in the Hungarian Drava river floodplain call for novel approaches to maintain wetland habitats and enhance agricultural productivity. Floodplain rehabilitation should be viewed as a complex landscape ecological issue which, beyond [...] Read more.
Growing drought hazard and water demand for agriculture, ecosystem conservation, and tourism in the Hungarian Drava river floodplain call for novel approaches to maintain wetland habitats and enhance agricultural productivity. Floodplain rehabilitation should be viewed as a complex landscape ecological issue which, beyond water management goals to relieve water deficit, ensures a high level of provision for a broad range of ecosystem services. This paper explores the hydrological feasibility of alternative water management, i.e., the restoration of natural reservoirs (abandoned paleochannels) to mitigate water shortage problems. To predict the efficiency of the project, an integrated surface water (Wetspass-M) and groundwater model (MODFLOW-NWT) was developed and calibrated with an eight-year data series. Different management scenarios for two natural reservoirs were simulated with filling rates ranging from 0.5 m3 s−1 to 1.5 m3 s−1. In both instances, a natural reservoir with a feeding rate of 1 m3 s−1 was found to be the best scenario. In this case 14 days of filling are required to reach the possible maximum reservoir stage of +2 m. The first meter rise increases the saturation of soil pores and the second creates an open surface water body. Two filling periods per year, each lasting for around 180 days, are required. The simulated water balance shows that reservoir–groundwater interactions are mainly governed by the inflow into and outflow from the reservoir. Such an integrated management scheme is applicable for floodplain rehabilitation in other regions with similar hydromorphological conditions and hazards, too. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spatial Modelling in Water Resources Management)
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85 pages, 16959 KiB  
Review
Characteristics, Main Impacts, and Stewardship of Natural and Artificial Freshwater Environments: Consequences for Biodiversity Conservation
by Marco Cantonati, Sandra Poikane, Catherine M. Pringle, Lawrence E. Stevens, Eren Turak, Jani Heino, John S. Richardson, Rossano Bolpagni, Alex Borrini, Núria Cid, Martina Čtvrtlíková, Diana M. P. Galassi, Michal Hájek, Ian Hawes, Zlatko Levkov, Luigi Naselli-Flores, Abdullah A. Saber, Mattia Di Cicco, Barbara Fiasca, Paul B. Hamilton, Jan Kubečka, Stefano Segadelli and Petr Znachoradd Show full author list remove Hide full author list
Water 2020, 12(1), 260; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010260 - 16 Jan 2020
Cited by 204 | Viewed by 54888
Abstract
In this overview (introductory article to a special issue including 14 papers), we consider all main types of natural and artificial inland freshwater habitas (fwh). For each type, we identify the main biodiversity patterns and ecological features, human impacts on the system and [...] Read more.
In this overview (introductory article to a special issue including 14 papers), we consider all main types of natural and artificial inland freshwater habitas (fwh). For each type, we identify the main biodiversity patterns and ecological features, human impacts on the system and environmental issues, and discuss ways to use this information to improve stewardship. Examples of selected key biodiversity/ecological features (habitat type): narrow endemics, sensitive (groundwater and GDEs); crenobionts, LIHRes (springs); unidirectional flow, nutrient spiraling (streams); naturally turbid, floodplains, large-bodied species (large rivers); depth-variation in benthic communities (lakes); endemism and diversity (ancient lakes); threatened, sensitive species (oxbow lakes, SWE); diverse, reduced littoral (reservoirs); cold-adapted species (Boreal and Arctic fwh); endemism, depauperate (Antarctic fwh); flood pulse, intermittent wetlands, biggest river basins (tropical fwh); variable hydrologic regime—periods of drying, flash floods (arid-climate fwh). Selected impacts: eutrophication and other pollution, hydrologic modifications, overexploitation, habitat destruction, invasive species, salinization. Climate change is a threat multiplier, and it is important to quantify resistance, resilience, and recovery to assess the strategic role of the different types of freshwater ecosystems and their value for biodiversity conservation. Effective conservation solutions are dependent on an understanding of connectivity between different freshwater ecosystems (including related terrestrial, coastal and marine systems). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiplicity, Characteristics, Main Impacts, and Stewardship of Natural and Artificial Freshwater Environments: Consequences for Biodiversity Conservation)
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17 pages, 16221 KiB  
Article
Estimating Soil Organic Carbon in Agricultural Gypsiferous Soils by Diffuse Reflectance Spectroscopy
by Maria Jose Marques, Ana María Álvarez, Pilar Carral, Iris Esparza, Blanca Sastre and Ramón Bienes
Water 2020, 12(1), 261; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010261 - 16 Jan 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4150
Abstract
Contents of soil organic carbon (SOC), gypsum, CaCO3, and quartz, among others, were analyzed and related to reflectance features in visible and near-infrared (VIS/NIR) range, using partial least square regression (PLSR) in ParLes software. Soil samples come from a sloping olive [...] Read more.
