Forests

21 pages, 24655 KB

Open AccessArticle

GF-5A Hyperspectral LAI Retrieval over Complex Vegetation Canopies Using Physically Informed PROSAIL Lookup Table Inversion

by Wenbo Liu, Yulin Zhan, Qiyue Liu, Juan Li, Zilong Lian, Xuhan Huang, Kaiteng Jiang and Junwei Liu

Forests 2026, 17(8), 997; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080997 - 21 Aug 2026

Viewed by 303

Abstract

In physical model inversion of leaf area index (LAI) over complex vegetation canopies, variations in canopy structure, background moisture, and background brightness can cause spectrally similar lookup table (LUT) candidates to represent different combinations of canopy and background parameters, reducing retrieval stability. This [...] Read more.

In physical model inversion of leaf area index (LAI) over complex vegetation canopies, variations in canopy structure, background moisture, and background brightness can cause spectrally similar lookup table (LUT) candidates to represent different combinations of canopy and background parameters, reducing retrieval stability. This study proposes a PROSAIL lookup table inversion method for GaoFen-5A (GF-5A) hyperspectral imagery based on physically informed parameter range refinement. A small set of key GF-5A feature bands was selected to preserve information sensitive to canopy structure and background conditions while reducing spectral redundancy. Vegetation type information was used to determine the LIDFa range, while the normalized difference infrared index (NDII) and brightness index (BI) were used to guide the refinement of psoil and rsoil ranges according to moisture related and brightness related spectral responses, respectively. Combining compact spectral inputs with refined PROSAIL parameter ranges improved LUT candidate selection under variable canopy and background conditions. Validation using 62 field LAI values aggregated at the GF-5A pixel scale yielded a coefficient of determination (R²) of 0.6000, a root mean square error (RMSE) of 1.1461, a mean absolute error (MAE) of 0.8712, and a Bias of −0.0092, outperforming the comparison schemes. These results indicate improved physical consistency and stability in LAI inversion under complex canopy and background conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)

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29 pages, 29250 KB

Open AccessReview

Research Progress in Micronano Interface Coating Modification of Wood Porous Scaffolds for High-Value Utilization in Flame Retardancy and Acoustics

by Yixuan Sun, Shuying Ji and Weiqi Leng

Forests 2026, 17(8), 996; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080996 - 21 Aug 2026

Viewed by 217

Abstract

Natural wood possesses a hierarchically porous and anisotropic structure, which provides a foundation for functional utilization, but its flammability and hygroscopicity limit its applications. Conventional bulk impregnation modification involves introducing functional agents throughout the entire pore system. This approach can enhance performance, but [...] Read more.

Natural wood possesses a hierarchically porous and anisotropic structure, which provides a foundation for functional utilization, but its flammability and hygroscopicity limit its applications. Conventional bulk impregnation modification involves introducing functional agents throughout the entire pore system. This approach can enhance performance, but inevitably leads to lumen occlusion and increased density. To address this trade-off, researchers have recently developed micronano coating strategies based on interfacial decoration rather than bulk deposition within the lumina. These strategies confine functional components to cell wall surfaces while preserving the natural porous scaffold. Two fabrication routes have been developed, namely liquid-phase methods and gas-phase methods, which differ in coating precision, penetration depth, and interfacial bonding. In flame retardancy, interfacial coatings act as physical barriers and promote chemical charring. Inorganic layers suppress oxygen diffusion and heat transfer, while phosphorus or nitrogen components catalyze cellulose dehydration. In acoustics, conformal coatings regulate pore wall roughness and acoustic impedance, enhancing viscous and thermal dissipation without blocking channels. Challenges for practical application include mass transfer limitations in large logs, conflicts between high-precision processes and industrial economics, and interfacial durability under service conditions. This narrative review summarizes fabrication strategies, flame-retardant mechanisms, and acoustic regulation principles, providing guidance for coating strategy selection and process optimization. It is noted that this review focuses on wood species with open, permeable pore structures suitable for functional modification, rather than species whose pores are occluded by heartwood extractives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modified Wood: Process–Properties–Durability Relationships)

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16 pages, 20639 KB

Open AccessArticle

Photosynthetic Capacity and Water-Use Characteristics of Mangrove and Semi-Mangrove Species Inferred from Gas Exchange and A–C_i Analysis Under Field Conditions

by Sangeun Kwak, Jueun Yang, Bora Lee, Moon-sub Lee, Citra Gilang Qur’ani, Byoungki Choi and Eunha Park

Forests 2026, 17(8), 995; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080995 - 21 Aug 2026

Viewed by 321

Abstract

This study compared net photosynthesis (A), water-use efficiency (WUE), intrinsic water-use efficiency (iWUE), and A–

C_{i}

curve-derived photosynthetic parameters (maximum carboxylation rate,

V_{cmax}

; maximum electron transport rate,

J_{\max}

) across nine mangrove and semi-mangrove species at a [...] Read more.

This study compared net photosynthesis (A), water-use efficiency (WUE), intrinsic water-use efficiency (iWUE), and A–

C_{i}

curve-derived photosynthetic parameters (maximum carboxylation rate,

V_{cmax}

; maximum electron transport rate,

J_{\max}

) across nine mangrove and semi-mangrove species at a tropical coastal site in Bali, Indonesia. Gas exchange measurements were conducted using portable photosynthesis systems (LI-6400 and LI-6800), and A–

C_{i}

curves were fitted to the Farquhar–von Caemmerer–Berry (FvCB) model. Sonneratia alba Sm. exhibited the highest A (15.29 ±

2.39

μmol

m^{- 2} s^{- 1}

), suggesting comparatively high photosynthetic performance, while Hibiscus tiliaceus L. and Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre showed the highest iWUE values (88–

97

μmol

{mol}^{- 1}

), indicating relatively efficient carbon gain per unit stomatal conductance. Significant overall interspecific variation was detected in

V_{cmax}

and

J_{\max}

(

p = 0.003

and

p = 0.016

, respectively). The observed interspecific variation in A, iWUE,

V_{cmax}

, and

J_{\max}

suggests differences in photosynthetic characteristics and leaf-level water-use efficiency among species. These ecophysiological baseline data may contribute to species selection for mangrove restoration and to understanding physiological responses to environmental change in tropical coastal forests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)

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21 pages, 4689 KB

Open AccessArticle

Soil Fertility Differences and Bacterial and Fungal Community Variation Among Subtropical Forest Stands Dominated by Different Tree Species

by Yumeng Huang, Boyuan Jiang, Yali Chen, Gang Chen, Peng Qiu, Yi Jian and Rui Wang

Forests 2026, 17(8), 994; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080994 - 21 Aug 2026

Viewed by 270

Abstract

Plantations dominated by different tree species can differ in soil nutrient cycling and microbial community assembly, but corresponding bacterial and fungal patterns have not been characterized for mature plantation stands and a natural secondary forest in the Longmen Mountains of southwestern China. This [...] Read more.

