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Editor’s Choice Articles

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

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19 pages, 1909 KB  
Article
Spatial Proximity to Perennial Groundcover Triggers Shade Avoidance Responses in Corn
by Amina Moro, A. Susana Goggi, Ken J. Moore, Shui-zhang Fei and Amy Kaleita
Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 729; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070729 - 31 Mar 2026
Viewed by 458
Abstract
Perennial groundcover (PGC) systems integrate perennial grasses with annual crops such as corn (Zea mays L.) to provide continuous soil cover and enhance soil health. However, the proximity to groundcover vegetation can alter light quality perceived by developing seedlings, inducing shade avoidance [...] Read more.
Perennial groundcover (PGC) systems integrate perennial grasses with annual crops such as corn (Zea mays L.) to provide continuous soil cover and enhance soil health. However, the proximity to groundcover vegetation can alter light quality perceived by developing seedlings, inducing shade avoidance response (SAR), a phytochrome-mediated developmental response that modifies plant architecture and may compromise yield. Identifying the distance at which SAR is initiated and the extent to which management practices modulate this response is critical for optimizing PGC systems. This growth chamber study aimed to (1) identify the distance at which SAR occurs in corn seedlings, (2) determine whether the thiamethoxam seed treatment mitigates SAR expression, and (3) compare hybrid physiological responses to PGC-induced SAR. The experiment was arranged in a randomized complete block design with four replications across three periods and included two corn hybrids (P1185, P1197), two seed treatments (untreated and thiamethoxam at 0.25 mg seed−1), and four perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) distances [0, 6, 25 cm, and a control (no-grass)]. Reduced red to far-red light ratios associated with closer proximity to ryegrass induced SAR responses. Corn plants at 6 cm from PGC exhibited significant stem and height elongation beginning at 8 days after planting (DAP), followed by reduced growth by 14 DAP, confirming an early SAR response. Plants grown at 0 cm exhibited reduced height and growth compared to other distances at all growth stages. Hybrid responses differed, and Hybrid P1197 showed enhanced stem elongation, a characteristic SAR response. The thiamethoxam seed treatment did not mitigate SAR. These results indicate that SAR causes stem elongation without altering root or shoot biomass. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Innovative Cropping Systems)
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15 pages, 1082 KB  
Review
Significant Benefits of the Rhizosphere Microbiome for Sustainable Agriculture: A Review on Blueberry Rhizosphere Microbiome
by Jilu Che, Yaqiong Wu, Ying Chang, Wenlong Wu, Lianfei Lyu, Fuliang Cao and Weilin Li
Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 718; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070718 - 30 Mar 2026
Viewed by 602
Abstract
The rhizosphere is a complex microecosystem where soil, roots, and microbes interact to maintain soil ecological functions. Blueberry (Vaccinium spp.), an economically important fruit, has a shallow, fibrous root system with few root hairs, limiting its nutrient absorption. It thrives in acidic, [...] Read more.
The rhizosphere is a complex microecosystem where soil, roots, and microbes interact to maintain soil ecological functions. Blueberry (Vaccinium spp.), an economically important fruit, has a shallow, fibrous root system with few root hairs, limiting its nutrient absorption. It thrives in acidic, high-organic matter soils, restricting its cultivation in many soil types worldwide. Enhancing blueberry productivity and adaptation by leveraging beneficial rhizosphere microbial communities offers a sustainable solution. This review summarizes the composition of blueberry rhizosphere microbial community across different microenvironments and the blueberry rhizosphere core microbiome. We detail the functional roles of beneficial microorganisms in stimulating nutrient bioavailability and secreting phytohormones. Furthermore, factors influencing microbiome assembly, including cultivars, planting age, and metabolites, are evaluated alongside agricultural management practices. Despite extensive taxonomic characterization, a critical gap remains in understanding the functional synergism between blueberry and its rhizosphere microbiome, particularly the ecological mechanisms underlying host adaptation to acidic and nutrient-limited environments. Overall, future research should focus on developing targeted agricultural practices and synthetic microbial communities to reshape the rhizosphere microbiome, thereby establishing productive, resilient rhizosphere-based microbial systems that support eco-friendly and sustainable agricultural ecosystems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rhizosphere Microbiome Association with Agronomic Productivity)
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21 pages, 2444 KB  
Article
Genotype-Dependent Interactions Between Biostimulants and Defense Inducers in Durum Wheat: Implications for Sustainable Crop Management
by Eloïse Detcheverry, Bénédicte Fontez, Aurélie Ducasse, Nicolas Geffroy, Marie-Emmanuelle Saint-Macary, Claire Benezech, Patrice Loisel and Elsa Ballini
Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 689; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070689 - 25 Mar 2026
Viewed by 544
Abstract
The intensive use of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers has raised environmental concerns. Sustainable alternatives, such as plant biostimulants and plant resistance inducers, offer promising solutions by enhancing growth, yield, and stress tolerance or by activating defense responses against pathogens. However, the physiological impacts [...] Read more.
The intensive use of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers has raised environmental concerns. Sustainable alternatives, such as plant biostimulants and plant resistance inducers, offer promising solutions by enhancing growth, yield, and stress tolerance or by activating defense responses against pathogens. However, the physiological impacts and combined effects of these products remain poorly understood, limiting evidence-based application strategies. Here, we evaluated the effects of a biostimulant and a plant defense inducer on durum wheat (Triticum turgidum ssp. durum), a key cereal crop in the Mediterranean Basin. Using controlled experiments, we assessed plant growth, chlorophyll content, defense gene expression and resistance to Zymoseptoria tritici, while considering potential trade-offs between growth promotion and defense activation. As expected, our results indicate that the biostimulant improved photosynthetic performance (19 to 45%), whereas the plant resistance inducer enhanced protection against Z. tritici (25% reduction in pycnidia). However, the combination of these two treatments can induce moderated interaction effects influenced by the varietal genetic background. This study provides novel insights into the interactions between plant growth promotion and defense induction in durum wheat. Understanding these multifactorial effects (in particular genotype effect) enables the identification of optimal treatment strategies, supporting the development of sustainable crop management practices that reduce chemical inputs while maintaining productivity and resilience under biotic stress. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Sustainability: Trade-Off Between Pest Management and Environment)
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27 pages, 4919 KB  
Review
Review of Seed Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Harvesting Techniques and the Challenges of Harvesting Technologies for This Crop
by Florian Adamczyk, Dominika Sieracka and Maciej Zaborowicz
Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 677; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070677 - 24 Mar 2026
Viewed by 594
Abstract
Industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) harvesting for grain represents a critical technological bottleneck in the modern supply chain, driven by a fundamental conflict between the plant’s resilient morphology and standard agricultural machinery. This review provides an analytical synthesis of harvesting methodologies, evaluating [...] Read more.
Industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) harvesting for grain represents a critical technological bottleneck in the modern supply chain, driven by a fundamental conflict between the plant’s resilient morphology and standard agricultural machinery. This review provides an analytical synthesis of harvesting methodologies, evaluating their performance against specific biological constraints such as extreme plant height (up to 4.5 m), high tensile fiber strength, and indeterminate ripening. Data synthesis reveals that hemp cutting is approximately 80 times more energy-intensive than for traditional forage crops, requiring an average maximum force of 243 N per stem. Comparative analysis demonstrates that while conventional whole-plant harvesting faces seed losses ranging from 26% to 46%, selective systems like specialized panicle mowers reduce these losses to nearly 2 kg·ha−1 by targeting only the mature inflorescences. To ensure seed integrity and operational stability, the review identifies concrete technological priorities: the use of abrasion-resistant alloys for cutting edges, the implementation of non-binding shaft shielding (e.g., ABS piping), and a 40–50% reduction in threshing cylinder speeds compared to cereal settings. Future advancements must focus on specialized, high-clearance selective machinery and adaptive control systems to reconcile hemp’s unique physiology with industrial-scale efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Aspects of Medicinal, Aromatic and Spice Plants' Cultivation, Harvest, Processing and Conservation)
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13 pages, 979 KB  
Article
Non-Host Status of Brassicaceae Plants to Mucoromycotina Fine Root Endophytes and Their Neutral Impact on Neighboring Host Mycorrhiza and Phosphorus Uptake
by Enkhmaa Erdenetugs, Enkhbold Bataa, Masaki Ito, Yuki Komatsuda and Yoshihiro Kobae
Agronomy 2026, 16(6), 636; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16060636 - 17 Mar 2026
Viewed by 729
Abstract
Brassicaceae plants are generally considered non-mycorrhizal; however, recent studies have challenged this non-host status, suggesting occasional colonization during reproductive stages or by overlooked fungi such as Mucoromycotina Fine Root Endophytes (MFRE). To re-evaluate the non-host status of Brassicaceae, we cultivated five Brassicaceae species, [...] Read more.
Brassicaceae plants are generally considered non-mycorrhizal; however, recent studies have challenged this non-host status, suggesting occasional colonization during reproductive stages or by overlooked fungi such as Mucoromycotina Fine Root Endophytes (MFRE). To re-evaluate the non-host status of Brassicaceae, we cultivated five Brassicaceae species, including rapid life cycle Brassica rapa (Fast plants) using field soil containing both Glomeromycotina Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (G-AMF) and MFRE. To ensure inoculum potential, a co-planting system with lettuce (Lactuca sativa) as a nurse plant was employed. While lettuce roots were rapidly colonized by both G-AMF and MFRE, no mycorrhizal colonization was observed in any Brassicaceae roots throughout their entire life cycle, from vegetative growth to flowering and seed maturation in Fast plants. Furthermore, co-planting with Brassicaceae did not significantly affect the mycorrhizal colonization or shoot phosphorus concentrations of the neighboring lettuce. These results demonstrate that Brassicaceae plants maintain a robust non-host status against both G-AMF and MFRE. Moreover, they function as “neutral non-hosts” that do not disrupt the symbiotic networks of neighboring plants. This characteristic reinforces the value of Brassicaceae in sustainable crop rotation systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rhizosphere Microbiome Association with Agronomic Productivity)
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17 pages, 5092 KB  
Article
Comparative Transcriptome Analysis Revealed Key Regulatory Genes Under PEG-Induced Osmotic Stress in Soybean
by Chen Liu, Jilin Wang, Die Hu, Ting Wu, Mingyan Xiang, Xuan Gong, Zelin Yi and Xiaomei Fang
Agronomy 2026, 16(5), 569; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16050569 - 5 Mar 2026
Viewed by 553
Abstract
Soybean is a critical oil and protein crop for both food and forage production; however, its growth and development are severely impacted by drought stress. Nevertheless, the molecular regulatory mechanisms underlying drought tolerance in soybean remain poorly understood. In this study, two soybean [...] Read more.
Soybean is a critical oil and protein crop for both food and forage production; however, its growth and development are severely impacted by drought stress. Nevertheless, the molecular regulatory mechanisms underlying drought tolerance in soybean remain poorly understood. In this study, two soybean varieties, Jindou 21 (JD21, drought-tolerant) and Suinong 26 (SN26, drought-sensitive), were used as experimental materials and subjected to 15% PEG6000 to simulate drought stress. Roots and leaves were sampled at 0 h, 6 h, and 12 h after treatment to determine physiological indicators and conduct RNA-seq analysis. The results showed that JD21 exhibited a lower malondialdehyde (MDA) content but higher soluble sugar and proline contents than SN26. A total of 2603 and 3128 osmotic-stress-responsive genes were identified in the roots and leaves of SN26 and JD21, respectively. Additionally, 256 genes in the roots and 215 genes in the leaves showed consistent differential expression between the two varieties across the three treatment time points. KEGG enrichment analysis revealed that the differentially expressed genes were significantly enriched in pathways related to glutathione metabolism, arginine and proline metabolism, glycolysis/gluconeogenesis, and starch and sucrose metabolism. Within these pathways, the functions of GmGST, GmAMD1, GmADH1, GmENO, GmsacA, and GmSUS3 were validated through transgenic hairy root assays, demonstrating that these genes play positive regulatory roles in osmotic stress response. This study provides valuable data for elucidating plant PEG-induced osmotic-stress-response mechanisms and offers theoretical support for drought-resistant soybean breeding. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lipid and Hormone Action in Crop Development and Defense)
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17 pages, 12258 KB  
Article
Identification and Functional Analysis of Key Factors Determining the Different Pathogenicity of Two Tomato Leaf Curl New Delhi Virus Isolates in Cucurbitaceous Plants
by Yuan Chen, Zihao Xia, Yuanhua Wu, Xueping Zhou and Fangfang Li
Agronomy 2026, 16(5), 568; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16050568 - 5 Mar 2026
Viewed by 525
Abstract
Tomato leaf curl New Delhi virus (ToLCNDV) is a bipartite begomovirus (family Geminiviridae) originally isolated from tomatoes and later evolved to cross-infect cucurbit crops, causing severe economic damage in Asia and Europe. In this study, we sequenced and characterized complete genomes of [...] Read more.