Contents of soil organic carbon (SOC), gypsum, CaCO3, and quartz, among others, were analyzed and related to reflectance features in visible and near-infrared (VIS/NIR) range, using partial least square regression (PLSR) in ParLes software. Soil samples come from a sloping olive grove managed by frequent tillage in a gypsiferous area of Central Spain. Samples were collected in three different layers, at 0–10, 10–20 and 20–30 cm depth (IPCC guidelines for Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme in 2006). Analyses were performed by C Loss-On-Ignition, X-ray diffraction and water content by the Richards plates method. Significant differences for SOC, gypsum, and CaCO3 were found between layers; similarly, soil reflectance for 30 cm depth layers was higher. The resulting PLSR models (60 samples for calibration and 30 independent samples for validation) yielded good predictions for SOC (R2 = 0.74), moderate prediction ability for gypsum and were not accurate for the rest of rest of soil components. Importantly, SOC content was related to water available capacity. Soils with high reflectance features held c.a. 40% less water than soils with less reflectance. Therefore, higher reflectance can be related to degradation in gypsiferous soil. The starting point of soil degradation and further evolution could be established and mapped through remote sensing techniques for policy decision making. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion, Soil Desertification and Soil Conservation in Agri-Environment Systems)
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14 pages, 2585 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of the Groundwater Quality Using the Water Quality Index and Geostatistical Analysis in the Dier al-Balah Governorate, Gaza Strip, Palestine
by Moustafa El Baba, Prabin Kayastha, Marijke Huysmans and Florimond De Smedt
Water 2020, 12(1), 262; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010262 - 16 Jan 2020
Cited by 91 | Viewed by 9477
Abstract
Groundwater contamination is a major problem in the Gaza Strip. In this study we investigate the groundwater quality in the Dier al-Balah Governorate. Water samples were collected from 19 municipal wells in April 2009 and April 2014 and analyzed for physio-chemical parameters (pH, [...] Read more.
Groundwater contamination is a major problem in the Gaza Strip. In this study we investigate the groundwater quality in the Dier al-Balah Governorate. Water samples were collected from 19 municipal wells in April 2009 and April 2014 and analyzed for physio-chemical parameters (pH, TDS, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, Cl−, SO42–, HCO3− and NO3−). The aim of the research is to determine the groundwater quality and to produce groundwater quality maps using the water quality index (WQI) method and geostatistical analysis. The results show that all water samples are very saline due to the intrusion of Mediterranean seawater in the coastal aquifer. Differences in chemical composition between 2009 and 2014 indicate that about 1% more seawater was mixed with the groundwater in this period. The majority of the observed chemical parameters of all wells are well above the WHO water quality standards and all WQI values indicate that the water quality is problematic. The spatial variation of the WQI scores is modelled by a deterministic component expressing a linear dependence on the distance to the coastline and a stochastic residual described by an exponential variogram with a practical range of 3000 m. The mapping of the WQI scores and derived water quality classes is achieved through regression-kriging. The results indicate that the groundwater in a large area along the coastline is unsuitable for human consumption and comparison of the maps of 2009 and 2014 shows that this region further expanded by about 700 m inland in a period of 5 years. The results of this study are worrying, but they also contribute to a better understanding of the factors that determine the groundwater quality and can help authorities and stakeholders with sustainable development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Seawater Intrusion into Coastal Aquifers)
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19 pages, 4469 KiB  
Article
Physical Model Study on Discharge over a Dam Due to Landslide Generated Waves
by Netsanet Nigatu Tessema, Fjóla G. Sigtryggsdóttir, Leif Lia and Asie Kemal Jabir
Water 2020, 12(1), 234; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010234 - 15 Jan 2020
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4927
Abstract
Impulse waves generated by landslides falling into reservoirs may lead to overtopping of a dam and, in turn, to flooding of the downstream area. In the case of an embankment dam, the overtopping may lead to erosion of the downstream slope, ultimately resulting [...] Read more.