Plantations dominated by different tree species can differ in soil nutrient cycling and microbial community assembly, but corresponding bacterial and fungal patterns have not been characterized for mature plantation stands and a natural secondary forest in the Longmen Mountains of southwestern China. This study compared a natural secondary forest (SF) with four plantations, Magnolia officinalis (MO), Juglans regia (JR), Larix gmelinii (LG), and Cryptomeria japonica (CJ), in the Longmen Mountains of southwestern China, and investigated soil physicochemical properties, enzyme activities, bacterial and fungal community composition, co-occurrence networks, and predicted functional profiles in the 0–20 and 20–40 cm soil layers. The results showed that stand type was associated with total nitrogen (TN; p = 0.012), dissolved organic carbon (DOC; p < 0.001), dissolved organic nitrogen (DON; p < 0.001), and urease activity (p = 0.018), whereas pH differed between soil layers (p = 0.024) but not among stand types (p = 0.270). Relative to SF topsoil, DOC was 29.2% higher in JR and 36.1% higher in LG, while DON was 42.0% higher in JR and 51.4% higher in LG. TN and DON also showed stand type × soil layer interactions. None of the bacterial or fungal Chao1, Shannon, or Simpson indices showed significant stand type, soil layer, or interaction effects. In contrast, PERMANOVA indicated that bacterial and fungal community composition differed among the sampled stand types (p < 0.05), and fungal community composition also differed between the two soil layers (p < 0.05), whereas bacterial community composition did not. Paired partial dbRDA indicated that the integrated soil environmental gradients represented by the first three PCA axes were associated with bacterial community composition (R² = 0.083, p = 0.012), whereas the corresponding association was not significant for fungi (R² = 0.080, p = 0.371). Within the retained co-occurrence network analysis, MO had the most complex bacterial network, and JR had the most complex fungal network. PICRUSt2-predicted profiles were dominated by metabolism (38.6%–39.3%), but no bacterial KEGG Level 1 category or FUNGuild trophic-mode category showed a stand type, soil layer, or interaction effect after correction for multiple testing. These findings indicate that differences among the sampled stands were expressed more clearly in active carbon and nitrogen pools and microbial community composition than in alpha diversity or broad predicted functional profiles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Soil)

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22 pages, 14650 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Potential Changes in the Distribution of Major Warm–Temperate Tree Species in South Korea Under Climate Change Scenarios

by Jong-Hoon Park, Jeong-Gwan Lee, Han Doo Shin, Hee-Jin Lee, Du-Hee Lee, Su Hyeon Eum and Hyun-Jun Kim

Forests 2026, 17(8), 993; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080993 - 21 Aug 2026

Viewed by 287

Abstract

Climate change drives shifts in forest vegetation zones, and the major tree species of warm–temperate evergreen broad-leaved forests in South Korea are also expected to undergo changes in their potential distributions under future climate conditions. This study applied a Committee Averaging (CA) ensemble [...] Read more.

Climate change drives shifts in forest vegetation zones, and the major tree species of warm–temperate evergreen broad-leaved forests in South Korea are also expected to undergo changes in their potential distributions under future climate conditions. This study applied a Committee Averaging (CA) ensemble species distribution model to Quercus acuta, Machilus thunbergii, Quercus glauca, and Castanopsis sieboldii to project changes in their potential distributions under four Shared Socioeconomic Pathway (SSP) scenarios (SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, SSP3-7.0, and SSP5-8.5) across two future periods (2050s and 2090s). To compare interspecific differences in response more clearly, we applied a two-tier threshold scheme that distinguished potential habitat (agreement ≥0.6) from highly suitable habitat (>0.8), and we concurrently conducted a Multivariate Environmental Similarity Surface (MESS) analysis to assess predictive uncertainty arising from extrapolation into future climates. The CA ensemble models showed excellent predictive performance (AUC 0.947–0.989; TSS 0.837–0.943). For Q. acuta, M. thunbergii, and Q. glauca, potential habitat expanded consistently across all SSP scenarios, and highly suitable habitat shifted northward into parts of the central and Gangwon regions. In contrast, both the potential habitat and the highly suitable habitat of C. sieboldii contracted under most future scenarios. These results demonstrate that even species belonging to the same warm–temperate evergreen broad-leaved forest community can respond differently to future climate. The two-tier threshold scheme applied in this study was effective not only for assessing whether distributions expand but also for delineating and evaluating climatically stable core habitats. Although our findings need to be interpreted in light of the uncertainty associated with extrapolation into future climates, they can serve as useful baseline data for establishing climate-change-adaptive forest conservation and species-specific management strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling of Forest Dynamics and Species Distribution)

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21 pages, 11344 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mode I Fracture and Cohesive-Zone Modeling of PUR-Bonded Chinese Fir–OSB Bilayers: Effect of Sandblasting–HMR Pretreatment

by Xinyi Liu and Haiyang Zhang

Forests 2026, 17(8), 992; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080992 - 21 Aug 2026

Viewed by 233

Abstract

Hybrid cross-laminated timber combining plantation Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb.) Hook.) with oriented strand board (OSB) is resource-efficient, but its bond line may govern delamination. Double cantilever beam (DCB) specimens bonded with one-component polyurethane were tested at four initial crack lengths (a [...] Read more.

Hybrid cross-laminated timber combining plantation Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb.) Hook.) with oriented strand board (OSB) is resource-efficient, but its bond line may govern delamination. Double cantilever beam (DCB) specimens bonded with one-component polyurethane were tested at four initial crack lengths (a₀ = 40–100 mm), comparing untreated bond lines with bond lines pretreated by sandblasting followed by hydroxymethylated resorcinol (HMR). The arms differed in bending stiffness by a factor of about 3.7, so the specimen was an asymmetric bi-material DCB, and the reported values were apparent, predominantly Mode I quantities. Pretreatment raised the critical load by 17%–24% and the apparent initiation toughness by 18%–35%. A bilinear cohesive-zone model with one parameter set per surface condition reproduced all eight calibration groups to within 5% in critical load and load-point displacement; the calibrated cohesive energies (402 and 594 N/m) differed from the apparent toughness at a₀ = 100 mm by −9.6% and +12.9%. Apparent toughness fell with crack length, but the measured compliances do not follow the cubic scaling expected of a DCB, so this trend is unexplained. The calibrated parameters describe the responses measured here; their transfer to other geometries remains to be verified. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable High-Performance Wood–Bamboo/Inorganic Composites: Design, Function and Life-Cycle Calculation)

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21 pages, 1136 KB

Open AccessArticle

Valuing the Forest Recreation Function in South Korea: Willingness to Pay and Its Determinants

by Sooil Park, Yeonhee Lee, Sujin Park and Jaehyun Kim

Forests 2026, 17(8), 991; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080991 - 21 Aug 2026

Viewed by 290

Abstract

Forest recreation is a key public-benefit function of forests, but as a non-market good, evidence of the public’s willingness to pay (WTP) for its sustained provision remains scarce. This study applied the double-bounded dichotomous choice contingent valuation method to estimate WTP for the [...] Read more.

Forest recreation is a key public-benefit function of forests, but as a non-market good, evidence of the public’s willingness to pay (WTP) for its sustained provision remains scarce. This study applied the double-bounded dichotomous choice contingent valuation method to estimate WTP for the forest recreation function and identify its determinants. In September 2025, a nationwide online survey presented a hypothetical continued-provision scenario to 1050 adults aged 20–74 across South Korea’s 17 metropolitan and provincial regions and elicited WTP as a per-visit fee. Sociodemographic characteristics, awareness, use experience, satisfaction, perceived effects, and forest ecological sensitivity were examined, with a parallel analysis excluding 192 protest respondents. Mean stated WTP was KRW 17,418 (approximately USD 12.3). Household income, awareness, satisfaction with rest and leisure in forests, and forest ecological sensitivity were statistically significant determinants. After protest responses were excluded, mean stated WTP was KRW 21,483 (approximately USD 15.1), and use experience emerged as an additional significant determinant. These findings provide empirical evidence on stated WTP under a hypothetical per-visit payment scenario and may inform forest recreation service design and assessment of forests’ public-benefit functions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Sustainable Use of Forests in Tourism and Recreation: 2nd Edition)

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6 pages, 612 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Application of Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems for Natural Resource Management of Forest Ecosystems

by Pablito M. López-Serrano and Marín Pompa-García

Forests 2026, 17(8), 990; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080990 - 21 Aug 2026

Viewed by 278

Abstract

Forest ecosystems constitute one of the fundamental components of the terrestrial biosphere, as they perform essential functions in climate regulation, the carbon cycle, biodiversity conservation, hydrological regulation, soil protection, and the provision of ecosystem services [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems for Natural Resource Management of Forest Ecosystems)

12 pages, 4678 KB

Open AccessArticle

Endozoochory by Goats and White-Tailed Deer: Type of Ruminant Affects Recovery and Germination of Neltuma pallida Seeds

by Jorge Daniel Salinas-Marcos, Juancarlos Cruz-Luis and Lucrecia Aguirre-Terrazas

Forests 2026, 17(8), 989; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080989 - 20 Aug 2026

Viewed by 244

Abstract

The “algarrobo” (Neltuma pallida) is a key tree species in the seasonally dry tropical forests in Equatorial Pacific coast of South America, currently at risk. Its regeneration depends on endozoochorous dispersal, in which seeds are ingested and later defecated by animals, [...] Read more.