Tomato leaf curl New Delhi virus (ToLCNDV) is a bipartite begomovirus (family Geminiviridae) originally isolated from tomatoes and later evolved to cross-infect cucurbit crops, causing severe economic damage in Asia and Europe. In this study, we sequenced and characterized complete genomes of two ToLCNDV isolates collected from Hebei (ToLCNDV-HB) and Jiangsu (ToLCNDV-JS) provinces of China infecting melon. We constructed infectious clones for ToLCNDV-HB and ToLCNDV-JS, which could systemically infect Nicotiana benthamiana, tomato, and four species of cucurbitaceous plants. Notably, ToLCNDV-HB induced more severe symptoms and accumulated higher viral DNA and protein accumulation than ToLCNDV-JS in N. benthamiana, melon, and bottle gourd. Sequence analysis showed that sequence variations are present only in AV2, AC1, and AC4. However, only the AV2 ORF from ToLCNDV-HB was more efficient than that from that ToLCNDV-JS in enhancing potato X virus’s pathogenicity and suppressing post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS). An AV2-swapping experiment between ToLCNDV-HB and ToLCNDV-JS confirmed its vital role in determining the differential pathogenicity. Further evidence shows that virions from both clones are mechanically transmissible. This is the first report comparing the differential pathogenicity of two Chinese ToLCNDV isolates in cucurbits. The AV2 protein, a key pathogenicity determinant, represents a potential target for breeding ToLCNDV-resistant cucurbit varieties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Pest and Disease Management)
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39 pages, 1243 KB  
Review
From Sensing to Intervention: A Critical Review of Agricultural Drones for Precision Agriculture, Data-Driven Decision Making, and Sustainable Intensification
by Vlad Nicolae Arsenoaia, Denis Constantin Topa, Roxana Nicoleta Ratu and Ioan Tenu
Agronomy 2026, 16(5), 564; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16050564 - 4 Mar 2026
Viewed by 1082
Abstract
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are increasingly employed in precision agronomy to support high-resolution monitoring and management of crops; however, the extent to which UAV-derived data can be translated into reliable, scalable, and decision-ready applications remains inconsistent. This review addresses this gap by critically [...] Read more.
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are increasingly employed in precision agronomy to support high-resolution monitoring and management of crops; however, the extent to which UAV-derived data can be translated into reliable, scalable, and decision-ready applications remains inconsistent. This review addresses this gap by critically synthesising the recent literature with a specific focus on the end-to-end data pipeline, from acquisition planning and pre-processing to data fusion, analytics readiness, and operational decision support. A systematic analysis of peer-reviewed studies published over the last five years was conducted to evaluate core agronomic applications, including crop health monitoring, precision irrigation, soil and field variability assessment, spraying, and yield prediction, with particular attention to indicators used, validation strategies, and reported agronomic outcomes. The findings indicate that monitoring and diagnostic applications are the most mature and consistently validated, whereas interventional uses and absolute yield prediction remain strongly context-dependent and constrained by operational, methodological, and regulatory factors. Across applications, pipeline robustness, uncertainty management, and reproducibility emerge as more critical determinants of agronomic value than sensor resolution alone. The review further identifies key barriers to scaling, including technical limitations, skills requirements, data integration challenges, and regulatory constraints, and outlines an innovation roadmap distinguishing currently deployable solutions from emerging developments over the next three to five years. Overall, this work provides a decision-oriented framework to support more transparent, validated, and sustainable integration of UAV technologies into modern agricultural systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Agricultural UAV Application—2nd Edition)
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18 pages, 7157 KB  
Article
High-Throughput Evaluation of Cotton Drought Tolerance Using UAV Multispectral Imagery and XGBoost-Based Machine Learning
by Fuxiang Zhao, Tao Yang, Wei Wang, Wanli Han, Gang Wang, Jinxin Qiao, Xianhui Kong, Li Liu, Aijun Si, Fanlin Wang, Xuwen Wang, Xiyan Yang and Yu Yu
Agronomy 2026, 16(5), 526; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16050526 - 28 Feb 2026
Viewed by 440
Abstract
Drought stress severely constrains cotton yield and fiber quality, but conventional evaluation methods are inefficient and time-consuming. To address this, we developed a high-throughput, non-destructive phenotyping framework by integrating UAV-based multispectral remote sensing with machine learning, using 225 upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum [...] Read more.
Drought stress severely constrains cotton yield and fiber quality, but conventional evaluation methods are inefficient and time-consuming. To address this, we developed a high-throughput, non-destructive phenotyping framework by integrating UAV-based multispectral remote sensing with machine learning, using 225 upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) accessions. The accessions were subjected to well-watered (CK) and drought stress (DS) treatments at the flowering and boll-setting stage. Canopy multispectral imagery (Green/Red/Red_edge/Near-infrared bands) was acquired via DJI Mavic 3 Multispectral UAV, and 16 vegetation indices (VIs) were derived. Concurrently, 15 agronomic and fiber quality traits were measured to calculate drought resistance coefficients (DRCs), which were used for principal component analysis (PCA) and comprehensive drought tolerance index (D) construction. Hierarchical clustering categorized the accessions into 6 drought tolerance grades (Groups I–VI). Variable importance analysis identified GNDVI, NGRVI, and NDRE as the most drought-sensitive VIs (% IncMSE > 11). Among four regression models (LR, KNN, LGBM, XGBoost), XGBoost achieved the best performance for D prediction (test set: R2 = 0.785, RMSE = 0.032, MAE = 0.024). This study demonstrates that UAV multispectral data coupled with XGBoost enables accurate, efficient drought tolerance assessment, providing a robust tool for high-throughput germplasm screening and smart agricultural management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Precision Assistance for Crop Genetic Improvement: Big Data, Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning)
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27 pages, 336 KB  
Article
Replacing Glyphosate Shifts Environmental Burdens: Trade-Offs Between Ecotoxicity and Climate Impact in Chemical and Non-Chemical Strategies
by Michael Raimondi, Edelbis López Dávila, Laura Peeters, Wim Reybroeck, Tim Belien, Dany Bylemans, Jeroen Buysse, Benny De Cauwer and Pieter Spanoghe
Agronomy 2026, 16(5), 510; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16050510 - 26 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1545
Abstract
The potential withdrawal of glyphosate necessitates a comprehensive evaluation of alternative weed control strategies that balances human health safety with environmental concerns. This study applied a decision-support grid to compare the impacts of glyphosate-based reference strategies against chemical and non-chemical alternatives across four [...] Read more.
The potential withdrawal of glyphosate necessitates a comprehensive evaluation of alternative weed control strategies that balances human health safety with environmental concerns. This study applied a decision-support grid to compare the impacts of glyphosate-based reference strategies against chemical and non-chemical alternatives across four Belgian case studies: pome fruit orchards, grassland renewal, arable weed patches, and railways. The assessment integrated twelve risk indicators including human, environmental and biodiversity risk, and life cycle assessment for global warming potential (GWP) into a Final Scenario Score (FSS). The results indicated that only one alternative strategy, the chemical alternative in local weed patch control, achieved the FSS threshold (<0.75) required to justify substitution (FSS = 0.70). Chemical alternatives in other case studies frequently shifted burdens; for instance, bio-herbicides in railways increased risks to residents and aquatic organisms compared to the reference. Conversely, mechanical and thermal alternatives eliminated chemical toxicity but resulted in GWP increases up to 32 times higher than glyphosate-based practices. These findings demonstrate that chemical substitutes often maintain toxicity risks while non-chemical strategies trade them for increased climate impacts. Consequently, a ban on glyphosate is currently unsupported by the environmental performance of available alternatives in these temperate high-intensity systems. Sustainable progress requires a transition period where optimized conventional strategies remain available within integrated weed management, while innovations in electrification and precision technology are accelerated to resolve current trade-offs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Herbicide Use: Effects on the Agricultural Environment)
24 pages, 689 KB  
Review
Recent Advances in Diagnosing and Managing Phytoplasma Diseases
by Zhecheng Xu, Liya Peng, Puhou Xing, Yu Gao, Yi Yu, Tuhong Wang, Zhiqiang Song, Wenjun Zhao, Yi Cheng and Qiulong Hu
Agronomy 2026, 16(5), 504; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16050504 - 25 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1388
Abstract
Phytoplasmas are obligate intracellular parasitic bacteria that infect over 1000 plant species globally, causing devastating diseases characterized by yellowing, witches’ broom, phyllody, and significant yield losses in economically important crops. The unculturable nature of these pathogens has historically hindered their study; however, advances [...] Read more.
Phytoplasmas are obligate intracellular parasitic bacteria that infect over 1000 plant species globally, causing devastating diseases characterized by yellowing, witches’ broom, phyllody, and significant yield losses in economically important crops. The unculturable nature of these pathogens has historically hindered their study; however, advances in molecular biology and genomics have substantially accelerated progress over the past two decades. This review provides a comprehensive overview of current knowledge on phytoplasma diseases and control technologies. In terms of taxonomy, phytoplasmas are currently classified into 37 16Sr groups with over 150 subgroups based on 16S rRNA gene analysis, and approximately 50 ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma’ species have been formally named. Genomic studies have revealed that phytoplasmas possess highly reduced genomes (530–1350 kb) lacking many essential metabolic pathways, reflecting their obligate parasitic lifestyle. Regarding pathogenesis, secreted effector proteins such as SAP (Secreted Aster Yellows Witches’ Broom Protein), TENGU (tengu-su inducer), and SWP (Secreted Wheat Blue Dwarf Protein) manipulate plant hormone signaling and developmental processes, leading to characteristic disease symptoms. Detection technologies have evolved from traditional microscopy to molecular methods, including nested PCR, real-time quantitative PCR, loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), and CRISPR/Cas-based systems (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats/CRISPR-associated protein), with AI-based image recognition and remote sensing emerging as promising tools for large-scale field monitoring. Integrated management strategies encompassing agricultural practices, insect vector control, biological control agents, induced resistance, and breeding for resistance are discussed. Finally, future research directions, including functional genomics, microbiome-based approaches, and precision agriculture technologies, are highlighted. This review aims to provide researchers and practitioners with a systematic reference for understanding phytoplasma biology and developing effective disease management strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Endophytic Fungi and Beneficial Microbes for Sustainable Crop Resilience)
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22 pages, 1358 KB  
Article
Screening Almond Cultivars for Water Stress Tolerance Using Multiple Diagnostic Parameters
by Joan Ramon Gispert, Neus Marimon, Agustí Romero and Xavier Miarnau
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 478; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040478 - 20 Feb 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1531
Abstract
Climate change influences the agronomic behaviour of fruit trees. It is necessary to determine which cultivars adapt best to conditions in which water supplies are becoming increasingly scarce. This study analyses different phenological, morphological, physiological, agronomic and productive parameters to evaluate water stress [...] Read more.
Climate change influences the agronomic behaviour of fruit trees. It is necessary to determine which cultivars adapt best to conditions in which water supplies are becoming increasingly scarce. This study analyses different phenological, morphological, physiological, agronomic and productive parameters to evaluate water stress tolerance in six late-blooming almond cultivars widely grown in Spain (‘Ferragnès’, ’Francolí’, ‘Masbovera’, ‘Glorieta’, ’Guara’ and ‘Lauranne’). Two different plots were analysed: one under regulated deficit irrigation, at Les Borges Blanques, Lleida, with a water deficit (146.2 mm/year) and the other under rainfed conditions, at Mas Bové, Constantí, Tarragona, with a water deficit (284.5 mm/year). Parameters, including an increase in canopy volume, leaf-to-air thermal gradient, and slope between leaf water potential and level of leaf saturation, have proven to be good indicators of resistance to water stress. Yield variation and leaf temperature variation between rainfed and irrigated conditions also perform quite well. An assessment of leaf chlorophyll content, measured using SPAD-502, suggested the presence of a collateral effect resulting from the opacity of the biomass, as well as to chlorophyll-related cuticular colouring. Finally, under the experimental conditions, ‘Guara’ and ‘Masbovera’ proved the most resistant cultivars; ‘Glorieta’ and ‘Francolí’ exhibited an intermediate level, and ‘Lauranne’ and ‘Ferragnès’ were the least resistant cultivars. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Influence of Irrigation and Water Use on Agronomic Traits of Crops—2nd Edition)
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22 pages, 4200 KB  
Article
Seasonal Fluctuations and Ecological Resilience: Grassland-Type-Specific Responses of Soil Carbon and Nitrogen Transformations in a Forest–Steppe Ecotone Under Global Change
by Haoyan Li, Wenchao Yang, Kaiyuan Li, Chuan Lu, Yifan Wang, Chuanhao Xing, Jiahuan Li, Long Bai and Baihui Ren
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 477; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040477 - 19 Feb 2026
Viewed by 710
Abstract
Against the backdrop of global climate change, climate warming and increasing nitrogen addition are profoundly altering carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) cycling in terrestrial ecosystems. Short-term observations are critical for capturing the initial response trajectories of soil C-N dynamics to environmental stress, providing [...] Read more.
Against the backdrop of global climate change, climate warming and increasing nitrogen addition are profoundly altering carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) cycling in terrestrial ecosystems. Short-term observations are critical for capturing the initial response trajectories of soil C-N dynamics to environmental stress, providing timely insights into early-stage adaptation mechanisms that underpin long-term ecosystem stability. This study investigated the interactive effects of these drivers on soil C and N transformation rates, component dynamics, and their coupling relationships in a warm steppe and a warm shrub grassland within the forest–steppe ecotone of northwestern Liaoning Province. We employed field-controlled experiments using open-top chambers for warming in combination with four nitrogen addition gradients. Results showed warming plus high N addition increased soil total N but reduced net N mineralization, supporting the “N saturation hypothesis”. Though N addition generally suppressed the C conversion rate, low-level N (5 g N m−2 a−1) mitigated C loss and enhanced it under warming. Soil organic C and microbial biomass C drove C transformation. Warm shrub grassland’s stable mineral-associated organic C pool rose 640.5% (stronger resilience), while warm steppe’s C/N turnover depended on seasons (greater vulnerability); C/N transformations were synchronized in the steppe but independent in shrubland. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Carbon Sequestration for Mitigating Climate Change in Grasslands)
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21 pages, 3753 KB  
Article
Enhanced PAH Degradation in Freeze–Thaw Farmland Soil Using Composite Biochar-Immobilized Cold-Tolerant Microbial Consortium
by Dan Su, Ruohong Shang, Huaipeng Zhai, Yushan Dong and Sunan Xu
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 472; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040472 - 19 Feb 2026
Viewed by 717
Abstract
This study focused on slightly to moderately PAH-contaminated farmland soils in freeze–thaw regions of Northeast China, aiming to fill the research gap in the in situ remediation mechanisms of PAHs under natural freeze–thaw conditions. A 12-month in situ experiment was conducted with four [...] Read more.