Impulse waves generated by landslides falling into reservoirs may lead to overtopping of a dam and, in turn, to flooding of the downstream area. In the case of an embankment dam, the overtopping may lead to erosion of the downstream slope, ultimately resulting in breaching and complete failure with consequent further hazardous release of water to the downstream area. This research deals with the overtopping process of a dam due to landslide generated waves in a three-dimensional (3D) physical scale model setup. Experiments have been conducted with varying the slide, reservoir, and dam parameters. The primary focus is on investigating the feasibility of employing the steady state weir equation in order to predict the overtopping discharge over a dam crest due to landslide generated waves. Calibration and validation of the coefficient of discharge values for the different dam section are conducted for the specified model setup. Accordingly, a two-step calculation procedure is presented for predicting the overtopping discharge based on the maximum overtopping depth values. Hence, for the fixed setup, which includes a constant slope angle of the landslide surface, a predictive equation for maximum overtopping depth is proposed, based on slide volume, slide release height, still water depth, upstream dam slope angle, and dam height. The relative slide volume and relative still water depth both seem to have a significant effect on the relative overtopping depth. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Hydraulics and Hydrodynamics)
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12 pages, 3464 KiB  
Article
Multi-Objective Optimization for Selecting and Siting the Cost-Effective BMPs by Coupling Revised GWLF Model and NSGAII Algorithm
by Zuoda Qi, Gelin Kang, Xiaojin Wu, Yuting Sun and Yuqiu Wang
Water 2020, 12(1), 235; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010235 - 15 Jan 2020
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3562
Abstract
Best management practices (BMPs) are an effective way to control water pollution. However, identification of the optimal distribution and cost-effect of BMPs provides a great challenge for watershed policy makers. In this paper, a semi-distributed, low-data, and robust watershed model, the Revised Generalized [...] Read more.
Best management practices (BMPs) are an effective way to control water pollution. However, identification of the optimal distribution and cost-effect of BMPs provides a great challenge for watershed policy makers. In this paper, a semi-distributed, low-data, and robust watershed model, the Revised Generalized Watershed Loading Function (RGWLF), is improved by adding the pollutant attenuation process in the river channel and a bank filter strips reduction function. Three types of pollution control measures—point source wastewater treatment, bank filter strips, and converting farmland to forest—are considered, and the cost of each measure is determined. Furthermore, the RGWLF watershed model is coupled with a widely recognized multi-objective optimization algorithm, the non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm II (NSGAII), the combination of which is applied in the Luanhe watershed to search for spatial BMPs for dissolved nitrogen (DisN). Fifty scenarios were finally selected from numerous possibilities and the results indicate that, at a minimum cost of 9.09 × 107 yuan, the DisN load is 3.1 × 107 kg and, at a maximum cost of 1.77 × 108 yuan, the total dissolved nitrogen load is 1.31 × 107 kg; with the no-measures scenario, the DisN load is 4.05 × 107 kg. This BMP optimization model system could assist decision-makers in determining a scientifically comprehensive plan to realize cost-effective goals for the watershed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Resources Management Models for Policy Assessment)
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21 pages, 10958 KiB  
Article
A Comparative Study of Kernel Logistic Regression, Radial Basis Function Classifier, Multinomial Naïve Bayes, and Logistic Model Tree for Flash Flood Susceptibility Mapping
by Binh Thai Pham, Tran Van Phong, Huu Duy Nguyen, Chongchong Qi, Nadhir Al-Ansari, Ata Amini, Lanh Si Ho, Tran Thi Tuyen, Hoang Phan Hai Yen, Hai-Bang Ly, Indra Prakash and Dieu Tien Bui
Water 2020, 12(1), 239; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010239 - 15 Jan 2020
Cited by 117 | Viewed by 8692
Abstract
Risk of flash floods is currently an important problem in many parts of Vietnam. In this study, we used four machine-learning methods, namely Kernel Logistic Regression (KLR), Radial Basis Function Classifier (RBFC), Multinomial Naïve Bayes (NBM), and Logistic Model Tree (LMT) to generate [...] Read more.
Risk of flash floods is currently an important problem in many parts of Vietnam. In this study, we used four machine-learning methods, namely Kernel Logistic Regression (KLR), Radial Basis Function Classifier (RBFC), Multinomial Naïve Bayes (NBM), and Logistic Model Tree (LMT) to generate flash flood susceptibility maps at the minor part of Nghe An province of the Center region (Vietnam) where recurrent flood problems are being experienced. Performance of these four methods was evaluated to select the best method for flash flood susceptibility mapping. In the model studies, ten flash flood conditioning factors, namely soil, slope, curvature, river density, flow direction, distance from rivers, elevation, aspect, land use, and geology, were chosen based on topography and geo-environmental conditions of the site. For the validation of models, the area under Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC), Area Under Curve (AUC), and various statistical indices were used. The results indicated that performance of all the models is good for generating flash flood susceptibility maps (AUC = 0.983–0.988). However, performance of LMT model is the best among the four methods (LMT: AUC = 0.988; KLR: AUC = 0.985; RBFC: AUC = 0.984; and NBM: AUC = 0.983). The present study would be useful for the construction of accurate flash flood susceptibility maps with the objectives of identifying flood-susceptible areas/zones for proper flash flood risk management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Flash Flood Forecasting)
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28 pages, 5057 KiB  
Article
Long-Term Isotope Records of Precipitation in Zagreb, Croatia
by Ines Krajcar Bronić, Jadranka Barešić, Damir Borković, Andreja Sironić, Ivanka Lovrenčić Mikelić and Polona Vreča
Water 2020, 12(1), 226; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010226 - 14 Jan 2020
Cited by 45 | Viewed by 6356
Abstract
The isotope composition of precipitation has been monitored in monthly precipitation at Zagreb, Croatia, since 1976. Here, we present a statistical analysis of available long-term isotope data (3H activity concentration, δ2H, δ18O, and deuterium excess) and compare [...] Read more.