The “algarrobo” (Neltuma pallida) is a key tree species in the seasonally dry tropical forests in Equatorial Pacific coast of South America, currently at risk. Its regeneration depends on endozoochorous dispersal, in which seeds are ingested and later defecated by animals, helping to release and scarify them. We compared the role of the native white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus peruvianus) and the introduced goat (Capra hircus) in seed dispersal. Seeds were recovered from the dung of both species after experimental feeding and from grazing goats in a fruiting N. pallida forest. Seed recovery was higher in deer dung (9.34%) than in goat dung (3.09%), and retention time was shorter in deer than in goats (peak at 48 and 84 h respectively). Only passage of seeds through the deer’s digestive tract significantly improved cumulative germination (63% vs. 44%) and germination rate (time to reach 25% germination, T25 = 8.98 days). Meanwhile, the passage of seeds through the goat’s digestive system reduced germination rate under experimental conditions (T25 = 19.25 days) but slightly increased it under forest conditions (T25 = 12.81 days), where goats ingest fruits constantly. Differences in seed recovery and germination are explained by the morphophysiological traits of ruminants. In conclusion, both goats and deer contribute to seed dispersal. White-tailed deer enhances seed germination (~66%), whereas goats maintain seed viability (~44%) and exhibit a longer seed retention time. During peak fruiting, alternating grazing between high-fruiting and degraded areas is recommended to maximize seed incorporation into the soil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Restoring Forest Resilience: Drivers and Processes of Tree Regeneration)

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80 pages, 3991 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Mangrove Ecosystem Service Values and Coastal-Household Livelihood-Strategy Choices: A Systematic Review

by Doan Ba Toai and Jianzhou Yang

Forests 2026, 17(8), 988; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080988 - 20 Aug 2026

Viewed by 264

Abstract

Mangrove ecosystems underpin the livelihoods of coastal and rural households across the tropics, yet how their ecosystem service (ES) values are associated with livelihood-strategy choices remains unevenly understood. Following a Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA)-guided protocol, this systematic review [...] Read more.

Mangrove ecosystems underpin the livelihoods of coastal and rural households across the tropics, yet how their ecosystem service (ES) values are associated with livelihood-strategy choices remains unevenly understood. Following a Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA)-guided protocol, this systematic review searched Web of Science and Scopus for studies published between 2016 and 2026 (database search was run on 27 May 2026); of the 353 records identified and 207 screened after removing 146 duplicates, 133 unique studies were retained; 95 of these contributed evidence to one or more of seven outcome themes, while 38 were retained as contextual or background evidence. The seven themes were graded using a hybrid Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE)/Confidence in the Evidence from Reviews of Qualitative Research (CERQual) approach (zero, high certainty; two, moderate certainty; five, low certainty). A structured assessment of meta-analytic feasibility across six candidate outcome domains found that no domain met the operational requirement of at least three independent studies reporting one outcome construct on a harmonisable metric with usable variance information; therefore, this review reports the direction, consistency, and certainty of associations rather than pooled-effect magnitudes. The corpus shows a pronounced value-epistemology asymmetry, with monetary valuation forming the largest single evidence theme (45 studies, approximately one-third of the corpus) and relational or indigenous framings remaining a smaller but substantive theme (20 studies, about 15%), meaning that household decision-making is incompletely captured. Evidence for mangrove–fishery production linkages and the coastal-protection/ecosystem-based disaster-risk-reduction function was the most consistent and was rated as moderate certainty. However, the fishery evidence provides the more direct connection to livelihood dependence, whereas most coastal-protection estimates are biophysical or aggregate and do not directly demonstrate household livelihood-strategy responses. The five remaining themes rest on low-certainty evidence, with welfare estimates spanning orders of magnitude and value-to-behaviour pathways weakly tested. Asian settings account for roughly half of the evidence (Southeast and South Asia together 45%, 60/133), while African, Latin American, and Pacific Island settings remain under-represented, limiting transferability. Evidence on bundled payments for ecosystem services, blue-carbon governance, and secure community tenure should therefore be treated as context-dependent options for prospective evaluation rather than as established prescriptions. The clearest research priority is quasi-experimental and longitudinal work linking elicited values to observed livelihood behaviour. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Economics and Policy Analysis)

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21 pages, 3142 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Root Cutting on Physiological Responses of Tilia cordata and Acer platanoides Four Years After Intervention in Urban Parks

by Ravosoa Ramaroson, Ian Major, Ilga Porth and Sivajanani Sivarajah

Forests 2026, 17(8), 987; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080987 - 20 Aug 2026

Viewed by 591

Abstract

Urban construction often involves root cutting, which can affect tree stability and disrupt physiological processes. However, studies assessing the impacts of root cutting on urban trees remain limited. Our objective was to quantify the physiological responses of mature trees four years after root [...] Read more.

Urban construction often involves root cutting, which can affect tree stability and disrupt physiological processes. However, studies assessing the impacts of root cutting on urban trees remain limited. Our objective was to quantify the physiological responses of mature trees four years after root cutting of increasing severity, applied on one side of the tree or on two perpendicular sides. Stomatal conductance, net photosynthesis at the light saturation point and predawn leaf water potential were measured in Tilia cordata Mill. (n = 26) and Acer platanoides L. (n = 26), across six municipal parks in Québec City (Canada). No significant differences in stomatal conductance were observed among treatments. A general effect of root cutting on photosynthesis was detected, but no significant decline was observed with trench severity. Moreover, the predawn leaf water potential values suggest that trees maintained adequate overnight rehydration despite root disturbances. These results suggest the presence of compensatory root mechanisms and physiological resilience in both species under urban park conditions, even when trenching was performed closer to the trunk than the recommended distances, based on the International Society of Arboriculture Standards. This study can provide municipalities with valuable information to support root trench planning, assess associated risks, and implement effective measures to preserve mature trees in urban parks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Forests and Greening for Sustainable Cities, 2nd Edition)

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22 pages, 10703 KB

Open AccessArticle

Initial Soil Moisture Threshold Influences Rainfall–Runoff Processes of Mixed-Forest Catchment: A Case Study of the Dabie Mountains

by Yu Mei, Qinghe Zhao, Di Wu, Tingting Wang, Luwei Zhang and Shengyan Ding

Forests 2026, 17(8), 986; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080986 - 20 Aug 2026

Viewed by 293

Abstract

Initial soil moisture (ISM) represents the soil moisture condition before a rainfall event and is an important factor associated with rainfall and runoff responses in forested catchments. However, it remains unclear whether this nonlinearity can be characterized by distinct ISM thresholds and whether [...] Read more.

Initial soil moisture (ISM) represents the soil moisture condition before a rainfall event and is an important factor associated with rainfall and runoff responses in forested catchments. However, it remains unclear whether this nonlinearity can be characterized by distinct ISM thresholds and whether the dominant controls of runoff coefficient (RC) and specific peak discharge (SPD) differ between pre-threshold and post-threshold ISM states. To address this issue, this study analyzed 27 rainfall events monitored in mixed-forest catchments of the Dabie Mountains from 2024 to 2026. A random forest model combined with SHapley additive exPlanations (SHAP) and partial dependence plots (PDPs) was used to simulate RC and SPD, identify ISM thresholds, and compare state-dependent dominant factors and interactions. The results showed that the SHAP-derived ISM thresholds were 18.3% for RC and 19.2% for SPD. For RC, ISM remained the dominant factor in both ISM states. In the pre-threshold state, rainfall intensity (RI) and net precipitation (NP) were the main secondary factors, with RI × ISM and NP × ISM as the leading interactions. In the post-threshold state, temperature and evaporation (Evap) became more important, and the leading interactions shifted to Evap × ISM and ISM × atmospheric pressure. For SPD, the dominant factors in the pre-threshold state were RI, NP, and ISM, with NP × RI and RI × ISM as the main interactions. In the post-threshold state, ISM became the leading factor, wind speed and RI also remained important, and ISM × wind speed and RI × ISM were the main interactions. These findings indicate that event-scale rainfall–runoff responses in mixed-forest catchments are strongly dependent on ISM state, and that ISM thresholds can provide useful boundaries for distinguishing state-dependent runoff-control patterns. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring and Managing Forest Hydrology)

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16 pages, 6547 KB

Open AccessArticle

Publication Output and Internationalization Among a Defined Population of Italian Forest Researchers: A Bibliometric Assessment, 2013–2025

by Giovanni D’Amico

Forests 2026, 17(8), 985; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080985 - 20 Aug 2026

Viewed by 285

Abstract

National bibliometric assessments can show how scientific communities change, but their results depend strongly on how the researcher population is defined. This paper assessed publication output, citation patterns, institutional structure, and collaboration for a defined Italian forest research population. Population identification was completed [...] Read more.