This study focused on slightly to moderately PAH-contaminated farmland soils in freeze–thaw regions of Northeast China, aiming to fill the research gap in the in situ remediation mechanisms of PAHs under natural freeze–thaw conditions. A 12-month in situ experiment was conducted with four treatments—blank control (CK), biochar (BC), microbial agent (MA), and immobilized microorganisms (IM)—to verify that biochar-loaded IM alleviates temperature stress and sustains efficient PAH removal by regulating soil and microbial properties. PAH removal efficiency and soil chemical properties were monitored during both normal-temperature and freeze–thaw periods, and the soil bacterial community structure was analyzed at the end of the experiment. Results showed that IM achieved the optimal remediation performance with a total PAH removal rate of 72.53%, was least affected by temperature fluctuations, and maintained stable remediation during the freeze–thaw period. IM increased soil nutrient contents, with available potassium and nitrogen exerted positive effects on PAH degradation; it also enriched the functional genes K00626 and K00457 and comprehensively optimized the bacterial community. This study clarified the core remediation mechanism and provided scientific, technical, and theoretical support for related in situ remediation practices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)
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25 pages, 4989 KB  
Article
Ecological Trade-Offs of Plastic Film and Straw Mulching: Mechanistic Insights from Soil Structure and Carbon–Nitrogen
by Nannan Hu, Xiaoyan Wang, Lei Pang, Jianlong Lu, Jin Yang, Xinyue Xiao and Khuram Shehzad Khan
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 470; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040470 - 18 Feb 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 813
Abstract
Mulching practices are key technologies for addressing soil degradation and increasing crop yields in the dryland farming regions of the Loess Plateau. However, it remains unclear how they synergistically influence soil health and sustainability by regulating soil physical, moisture, and nutrient processes while [...] Read more.
Mulching practices are key technologies for addressing soil degradation and increasing crop yields in the dryland farming regions of the Loess Plateau. However, it remains unclear how they synergistically influence soil health and sustainability by regulating soil physical, moisture, and nutrient processes while ensuring yield improvement. In particular, the ecological trade-off effects between crop yield enhancement and soil fertility improvement under different mulching measures still require further research. This study was conducted in 2022 at the Dryland Agriculture Experimental Station of Gansu Academy of Agricultural Sciences to evaluate the effect of straw strip mulching (TSM), straw crushed mulching (TSR), and plastic film mulching (TPM), with flat planting without mulching (TCK) as the control. The investigation focuses on soil moisture distribution, aggregate composition, soil carbon and nitrogen contents, and yield components in maize fields. The sStudy results showed that all mulching treatments reduced soil bulk density, increased soil porosity, and enhanced soil water content and water storage while reducing evapotranspiration. TSM most effectively increased soil organic carbon and total nitrogen contents. All mulching treatments improved soil aggregate stability, with TSM achieving the most significant reduction in soil erodibility by 40%. Compared with TCK, TPM, TSR, and TSM increased maize grain yield by 71.26%, 44.67%, and 38.04%, respectively. The most influential factors contributing to maize yield are soil water content, soil erodibility, mechanically stable micro-aggregates, and water-stable macro-aggregates. Analysis of the fitting relationship between key influencing factors and yield indicates that soil erodibility demonstrates the optimal fit with yield (R2 = 0.73), followed by the fit between soil water content and yield (R2 = 0.69). Overall, plastic film mulching primarily enhances short-term yield, while straw strip mulching ensures stable maize production and promotes soil health and sustainable development in dryland farming systems of the Loess Plateau, thus providing a clear theoretical basis for selecting mulching practices based on ecological trade-offs in the Loess Plateau region. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agroecology Innovation: Achieving System Resilience)
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19 pages, 8239 KB  
Article
Delayed Panicle Nitrogen Application Enhances Stem Nonstructural Carbohydrate Accumulation in Large-Panicle Rice Through the Sucrose–Starch Metabolic Network
by Yonggan Shi, Tiezhong Zhu, Feilong Shen, Chuan Tu, Congshan Xu, Qiangqiang Zhang, Haibing He, Cuicui You, Liquan Wu and Jian Ke
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 464; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040464 - 16 Feb 2026
Viewed by 694
Abstract
Accumulation of stem non-structural carbohydrates (NSC) at heading is crucial for mitigating grain-setting defects in large-panicle rice. While traditional panicle nitrogen fertilizer application at the emergence of the fourth leaf from the flag leaf stage (TL4) may weaken stem sink strength, delaying application [...] Read more.
Accumulation of stem non-structural carbohydrates (NSC) at heading is crucial for mitigating grain-setting defects in large-panicle rice. While traditional panicle nitrogen fertilizer application at the emergence of the fourth leaf from the flag leaf stage (TL4) may weaken stem sink strength, delaying application to the emergence of the third leaf from the flag leaf stage (TL3) significantly enhances NSC accumulation. This study aimed to elucidate the molecular mechanisms through which TL3 remodels stem sink strength to promote NSC storage. Using two large-panicle rice varieties (Huiliangyou 280 and Yangliangyou 228), we compared stem NSC dynamics under TL4 and TL3 treatments and integrated sugar-related metabolite profiling with transcriptome analysis during the critical NSC accumulation phase. The results showed that TL3 treatment significantly increased stem NSC content and NSC per spikelet at heading, leading to a higher percentage of filled grains. The period from 5 days before heading (DBH) to heading showed the highest NSC accumulation rate. At the molecular level, TL3 treatment specifically up-regulated eight key genes in the sucrose–starch metabolism pathway, increasing the activities of sucrose phosphate synthase, sucrose synthase, and ADP–glucose pyrophosphorylase, and thereby promoting the accumulation of sucrose, trehalose, and D-fructose. In summary, delaying panicle nitrogen application to TL3 enhances stem NSC storage by remodeling sink strength via coordinated regulation of the sucrose–starch metabolic network. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Management and Tillage Practice in Agriculture—2nd Edition)
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20 pages, 2120 KB  
Article
Quantifying the Carbon Footprint of Fuding White Tea Production: A Cradle-to-Grave Life Cycle Assessment
by Min Hao, Jihang He, Jianjing Dai, Liewei Cai, Claudien Habimana Simbi, Liyi Xu, Zhenli Wu, Shaobo Zhang and Xin Li
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 465; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040465 - 16 Feb 2026
Viewed by 797
Abstract
Background: White tea, despite being one of the six major types of Chinese tea, has received relatively little attention regarding its production-related environmental impacts. This study employed a cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment (LCA) to quantify the carbon footprint of Fuding white tea production. [...] Read more.
Background: White tea, despite being one of the six major types of Chinese tea, has received relatively little attention regarding its production-related environmental impacts. This study employed a cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment (LCA) to quantify the carbon footprint of Fuding white tea production. Results: An integrated cradle-to-grave assessment, informed by field surveys, literature, and background databases (including complete life-cycle data from 15 tea enterprises), revealed an average carbon emission intensity of 16.94 ± 3.41 kg CO2 eq per kilogram of finished tea (crude). Major emission sources included electricity consumption (45–68% of total emissions), water usage (15–26%), and fertilizer application (7–22%), with major hotspots identified in the processing stage (4.10–12.73 kg CO2 eq/kg, primarily from energy-intensive drying and refining) and consumption stage (5.17–5.67 kg CO2 eq/kg, dominated by water heating). Analysis of 216 scenarios revealed production emissions ranged from 15.44 to 22.72 kg CO2 eq/kg. Notably, emissions could be reduced by up to 56% through integrated measures such as organic fertilization, natural withering, and short-chain distribution. When accounting for tea garden carbon sequestration (1.17–8.45 kg CO2 eq/kg), the production of Fuding white tea could potentially achieve net-negative emissions. Conclusions: To support decarbonization, we propose a tripartite strategy: adoption of green electricity and organic fertilizers during production, promotion of short-chain distribution systems and low-carbon consumer practices, and innovating carbon sink trading mechanisms. These findings offer a scientific foundation for reducing the carbon footprint per unit of tea and enhancing the green competitiveness of the tea industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agroecology Innovation: Achieving System Resilience)
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13 pages, 794 KB  
Article
Mitigating N2O Peaks in Rice–Wheat Rotations: Targeting Wheat-Season Windows with Straw Return
by Xiangyu Xu, Minmin Zhang, Tao Jin, Jianing Wang, Shujun Zhao, Dabing Xu, Chenglin Peng, Guohan Si, Wei Liu, Lisha Tong and Jie Song
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 439; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040439 - 13 Feb 2026
Viewed by 716
Abstract
Nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions in cereal-based rotations often show short-lived peaks after fertilization, but their contribution to annual budgets and their responsiveness to straw management remain poorly quantified. We combined a 13-year legacy fertilization experiment with two years of high-frequency N [...] Read more.
Nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions in cereal-based rotations often show short-lived peaks after fertilization, but their contribution to annual budgets and their responsiveness to straw management remain poorly quantified. We combined a 13-year legacy fertilization experiment with two years of high-frequency N2O monitoring in a rice–wheat rotation in central China to quantify post-fertilization peak windows and test how straw-return rate modulates these windows and annual emissions. Five long-term treatments were compared: an unfertilized control (CK), straw only (2M, 12 t ha−1 yr−1), mineral fertilizer (NPK), and NPK with 6 or 12 t ha−1 yr−1 straw (MNPK and 2MNPK). Under N input, wheat-season emissions dominated annual totals, with the ratio of wheat-season to annual N2O emissions (WN/TN, where WN denotes wheat-season N2O emissions and TN denotes annual cumulative N2O emissions) of ~73–75% for NPK and MNPK, significantly higher than in CK and the straw-only control. Decomposition of annual fluxes showed that 56.6–65.4% of N2O in N-applied treatments occurred within short windows after the two wheat-season fertilizations, whereas rice-season peaks were small and largely insensitive to treatment. Planned contrasts expressed as geometric mean ratios (GMRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) highlighted a strong management leverage point: increasing straw from 6 to 12 t ha−1 yr−1 with NPK reduced annual and wheat-season N2O by ~47% and 58%, respectively, primarily by lowering peak magnitude and shortening peak duration. Microbial analyses suggested that treatment effects on N2O were better reflected by community compositional shifts (β-diversity) than by α-diversity, while amoA abundance showed guild-specific responses. Collectively, this study provides an event-window quantification framework that links high-frequency field measurements to a specific, actionable mitigation lever (straw-return rate) in rice–wheat systems. Together, these results identify wheat-season post-fertilization windows as the main control points for annual N2O in rice–wheat rotations and show that pairing NPK fertilization with higher straw return can temper short-lived peaks. By explicitly pinpointing when (which windows) and how (attenuating peak magnitude and duration) mitigation is achieved, our findings offer a management-ready and transferable basis for targeted N2O abatement in double-cropping systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agroecology Innovation: Achieving System Resilience)
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32 pages, 2352 KB  
Article
Biochar–Compost as a Solution to Tackle Water Stress and Soil Degradation in Drylands
by Alban Echchelh and Felipe Guilayn
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 444; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040444 - 13 Feb 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 915
Abstract
Desertification in Mediterranean drylands threatens food security. This study evaluated biochar–compost amendments on drought-affected sandy–calcareous soils, focusing on carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) dynamics. Laboratory soil incubations revealed that biochar reduced C mineralization, aiding long-term storage, but also decreased N mineralization, signaling potential [...] Read more.
Desertification in Mediterranean drylands threatens food security. This study evaluated biochar–compost amendments on drought-affected sandy–calcareous soils, focusing on carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) dynamics. Laboratory soil incubations revealed that biochar reduced C mineralization, aiding long-term storage, but also decreased N mineralization, signaling potential short-term immobilization. However, leaching experiments showed that incorporating 2%, 5%, 10%, and 20% biochar into compost significantly reduced C losses by 22, 26, 36, and 48%, respectively, and N losses by 37, 67%, 45%, and 65%, respectively. In water-stressed lettuce trials, the use of compost alone could only yield 30% of the yield obtained in unstressed lettuce treated with compost. While the addition of 2–5% biochar to compost enabled the conservation of 44–45% of the yield of unstressed lettuce, a 10% biochar amendment doubled this number (88%). Nonetheless, a higher dose of 20% biochar in the compost offered no additional benefit with 84% of the yield of unstressed lettuce amended with compost. These findings position biochar–compost as a key strategy to enhance soil fertility and water-use efficiency. To counteract short-term N immobilization, the study recommends further investigation of early application combined with supplemental fertilization or fractionated biochar supply (over 2–3 years). Ultimately, tailoring biochar formulations to specific local conditions is essential to balance immediate crop productivity with long-term soil health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Path for Circular Economy in Agriculture: From Organic Waste to Sustainable Energy and Soil Fertility)
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19 pages, 3129 KB  
Article
Genome-Wide Identification and Functional Characterization of the Phytochelatin Synthase (PCS) Gene Family in Potato Reveals StPCS1′s Role in Cadmium Tolerance
by Yongwei Zhao, Ying Li, Tongke Zhang, Hailong Dong, Fubao Yang and Panfeng Yao
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 432; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040432 - 12 Feb 2026
Viewed by 682
Abstract
Phytochelatin synthase (PCS) is crucial for synthesizing phytochelatins, cysteine-rich peptides vital for heavy metal detoxification in plants. Potato, a key staple crop in China, faces risks from soil heavy metal contamination, yet the genes involved in its detoxification, particularly PCS genes, remain underexplored. [...] Read more.