The isotope composition of precipitation has been monitored in monthly precipitation at Zagreb, Croatia, since 1976. Here, we present a statistical analysis of available long-term isotope data (3H activity concentration, δ2H, δ18O, and deuterium excess) and compare them to basic meteorological data. The aim was to see whether isotope composition reflected observed climate changes in Zagreb: a significant increase in the annual air temperature and larger variations in the precipitation amount. Annual mean δ18O and δ2H values showed an increase of 0.017‰ and 0.14‰ per year, respectively, with larger differences in monthly mean values in the first half of the year than in the second half. Mean annual d-excess remained constant over the whole long-term period, with a tendency for monthly mean d-excess values to decrease in the first half of the year and increase in the second half due to the influence of air masses originating from the eastern Mediterranean. Changes in the stable isotope composition of precipitation thus resembled changes in the temperature, the circulation pattern of air masses, and the precipitation regime. A local meteoric water line was obtained using different regression methods, which did not result in significant differences between nonweighted and precipitation-weighted slope and intercept values. Deviations from the Global Meteoric Water Line GMWL (lower slopes and intercepts) were observed in two recent periods and could be explained by changes in climate parameters. The temperature gradient of δ18O was 0.33‰/°C. The tritium activity concentrations in precipitation showed slight decreases during the last two decades, and the mean A in the most recent period, 2012–2018, was 7.6 ± 0.8 Tritium Units (TU). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Use of Water Stable Isotopes in Hydrological Process)
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21 pages, 9815 KiB  
Article
3D Numerical Investigation of Forces and Flow Field around the Semi-Submersible Platform in An Internal Solitary Wave
by Weiye Ding, Congfang Ai, Sheng Jin and Jinbo Lin
Water 2020, 12(1), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010208 - 11 Jan 2020
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 3858
Abstract
Characteristics of hydrodynamic forces and flow fields around the semi-submersible platform induced by the internal solitary wave (ISW) propagation were investigated in a 3D numerical wave tank. Good agreements between numerical results and experimental data of forces and torque on the platform were [...] Read more.
Characteristics of hydrodynamic forces and flow fields around the semi-submersible platform induced by the internal solitary wave (ISW) propagation were investigated in a 3D numerical wave tank. Good agreements between numerical results and experimental data of forces and torque on the platform were achieved. The hydrodynamic loads increased and decreased with the increases in the ISW amplitude and fluid depth ratio, respectively. The pressure mainly contributed to the force on the platform. The horizontal forces on bracings were negligible. Almost all the vertical forces on the platform were derived from those on pontoons. The horizontal force and torque on the platform increased with the increases in the angle between the platform symmetrical axis and the ISW propagation direction. The platform subjected the maximum vertical force when the angle was 0°. There were obvious velocity reductions around the platform during the ISW propagation, as visible vortexes shedding around the platform could be observed. Complexities of the distributions of flow fields around the platforms located at the 30°- and 60°-direction were greater than those around the platforms located at the 0°- and 90°-direction. Flow fields around the same kind components of each platform located at different angles were similar. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Hydraulics and Hydrodynamics)
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20 pages, 1225 KiB  
Article
Gender Perspective in Water Management: The Involvement of Women in Participatory Water Institutions of Eastern India
by Varsha Khandker, Vasant P. Gandhi and Nicky Johnson
Water 2020, 12(1), 196; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010196 - 10 Jan 2020
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 11311
Abstract
The paper examines the extent, nature, and factors affecting women’s involvement in participatory irrigation institutions of eastern India. Effective participatory water institutions are urgently needed to improve water management in eastern India, and a significant aspect of this is the involvement of women. [...] Read more.