National bibliometric assessments can show how scientific communities change, but their results depend strongly on how the researcher population is defined. This paper assessed publication output, citation patterns, institutional structure, and collaboration for a defined Italian forest research population. Population identification was completed in February–March 2026 by combining a Scopus-derived researcher database with the official 2025 Ministry of University and Research staff lists for the relevant forest disciplines. The final study population comprised 250 researchers. All Scopus-indexed publications associated with these author IDs during 2013–2025 were retrieved through the Scopus API in June 2026; the primary corpus was not restricted by forest-topic screening. The corpus contained 9918 unique publications. Annual output associated with the study population increased from 449 publications in 2013 to 971 in 2025, while publication-active researchers increased from 148 to 236. Mean fractional output per active researcher increased from 3.13 publications per year in 2013–2015 to 4.08 in 2023–2025. A persistent-author subset of 188 researchers observed in both periods also exhibited higher late-period output, indicating that recent entry alone did not account for the increase. Internationally co-authored publications increased from 38.7% to 60.7%, and the top 10% of publications received 52.4% of all citations. A conservative title/source forest-signal subset reproduced the increasing output pattern. The results refer to the defined end-of-period study population rather than to a complete historical census, but provide a documented basis for future monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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22 pages, 753 KB

Open AccessArticle

Towards Integrating Forest Welfare Services for Social Workers into the Social Service System: A Mixed-Methods Study of Perceptions, Needs, and Policy Strategies

by Neeeun Lee, Gyeongmin Min, Sinae Kang, Pyeongsik Yeon and Yeonhee Lee

Forests 2026, 17(8), 984; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080984 - 19 Aug 2026

Viewed by 293

Abstract

This study employed a mixed-methods design combining a survey of 167 social workers in Seoul and in-depth interviews with three social welfare experts to explore strategies for integrating forest welfare services into the social service system. The survey results showed a high willingness [...] Read more.

This study employed a mixed-methods design combining a survey of 167 social workers in Seoul and in-depth interviews with three social welfare experts to explore strategies for integrating forest welfare services into the social service system. The survey results showed a high willingness to participate in forest welfare services. Demand was high for psychological and emotional stability (29.3%) and recreation and leisure enhancement (26.0%). Among the expected benefits, stress relief and improvement of psychological health showed the highest response rate (38.9%), while guaranteed participation during working hours was identified as the most important support needed (51.5%). Expert interviews indicated that a legal and institutional foundation, evidence of service effectiveness, professional program development, and cooperation among relevant organizations are necessary for sustained service operation and integration into the social service system. Based on these findings, this study proposes four major strategies for service revitalization: establishing a legal and institutional foundation, securing policy and academic evidence, developing tailored service models reflecting target characteristics, and establishing inter-organizational cooperation. These findings provide baseline information for future pilot implementation, effectiveness evaluation, and institutionalization of forest welfare services for social workers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Economics, Policy, and Social Science)

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18 pages, 2707 KB

Open AccessArticle

High-Resolution Mapping of Farmland Shelterbelts in an Oasis Agricultural Region Using GF-2 Imagery and Semantic Segmentation

by Yingqi Xu, Ping Lv, Zhuo Zhang, Lanjie Li, Zheng Chai, Yuanyuan Li and Cheng Tang

Forests 2026, 17(8), 983; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080983 - 19 Aug 2026

Viewed by 271

Abstract

Farmland shelterbelts are important linear vegetation infrastructures in oasis agricultural landscapes. Their accurate extraction is essential for shelterbelt inventory and farmland management, but remains challenging because shelterbelts are narrow, elongated, locally discontinuous, and spectrally similar to croplands, orchards, roadside vegetation, bare soil, and [...] Read more.

Farmland shelterbelts are important linear vegetation infrastructures in oasis agricultural landscapes. Their accurate extraction is essential for shelterbelt inventory and farmland management, but remains challenging because shelterbelts are narrow, elongated, locally discontinuous, and spectrally similar to croplands, orchards, roadside vegetation, bare soil, and irrigation-related features. This study developed a GF-2-based deep learning workflow for farmland shelterbelt extraction in the 11th Regiment of Alar City, Xinjiang, China. Four representative semantic segmentation models, namely U-Net, U-Net with scSE attention, U-Net++, and DeepLabV3+, were trained and evaluated using four-band GF-2 optical imagery under a unified experimental setting. Model performance was assessed using Precision, Recall, F1-score, Intersection over Union (IoU), overall accuracy, and Kappa coefficient. Patch-level statistical comparison and visual interpretation were further conducted to examine performance differences, shelterbelt continuity, boundary integrity, omission errors, and background confusion. The results showed that U-Net achieved the best overall performance, with a Precision of 94.58%, Recall of 94.77%, F1-score of 94.67%, IoU of 89.88%, overall accuracy of 99.71%, and Kappa coefficient of 0.9452. Compared with U-Net with scSE attention, U-Net++, and DeepLabV3+, U-Net better preserved the continuity and boundary integrity of narrow shelterbelts in regular field-boundary networks. The other models showed varying degrees of omission, boundary fragmentation, or confusion with spectrally similar agricultural objects. The best-performing U-Net model was then applied to the complete study area, and the extracted shelterbelt area was approximately 6.5 km², accounting for about 4.37% of the cultivated land area. These results indicate that GF-2 optical imagery combined with semantic segmentation can support fine-scale farmland shelterbelt mapping in oasis agricultural landscapes. They also show that model evaluation for narrow linear vegetation features should consider not only pixel-level accuracy but also spatial continuity, boundary integrity, and typical error patterns. The proposed workflow provides a practical reference for GF-2-based farmland shelterbelt inventory, high-resolution linear vegetation mapping, and shelterbelt monitoring in arid oasis agricultural landscapes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)

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16 pages, 2169 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Drying at 120 °C and 150 °C on Selected Mechanical Properties of Silver Fir (Abies alba Mill.)

by Monika Sarvašová Kvietková, Ondřej Dvořák, Chia-Feng Lin and Denis Jones

Forests 2026, 17(8), 982; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080982 - 18 Aug 2026

Viewed by 221

Abstract

High-temperature drying can considerably improve drying efficiency. However, information on its impact on the mechanical properties of silver fir during industrial high-temperature drying remains limited. Elevated drying temperatures may induce changes in wood structure that can influence mechanical performance. This study evaluated the [...] Read more.