Phytochelatin synthase (PCS) is crucial for synthesizing phytochelatins, cysteine-rich peptides vital for heavy metal detoxification in plants. Potato, a key staple crop in China, faces risks from soil heavy metal contamination, yet the genes involved in its detoxification, particularly PCS genes, remain underexplored. This study systematically identified and characterized the StPCS gene family in potato using genomic databases, uncovering five StPCS members distributed across three of the 12 potato chromosomes. Phylogenetic analysis classified StPCS proteins into three clades, while gene structure and motif analyses revealed high conservation in domain organization. Promoter region investigations identified stress-responsive elements in nearly all StPCS genes. Under cadmium (Cd) stress conditions, qPCR analysis indicated a significant upregulation of StPCS1 (5.73-fold) and StPCS2 (1.61-fold) transcript levels after 21 days compared to the control, whereas no obvious differences were observed at 7 days post-stress. Subsequent functional verification in yeast revealed that StPCS1 overexpression markedly improved Cd tolerance in transgenic yeast. In addition, analysis of cis-acting elements in the StPCS gene promoter combined with qPCR verification under MeJA and ABA stress conditions suggested that StPCS1 might be involved in Cd stress responses in potato through certain hormone signaling pathways. This study represents the first comprehensive analysis of the StPCS gene family in potato, clarifying its structural characteristics and characterizing the function of StPCS1 as a long-term Cd stress-responsive gene, which lays a solid foundation for investigating its role in heavy metal detoxification. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Crop Breeding and Genetics)
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21 pages, 11936 KB  
Article
Revealing Heterogeneous Trade-Offs and Synergies of Food–Carbon–Water Nexus for Sustainable Agricultural Development in Northeast China
by Zhenwei Hou, Yaqun Liu, Sijia Li, Bingxue Zhu, Changhe Lu and Zhaohai Zeng
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 437; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040437 - 12 Feb 2026
Viewed by 688
Abstract
Balancing food production, water conservation, and carbon emissions (CEs) is critical in Northeast China (NEC), yet food–carbon–water (FCW) interactions remain poorly quantified at pixel scale. Conceptually, we move beyond administrative-unit nexus assessments by providing a crop-explicit, grid-based FCW diagnosis that identifies where crop-specific [...] Read more.
Balancing food production, water conservation, and carbon emissions (CEs) is critical in Northeast China (NEC), yet food–carbon–water (FCW) interactions remain poorly quantified at pixel scale. Conceptually, we move beyond administrative-unit nexus assessments by providing a crop-explicit, grid-based FCW diagnosis that identifies where crop-specific bottlenecks emerge and supports zoning-oriented interventions. We fused multi-source datasets with process models to estimate CEs, water use efficiency (WUE), and yield for maize, rice, and soybean at 500 m resolution during 2001–2020 and evaluated synergies/trade-offs based on Sen’s slope trends and nexus performance using coupling coordination degree (CCD). Annual mean CE (230.8–37,300 kg CO2-eq ha−1), yield (0–10,031 kg ha−1), and WUE (0–6 kg C m−3) exhibited pronounced spatial heterogeneity. Higher CEs and yield concentrated in the central–southern plains, whereas WUE showed a patchier pattern with localized high values. Temporally, CEs increased for all crops, with rice consistently exhibiting the highest CEs. Soybean showed the most pronounced WUE improvement, reaching >2.0 kg C m−3 after the early 2010s. Pixel-wise correlations revealed a robust CE–WUE antagonism for all crops (r = −0.33 to −0.60), while CE–yield coupling was crop-dependent (soybean positive, maize weakly negative, rice non-significant). Trend-based coupling further showed that synchronized CE and yield increases dominated 45.7% of croplands, whereas trade-offs were more common when WUE was involved (CE–WUE: 38.0%; WUE–yield: 41.8%), peaking in rice systems (61.8% and 54.0%, respectively). CCD mapping indicated widespread basic coordination but strong crop contrasts. Rice had the lowest coordination (mean CCD = 0.36 ± 0.17) and the largest shares of moderate-to-severe imbalance, identifying rice as the primary FCW bottleneck, whereas maize and soybean more frequently achieved good-to-high coordination. These results support a zoned strategy that consolidates coordinated maize/soybean areas, prioritizes paddy water-saving and low-emission upgrades, and limits further rice expansion in water-constrained zones. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Land Degradation and Management Strategies: Contributing to Sustainable Agriculture)
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29 pages, 6266 KB  
Article
Integrated Morphological, Physiological, and Transcriptomic Analyses Reveal a Biphasic Growth–Defense Trade-Off Strategy in Allium mongolicum Under Drought Stress
by Sile Hu, Jiahe Gao, Geer Cheng, Fang Tang, Kefan Cao and Jinhua Zhao
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 425; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040425 - 10 Feb 2026
Viewed by 757
Abstract
Drought severely constrains grassland stability and forage productivity. Allium mongolicum Regel, a dominant species in desert steppes, exhibits high drought tolerance, yet its multi-level adaptive responses remain incompletely understood. Here, drought stress of different intensities (15%, 30%, 45%, and 60% PEG-6000) was simulated, [...] Read more.
Drought severely constrains grassland stability and forage productivity. Allium mongolicum Regel, a dominant species in desert steppes, exhibits high drought tolerance, yet its multi-level adaptive responses remain incompletely understood. Here, drought stress of different intensities (15%, 30%, 45%, and 60% PEG-6000) was simulated, and root phenotypes, physiological traits, and time-series transcriptomic profiles were integrated to characterize its drought-responsive patterns. The results revealed a biphasic phenotypic response: mild to moderate drought (15–30% PEG) promoted root elongation and surface expansion, consistent with a growth-prioritized response pattern, whereas severe drought (60% PEG) suppressed elongation and induced compensatory thickening, suggesting a shift toward a more structural defense-oriented response. Physiological analyses showed progressive MDA accumulation accompanied by increased SOD and POD activities and proline content, indicating enhanced antioxidant and osmotic regulation under stress. Time-series transcriptomics suggested a three-phase transcriptional adjustment pattern, including early alarm, intermediate acclimation, and late compensation. Early-stage DEGs were mainly enriched in photosystem regulation and ROS-related pathways, while intermediate stages were associated with translational control and protein folding. At the late stage, genes involved in mitochondrial metabolism and amino acid catabolism were prominently represented, implying increased respiratory activity under prolonged drought. WGCNA further identified two key modules associated with these shifts: the steelblue module, negatively correlated with root growth traits, and the darkturquoise module, positively correlated with growth-related traits and antioxidant activities. Collectively, these results outline a multi-level adaptive framework for drought responses in A. mongolicum and provide insights into how desert plants may balance growth and defense under water-limited conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Plants: Towards a Sustainable Agriculture)
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20 pages, 4085 KB  
Article
The SlPCL1–SlSUMO1 Complex Defines a SlPCL1–SlNPF4.6 Module Governs Cold Tolerance in Tomato
by Yafei Qin, Jianfang Qiu, Mengyu Li, Mei Wang, Daodao Tang, Lei Ni, Chunyu Shang, Lang Wu, Yu Pan, Jinhua Li and Xingguo Zhang
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 420; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040420 - 9 Feb 2026
Viewed by 677
Abstract
The circadian clock genes in tomato are key regulators of cold stress adaptation. However, the low-temperature regulatory mechanism of the circadian clock gene SlPCL1 remains unclear. In this study, we evaluated the role of SlPCL1 in cold tolerance through low-temperature treatment of transgenic [...] Read more.
The circadian clock genes in tomato are key regulators of cold stress adaptation. However, the low-temperature regulatory mechanism of the circadian clock gene SlPCL1 remains unclear. In this study, we evaluated the role of SlPCL1 in cold tolerance through low-temperature treatment of transgenic plants. Downstream target genes were identified using RNA-seq, RT-qPCR, yeast-one-hybrid (Y1H), dual-luciferase assays, and electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA), while interacting proteins were characterized using yeast-two-hybrid (Y2H), luciferase complementation imaging (LCI), and pull-down assays, thereby elucidating the molecular mechanism underlying SlPCL1-mediated low-temperature regulation. We identified SlPCL1 as a nuclear-localized circadian clock gene with transcriptional repressor activity. Overexpression of SlPCL1 resulted in a cold-sensitive phenotype, whereas virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS)-mediated silencing of SlPCL1 enhanced cold tolerance. SlNPF4.6 functions as an abscisic acid (ABA) transporter involved in ABA transport. RNA-seq and RT-qPCR identified the ABA transporter SlNPF4.6 as a downstream target. Functional assays confirmed that SlPCL1 binds to the MYB element in the SlNPF4.6 promoter to repress its expression. Meanwhile, VIGS-mediated silencing of SlNPF4.6 decreased cold tolerance. Furthermore, the expression levels of the ABA receptor SlPYLs in the silenced lines were significantly reduced, confirming the decrease in intracellular ABA content. SlSUMO1, a ubiquitin-like protein, can influence gene transcription through noncovalent interactions. In addition, SlSUMO1 was found to interact with the SlPCL1 protein, attenuating SlPCL1 transcriptional repression activity. Together, these findings establish an SlSUMO1-mediated fine control mechanism of the SlPCL1-SlNPF4.6 regulatory module. This integration of circadian clock regulation uncovers new molecular mechanisms of cold tolerance and supports the development of cold-resistant breeding materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Tomato Breeding: Improving Yield and Quality)
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34 pages, 1574 KB  
Article
Effects of Cultivation–Substrate System on Growth, Flowering, Carotenoid Accumulation, and Substrate Microbiology of Three Tagetes patula Cultivars Under Greenhouse and Field Conditions
by Gabriella Antal, Erika Kurucz, Anikó Zsiláné André, Magdolna Tállai, Áron Béni, Miklós G. Fári and Imre J. Holb
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 411; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040411 - 8 Feb 2026
Viewed by 852
Abstract
Tagetes patula is a widely cultivated ornamental plant and a natural source of bioactive compounds. This study evaluated the effects of cultivation–substrate systems on growth, flowering, lutein and zeaxanthin accumulation, substrate microbiological properties, and pest and disease occurrence in three T. patula cultivars [...] Read more.
Tagetes patula is a widely cultivated ornamental plant and a natural source of bioactive compounds. This study evaluated the effects of cultivation–substrate systems on growth, flowering, lutein and zeaxanthin accumulation, substrate microbiological properties, and pest and disease occurrence in three T. patula cultivars (‘Csemő’, ‘Robusta kénsárga’, and ‘Orion’) grown under two greenhouse (peat-based substrate and hydroponics) and three field conditions (peat-based and two peat-free substrates). Greenhouse hydroponics markedly enhanced vegetative growth, resulting in the highest plant height, stem diameter, and shoot biomass, whereas peat-based greenhouse substrates produced the lowest vegetative performance. Flowering responses were more moderate and largely cultivar-dependent: peat-based field conditions supported the highest inflorescence numbers, cv. ‘Orion’ produced the greatest inflorescence biomass, and cv. ‘Robuszta kénsárga’ showed the strongest flowering intensity in peat-based systems. Cultivar ‘Csemő’ consistently accumulated the highest lutein and zeaxanthin concentrations among cultivars. Substrate moisture and microbial activity differed substantially among systems, with peat-free substrates frequently exhibiting elevated enzymatic activity. No fungal diseases were detected; thrips occurred only in greenhouse systems, and spider mites were restricted to cv. ‘Orion’ under hydroponic conditions. Overall, hydroponic and peat-free systems enhanced vegetative growth and microbial activity, whereas flowering and carotenoid accumulation were primarily cultivar-specific, as further supported by correlation analysis and PCA. These findings demonstrate that sustainable peat alternatives and hydroponic systems can effectively support high-quality T. patula production and carotenoid yield. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Horticultural and Floricultural Crops)
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15 pages, 455 KB  
Systematic Review
Mushroom Spawn and Its Effects on Mushroom Growth and Development: A Systematic Review
by Hong Tham Dong, Delwar Akbar, Yujuan Li and Cheng-Yuan Xu
Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 391; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030391 - 6 Feb 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2193
Abstract
Mushrooms are among the most important indoor-grown horticultural cash crops. Recent increases in consumption are driven by shifts toward healthier diets and a growing vegan population. Mushroom spawn is one of key factors that influence consistency, quality, and the yield of mushrooms. Many [...] Read more.