The paper examines the extent, nature, and factors affecting women’s involvement in participatory irrigation institutions of eastern India. Effective participatory water institutions are urgently needed to improve water management in eastern India, and a significant aspect of this is the involvement of women. There is inadequate representation, participation, and involvement of women in most water institutions. From the participatory and social point of view, this is a significant concern. The relevant data are obtained from the states of Assam and Bihar through a focused survey administered to 109 women in 30 water institutions, and a larger farmer-institutional survey covering 510 households and 51 water institutions. The research examines the extent and nature of the involvement of women in these institutions, as well as in farm decision-making, and the factors that prevent or foster their participation. Additionally, it examines the gender congruence in views regarding water institution activities and their performance, and the perceived benefits of formal involvement of women. The results show that their inclusion is very low (except required inclusion in Bihar), and the concerns of women are usually not being taken into account. Women are involved in farming and water management decisions jointly with men but not independently. Findings indicate that the views of women and men differ on many aspects, and so their inclusion is important. Responses indicate that if women participate formally in water user associations, it would enhance their social and economic standing, achieve greater gender balance, expand their awareness of water management, and contribute to better decision-making in the water institutions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Using Applied Economics to Study Participatory Irrigation Institutions and their Impact in South Asia)
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20 pages, 17388 KiB  
Article
Climate Change Impacts on Hydropower in Yunnan, China
by Benxi Liu, Jay R. Lund, Lingjun Liu, Shengli Liao, Gang Li and Chuntian Cheng
Water 2020, 12(1), 197; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010197 - 10 Jan 2020
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 8018
Abstract
Climate change could have dire effects on hydropower systems, especially in southwest China, where hydropower dominates the regional power system. This study examines two large cascade hydropower systems in Yunnan province in southwest China for 10 climate change projections made with 5 global [...] Read more.
Climate change could have dire effects on hydropower systems, especially in southwest China, where hydropower dominates the regional power system. This study examines two large cascade hydropower systems in Yunnan province in southwest China for 10 climate change projections made with 5 global climate models (GCMs) and 2 representative concentration pathways (RCPs) under Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5). First, a back propagation neural network rain-runoff model is built for each hydropower station to estimate inflows with climate change. Then, a progressive optimality algorithm maximizes hydropower generation for each projection. The results show generation increasing in each GCM projection, but increasing more in GCMs under scenario RCP8.5. However, yearly generation fluctuates more: generation decreases dramatically with potential for electricity shortages in dry years and more electricity as well as spill during wet years. Average annual spill, average annual inflow and average storage have similar trends. The analysis indicates that a planned large dam on the upper Jinsha River would increase seasonal regulation ability, increase hydropower generation, and decrease spill. Increased turbine capacity increases generation slightly and decreases spill for the Lancang River. Results from this study demonstrate effects of climate change on hydropower systems and identify which watersheds might be more vulnerable, along with some actions that could help adapt to climate change. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue System Dynamics Modelling for Water–Energy–Climate Nexus)
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15 pages, 3161 KiB  
Article
Comparison of Long Short Term Memory Networks and the Hydrological Model in Runoff Simulation
by Hongxiang Fan, Mingliang Jiang, Ligang Xu, Hua Zhu, Junxiang Cheng and Jiahu Jiang
Water 2020, 12(1), 175; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010175 - 8 Jan 2020
Cited by 124 | Viewed by 13231
Abstract
Runoff modeling is one of the key challenges in the field of hydrology. Various approaches exist, ranging from physically based over conceptual to fully data driven models. In this paper, we propose a data driven approach using the state-of-the-art Long-Short-Term-Memory (LSTM) network. The [...] Read more.
Runoff modeling is one of the key challenges in the field of hydrology. Various approaches exist, ranging from physically based over conceptual to fully data driven models. In this paper, we propose a data driven approach using the state-of-the-art Long-Short-Term-Memory (LSTM) network. The proposed model was applied in the Poyang Lake Basin (PYLB) and its performance was compared with an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and the Soil & Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). We first tested the impacts of the number of previous time step (window size) in simulation accuracy. Results showed that a window in improper large size will dramatically deteriorate the model performance. In terms of PYLB, a window size of 15 days might be appropriate for both accuracy and computational efficiency. We then trained the model with 2 different input datasets, namely, dataset with precipitation only and dataset with all available meteorological variables. Results demonstrate that although LSTM with precipitation data as the only input can achieve desirable results (where the NSE ranged from 0.60 to 0.92 for the test period), the performance can be improved simply by feeding the model with more meteorological variables (where NSE ranged from 0.74 to 0.94 for the test period). Moreover, the comparison results with the ANN and the SWAT showed that the ANN can get comparable performance with the SWAT in most cases whereas the performance of LSTM is much better. The results of this study underline the potential of the LSTM for runoff modeling especially for areas where detailed topographical data are not available. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wetland Ecohydrology and Water Resource Management)
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34 pages, 2584 KiB  
Review
Research Trends in the Use of Remote Sensing for Inland Water Quality Science: Moving Towards Multidisciplinary Applications
by Simon N. Topp, Tamlin M. Pavelsky, Daniel Jensen, Marc Simard and Matthew R. V. Ross
Water 2020, 12(1), 169; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010169 - 7 Jan 2020
Cited by 246 | Viewed by 19673
Abstract
Remote sensing approaches to measuring inland water quality date back nearly 50 years to the beginning of the satellite era. Over this time span, hundreds of peer-reviewed publications have demonstrated promising remote sensing models to estimate biological, chemical, and physical properties of inland [...] Read more.