High-temperature drying can considerably improve drying efficiency. However, information on its impact on the mechanical properties of silver fir during industrial high-temperature drying remains limited. Elevated drying temperatures may induce changes in wood structure that can influence mechanical performance. This study evaluated the effect of high-temperature drying schedules based on industrially applied temperature levels (120 °C and 150 °C) on selected mechanical properties of silver fir (Abies alba Mill.). Wood samples were kiln-dried at 120 °C and 150 °C, conditioned to equilibrium moisture content, and tested for impact bending strength, tensile strength perpendicular to the grain, and Janka hardness. Because the experimental material originated from a single silver fir tree, the findings should be interpreted as describing responses within the investigated material rather than as population-level effects for silver fir. The results showed that drying at 150 °C was associated with a tendency toward reduced values of selected mechanical properties; however, the effect of drying temperature was not statistically significant for impact bending strength. ANOVA showed that specimen thickness significantly affected impact bending strength and Janka hardness, whereas drying temperature had a significant effect only on tensile strength perpendicular to the grain. The lowest mean values were observed in the β-150 group, with impact bending strength of 5.4 J·cm⁻² and tensile strength perpendicular to the grain of 2.3 MPa. The mean oven-dry density was 456.9 kg·m⁻³, while only weak relationships between density and mechanical properties were observed (r² = 0.023–0.178). This suggests that factors related to drying conditions may contribute to variability in mechanical performance beyond the effect of density alone. Thus, the effects of the investigated drying conditions were property-specific rather than consistently attributable to drying temperature. Within the investigated material, these results indicate that the optimization of high-temperature drying schedules should consider both drying parameters and variability in mechanical properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technology for Extraction, Processing and Testing of Forest Products)

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15 pages, 27692 KB

Open AccessArticle

How the Succession Process Affects Soil Microbial Community Diversity and Network Complexity in Karst Forests

by Limin Zhang, Song Ma, Yuanhong Luo, Yi Zhang and Lihua Zhao

Forests 2026, 17(8), 981; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080981 - 18 Aug 2026

Viewed by 281

Abstract

Although many studies had been conducted on soil microbial communities in forest ecosystems before this one, how the diversity and network complexity of soil microbial communities evolved throughout the succession of karst forests remained unclear. We collected soil samples from three vegetation successional [...] Read more.

Although many studies had been conducted on soil microbial communities in forest ecosystems before this one, how the diversity and network complexity of soil microbial communities evolved throughout the succession of karst forests remained unclear. We collected soil samples from three vegetation successional stages (grassland stage, shrub stage and arbor stage) in Maolan National Nature Reserve, Guizhou Province, China, and applied high-throughput sequencing technology to explore soil microbial diversity, community composition, co-occurrence network characteristics and their internal correlations. The results showed that the succession process significantly affected soil microbial diversity (p < 0.05). Bacterial diversity increased by 12.33% as succession proceeded, whereas fungal diversity declined by 37.50%. The dominant microbial communities exhibited obvious stage-specific characteristics. For bacteria, Bacillaceae served as a universally dominant taxon. Paenibacillaceae and Thermoactinomycetaceae were enriched in the grassland (CD) stage, and the relative abundance of Streptosporangiaceae reached its maximum in the arbor (QM) stage. For fungi, Trimorphomycetaceae and Hypocreaceae were ubiquitous dominant groups. Aspergillaceae possessed the highest relative abundance in the CD stage, while Clavicipitaceae peaked in relative abundance in the QM stage. The complexity of bacterial co-occurrence networks rose with succession, whereas fungal network complexity decreased. Both positive and negative linkages in bacterial networks increased over succession, while both types of connections in fungal networks declined. Soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP) and N/P ratio exerted the strongest influences on bacterial communities and bulk density; SOC and TN were the key drivers structuring fungal assemblages. Micromonosporaceae and Xanthobacteraceae showed significant positive correlations with TP and N/P ratio (p < 0.05), whereas Thermoactinomycetaceae and Oscillospiraceae presented significant negative correlations with these two indicators (p < 0.01). Clavicipitaceae had strong positive correlations with SOC and TN (p < 0.01), and Herpotrichiellaceae together with Aspergillaceae displayed significant negative correlations with SOC and TN (p < 0.05). This study clarified the regulatory effects of karst forest secondary succession on soil microbial communities and provided theoretical evidence for the ecological restoration of karst regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Soil)

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12 pages, 3573 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Isothermal Heat Treatment on Oregonin Content in Black Alder Bark Extract

by Miljenko Klarić, Kristina Klarić, Martina Biošić and Josip Ištvanić

Forests 2026, 17(8), 980; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080980 - 18 Aug 2026

Viewed by 245

Abstract

Black alder (Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.) wood is characterized by rapid and frequently non-uniform color changes after felling and during hydrothermal processing. These changes are largely associated with extractive compounds, among which oregonin, a phenolic diarylheptanoid glycoside, has been identified as a [...] Read more.

Black alder (Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.) wood is characterized by rapid and frequently non-uniform color changes after felling and during hydrothermal processing. These changes are largely associated with extractive compounds, among which oregonin, a phenolic diarylheptanoid glycoside, has been identified as a precursor of the characteristic orange-red coloration. However, information on the thermal stability of oregonin remains limited. This study investigated the effect of temperature and exposure time on oregonin content in black alder bark extract. Aliquots of the extract were exposed to isothermal conditions of 30, 40, 50, and 60 °C for up to 24 h. In a separate trial, a treatment at 98 °C was conducted to simulate the temperature conditions associated with wood saturated water steaming at atmospheric pressure. Oregonin concentration was determined using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography with diode-array detection. Oregonin content remained comparatively stable during 24 h exposure at 30, 40, 50 and 60 °C, with reductions of 6.00%, 3.00%, 2.78%, and 1.64%, respectively, without clear increase in oregonin loss with increasing temperature. Exposure to 98 °C resulted in the most pronounced decrease in oregonin content, with a reduction of 43.93%. The results indicate comparatively high stability of oregonin during 24 h exposure at 30–60 °C, whereas a pronounced decrease was observed in the separate aqueous treatment at 98 °C. These findings are relevant for understanding chemical changes in alder extractives during wood drying and steaming and demonstrate the importance of minimizing unnecessary heat exposure during sample preparation, extraction, and storage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phenomenon of Wood Colour—2nd Edition)

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11 pages, 6496 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Forest Type and Climatic Conditions on Pheromone-Trap Catches of Pityogenes chalcographus

by Osman Mujezinović, Milan Pernek, Kenan Zahirović, Sead Ivojević, Damir Prljača and Mirza Dautbašić

Forests 2026, 17(8), 979; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080979 - 18 Aug 2026

Viewed by 253

Abstract

Pityogenes chalcographus was monitored using pheromone traps installed in different forest types across Bosnia and Herzegovina. The study was conducted within protected areas of Sarajevo Canton, including the Protected Landscapes of Bijambare and Trebević and the Skakavac Natural Monument. The investigated forest types [...] Read more.

Pityogenes chalcographus was monitored using pheromone traps installed in different forest types across Bosnia and Herzegovina. The study was conducted within protected areas of Sarajevo Canton, including the Protected Landscapes of Bijambare and Trebević and the Skakavac Natural Monument. The investigated forest types comprised secondary fir–spruce stands and mixed beech–fir forests with spruce admixture. Data were collected between 2018 and 2021 to assess the effects of forest type and climatic factors on pheromone-trap catches of P. chalcographus. Mean trap catches in secondary fir–spruce forests ranged from 2317.6 to 6317.0 individuals per trap, whereas catches in mixed beech–fir forests with spruce ranged from 150.0 to 6840.0 individuals per trap. The highest mean catches were recorded in the Trebević Protected Landscape and the Skakavac Natural Monument. Overall, trap catches tended to be higher in secondary fir–spruce forests than in mixed beech–fir forests with spruce. Statistically significant differences in mean catches between forest types were detected only in 2021, while no significant differences were observed during 2018–2020. No statistically significant relationships were found between climatic variables and P. chalcographus trap catches during the study period. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Pest Management and Control in Forestry)

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17 pages, 2278 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Multiscale Temporal Dynamics and Depth–Dependent Controls of Soil Respiration Components Across Subtropical Forest Types

by Nan Deng, Yuxin Tian, Qingan Song, Yaqin Xiao and Fengfeng Ma

Forests 2026, 17(8), 978; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080978 - 17 Aug 2026

Viewed by 288

Abstract

Soil respiration (Rs) is a key component of terrestrial carbon cycling, yet its temporal structure and vertical environmental controls remain insufficiently understood. This study investigated Rs and its components across four subtropical forest types in Hunan, China, using high–frequency 24–h observations combined with [...] Read more.