Mushrooms are among the most important indoor-grown horticultural cash crops. Recent increases in consumption are driven by shifts toward healthier diets and a growing vegan population. Mushroom spawn is one of key factors that influence consistency, quality, and the yield of mushrooms. Many studies of mushroom spawn have been published but the performance of mushroom spawn under different conditions has not been summarised. Comprehensive literature searches were conducted to identify the effects of spawn on biological efficiency, and 40 publications were included in this systematic review. Most of the studies were conducted on oyster mushroom (Pleurotus spp.), and grain spawn was popularly used when studying mushroom. Spawn type and rate were demonstrated to affect mycelium growth, which directly influenced mushroom yield. The use of liquid spawn increased mycelium growth, reduced spawn running time, and enhanced mushroom yield. Most studied cases used spawn rates of 3–5% and the biological yield efficiency (BE) of Pleurotus spp. was varied from 5.18 to 173.38% if using grain spawn. The BEs of Hericicum erinacea and Volvariella volvacea inoculated with grain spawn were lower at 22.3–44.4% and 9.42–15.79%, respectively. Recently developed stick and block spawn types seem to be promising spawn with a BE ranging from 68.65 to 70.94%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Biosystem and Biological Engineering)
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25 pages, 10360 KB  
Article
A Standardized Framework for Cleaning Non-Normal Yield Data from Wheat and Barley Crops, and Validation Using Machine Learning Models for Satellite Imagery
by Patricia Arizo-García, Sergio Castiñeira-Ibáñez, Enric Cruzado-Campos, Beatriz Ricarte, Constanza Rubio and Alberto San Bautista
Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 386; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030386 - 5 Feb 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 704
Abstract
Modern combine harvesters can collect real-time geolocated yield data, but it is subject to errors. Various protocols have been proposed to clean this data, each with varying levels of complexity. This data is valuable for precision agriculture to implement site-specific management and to [...] Read more.
Modern combine harvesters can collect real-time geolocated yield data, but it is subject to errors. Various protocols have been proposed to clean this data, each with varying levels of complexity. This data is valuable for precision agriculture to implement site-specific management and to train models to predict yield using remote sensing data. Machine learning and deep learning techniques have shown their potential for precision agriculture, and their performance shows no significant differences between models trained with data cleaned using a computationally demanding protocol or a simpler one, such as parametric filtering. However, parametric filtering approaches primarily rely on statistics that are highly sensitive to data distribution and do not effectively filter inliers. The objective of this study is to develop a data-cleansing method that leverages robust statistical measures, specifically the median and interquartile range, to effectively identify and filter outliers and inliers while retaining valid observations in datasets collected from combine harvesters, thereby minimizing the influence of non-normal data distributions. Different levels of data cleaning were applied to a total of 7399 ha of wheat and barley crops, and the quality of each cleaning level was compared. The selected protocol improved the spatial structure of the data, deleting up to 42% and 33% of the data at the polygon level, for wheat and barley, respectively. It increased the mean and median, and decreased the standard deviation and coefficient of variation of the data. Between 78.7% and 82.9% of the fields showed a normal distribution after applying the selected method, and machine learning performance improved compared with the raw data. Compared with previous data cleaning studies, the present work proposes an automatic, low-computational, parametric filtering method that uses robust statistics for non-normal distributions. In addition, its scalability has been demonstrated by applying the method to a large dataset, improving data quality and the performance of yield-prediction ML models in all cases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrating Yield Maps, Soil Data, and IoT for Smarter Farming)
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21 pages, 3538 KB  
Article
Mobile AI-Powered Impurity Removal System for Decentralized Potato Harvesting
by Joonam Kim, Kenichi Tokuda, Yuichiro Miho, Giryeon Kim, Rena Yoshitoshi, Shinori Tsuchiya, Noriko Deguchi and Kunihiro Funabiki
Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 383; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030383 - 5 Feb 2026
Viewed by 767
Abstract
An advanced artificial intelligence (AI)-powered mobile automated impurity removal system was developed and integrated into potato harvesting machinery for decentralized agricultural environments in Japan. As opposed existing stationary AI systems in centralized processing facilities, this mobile prototype enables on-field impurity removal in real [...] Read more.
An advanced artificial intelligence (AI)-powered mobile automated impurity removal system was developed and integrated into potato harvesting machinery for decentralized agricultural environments in Japan. As opposed existing stationary AI systems in centralized processing facilities, this mobile prototype enables on-field impurity removal in real time through a systematic dual-evaluation methodology. The system integrates the YOLOX-small architecture with precision pneumatic actuators and achieves 40–50 FPS processing under dynamic field conditions. Algorithm validation across 10 morphologically diverse potato varieties (Danshaku, Harrow Moon, Hokkaikogane, Kitaakari, Kitahime, May Queen, Sayaka, Snowden, Snow March, and Toyoshiro) using count-based analysis showed exceptional recognition, with potato misclassification rates of 0.08 ± 0.03% (range: 0.01–0.32%) and impurity detection rates of 89.99 ± 1.25% (range: 80.00–93.30%). Cross-farm validation across seven commercial farms in Hokkaido confirmed robust algorithm consistency (PMR: 0.08 ± 0.03%, IDR: 90.56 ± 0.82%) without farm-specific calibration, establishing variety-independent and environment-independent operation. Field validation using weight-based analysis during actual harvesting at 1–4 km/h confirmed successful AI-to-field translation, with 0.22–0.42% potato misclassification and adaptive impurity removal of 71.43–85.29%. The system adapted intelligently, employing conservative sorting under high-impurity loads (71.43% removal, 0.33% misclassification) to prioritize potato preservation while maximizing efficiency under standard conditions (85.29% removal, 0.30% misclassification). The dual-evaluation framework successfully bridged the gap between AI accuracy in laboratory settings and effectiveness in agricultural operations. The proposed AI algorithm surpassed project targets for all tested conditions (>60% impurity removal, <1% potato misclassification). This successful integration demonstrates technical feasibility and commercial viability for widespread agricultural automation, with a validated 50% reduction in labor (four workers to two workers). This implementation provides a comprehensive validation methodology for next-generation autonomous harvesting systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection AI, Sensors and Robotics for Smart Agriculture)
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35 pages, 7481 KB  
Review
Nature-Based Solutions (NbS) in Agricultural Soils for Greenhouse Gas Mitigation
by Alessia Corami and Andrew Hursthouse
Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 360; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030360 - 2 Feb 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1332
Abstract
Greenhouse gases (GHG), accumulated in the atmosphere, are the main cause of climate change. In 2017, the increase in average temperature was about 1 °C (between 0.8 °C–1.2 °C) above pre-industrial levels. Global warming refers to the increase in air surface, sea surface, [...] Read more.
Greenhouse gases (GHG), accumulated in the atmosphere, are the main cause of climate change. In 2017, the increase in average temperature was about 1 °C (between 0.8 °C–1.2 °C) above pre-industrial levels. Global warming refers to the increase in air surface, sea surface, and soil surface temperature and according to IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel Climate Change), since the industrial revolution, C emissions are due to land use changes like deforestation, biomass burning, conversion of natural lands, drainage of wetlands, soil cultivation, and tillage. As the world population has increased, world food production has risen too with a subsequent increase in GHG emissions and agricultural production, which is worsened by climate change. Negative consequences are well known such as the loss in water availability and in soil fertility, and pest infestations which are climate change’s effects on agriculture activity. Climate change’s main aftermath is the frequency of extreme weather events influencing crop yields. As climate change exacerbates degradation processes, land management can mitigate its impact and aid adaptation strategies for climate change. About 21–37% of GHGs have been caused by the agriculture activity, so the application of Nature-based Solutions (NbS) like sustainable agriculture could be a way to reduce GHGs worldwide. The aim of this article is to review how NbS may mitigate GHG emissions from soil, with solutions defined as an integrated approach to tackle climate change and to sustainably restore and manage ecosystems, delivering multiple benefits. NbS is a low-cost tool working within and with nature, which holds many benefits for people and the environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Old Challenges and Modern Solutions in Farmland Soils: Addressing Heavy Metals, Microplastics, and GHG Emissions)
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16 pages, 2158 KB  
Review
Physiological and Molecular Mechanisms of Ethylene in Sculpting Rice Root System Architecture
by Nan Zhang, Xinping Lv, Yu Yan, Qinghao Meng, Chaorui Wang, Wenjiang Jing, Ying Zhang, Zhilin Xiao and Hao Zhang
Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 355; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030355 - 1 Feb 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 841
Abstract
The root system of rice (Oryza sativa L.) is a central determinant of stress resilience and yield, functioning in resource acquisition, anchorage, and environmental sensing. This review synthesizes recent advances in understanding how the gaseous hormone ethylene acts as a master regulator [...] Read more.
The root system of rice (Oryza sativa L.) is a central determinant of stress resilience and yield, functioning in resource acquisition, anchorage, and environmental sensing. This review synthesizes recent advances in understanding how the gaseous hormone ethylene acts as a master regulator to sculpt root system architecture by spatiotemporally integrating developmental cues and stress signals. We detail the core molecular machinery of ethylene in rice, encompassing its biosynthesis, perception, and signal transduction pathways. Ethylene modulates root development through intricate crosstalk with auxin, abscisic acid, and jasmonic acid, inhibiting primary root elongation while promoting lateral root initiation, adventitious rooting, root hair development, and aerenchyma formation. The review further dissects the context-dependent role of ethylene signaling in mediating adaptive responses to key abiotic stresses, including drought, hypoxia, salinity, and heavy metal stress. It also examines how ethylene influences root-microbe interactions, shaping the rhizosphere microbiome. Finally, we discuss root trait optimization strategies that leverage the ethylene signaling network, providing a mechanistic foundation for breeding next-generation rice varieties with enhanced stress tolerance and resource-use efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Research on Rice Breeding and Genetics)
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21 pages, 3091 KB  
Article
Impact of a High-PAR-Transmittance Plastic Cover on Photosynthetic Activity and Production of Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) Crops in a Mediterranean Solar Greenhouse
by María Ángeles Moreno-Teruel, Francisco Domingo Molina-Aiz, Alejandro López-Martínez, Diego Luis Valera-Martínez, Araceli Peña-Fernández and Fátima Baptista
Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 354; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030354 - 31 Jan 2026
Viewed by 834
Abstract
The optical properties of greenhouse cover materials play a critical role in controlling the internal light environment, directly affecting photosynthetic performance and crop productivity. This study evaluates the impact of a high photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) transmittance and high-light-diffusivity polyethylene film on the [...] Read more.
The optical properties of greenhouse cover materials play a critical role in controlling the internal light environment, directly affecting photosynthetic performance and crop productivity. This study evaluates the impact of a high photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) transmittance and high-light-diffusivity polyethylene film on the microclimate, photosynthetic activity, yield, and disease incidence of cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) crops grown in a Mediterranean passive solar greenhouse. Trials were conducted over two consecutive autumn–winter seasons using a multi-span greenhouse divided into two sectors: one covered with an experimental high-transmittance film and the other with a standard commercial plastic. The experimental cover increased PAR transmission by 8.7% and 11.6% at canopy level in the first and second seasons, respectively, leading to improvements in leaf-level net photosynthesis of 9.3% and 17.9%. These effects contributed to yield increases of 5.0% and 17.3% in the respective seasons. The internal air temperature rose by up to 1.3 °C without exceeding critical thresholds, and no significant differences were observed in plant morphology or fruit quality between treatments. Additionally, the experimental film reduced the incidence of major fungal diseases, particularly under higher disease pressure conditions. The use of high-PAR-transmittance films enhances radiation use efficiency and crop performance in resource-limited environments without increasing energy inputs. This approach offers a sustainable, low-cost strategy to improve yield and disease resilience in protected cropping systems under passive climate control. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Light Environment Regulation in Greenhouses: Mechanisms, Technologies, and Interdisciplinary Innovations)
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14 pages, 4058 KB  
Article
Microbial Necromass and Plant Residue Drive Soil Organic Carbon Restructuring During Reductive Soil Disinfestation
by Jiangtao Yan, Xianwei Wang, Zhonghui Li, Pengtao She, Yajie Yang, Tengqi Xu and Yanlong Chen
Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 351; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030351 - 31 Jan 2026
Viewed by 867
Abstract
Reductive soil disinfestation (RSD) is a promising strategy for mitigating soil degradation and enhancing soil health. While soil organic carbon (SOC) is crucial for soil fertility and climate regulation, the mechanisms underlying its stabilization via plant lignin and microbial humus in the RSD [...] Read more.
Reductive soil disinfestation (RSD) is a promising strategy for mitigating soil degradation and enhancing soil health. While soil organic carbon (SOC) is crucial for soil fertility and climate regulation, the mechanisms underlying its stabilization via plant lignin and microbial humus in the RSD process remain elusive. Using a microcosm experiment, we investigated SOC dynamics by quantifying plant-derived (lignin phenols) and microbial-derived (amino sugars) C during RSD at key stages: initial (2 h), anaerobic (14 and 28 days), and aerobic (35 days). Concurrently, soil properties, microbial PLFA, and enzymatic activity were analyzed to elucidate underlying mechanisms. Over the initial 14 days, plant-derived C increased sharply by 61% before declining, yet still showed a 22% increase by the end of the RSD (35 days), a trend mirrored by bacterial-derived C. In contrast, fungal-derived C initially accumulated rapidly with a significant increase of 43%, then stabilized, and its proportion (21.63%) surpassed that of bacterial-derived C (5.56%). Over time, plant- (25.01% to 19.76%) and bacterial-derived C (7.81% to 5.56%) contributions to decreases in SOC, while fungal-derived C (about 21%) remained stable after day 14. This pattern is likely attributable to the initial anaerobic conditions, which caused a massive die-off of fungi and aerobic bacteria that utilize lignin and necromass, resulting in significant accumulation of both plant- and microbial-derived C. Subsequently, the proliferation of anaerobic bacteria consumed these plant- and bacterial-derived C sources in the soil, leading to their eventual decline. Key drivers of plant-derived C included soil pH, living fungi/bacteria, and β-1,4-glucosidase activity, whereas microbial-derived C depended on total nitrogen and living fungi. Our findings demonstrate that early SOC accumulation under RSD is driven by combined plant lignin and microbial necromass inputs, while fungal necromass becomes pivotal for long-term SOC stabilization, shaped by both abiotic and biotic factors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Farming Sustainability)
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22 pages, 1393 KB  
Article
Effects of Fertilizer Placement Depth on Soil N2O Emissions and Associated Microbial Communities in Mechanized Direct-Seeded Winter Rapeseed Fields
by Hui Chen, Enhao Zhang, Yongyuan Huang, Yuxi Tang, Liping Zhang and Liangjun Fei
Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 353; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030353 - 31 Jan 2026
Viewed by 561
Abstract
While deep fertilization improves crop yields and fertilizer use efficiency, it alters crop growth and soil nutrient/moisture distribution, driving nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions—a potent greenhouse gas. However, conflicting evidence and the unknown effects of varying fertilizer placement depths in mechanized direct-seeded [...] Read more.