Remote sensing approaches to measuring inland water quality date back nearly 50 years to the beginning of the satellite era. Over this time span, hundreds of peer-reviewed publications have demonstrated promising remote sensing models to estimate biological, chemical, and physical properties of inland waterbodies. Until recently, most of these publications focused largely on algorithm development as opposed to implementation of those algorithms to address specific science questions. This slow evolution contrasts with terrestrial and oceanic remote sensing, where methods development in the 1970s led to publications focused on understanding spatially expansive, complex processes as early as the mid-1980s. This review explores the progression of inland water quality remote sensing from methodological development to scientific applications. We use bibliometric analysis to assess overall patterns in the field and subsequently examine 236 key papers to identify trends in research focus and scale. The results highlight an initial 30 year period where the majority of publications focused on model development and validation followed by a spike in publications, beginning in the early-2000s, applying remote sensing models to analyze spatiotemporal trends, drivers, and impacts of changing water quality on ecosystems and human populations. Recent and emerging resources, including improved data availability and enhanced processing platforms, are enabling researchers to address challenging science questions and model spatiotemporally explicit patterns in water quality. Examination of the literature shows that the past 10–15 years has brought about a focal shift within the field, where researchers are using improved computing resources, datasets, and operational remote sensing algorithms to better understand complex inland water systems. Future satellite missions promise to continue these improvements by providing observational continuity with spatial/spectral resolutions ideal for inland waters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Water Quality and Contamination)
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30 pages, 8104 KiB  
Article
Determining the Impact of Riparian Wetlands on Nutrient Cycling, Storage and Export in Permeable Agricultural Catchments
by Penny J. Johnes, Daren C. Gooddy, Timothy H. E. Heaton, Andrew Binley, Michael P. Kennedy, Paul Shand and Hannah Prior
Water 2020, 12(1), 167; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010167 - 6 Jan 2020
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 7124
Abstract
The impact of riparian wetlands on the cycling, retention and export of nutrients from land to water varies according to local environmental conditions and is poorly resolved in catchment management approaches. To determine the role a specific wetland might play in a catchment [...] Read more.
The impact of riparian wetlands on the cycling, retention and export of nutrients from land to water varies according to local environmental conditions and is poorly resolved in catchment management approaches. To determine the role a specific wetland might play in a catchment mitigation strategy, an alternative approach is needed to the high-frequency and spatially detailed monitoring programme that would otherwise be needed. Here, we present a new approach using a combination of novel and well-established geochemical, geophysical and isotope ratio methods. This combined approach was developed and tested against a 2-year high-resolution sampling programme in a lowland permeable wetland in the Lambourn catchment, UK. The monitoring programme identified multiple pathways and water sources feeding into the wetland, generating large spatial and temporal variations in nutrient cycling, retention and export behaviours within the wetland. This complexity of contributing source areas and biogeochemical functions within the wetland were effectively identified using the new toolkit approach. We propose that this technique could be used to determine the likely net source/sink function of riparian wetlands prior to their incorporation into any catchment management plan, with relatively low resource implications when compared to a full high-frequency nutrient speciation and isotope geochemistry-based monitoring approach. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrological and Chemical Controls on Nutrient and Contaminant Loss to Water in Agricultural Landscapes)
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30 pages, 15040 KiB  
Article
A Three-Dimensional Numerical Model with an L-Type Wave-Maker System for Water Wave Simulations by the Moving Boundary Method
by Wei Jia, Shuxue Liu, Jinxuan Li and Yuping Fan
Water 2020, 12(1), 161; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010161 - 5 Jan 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4121
Abstract
A three-dimensional numerical wave tank was developed based on Reynolds averaged Navier–Stokes equations and the volume of fluid method. The moving boundary method is adopted in this model to generate water waves. Piston-type wave-makers are mimicked for the total replication of the physical [...] Read more.