Soil respiration (Rs) is a key component of terrestrial carbon cycling, yet its temporal structure and vertical environmental controls remain insufficiently understood. This study investigated Rs and its components across four subtropical forest types in Hunan, China, using high–frequency 24–h observations combined with multi–month monitoring and measurements at three soil depths. Temporal dynamics were analyzed using harmonic fitting and two–way ANOVA–based variance partitioning, and environmental controls were quantified using linear mixed–effects models and relative importance analysis. Results showed that annual Rs ranged from 473.50 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ in secondary broadleaf forest to 652.50 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ in pure Pinus massoniana Lamb. plantation, with heterotrophic respiration dominating all stands (68.9%–82.1% of Rs). The cosine model best described diel cycles in 64.6% of cases, with amplitude significantly higher in summer than in winter. Variance partitioning revealed that seasonal (month) scale explained 89.2%–97.3% of total variation in Rs and Rh, whereas diel (hour) scale contributed only 0.4%–4.8%; for Ra, seasonal contribution dropped to 36.1%–73.7% and residual variance surged to 21.9%–54.3%, indicating substantially greater stochasticity. Linear mixed–effects models showed that topsoil temperature (0–10 cm) was the dominant driver of Rs and Rh, explaining 48% of their variation, whereas Ra was additionally regulated by subsurface soil moisture and conductivity, with only 19% of variation explained. Overall, soil respiration exhibited a structured, multi–scale, and depth–dependent response system shaped by forest type, temporal variability, and depth–specific soil heterogeneity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Interaction and Synergy of Carbon Sink, Storage and Substitution in Forest Value Chains)

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18 pages, 4563 KB

Open AccessArticle

Carbon Sequestration Potential of China’s Terrestrial Ecosystem Incorporating Moisture Recycling

by Jialan Nan, Wenling Li, Ziyu Lu and Shouzhang Peng

Forests 2026, 17(8), 977; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080977 - 17 Aug 2026

Viewed by 296

Abstract

Terrestrial ecosystems play a critical role in achieving carbon neutrality, yet the carbon sequestration potential (CSP) of China’s terrestrial ecosystems remains incompletely characterized, particularly regarding the roles of future climate scenarios and land–atmosphere moisture feedbacks. Here we quantify China’s CSP using a process-based [...] Read more.

Terrestrial ecosystems play a critical role in achieving carbon neutrality, yet the carbon sequestration potential (CSP) of China’s terrestrial ecosystems remains incompletely characterized, particularly regarding the roles of future climate scenarios and land–atmosphere moisture feedbacks. Here we quantify China’s CSP using a process-based model (LPJ-GUESS) that explicitly simulates vegetation dynamics, combined with potential natural vegetation (PNV) benchmarks and moisture recycling. We estimate China’s historical (1993–2022) actual terrestrial (AT) carbon stock at 91.7 PgC, with a PNV ceiling of 132.9 PgC, yielding a CSP of 41.2 PgC. Under future scenarios (2071–2100), CSP follows a non-linear trajectory. Relative to the historical baseline, it declines slightly under SSP119, peaks under SSP2-4.5, and remains elevated but slightly reduced under SSP5-8.5. High-CSP areas are concentrated along the Hu Line and the belts of the Tianshan, Kunlun, and Qilian mountains, while scattered areas in southern China exhibit negative CSP due to intensive human interventions. Moisture recycling consistently enhances CSP across all periods and scenarios. Historically, it raised national CSP by approximately 5 PgC, and this enhancement gradually weakens to 4 PgC under SSP119 and further declines to around 2 PgC under SSP2-4.5/SSP5-8.5—revealing that high emissions erode this positive feedback. Our findings identify a critical window for maximizing restoration gains under moderate forcing (SSP2-4.5) and demonstrate that low-to-moderate emission pathways not only preserve direct carbon benefits but also safeguard indirect moisture recycling amplification. Regionally tailored restoration strategies accounting for moisture recycling are essential for achieving China’s 2060 carbon neutrality goals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)

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20 pages, 16761 KB

Open AccessArticle

Hybrid Machine Learning and Geostatistical Approaches for Forest Aboveground Biomass Estimation in a Subtropical Region of China

by Birhanie Alemayehu, Yang Zhang, Xin Liu, Abiot Molla, Shudi Zuo, Xuejing Wu, Jiecheng Liao and Yin Ren

Forests 2026, 17(8), 976; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080976 - 17 Aug 2026

Viewed by 386

Abstract

Accurate aboveground biomass (AGB) estimation in subtropical forests is critical for regional carbon accounting and sustainable forest management. However, standardized multi-source feature screening and integrated machine learning–geostatistical analysis of AGB remain limited. This study integrated six heterogeneous datasets: Landsat-8 optical imagery, Sentinel-1 SAR, [...] Read more.

Accurate aboveground biomass (AGB) estimation in subtropical forests is critical for regional carbon accounting and sustainable forest management. However, standardized multi-source feature screening and integrated machine learning–geostatistical analysis of AGB remain limited. This study integrated six heterogeneous datasets: Landsat-8 optical imagery, Sentinel-1 SAR, topographic, meteorological, soil data and the 2014 National Forest Inventory (NFI), and established 48 predictors in subtropical forests of Anhui Province, China. A two-stage variable selection framework was applied, with Pearson correlation screening reducing the initial 48 predictors to 36 less-correlated variables, followed by the recursive feature elimination (RFE) with 5-fold spatial block cross-validation for further predictor selection. Random Forest (RF), eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGB), Empirical Bayesian Kriging Regression Prediction (EBKRP), hybrid RF_EBKRP and XGB_EBKRP models were evaluated. Stand age and stand density were dominant predictors in both RF and XGB, contributing 33.6% and 24.0% in RF and 36.5% and 17.3% in XGB, respectively. Elevation, precipitation, and canopy cover showed secondary importance, whereas vegetation indices contributed relatively little. RF_EBKRP achieved the highest prediction accuracy (R² = 0.77), reducing RMSE by 17.20% and 43.75% compared with RF and EBKRP, respectively. This study provides a reproducible RF–EBKRP workflow integrating nonlinear machine-learning prediction with geostatistical residual correction, supporting improved subtropical forest AGB mapping and management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Inventory: The Monitoring of Biomass and Carbon Stocks—2nd Edition)

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28 pages, 45870 KB

Open AccessArticle

DAAL-YOLOv12n: A Method for Detecting Common Forest Pests Incorporating Dynamic Attention and Adaptive Lightweight Modules

by Songnan Chen, Xuelin Chen and Yun Pan

Forests 2026, 17(8), 975; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080975 - 17 Aug 2026

Viewed by 535

Abstract

Variable illumination, severe occlusion, and the small scale of pest instances in complex forest environments significantly compromise the accuracy of automated forest pest detection. Existing deep learning-based detection models often face challenges in achieving an optimal trade-off among detection accuracy, model lightweightness, and [...] Read more.