While deep fertilization improves crop yields and fertilizer use efficiency, it alters crop growth and soil nutrient/moisture distribution, driving nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions—a potent greenhouse gas. However, conflicting evidence and the unknown effects of varying fertilizer placement depths in mechanized direct-seeded winter rapeseed fields leave the critical trade-off between productivity and emissions mitigation poorly understood. A 2-year field experiment (2019–2021) was conducted in the Yangtze River basin, China. The static closed chamber technique combined with gas chromatography was utilized to investigate the impacts of fertilizer placement depths (5 cm, 10 cm, and 15 cm, designated as D5, D10, and D15, respectively) on soil N2O emissions, with a no-fertilization treatment serving as the control. Results demonstrated that N2O fluxes under all treatments exhibited a rapid decline during the early growth stages of rapeseed, subsequently stabilizing at low levels; these dynamics were partially linked to soil temperature and soil water content (SWC). Specifically, N2O flux showed a significant but moderate exponential response to soil temperature and a weak quadratic trend with SWC. As fertilization depth increased, the richness and diversity of AOA, AOB, and nirK communities showed a numerical decline (p > 0.05). N2O emissions under D5 were on average 8.7% higher than D10 (p > 0.05), but were significantly 18.0% higher than D15 (p < 0.05). Yield-scaled N2O emissions under D10 were reduced by 12.7% and 22.3% relative to D5 and D15, respectively. Compared with D10 and D15, the N2O emission factor increased by 12.9% and 29.0% under D5, respectively (p < 0.05). The net ecosystem economic budget under D10 was 6.5% and 48.6% greater than that of D5 and D15, respectively. Considering crop yield, production costs, and carbon emission, a fertilizer placement depth of 10 cm is recommended as optimal. These findings offer valuable insights for mitigating N2O emissions and informing rational fertilization strategies in rapeseed cultivation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive Adjustment of Crop Management Practices Under Global Warming)
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16 pages, 444 KB  
Article
Dose-Specific Biochar Effects on Cotton Yield Under Drought: Genotypic Variations in the Arid U.S. Cotton Belt
by Jinfa Zhang, Yi Zhu, Montasir Ahmed, Rajan Ghimire, Omololu John Idowu, Shannon Norris-Parish, Erin E. Sparks, Sushil Adhikari, Jasmeet Lamba, Jaya Shankar Tumuluru and Derek P. Whitelock
Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 346; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030346 - 30 Jan 2026
Viewed by 752
Abstract
Cotton (Gossypium spp.) is the most important fiber crop for the textile industry globally. Abiotic stresses, including drought, have become prevalent in affecting cotton production worldwide. There is a shortage of studies on the use of biochar as a soil amendment in [...] Read more.
Cotton (Gossypium spp.) is the most important fiber crop for the textile industry globally. Abiotic stresses, including drought, have become prevalent in affecting cotton production worldwide. There is a shortage of studies on the use of biochar as a soil amendment in the semi-arid and arid Southwest and West U.S. Cotton Belt to alleviate drought stress. This study was conducted to examine the effects of biochar at four application rates (0, 6.25, 12.5, and 25.0 t ha−1) on cotton yield and yield components using six tetraploid cotton genotypes, including one Pima (G. barbadense L.) and five Upland cottons (G. hirsutum L.), under well-watered (WW) and drought stress (DS) conditions in an arid region of New Mexico, USA. The six cotton genotypes consistently showed that DS at the flowering stage significantly decreased boll number (BN), boll weight (BW), and lint percentage (LP), and thereby seed cotton weight (SCW) per plant and lint weight (LW) per plant. However, Pima DP 359 RF had the lowest reduction (23–33%) in BN, SCW, and LW due to drought, while DP 2020 B3XF was the most sensitive to drought, with a 45–48% reduction in the traits. Under DS conditions, biochar at the rate of 12.5 t ha−1 had the highest SCW and LW, and the lowest reduction in BN, BW, SCW, and LW due to drought, which was significantly different from the non-biochar control, and no genotype × biochar interaction was detected. However, biochar had no positive effects on cotton productivity under non-drought conditions. This study has demonstrated the positive effects of biochar on cotton yield and yield components in alleviating drought stress, laying the foundation for more follow-up studies toward its utility in cotton production in semi-arid and arid areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Stress Tolerance: From Genetic Mechanism to Cultivation Methods)
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13 pages, 2770 KB  
Article
Air and Spray Pattern Characterization of Multi-Fan Autonomous Unmanned Ground Vehicle Sprayer Adapted for Modern Orchard Systems
by Dattatray G. Bhalekar, Kingsley Umani, Srikanth Gorthi, Gwen-Alyn Hoheisel and Lav R. Khot
Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 344; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030344 - 30 Jan 2026
Viewed by 573
Abstract
A newly commercialized single-row multi-fan autonomous unmanned ground vehicle (UGV) sprayer, for use in trellised tree fruit crops, was tested to better understand air and spray patterns prior to wide-scale adoption in the modern apple orchard systems typical to Washington State. This sprayer [...] Read more.
A newly commercialized single-row multi-fan autonomous unmanned ground vehicle (UGV) sprayer, for use in trellised tree fruit crops, was tested to better understand air and spray patterns prior to wide-scale adoption in the modern apple orchard systems typical to Washington State. This sprayer was equipped with five brown and yellow Albuz ATR80 nozzles per fan (QM-420, Croplands Quantum). The fans were installed in a Q8 configuration, with eight fans (four on each side) staggered near the front and back as a stack to increase vertical span. Air velocity and spray delivery patterns of the commercialized sprayer unit were assessed in laboratory using a customized smart spray analytical system. Previous field trails of this sprayer unit revealed a hardware issue with electric proportional valve controls in fan-nozzle assembly, resulting in uneven spray deposition across V-trellised canopy. Post issue resolution, the sprayer characterization data showed an average Symmetry of 91%, and 84% for air velocity and spray volume delivery on either side. An average Uniformity of 57% and 48%, respectively was recorded for pertinent sprayer attributes across the spray height. Overall, after optimization, the UGV sprayer is suitable for efficient agrochemical application in modern orchard systems. Further evaluation of labor savings, biological efficacy gains from autonomous operation, and a full economic analysis would better inform grower adoption. Commercial viability of this UGV sprayer could also be improved by added features such as variable-rate application enabled by real-time crop sensing or task-map integration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Next-Generation Pesticide Application Technologies: Precision, Safety and Environmental Sustainability)
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14 pages, 4696 KB  
Article
A Dataset for Brazil Nut (Bertholletia excelsa Bonpl.) Fruit Detection in Native Amazonian Forests Using UAV Imagery
by Henrique Pereira de Carvalho, Quétila Souza Barros, Evandro José Linhares Ferreira, Leilson Ferreira, Nívea Maria Mafra Rodrigues, Larissa Freire da Silva, Bianca Tabosa de Almeida, Erica Gomes Cruz, Romário de Mesquita Pinheiro and Luís Pádua
Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 341; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030341 - 30 Jan 2026
Viewed by 805
Abstract
Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa Bonpl.) is a major non-timber forest product in the Amazon, supporting extractivist communities in Brazil, Bolivia, and Peru and contribute to forest conservation. Unlike other extractive products, Brazil nut production has not declined under commercial use and is [...] Read more.
Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa Bonpl.) is a major non-timber forest product in the Amazon, supporting extractivist communities in Brazil, Bolivia, and Peru and contribute to forest conservation. Unlike other extractive products, Brazil nut production has not declined under commercial use and is recognized for its socioeconomic and environmental importance. Precision agriculture has been transformed by the use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and artificial intelligence (AI), which enable monitoring efficiency and yield estimation in several crops, including the Brazil nut. This study assessed the potential of using UAV-based imagery combined with YOLOv8 object detection model to identify and quantify Brazil nut fruits in a native forest fragment in eastern Acre, Brazil. A UAV was used to capture canopy images of 20 trees with varying diameters at breast height. Images were manually annotated and used to train the YOLOv8 with an 80/20 split for training and validation/testing. Model performance was evaluated using precision, recall, F1-score, and mean Average Precision (mAP). The model achieved recall above 90%, with an F1-score of 0.88, despite challenges from canopy complexity and partial occlusion. These results indicate that UAV-based imagery combined with AI detection provides an approach for estimating Brazil nut yield, reducing manual effort and improving market strategies for extractivist communities. This technology supports sustainable forest management and socioeconomic development in the Amazon. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Harnessing Sensing, Artificial Intelligence, and Robotics for Digital Agriculture)
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21 pages, 1027 KB  
Article
Slug Herbivory Induces Systemic Redox and Volatile Responses in Cabbage That Drive Chemotaxis of Slug-Parasitic Nematodes
by Žiga Laznik, Mitja Križman, Jan Senekovič, Stanislav Trdan and Andreja Urbanek Krajnc
Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 350; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030350 - 30 Jan 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 639
Abstract
Slug herbivory is an important but poorly explored driver of plant defence and belowground multitrophic interactions. This study examined how aboveground feeding by Arion vulgaris and Deroceras reticulatum affects oxidative status, photosynthetic pigments, and volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions in cabbage (Brassica [...] Read more.
Slug herbivory is an important but poorly explored driver of plant defence and belowground multitrophic interactions. This study examined how aboveground feeding by Arion vulgaris and Deroceras reticulatum affects oxidative status, photosynthetic pigments, and volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions in cabbage (Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata), and whether these changes influence slug-parasitic nematodes. Slug feeding induced strong oxidative stress in leaves and roots, reflected by depletion of total ascorbate and glutathione contents and increased proportions of their oxidized forms, indicating a systemic redox imbalance. Photosynthetic pigments were also markedly affected, characterized by decreased chlorophylls and carotenoids and activation of the xanthophyll cycle towards more zeaxanthin, particularly in plants attacked by D. reticulatum. Headspace SPME–GC–MS analysis revealed tissue-specific, herbivory-induced shifts in VOC profiles. Based on these changes, three VOCs—3-phenylpropionitrile, allyl isothiocyanate, and 2-hexenal—were selected for chemotaxis assays. Behavioural experiments showed that VOC identity and nematode species markedly influenced motility and chemotactic responses. Phasmarhabditis papillosa exhibited the strongest attraction to 3-phenylpropionitrile, whereas allyl isothiocyanate acted as a weak repellent to P. papillosa, Oscheius myriophilus, and Oscheius onirici. In contrast, 2-hexenal elicited no consistent directional response. These results demonstrate that slug herbivory alters cabbage metabolism and volatile signalling, shaping species-specific nematode behaviour and highlighting its potential for sustainable slug management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Pest and Disease Management)
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14 pages, 1822 KB  
Article
Development and Characterization of Novel St-R Translocation Triticale from a Trigeneric Hybrid
by Changtong Jiang, Miao He, Xinyu Yan, Qianyu Xing, Yunfeng Qu, Haibin Zhao, Hui Jin, Rui Zhang, Ruonan Du, Deyu Kong, Kaidi Yang, Anning Song, Xinling Li, Hongjie Li, Lei Cui and Yanming Zhang
Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 336; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030336 - 29 Jan 2026
Viewed by 652
Abstract
Triticale (×Triticosecale Wittmack), a synthetic hybrid of wheat (Triticum spp.) and rye (Secale cereale), is a valuable dual-purpose crop for its high yield and stress tolerance. Introducing beneficial alien chromatin is crucial for expanding genetic diversity and improving cultivars. [...] Read more.