A three-dimensional numerical wave tank was developed based on Reynolds averaged Navier–Stokes equations and the volume of fluid method. The moving boundary method is adopted in this model to generate water waves. Piston-type wave-makers are mimicked for the total replication of the physical wave tank conditions. Two-dimensional regular and irregular waves are simulated, with the capability to trigger the active wave absorption algorithm. The two-sided wave-maker system with L-type arrangement is adopted in this model to expand the effective wave areas for three-dimensional waves. Oblique regular waves and multidirectional random waves are simulated, yielding a good agreement with theoretical solutions. The results indicate that this numerical model is an effective tool to provide finer details or complement data unavailable due to the physical setting of a tank experiment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Hydraulics and Hydrodynamics)
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18 pages, 6904 KiB  
Article
Turbulent Flow Field around Horizontal Cylinders with Scour Hole
by Nadia Penna, Francesco Coscarella and Roberto Gaudio
Water 2020, 12(1), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010143 - 2 Jan 2020
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4687
Abstract
This study presents the results of an experimental investigation on the flow-structure interactions at scoured horizontal cylinders, varying the gap between the cylinder and the bed surface. A 2D Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) system was used to measure the flow field in a [...] Read more.
This study presents the results of an experimental investigation on the flow-structure interactions at scoured horizontal cylinders, varying the gap between the cylinder and the bed surface. A 2D Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) system was used to measure the flow field in a vertical plane at the end of the scouring process. Instantaneous and ensemble-averaged velocity and vorticity fields, viscous and Reynolds stresses, and ensemble-averaged turbulence indicators were calculated. Longitudinal bed profiles were measured at the equilibrium. The results revealed that suspended and laid on cylinders behave differently from half-buried cylinders if subjected to the same hydraulic conditions. In the latter case, vortex shedding downstream of the cylinder is suppressed by the presence of the bed surface that causes an asymmetry in the development of the vortices. This implies that strong turbulent mixing processes occur downstream of the uncovered cylinders, whereas in the case of half-buried cylinders they are confined within the scour hole. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Turbulence and Flow–Sediment Interactions in Open-Channel Flows)
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19 pages, 1886 KiB  
Review
Stable Isotopes of Water and Nitrate for the Identification of Groundwater Flowpaths: A Review
by Hyejung Jung, Dong-Chan Koh, Yun S. Kim, Sung-Wook Jeen and Jeonghoon Lee
Water 2020, 12(1), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010138 - 1 Jan 2020
Cited by 56 | Viewed by 16987
Abstract
Nitrate contamination in stream water and groundwater is a serious environmental problem that arises in areas of high agricultural activities or high population density. It is therefore important to identify the source and flowpath of nitrate in water bodies. In recent decades, the [...] Read more.
Nitrate contamination in stream water and groundwater is a serious environmental problem that arises in areas of high agricultural activities or high population density. It is therefore important to identify the source and flowpath of nitrate in water bodies. In recent decades, the dual isotope analysis (δ15N and δ18O) of nitrate has been widely applied to track contamination sources by taking advantage of the difference in nitrogen and oxygen isotope ratios for different sources. However, transformation processes of nitrogen compounds can change the isotopic composition of nitrate due to the various redox processes in the environment, which often makes it difficult to identify contaminant sources. To compensate for this, the stable water isotope of the H2O itself can be used to interpret the complex hydrological and hydrochemical processes for the movement of nitrate contaminants. Therefore, the present study aims at understanding the fundamental background of stable water and nitrate isotope analysis, including isotope fractionation, analytical methods such as nitrate concentration from samples, instrumentation, and the typical ranges of δ15N and δ18O from various nitrate sources. In addition, we discuss hydrograph separation using the oxygen and hydrogen isotopes of water in combination with the nitrogen and oxygen isotopes of nitrate to understand the relative contributions of precipitation and groundwater to stream water. This study will assist in understanding the groundwater flowpaths as well as tracking the sources of nitrate contamination using the stable isotope analysis in combination with nitrate and water. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Use of Water Stable Isotopes in Hydrological Process)
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26 pages, 4482 KiB  
Article
Selecting Bacteria Candidates for the Bioaugmentation of Activated Sludge to Improve the Aerobic Treatment of Landfill Leachate
by Justyna Michalska, Artur Piński, Joanna Żur and Agnieszka Mrozik
Water 2020, 12(1), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010140 - 1 Jan 2020
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 5920
Abstract
In this study, a multifaceted approach for selecting the suitable candidates for bioaugmentation of activated sludge (AS) that supports leachate treatment was used. To determine the exploitation of 10 bacterial strains isolated from the various matrices for inoculating the AS contaminated with the [...] Read more.