Variable illumination, severe occlusion, and the small scale of pest instances in complex forest environments significantly compromise the accuracy of automated forest pest detection. Existing deep learning-based detection models often face challenges in achieving an optimal trade-off among detection accuracy, model lightweightness, and training stability. To achieve efficient and intelligent monitoring of forest pests, we propose a novel detection framework named DAAL-YOLOv12n by improving the lightweight YOLOv12n baseline with two specifically designed modules for complex forest scenarios. To overcome the limited feature adaptability caused by fixed convolutional branches and conventional residual connections in the original A2C2f block, a DynamicA2C2f dynamic attention module is introduced. This module employs dynamic gating weights and adaptive residual adaptation modulation to achieve directional feature enhancement and improved cross-channel compatibility. Furthermore, to reduce the computational redundancy of the conventional C3/C2f block and alleviate abnormal optimization errors in the exponential moving average (EMA) caused by persistently stored dynamic tensors, an AdaptiveC3K2 lightweight adaptation module is developed. Through shared convolution representations, temporary dynamic weight generation, and pre-residual adaptation strategies, the proposed module achieves model compression, flexible channel adaptation, and EMA-compatible optimization. Extensive experiments are conducted on a self-collected forest pest dataset comprising 16 common pest categories. Experimental results demonstrate that, compared with advanced detectors such as YOLOv12n, DAAL-YOLOv12n improves precision and recall by 10.5% and 11.1%, respectively, with only a marginal increase in model parameters. Furthermore, the proposed approach increases mAP@0.5 and mAP@0.5:0.95 by 10.2% and 18.0%, respectively, attaining an mAP@0.5 of 93.0% alongside a real-time inference throughput of 93 FPS. These results indicate that the proposed method offers a viable solution for deploying accurate and lightweight forest pest detection systems on edge devices, offering technical support for intelligent pest surveillance in the wild. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Health)

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27 pages, 2384 KB

Open AccessArticle

System Analysis of Wood Logistics Solutions Mitigating Environmental Impact in Polish Conditions: A Methodological Approach

by Tomasz Nurek, Witold Zychowicz, Marta Trzcianowska, Monika Aniszewska, Arkadiusz Gendek, Wojciech Kędziora, Tadeusz Moskalik and Roman Wójcik

Forests 2026, 17(8), 974; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080974 - 17 Aug 2026

Viewed by 561

Abstract

Efficient wood logistics is essential for a sustainable wood supply chain. In Poland, mounting symptoms of inefficiency highlight the need for a systematic and comprehensive performance assessment across the entire supply chain. Previous studies have predominantly focused on individual supply chain segments or [...] Read more.

Efficient wood logistics is essential for a sustainable wood supply chain. In Poland, mounting symptoms of inefficiency highlight the need for a systematic and comprehensive performance assessment across the entire supply chain. Previous studies have predominantly focused on individual supply chain segments or specific stakeholder perspectives, but a comprehensive evaluation of wood supply chain efficiency in Poland remains unrealized. The study aimed to assess the efficiency of the timber supply chain at the Regional Directorate of State Forests level. The analysis encompasses the entire process from harvest planning to delivery to wood processing plants. The business-as-usual scenario derived from historical data is compared with improvement scenarios using a simulation–based optimization approach implemented in ArcGIS Pro 3.4.0. The scenarios are structured according to their decision-making impact: strategic logistics, tactical infrastructure, and operational routines. In total, 18 scenarios are developed to assess total operational costs, including environmental costs per m³ of timber. This covers harvesting, extraction, and transport across all feasible equipment combinations in Poland. The model’s performance was verified for timber harvesting and skidding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Forestry Operations: Timber Harvesting and Transportation Engineering)

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22 pages, 5379 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Multi-Proxy Approach Links Pedological Context to Fungal Community Variation in Temperate Mountain Forest Soils

by Claudia Chiodi, Maria Cristina Della Lucia, Shirong Cai, Ornella Francioso, Saptarathi Deb, Giovanni Bertoldo, Francesco Pirotti, Serenella Nardi, Giuseppe Concheri, Andrea Squartini and Piergiorgio Stevanato

Forests 2026, 17(8), 973; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080973 - 17 Aug 2026

Viewed by 369

Abstract

Soil fungi play a key role in nutrient cycling and soil organic matter turnover, yet the influence of pedological context on fungal communities across forest types remains insufficiently understood. Here, we combined soil chemical analyses, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and ITS2 metabarcoding to [...] Read more.

Soil fungi play a key role in nutrient cycling and soil organic matter turnover, yet the influence of pedological context on fungal communities across forest types remains insufficiently understood. Here, we combined soil chemical analyses, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and ITS2 metabarcoding to investigate soil properties and fungal communities in temperate mountain beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst) forests in Italy developed on contrasting geological substrates. Soil horizons were sampled across seasons to characterize the main associations between fungal community structure, inferred functional diversity, and environmental context. Soil chemistry revealed site- and horizon-dependent patterns, particularly in pH, Ca, and P availability, whereas differences related to dominant tree species were comparatively limited. FTIR spectra showed clear variation in organic matter composition among sites, consistent with site- and stand-associated differences in organic matter composition. Fungal community composition was primarily associated with site and soil horizon. Functional guild patterns suggested ectomycorrhizal dominance in Ca-rich soils and greater prevalence of saprotrophs in more acidic soils. Overall, this multi-proxy approach suggests that pedological context was more closely associated with fungal community structure and ecological strategies than with vegetation type or season within the studied stands. These patterns should be interpreted as site-specific and hypothesis-generating because substrate types were not replicated across independent locations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Soil)

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15 pages, 16877 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bonding Performance of Natural Protein-Based Adhesive Systems on European Beech Wood Under Ambient and Moderate Thermal Exposure

by Vasiliki Kamperidou, Varvara Akritidou and Ioannis Barboutis

Forests 2026, 17(8), 972; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080972 - 16 Aug 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 341

Abstract

The growing demand for sustainable materials has renewed interest in replacing conventional petroleum-based wood adhesives with natural, environmentally friendly alternatives. This study evaluated the bonding performance of a conventional polyvinyl acetate (PVAc) adhesive and three natural adhesives—bone glue, fish glue and casein—for bonding [...] Read more.

The growing demand for sustainable materials has renewed interest in replacing conventional petroleum-based wood adhesives with natural, environmentally friendly alternatives. This study evaluated the bonding performance of a conventional polyvinyl acetate (PVAc) adhesive and three natural adhesives—bone glue, fish glue and casein—for bonding European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) wood of Greek origin. Bond quality was assessed according to ISO 6238:2018 by measuring shear strength and wood failure under ambient laboratory conditions (23 ± 2 °C) and after exposure to 50 °C for 15 days, simulating elevated temperatures that may occur in indoor environments. PVAc exhibited the most consistent bonding performance, whereas casein achieved shear strength comparable to that of PVAc, demonstrating its potential as a sustainable alternative for interior wood bonding. In contrast, bone glue and fish glue exhibited lower shear strength, greater variability in bond performance, and practical limitations associated with their shorter working and setting times. The percentage of wood failure generally followed the same trend as shear strength, confirming the relationship between bond quality and adhesive performance. Moderate thermal exposure did not significantly affect shear strength but resulted in lower wood failure percentages for the natural adhesives, whereas PVAc maintained, and slightly improved, its bond strength after thermal exposure. These findings demonstrate the promising performance of casein as a natural wood adhesive while highlighting the influence of moderate thermal exposure on the durability of natural adhesive systems intended for indoor applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Wood Science and Forest Products)

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21 pages, 13255 KB

Open AccessArticle

Stoichiometric Characteristics and Allometric Relationships Among Organs of Parrotia subaequalis, an Endangered Species in China

by Nan Dong, Yun Zhao, Mingming Tang, Yuxin Huang, Jiaqian Ren, Zelong Yu, Chengbo Zhou and Tianxiao Ma

Forests 2026, 17(8), 971; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080971 - 15 Aug 2026

Viewed by 223

Abstract

Exploring plant nutrient allocation and stoichiometry is critical to understanding the adaptive strategies of endangered trees in heterogeneous habitats. This study determined the concentrations of carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) in seven organs (leaves, current-year twigs, perennial branches, phloem, [...] Read more.