Triticale (×Triticosecale Wittmack), a synthetic hybrid of wheat (Triticum spp.) and rye (Secale cereale), is a valuable dual-purpose crop for its high yield and stress tolerance. Introducing beneficial alien chromatin is crucial for expanding genetic diversity and improving cultivars. This study aimed to introduce Thinopyrum intermedium St genome chromatin into hexaploid triticale via trigeneric hybridization to develop novel germplasm. Six stable lines were selected from crosses between an octoploid wheat-Th. intermedium partial amphiploid line Maicao 8 and a hexaploid triticale cultivar Hashi 209. Agronomic traits were evaluated over two cropping seasons, revealing that the translocation lines exhibited superior agronomic performance compared to the parental triticales. These lines showed longer spikes, higher tiller numbers, and increased grain protein content, without compromising thousand-kernel weight. Cytogenetic analysis using sequential multicolor genomic in situ hybridization (smGISH), fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), and oligonucleotide probes, alongside validation with species-specific molecular markers, identified all six lines as St-R terminal translocation lines containing 14 rye chromosomes. Three lines carried a small terminal St segment on chromosome 1R, while the other three carried St segments on both 1RL and 4RS chromosomes. This work demonstrates that trigeneric hybridization is an effective strategy for inducing intergeneric recombination between Thinopyrum intermedium and rye chromosomes, leading to stable, small-segment terminal translocations. The developed St-R translocation lines represent a novel and valuable germplasm resource for enriching genetic diversity and breeding improved triticale cultivars with enhanced yield and quality traits. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Plant Breeding, Genetics and Genomics, 2nd Edition)
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25 pages, 6175 KB  
Article
Effects of Nitrogen Addition and Mowing on Plant–Soil Stoichiometric Characteristics and Homeostasis in Degraded Grasslands Dominated by Sophora alopecuroides L.
by Yunhao Wu, Dong Cui, Shuqi Liu, Zhicheng Jiang, Zezheng Liu, Luyao Liu, Yaxin Han, Jinfeng Guo and Haijun Yang
Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 332; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030332 - 28 Jan 2026
Viewed by 885
Abstract
Grassland degradation, exacerbated by climate change and anthropogenic disturbances, poses a substantial barrier to ecological restoration, largely due to the invasion of toxic weeds. In the degraded grasslands of the Ili River Valley, Xinjiang, Sophora alopecuroides has emerged as the dominant toxic species; [...] Read more.
Grassland degradation, exacerbated by climate change and anthropogenic disturbances, poses a substantial barrier to ecological restoration, largely due to the invasion of toxic weeds. In the degraded grasslands of the Ili River Valley, Xinjiang, Sophora alopecuroides has emerged as the dominant toxic species; yet, its expansion mechanisms and sensitivity to management interventions remain poorly understood. This study utilized a three-year (2023–2025) field experiment to evaluate the impacts of nitrogen addition (N), mowing (M), and their combination (NM) on the stoichiometric characteristics and homeostasis of the plant–soil system. The results demonstrated that while M suppressed aboveground biomass, it facilitated the accumulation of root carbon (RC) and phosphorus (RP). Nitrogen enrichment significantly lowered soil C:N and C:P ratios, thereby alleviating phosphorus limitation. Crucially, the NM treatment effectively counteracted N-induced weed proliferation and mitigated M-induced biomass reductions. Analysis of stoichiometric homeostasis revealed that NM optimized plant adaptive strategies, maintaining strict homeostasis for RC and RP (H > 4) while preserving the sensitivity of the root N:P ratio of S. alopecuroides (RN:P). Structural equation modeling further indicated that soil C:P and N:P indirectly regulated total biomass by modulating the root C:P ratio of S. alopecuroides (RC:P). Consequently, stoichiometric coupling within the plant–soil system is essential for maintaining ecosystem functions. Integrated management (NM) optimizes soil nutrient balance and harnesses compensatory growth to suppress weed expansion, providing a robust scientific framework for the restoration of S. alopecuroides-invaded grasslands. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)
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25 pages, 4008 KB  
Article
SLD-YOLO11: A Topology-Reconstructed Lightweight Detector for Fine-Grained Maize–Weed Discrimination in Complex Field Environments
by Meichen Liu and Jing Gao
Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 328; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030328 - 28 Jan 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 815
Abstract
Precise identification of weeds at the maize seedling stage is pivotal for implementing Site-Specific Weed Management and minimizing herbicide environmental pollution. However, the performance of existing lightweight detectors is severely bottlenecked by unstructured field environments, characterized by the “green-on-green” spectral similarity between crops [...] Read more.
Precise identification of weeds at the maize seedling stage is pivotal for implementing Site-Specific Weed Management and minimizing herbicide environmental pollution. However, the performance of existing lightweight detectors is severely bottlenecked by unstructured field environments, characterized by the “green-on-green” spectral similarity between crops and weeds, diminutive seedling targets, and complex mutual occlusion of leaves. To address these challenges, this study proposes SLD-YOLO11, a topology-reconstructed lightweight detection model tailored for complex field environments. First, to mitigate the feature loss of tiny targets, a Lossless Downsampling Topology based on Space-to-Depth Convolution (SPD-Conv) is constructed, transforming spatial information into depth channels to preserve fine-grained features. Second, a Decomposed Large Kernel Attention (D-LKA) mechanism is designed to mimic the wide receptive field of human vision. By modeling long-range spatial dependencies with decomposed large-kernel attention, it enhances discrimination under severe occlusion by leveraging global structural context. Third, the DySample operator is introduced to replace static interpolation, enabling content-aware feature flow reconstruction. Experimental results demonstrate that SLD-YOLO11 achieves an mAP@0.5 of 97.4% on a self-collected maize field dataset, significantly outperforming YOLOv8n, YOLOv10n, YOLOv11n, and mainstream lightweight variants. Notably, the model achieves Zero Inter-class Misclassification between maize and weeds, establishing high safety standards for weeding operations. To further bridge the gap between visual perception and precision operations, a Visual Weed-Crop Competition Index (VWCI) is innovatively proposed. By integrating detection bounding boxes with species-specific morphological correction coefficients, the VWCI quantifies field weed pressure with low cost and high throughput. Regression analysis reveals a high consistency (R2 = 0.70) between the automated VWCI and manual ground-truth coverage. This study not only provides a robust detector but also offers a reliable decision-making basis for real-time variable-rate spraying by intelligent weeding robots. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Farming Sustainability)
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22 pages, 2519 KB  
Review
Impact of High Temperatures, Considerations and Possible Solutions for Sustainable Lettuce Production
by Kelvin D. Aloryi, Hannah Mather, Germán V. Sandoya and Kevin Begcy
Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 327; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030327 - 28 Jan 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1779
Abstract
High temperature is a major environmental stress factor that affects lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) growth, development, and productivity. As global temperatures continue to rise, understanding the impact of heat stress on lettuce production is crucial for maintaining crop yields and quality. In [...] Read more.
High temperature is a major environmental stress factor that affects lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) growth, development, and productivity. As global temperatures continue to rise, understanding the impact of heat stress on lettuce production is crucial for maintaining crop yields and quality. In fields and in controlled environment agriculture, these elevated temperatures lead to poor seed germination due to thermoinhibition, earlier bolting due to faster crop development, and reduced marketable yields and an increased likelihood of heat-related disorders such as tipburn. Achieving heat tolerance in controlled environment agriculture is paramount as this industry struggles with higher production costs from the excessive use of cooling systems to acclimate greenhouses to temperatures ideal for lettuce production whereas field-grown lettuce must withstand highly variable and extreme thermal conditions, making heat stress a major constraint in both systems. This review comprehensively summarizes the current literature on the impact of heat stress on lettuce and highlights the influence of heat stress at the physiological, biochemical, and molecular level. In addition, we highlight management practices on lettuce production and sustainability as well as the breeding potential for heat tolerance. We synthesized these findings into a proposed conceptual framework for selecting and identifying genomic targets to advance the improvement of heat resilience in lettuce. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Crop Physiology and Stress)
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18 pages, 1675 KB  
Article
γ-PGA Enhances Zea mays L. Seedling Growth by Fertile Rhizosphere Establishment and Osmotic Modulation in Saline Soil
by Xin Li, Weiming Shi, Herbert J. Kronzucker, Xiaodong Ding and Yilin Li
Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 317; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030317 - 27 Jan 2026
Viewed by 725
Abstract
Soil salinization is a major threat to agricultural sustainability. Poly-gamma-glutamic acid (γ-PGA), a biopolymer produced by microbial fermentation, has received attention as a biostimulant due to its positive effects on crop performance. However, the function of γ-PGA in crop salt stress tolerance and [...] Read more.
Soil salinization is a major threat to agricultural sustainability. Poly-gamma-glutamic acid (γ-PGA), a biopolymer produced by microbial fermentation, has received attention as a biostimulant due to its positive effects on crop performance. However, the function of γ-PGA in crop salt stress tolerance and its effect on the rhizosphere are unclear. This study explores the effects of γ-PGA application on rhizosphere soil nutrients and the soil–physical environment and examines the salt tolerance response of maize seedlings grown in saline–alkali soil under such an application regime. The results show a significant promotion of maize seedling growth and of nutrient accumulation with γ-PGA application under salt stress; plant dry weight, stem diameter, and plant height increased 121%, 39.5%, 18.4%, respectively, and shoot accumulation of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and carbon increased by 1.38, 2.11, 1.50, and 1.36 times, respectively, under an optimal-concentration γ-PGA treatment (5.34 mg kg−1 (12 kg ha−1)) compared with the control. γ-PGA treatment significantly decreased rhizospheric pH and soil electrical conductivity and significantly increased nutrient availability in the rhizosphere, especially available nitrogen (AN) and available potassium (AK). Compared with the control, AN, available phosphorus (AP), and AK increased by 13.9%, 7.70%, and 17.7%, respectively, under an optimal concentration treatment with γ-PGA. γ-PGA application also significantly increased the activities of urease, acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, dehydrogenase, and cellulose in rhizosphere soil by 35.5–39.3%, 35.4–39.3%, 5.59–8.85%, 18.9–19.8%, and 19.2–47.0%, respectively. γ-PGA application significantly decreased Na+ concentration and increased K+ concentration in shoots, resulting in a lowering of the Na+/K+ ratio by 30.5% and an increase in soluble sugar and soluble protein contents. Therefore, rhizosphere application of water-soluble and biodegradable γ-PGA facilitates the creation of an optimized rhizospheric environment for maize seedling and overcomes osmotic and ionic stresses, offering possibilities for future use in drip-irrigation systems in the cultivation of crops on saline-alkali land. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)
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19 pages, 3418 KB  
Article
Physiological Mechanisms of Nano-CeO2 and Nano-TiO2 as Seed-Priming Agents in Enhancing Drought Tolerance of Barley Seedlings
by Xiang Ye, Ruijiao Song and Juncang Qi
Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 316; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030316 - 27 Jan 2026
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 776
Abstract
Nanotechnology holds great promise for alleviating drought stress in crops. This study elucidates and compares the distinct physiological mechanisms by which two nanomaterials, nano-cerium oxide (CeO2) and nano-titanium dioxide (TiO2), function as seed-priming agents to enhance drought tolerance in [...] Read more.
Nanotechnology holds great promise for alleviating drought stress in crops. This study elucidates and compares the distinct physiological mechanisms by which two nanomaterials, nano-cerium oxide (CeO2) and nano-titanium dioxide (TiO2), function as seed-priming agents to enhance drought tolerance in barley. A comprehensive analysis encompassing germination performance, hormonal dynamics, starch metabolism, osmotic adjustment, photosynthetic pigments, and the antioxidant system revealed that each nanomaterial operates through a unique pathway. Specifically, priming with 150 mg·L−1 nano-CeO2 (CP-150) primarily promoted root development and stress resilience. This effect was achieved by persistently reducing abscisic acid (ABA) levels, elevating gibberellin (GA3), enhancing amylase activity to mobilize seed reserves, and increasing soluble protein accumulation in roots. In contrast, priming with 500 mg·L−1 nano-TiO2 (TP-500) was more effective in enhancing shoot physiology and adaptive capacity by rapidly inducing auxin (IAA), robustly stimulating the antioxidant enzyme system, and increasing photosynthetic pigment content. The temporally and spatially complementary actions of these nanomaterials, with nano-CeO2 fostering root-based resilience and nano-TiO2 boosting shoot-level functions, synergistically support seed germination and seedling establishment under drought conditions. This study provides a mechanistic foundation for designing targeted nano-priming strategies to improve crop drought resistance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)
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30 pages, 8651 KB  
Article
Disease-Seg: A Lightweight and Real-Time Segmentation Framework for Fruit Leaf Diseases
by Liying Cao, Donghui Jiang, Yunxi Wang, Jiankun Cao, Zhihan Liu, Jiaru Li, Xiuli Si and Wen Du
Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 311; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030311 - 26 Jan 2026
Viewed by 865
Abstract
Accurate segmentation of fruit tree leaf diseases is critical for yield protection and precision crop management, yet it is challenging due to complex field conditions, irregular leaf morphology, and diverse lesion patterns. To address these issues, Disease-Seg, a lightweight real-time segmentation framework, is [...] Read more.
Accurate segmentation of fruit tree leaf diseases is critical for yield protection and precision crop management, yet it is challenging due to complex field conditions, irregular leaf morphology, and diverse lesion patterns. To address these issues, Disease-Seg, a lightweight real-time segmentation framework, is proposed. It integrates CNN and Transformer with a parallel fusion architecture to capture local texture and global semantic context. The Extended Feature Module (EFM) enlarges the receptive field while retaining fine details. A Deep Multi-scale Attention mechanism (DM-Attention) allocates channel weights across scales to reduce redundancy, and a Feature-weighted Fusion Module (FWFM) optimizes integration of heterogeneous feature maps, enhancing multi-scale representation. Experiments show that Disease-Seg achieves 90.32% mIoU and 99.52% accuracy, outperforming representative CNN, Transformer, and hybrid-based methods. Compared with HRNetV2, it improves mIoU by 6.87% and FPS by 31, while using only 4.78 M parameters. It maintains 69 FPS on 512 × 512 crops and requires approximately 49 ms per image on edge devices, demonstrating strong deployment feasibility. On two grape leaf diseases from the PlantVillage dataset, it achieves 91.19% mIoU, confirming robust generalization. These results indicate that Disease-Seg provides an accurate, efficient, and practical solution for fruit leaf disease segmentation, enabling real-time monitoring and smart agriculture applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Detection and Classification of External Traits in Crop Plants, Fruits, and Vegetables)
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26 pages, 6732 KB  
Article
Analysis of Vegetation Dynamics and Phenotypic Differentiation in Five Triticale (×Triticosecale Wittm.) Varieties Using UAV-Based Multispectral Indices
by Asparuh I. Atanasov, Hristo P. Stoyanov, Atanas Z. Atanasov and Boris I. Evstatiev
Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 303; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030303 - 25 Jan 2026
Viewed by 917
Abstract
This study investigates the vegetation dynamics and phenotypic differentiation of five triticale (×Triticosecale Wittm.) varieties under the region-specific agroecological conditions of Southern Dobruja, Bulgaria, across two growing seasons (2024–2025), with the aim of evaluating how local climatic variability shapes vegetation index patterns. [...] Read more.