In this study, a multifaceted approach for selecting the suitable candidates for bioaugmentation of activated sludge (AS) that supports leachate treatment was used. To determine the exploitation of 10 bacterial strains isolated from the various matrices for inoculating the AS contaminated with the Kalina pond leachate (KPL), their degradative potential was analyzed along with their aptitude to synthesize compounds improving remediation of pollutants in wastewater and ability to incorporate into the AS flocs. Based on their capability to degrade aromatic compounds (primarily catechol, phenol, and cresols) at a concentration of 1 mg/mL and survive in 12.5% of the KPL, Pseudomonas putida OR45a and P. putida KB3 can be considered to be the best candidates for bioaugmentation of the AS among all of the bacteria tested. Genomic analyses of these two strains revealed the presence of the genes encoding enzymes related to the metabolism of aromatic compounds. Additionally, both microorganisms exhibited a high hydrophobic propensity (above 50%) and an ability to produce biosurfactants as well as high resistance to ammonium (above 600 µg/mL) and heavy metals (especially chromium). These properties enable the exploitation of both bacterial strains in the bioremediation of the AS contaminated with the KPL. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbial Action in Wastewater and Sludge)
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33 pages, 1899 KiB  
Article
Water and Climate Change, Two Key Objectives in the Agenda 2030: Assessment of Climate Literacy Levels and Social Representations in Academics from Three Climate Contexts
by Amor Escoz-Roldán, José Gutiérrez-Pérez and Pablo Ángel Meira-Cartea
Water 2020, 12(1), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010092 - 26 Dec 2019
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 5873
Abstract
The relationship between climate change and water is an obvious and key issue within the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. This study aims to investigate the social representation created around this relationship in three different territorial contexts in order to evaluate the influence [...] Read more.
The relationship between climate change and water is an obvious and key issue within the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. This study aims to investigate the social representation created around this relationship in three different territorial contexts in order to evaluate the influence of the territory on the perception of the risk of climate change and its relationship with water. By means of a questionnaire completed by 1709 university students, the climatic literacy of the individual was evaluated in order to relate it to other dimensions on the relationship between climate change and water (information, training previous on climate change and pro-environmental attitudes) in their different dimensions in three different territorial contexts. Three hypotheses have been tested: (1) The denial of the CC is significantly associated with a representation that belittles the consequences of global warming and other extreme phenomena. (2) Territorial contexts with high average rainfall levels and low average annual temperatures tend to minimize the social representation of water risks associated with the CC. (3) There is significant interaction between the socio-cultural context and social representations on the causes, consequences and solutions to the problems of CC and water. The first two hypotheses have been rejected, while the third has been accepted. The research results show high climate literacy in the samples of selected university students. It is noted that students recognize a close relationship between the problem of water and the climate crisis. Likewise, they identify different types of causes, consequences, physical processes and solutions. Different climatological contexts do not show significant differences in the social representations that students show about climate change, while socio-educational variables such as available scientific information, or ideology orientation do show significant differences. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Literacy and Education)
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13 pages, 1916 KiB  
Article
Smart Water Management towards Future Water Sustainable Networks
by Helena M. Ramos, Aonghus McNabola, P. Amparo López-Jiménez and Modesto Pérez-Sánchez
Water 2020, 12(1), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010058 - 21 Dec 2019
Cited by 90 | Viewed by 21120
Abstract
Water management towards smart cities is an issue increasingly appreciated under financial and environmental sustainability focus in any water sector. The main objective of this research is to disclose the technological breakthroughs associated with water and energy use. A methodology is proposed and [...] Read more.
Water management towards smart cities is an issue increasingly appreciated under financial and environmental sustainability focus in any water sector. The main objective of this research is to disclose the technological breakthroughs associated with water and energy use. A methodology is proposed and applied in a case study to analyze the benefits to develop smart water grids, showing the advantages offered by the development of control measures. The case study showed the positive results, particularly savings of 57 GWh and 100 Mm3 in a period of twelve years when different measures from the common ones were developed for the monitoring and control of water losses in smart water management. These savings contributed to reducing the CO2 emissions to 47,385 t CO2-eq. Finally, in order to evaluate the financial effort and savings obtained in this reference systems (RS) network, the investment required in the monitoring and water losses control in a correlation model case (CMC) was estimated, and, as a consequence, the losses level presented a significant reduction towards sustainable values in the next nine years. Since the pressure control is one of the main issues for the reduction of leakage, an estimation of energy production for Portugal is also presented. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Challenges in Water Systems)
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