Exploring plant nutrient allocation and stoichiometry is critical to understanding the adaptive strategies of endangered trees in heterogeneous habitats. This study determined the concentrations of carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) in seven organs (leaves, current-year twigs, perennial branches, phloem, xylem, transport roots, and absorptive roots) of Parrotia subaequalis from eight wild populations in the Dabie Mountains and then analyzed the stoichiometric characteristics, chemical plasticity, and allometric relationships of these elements among organs. The concentrations of C, N, P, and K ranged from 416.31–513.61, 4.74–12.99, 0.74–12.89, and 2.62–10.34 mg g⁻¹, respectively. Belowground organs had significantly higher C:P, N:P, and N:K ratios than aboveground ones (by 72.83%–740.30%). Perennial organs (xylem, phloem, perennial branches) showed higher C concentrations and C:N, C:P, C:K, and P:K ratios but lower N, P, and K concentrations than current-year ones (leaves, current-year twigs). Xylem, phloem, and perennial branches exhibited the lowest coefficient of variation and plasticity index. N, P, and K exhibited isometric scaling (α = 0.96–1.04) between absorptive and transport roots. Leaf N and P were positively correlated with K (R² ≥ 0.53). Organ age is a critical determinant influencing the variation in stoichiometric characteristics of the organs. Overall, P. subaequalis adapts to nitrogen-limited wild habitats by adjusting N, P, and K nutrient up-take rates and allocation ratios across current-year organs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Plant Nutrients, 3rd Edition)

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21 pages, 6544 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Physiological and Metabolic Mechanisms of Graft Union in Camellia pyxidiacea var. rubituberculata

by Qinmeng Zeng, Meng Shen, Yayan Zhu, Chaoran Xu, Yingying Wei, Fang Li, Jie Xu, Xiang Lu, Mei Luo and Bo Mu

Forests 2026, 17(8), 970; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080970 - 15 Aug 2026

Viewed by 258

Abstract

This study used Camellia pyxidiacea var. rubituberculata as the rootstock and the improved cultivar Camellia oleifera ‘Qianyou 2’ as the scion for heterografting (CO group), with homografting (using C. pyxidiacea var. rubituberculata as both rootstock and scion) as the control. The physiological and [...] Read more.

This study used Camellia pyxidiacea var. rubituberculata as the rootstock and the improved cultivar Camellia oleifera ‘Qianyou 2’ as the scion for heterografting (CO group), with homografting (using C. pyxidiacea var. rubituberculata as both rootstock and scion) as the control. The physiological and metabolic changes during graft healing were investigated by measuring enzyme activities, targeted analysis of endogenous hormones, and non-targeted metabolomics via LC-MS/MS. The results indicate that, compared to homologous grafting, an integrated response pattern characterized by “defense prioritization and growth suppression” was observed in heterologous grafting combinations. At the hormonal level, heterografting significantly inhibited growth-promoting hormones (e.g., zeatin riboside), while defense-related hormones (salicylic acid SA, jasmonic acid JA) and their metabolite, capsidiol, were continuously accumulated and upregulated. At the metabolic pathway level, phenylpropanoid metabolism was redirected: the activity of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) was suppressed, shifting synthesis toward soluble defense compounds like coumarins. Enzymatically, the activities of polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and peroxidase (POD) were significantly enhanced in the mid-to-late stages of healing, promoting the oxidative crosslinking of phenolic compounds and the formation of lignin-related physical barriers. Thus, these three mutually corroborating levels—hormonal signaling, dynamic enzyme activities, and global metabolic networks—collectively point to a healing mode characterized by defense prioritization and growth suppression. This study provides theoretical guidance for the grafting utilization of C. pyxidiacea var. rubituberculata. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Genetics and Molecular Biology)

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18 pages, 1771 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Interactive Effects of Soil Compaction Intensity and Soil Texture on Morphological Traits, Biomass Accumulation, and Allocation Patterns of Persian Honeylocust (Gleditsia caspica Desf.) Seedlings

by Sara Alizadeh, Meghdad Jourgholami, Vahid Etemad, Ehsan Abdi, Rachele Venanzi, Angela Lo Monaco and Rodolfo Picchio

Forests 2026, 17(8), 969; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080969 - 15 Aug 2026

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Abstract

Ground-based logging operations cause soil compaction that constrains natural regeneration in the Hyrcanian forests of northern Iran, yet how soil textural properties modulate these effects on endemic tree species remains poorly understood. This study assessed the interactive effects of soil texture and compaction [...] Read more.

Ground-based logging operations cause soil compaction that constrains natural regeneration in the Hyrcanian forests of northern Iran, yet how soil textural properties modulate these effects on endemic tree species remains poorly understood. This study assessed the interactive effects of soil texture and compaction intensity on seedling growth and biomass allocation of Persian honeylocust (Gleditsia caspica Desf.) under controlled conditions. A factorial greenhouse experiment with three soil textures (loam, sandy loam, and silty clay loam) and six compaction levels (0–5 Proctor impacts) was conducted. After a 110-day growing period, morphological traits and biomass partitioning were analyzed using two-way ANOVA. Significant soil texture × compaction interactions (p < 0.05) were found for lateral root length, primary and lateral root dry biomass, stem biomass, total biomass, leaf mass ratio, root mass ratio, and the lateral-to-primary root length ratio. In sandy loam, mild compaction (Level 1) increased total biomass by 39% (2.15 g) and lateral root length by 34% (448.5 cm) relative to the controls, indicating a beneficial compaction window. Loam soils exhibited an initial reduction in growth at low compaction levels, followed by recovery at moderate levels, suggesting physiological acclimation. Silty clay loam, with its high compressibility, suppressed root proliferation and aboveground growth across most compaction treatments. Axial traits, including stem length, primary root length, and root collar diameter, remained stable irrespective of treatment, highlighting a conservative developmental strategy. These results reveal that G. caspica employs a hierarchical adaptive strategy involving dynamic modulation of lateral root development and whole-plant carbon partitioning while preserving core axial architecture. The strong texture dependence of these responses highlights the need for texture-specific forest management. For restoration in degraded Hyrcanian landscapes, soil compaction thresholds should be calibrated to the dominant textural class to avoid exceeding the species’ ecological plasticity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Influence of Mechanized Timber Harvesting on Soils and Stands)

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Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Heterogeneity and Explanatory Factors of Ecosystem Functions and Services in Inner Mongolia

by Chen Chang, Jianfei Wang, Licheng Wang, Zhenyu Liu, Ziye Liu and Binde Qu

Forests 2026, 17(8), 968; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17080968 - 14 Aug 2026

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Abstract

Arid and semi-arid ecosystems are being reshaped by climate variability and human interventions, but increases in individual ecosystem indicators do not necessarily translate into coherent gains in ecosystem multifunctionality. Inner Mongolia is a representative region for examining this issue because it spans a [...] Read more.

Arid and semi-arid ecosystems are being reshaped by climate variability and human interventions, but increases in individual ecosystem indicators do not necessarily translate into coherent gains in ecosystem multifunctionality. Inner Mongolia is a representative region for examining this issue because it spans a sharp transition from humid forested mountains to arid grassland, desert, and plateau systems and serves as an important ecological security barrier in northern China. Using multi-source remote sensing, meteorological, ecological observation, land-use, and socioeconomic data, we assessed changes in net primary productivity, soil conservation, water conservation, habitat quality, and a comprehensive ecological benefit index from 2001 to 2020. We found that ecosystem service capacity did not follow a uniform recovery trajectory. High values were persistently concentrated in the northeastern forested mountains, whereas western arid regions remained the main low-value areas. Temporal changes also differed among indicators: soil conservation increased most clearly, water conservation fluctuated strongly between years, NPP varied unevenly among ecological regions, and habitat quality changed only slightly at the regional scale. The integrated index further revealed a contrast that single indicators could not fully capture: the Loess Plateau–Loess Hilly Subregion and the Yinshan Mountains showed the strongest gains in comprehensive ecological benefits, whereas the Greater Khingan Mountains, despite having the highest baseline value, showed a decline. Spatial explanatory-factor analysis indicated that vegetation water consumption and precipitation showed high conditional spatial explanatory power for NPP, water conservation, habitat quality, and CEBI, whereas soil conservation was more strongly associated with nonlinear enhancement among factors; these q-statistics represent spatial associations rather than independent causal effects. These findings support region-specific management: maintain the stability of high-value northeastern forests, match restoration density to water availability in western drylands, and evaluate grazing and erosion-control measures using multiple services rather than vegetation greenness alone. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multi-Sensor Data and Time-Series Analysis: Advancing Mapping and Climate Impact Assessment in Forest and Grassland)

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Forests, Volume 17, Issue 8 (August 2026) – 137 articles

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