This study investigates the vegetation dynamics and phenotypic differentiation of five triticale (×Triticosecale Wittm.) varieties under the region-specific agroecological conditions of Southern Dobruja, Bulgaria, across two growing seasons (2024–2025), with the aim of evaluating how local climatic variability shapes vegetation index patterns. UAV-based multispectral imaging was employed throughout key phenological stages to obtain reflectance indices, including NDVI, SAVI, EVI2, and NIRI, which served as indicators of canopy development and physiological status. NDVI was used as the primary reference index, and a baseline value (NDVIbase), defined as the mean NDVI across all varieties on a given date, was applied to evaluate relative varietal deviations over time. Multiple linear regression analyses were performed to assess the relationship between NDVI and baseline biometric parameters for each variety, revealing that varieties 22/78 and 20/52 exhibited reflectance dynamics most closely aligned with expected developmental trends in 2025. In addition, the relationship between NDVI and meteorological variables was examined for the variety Kolorit, demonstrating that relative humidity exerted a pronounced influence on index variability. The findings highlight the sensitivity of triticale vegetation indices to both varietal characteristics and short-term climatic fluctuations. Overall, the study provides a methodological framework for integrating UAV-based multispectral data with meteorological information, emphasizing the importance of region-specific, time-resolved monitoring for improving precision agriculture practices, optimizing crop management, and supporting informed variety selection. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)
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21 pages, 16761 KB  
Review
Alternative Splicing Responses to Plant–Biotic Interactions and Abiotic Stresses in Plants
by Yuxia Yao, Bo Wang, Yuna Pan, Yushi Lu, Wenjin Yu and Changxia Li
Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 298; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030298 - 24 Jan 2026
Viewed by 858
Abstract
Alternative splicing (AS) is a crucial post-transcriptional regulatory mechanism in eukaryotes. Plants can cope with complex environmental changes through AS. In this paper, we found that AS plays an important role in plant responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. First, we note that [...] Read more.
Alternative splicing (AS) is a crucial post-transcriptional regulatory mechanism in eukaryotes. Plants can cope with complex environmental changes through AS. In this paper, we found that AS plays an important role in plant responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. First, we note that under biotic stress (e.g., disease, insects), AS regulates the expression of immune-related genes and produces splice variants with different functions to regulate plant disease resistance. Second, under abiotic stress (e.g., drought, cold, heat, salt), plants generate functional splice variants via different AS events and change the original function of the gene. At the same time, we also found that splicing factors and regulatory elements, such as serine/arginine-rich proteins associated with AS, are also involved in the regulation of the expression of related resistance genes to improve plant stress resistance. Therefore, this review summarizes the recent progress on the main types of AS events, the functions of related splicing factors, and the action routes and regulatory mechanisms of splice variants. We hope to provide a reference for further understanding of the stress response mechanism of plant AS and provide a theoretical basis for the breeding of resistant varieties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological and Molecular Mechanisms of Plant Under the Abiotic Stress)
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15 pages, 2107 KB  
Article
Anaerobic Digestate as a Fertiliser: A Comparison of the Nutritional Quality and Gaseous Emissions of Raw Slurry, Digestate, and Inorganic Fertiliser
by Cathy L. Thomas, Stephan M. Haefele and Ilan Adler
Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 287; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030287 - 23 Jan 2026
Viewed by 1250
Abstract
Anaerobic digestate (AD) has the potential to partially replace inorganic fertiliser, containing readily available nitrogen and other macro- and micronutrients. However, these properties vary with the feedstock. The objectives of this study were to analyse the chemical composition of AD materials and measure [...] Read more.
Anaerobic digestate (AD) has the potential to partially replace inorganic fertiliser, containing readily available nitrogen and other macro- and micronutrients. However, these properties vary with the feedstock. The objectives of this study were to analyse the chemical composition of AD materials and measure their effects on plant growth and greenhouse gas emissions. Anaerobic digestate came from a conventional reactor using vegetable waste and maize as feedstock (‘food AD’) and from a biogas system on a smallholder dairy farm using manure feedstock (‘manure AD’). Undigested cattle slurry (‘manure slurry’) and a complete mineral fertiliser were used as controls. These were applied to wheat plants grown in a glasshouse. Wheat grown with the food AD had a higher yield than the complete mineral fertiliser control, even when applied at a lower rate of nitrogen. Wheat grown with both the food AD and manure AD had macronutrient concentrations equal to or higher than the complete mineral fertiliser treatment. Furthermore, the wheat P concentration was significantly greater with the manure AD treatment, which was unrelated to a biomass dilution effect. However, food AD caused high ammonia emissions, and residual methane was emitted with manure AD, indicating incomplete digestion in the latter. Optimal yields and reduced greenhouse emissions were obtained with mixtures of AD and mineral fertiliser in a 1:1 ratio, indicating the potential to greatly reduce the costs and environmental impact of fertiliser application. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)
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15 pages, 1366 KB  
Article
Citrus Waste as a Sustainable Amendment for Tomato Soilless Substrates Under Deficit Irrigation
by Aurora Maio, Tommaso La Malfa, Concetta Condurso, Anthea Miller, Stefania Toscano and Fabio Gresta
Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 288; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030288 - 23 Jan 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 481
Abstract
The citrus processing industry generates large amounts of organic residues whose sustainable management is a major environmental challenge. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of incorporating citrus-derived waste (CW) into coconut-coir-based substrates on tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L., cv. [...] Read more.
The citrus processing industry generates large amounts of organic residues whose sustainable management is a major environmental challenge. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of incorporating citrus-derived waste (CW) into coconut-coir-based substrates on tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L., cv. Proxy) under different irrigation regimes (I) in a factorial design (CW × I) with three replications. Each replicate consisted of six plants (pots), and the replicate was considered the experimental unit. Plants were grown in substrates amended with 0%, 6.25%, 12.5%, 25.0%, and 37.5% (v/v) citrus waste and subjected to three water regimes (100%, 75%, and 50% of the standard water supply). Plant growth, biomass allocation, yield components, and fruit quality traits were assessed. Results indicate that CW can be incorporated into coconut-coir substrates without detectable penalties in total production at low-to-moderate rates (6.25–12.5%) across all irrigation regimes. Yield reductions of 18% (from 3398 to 2789 g plant−1) attributable to CW were observed mostly at the highest inclusion rates under moderate deficit irrigation (75% water supply), whereas under severe deficit (50% water supply), production declined across all CW rates, including 0%, indicating that water deficit has a dominant limiting effect. Fruit quality parameters were generally maintained or improved in amended substrates, particularly under reduced irrigation with deficit irrigation, generally increasing total soluble solids at 100%, 75%, and 50% WC (+13%, +19%, and +9%, respectively). Overall, these findings support the use of citrus waste at low-to-moderate proportions as a sustainable amendment for soilless tomato cultivation without marked negative effects on yield and fruit quality, enabling its use as a locally sourced substrate component within circular-economy strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Water Use and Irrigation)
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20 pages, 1708 KB  
Article
Evaluation of Lupin Varieties and Assessment of Adaptability to Neutral-pH Soils via Recording of Morphological, Agronomical, and Seed Quality Characteristics
by Anna Pitsikoglou, Georgios C. Menexes, Zoi M. Parissi, Maria Irakli, Irini Nianiou-Obeidat, Eleni M. Abraham and Athanasios Mavromatis
Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 289; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030289 - 23 Jan 2026
Viewed by 1045
Abstract
White lupin (Lupinus albus) is a very important legume crop, having seeds with high protein content but also quantities of antinutritional alkaloids. Regarding cultivation, it is sensitive to neutral or alkaline soil conditions, although it is well adapted to drought conditions. In [...] Read more.
White lupin (Lupinus albus) is a very important legume crop, having seeds with high protein content but also quantities of antinutritional alkaloids. Regarding cultivation, it is sensitive to neutral or alkaline soil conditions, although it is well adapted to drought conditions. In this study, the adaptability of 17 L. albus (14 commercial varieties and 3 advanced lines) genotypes to neutral-pH soils was investigated in relation to morphological, agronomical, and yield attributes. An extended characterization of seed composition for total alkaloids, trypsin inhibitors, phenolics, tannins, total nitrogen, NDF, ADF, and lignin was also performed. Furthermore, a prebreeding program consisting of 140 targeted crosses was initiated to develop new F1 combinations for genotypes with low alkaloid profiles; at the same time, controlled self-fertilization of elite lines was carried out. The results indicated that the morphological response of L. albus to neutral pH was positive and significantly genotypically dependent. Among the varieties tested, ‘Magnus’ and ‘Figaro’ showed low alkaloid and lignin contents. On the other hand, the advanced lines (LKAP, LKML, LKAU) had high antinutritional components, even though they were high-yielding. This research proposes a model of combined evaluation and selection processes for identification of particular genotypes that can perform well in neutral soils and provides the basis for breeding and producing low-alkaloid genotypes for multi-locational exploitation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genetic Identification and Characterisation of Crop Agronomic Traits and Stress Resistance—2nd Edition)
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11 pages, 2533 KB  
Article
Characterization of Pimpinella anisum Germplasm: Diversity Available for Agronomic Performance and Essential Oil Content and Composition
by Pierluigi Reveglia, Eleonora Barilli, María José Cobos, Maria Claudia López-Orozco and Diego Rubiales
Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 285; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030285 - 23 Jan 2026
Viewed by 1117
Abstract
Anise (Pimpinella anisum L.) is one of the most important annual herbs of the Apiaceae family, widely cultivated in southern Spain. Their seeds are highly valued for culinary uses and for producing quality essential oils widely used in food and beverage products, [...] Read more.
Anise (Pimpinella anisum L.) is one of the most important annual herbs of the Apiaceae family, widely cultivated in southern Spain. Their seeds are highly valued for culinary uses and for producing quality essential oils widely used in food and beverage products, as well as for industry, medicinal, and cosmetics applications. This study investigates the seed yield and essential oil content within a set of 50 anise accessions from worldwide origin, as well as their composition by GC–MS and GC–FID analysis. Accessions showed significant differences in the agronomic parameters measured, including plant height (cm), seed yield (kg ha−1), and the Harvest Index (%), with accessions PA_87 (Spain), PA_47 (Greece), and PA_21 (unknown origin) being the most performant. Essential oil (EO) content varied between 0.8% and 5.7% across different genotypes, resulting in EO production values ranging from 0.1 to 300 kg ha−1. Trans-anethole was identified as the dominant terpene, comprising 84.4% to 94.4% of the content, followed by eugenol (1.4% to 5.5%) and α-muurolene (1.4% to 7.2%). PCA analysis identified five distinct groups and one outlier, influenced by minor terpenes. Indeed, there was a strong negative correlation between estragole and pseudoisoeugenyl 2-methylbutyrate. This study underscores the significance of minor terpenes, which play crucial roles in defining unique aniseed chemotypes, allowing for the selection of cultivars optimized for specific uses in food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals. Additionally, these findings emphasize the impact of cultivar genetics on agronomic traits and EO profiles, suggesting the need for further research to optimize plant growth and yield and EO quality. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Crop Breeding and Genetics)
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38 pages, 1623 KB  
Review
Addressing Black Soil Compaction: An Integrated Analysis of the Mechanisms, Efficacy, and Future Directions of Conservation Tillage
by Yuanqi Ma, Yumeng Zhu, Jiaqi Li, Zhao Li, Duo Zhao, Zhipeng Qu, Xinyu Zhou, Wei Zhao, Xinhe Wei, Jixuan Sun, Liang Yang and Shoukun Dong
Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 274; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020274 - 22 Jan 2026
Viewed by 1062
Abstract
In Northeast China, increasing agricultural activities has led to severe soil compaction, reducing soil aeration and water infiltration capacity. Conservation tillage, through multiple approaches, alleviates this compaction while simultaneously enhancing crop yields and promoting sustainable agricultural production. In light of domestic and international [...] Read more.
In Northeast China, increasing agricultural activities has led to severe soil compaction, reducing soil aeration and water infiltration capacity. Conservation tillage, through multiple approaches, alleviates this compaction while simultaneously enhancing crop yields and promoting sustainable agricultural production. In light of domestic and international developments, this paper provides a detailed elaboration on conservation tillage (CT) as a sustainable agricultural practice system. It examines its core technical measures, global adoption status, and impacts on soil physicochemical properties. Furthermore, by analyzing the causes and detrimental effects of soil compaction, it proposes approaches and elucidates the significance of using CT to alleviate compaction in black soils. Integrating considerations of its influence on climate change, economic benefits, future development, challenges, and trends, the paper offers a forward-looking perspective. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Organic Matter and Tillage—2nd Edition)
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