Agronomy

25 pages, 918 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Roots to Riches: Unearthing the Synergy of Intercropping, Microbial Interactions, and Symbiotic Systems for Sustainable Agriculture: A Review

by Priyal Sisodia, Agata Gryta, Shamina Imran Pathan, Giacomo Pietramellara and Magdalena Frąc

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2243; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092243 - 22 Sep 2025

Viewed by 1245

Abstract

Intercropping, especially legume-cereal systems, is a mixed farming approach that can improve agricultural resilience by addressing challenges such as soil degradation, biodiversity loss, and global change, all while promoting the sustainable production of protein-rich and nutritious food. However, its adoption in industrialized countries [...] Read more.

Intercropping, especially legume-cereal systems, is a mixed farming approach that can improve agricultural resilience by addressing challenges such as soil degradation, biodiversity loss, and global change, all while promoting the sustainable production of protein-rich and nutritious food. However, its adoption in industrialized countries remains limited due to economic and technical challenges, as well as a fragmented understanding of soil–plant-microbe interactions, which hinders its complete optimization. This article provides an overview of the current situation and future perspectives on the importance of legume–cereal intercropping, with examples such as common bean–maize, soybean–maize, alfalfa–corn–rye, and legumes–pulses–little millet systems. These combinations highlight how intercropping can improve nutrient cycling, increase root growth, forage and grain yield, suppress soil-borne diseases, and promote soil microbial population and enzymatic activity. While it offers environmental benefits, practical challenges such as system design, management complexity, and cost-effectiveness must be addressed to encourage wider adoption. In preparing this review, we synthesized studies published between 2000 and 2025, with a particular emphasis on recent research from China and Southeast Asia. We also considered broader intercropping contexts, including energy crops, agroforestry systems, rice paddy co-cultures, and phytoremediation approaches. The review also highlights legume–cereal as a solution to sustainable soil management, ecosystem health, and the potential for increased nutritional food production in developed countries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Rhizobium-Legume Symbiosis in Crops Production)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

48 pages, 2840 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Relevance of Organic Matter Compositions, Structures and Associations to Soil Aggregates and to Sustainable Productivity

by Michael H. B. Hayes and Maria Roulia

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2182; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092182 - 13 Sep 2025

Viewed by 950

Abstract

Long-term cultivation practices, in which mineral fertilizers are the only amendments made to crop-supporting soils, are giving rise to the degradation of soil structures in the world’s most fertile soils. This leads to erosion and to the loss of productivity and may well [...] Read more.

Long-term cultivation practices, in which mineral fertilizers are the only amendments made to crop-supporting soils, are giving rise to the degradation of soil structures in the world’s most fertile soils. This leads to erosion and to the loss of productivity and may well become a greater threat than that of global warming. Humic substances (structurally related compounds), and humin (which no longer falls within the modern definitions of humic substances), are major transformation or humification components of organic matter entering the soil, with varying resistance to biological degradation, and properties vastly contributing to soil fertility. There is considerable discussion on the macromolecular structures arising from associations or supramolecular structuring of some components of humic substances. The compositions, structures, shapes, sizes, and surface properties of these molecular components determine their intra- and inter-molecular associations, their interactions with the soil particles, and particularly with the soil inorganic colloids. Such interactions play a vital role in soil aggregates’ formation, which is important for soil health and productivity. In this work, an outline is given of modern methods for the isolation of broadly defined soil organic components, of what is known of their origins (plant or microbial), compositions, sizes and shapes, of how they interact to promote soil structure and productivity, and how the materials composing the hydrophobic fraction form strong associations with the inorganic colloids. A better understanding should be sought of how these interactions and associations take place giving rise to the structured systems that are characteristic of fertile soils. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Humic Substances: Chemistry and Multidimensional Role in Agricultural Systems and Pollution Management)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 322 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Saffron—Red Gold: Enhancing Its Profitability Through the Sustainable Cultivation and Valorization of Its By-Products

by Cinzia Barbieri, Stefania Stelluti and Valentina Scariot

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2183; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092183 - 13 Sep 2025

Viewed by 1348

Abstract

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.), a perennial plant of the Iridaceae family, which is also known as “red gold”, is one of the most expensive spices throughout the world. Originally, it was mainly used as a condiment and natural dye for food, and [...] Read more.

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.), a perennial plant of the Iridaceae family, which is also known as “red gold”, is one of the most expensive spices throughout the world. Originally, it was mainly used as a condiment and natural dye for food, and as a medicinal plant in folk medicine. Its cultivation is characterized by an extensive use of labor, since most of the crop management techniques (e.g., sowing, weeding, flower picking, and stigma separation) are performed manually. The aim of this work is to investigate how the adoption of sustainable cultivation techniques could improve the profitability of saffron at the primary level. Thus, economic and technical data were collected directly on a farm in a marginal area in Northwestern Italy, in order to compare the productivity and profitability of traditional and innovative cultivation techniques. The effect of sustainable practices, such as the use of beneficial microorganisms, that is, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), on the productivity of saffron was considered. In a previous work, AMF inoculation with Rhizophagus intraradices and Funneliformis mosseae led to an increase in the flower and saffron spice yields, compared to uninoculated controls. The profitability of the saffron (including tepals, its by-product) considered in our case study, expressed as economic profit (pure profit), was found to be slightly negative for the traditional cultivation method (without the use of AMF) and also, albeit to a lesser extent, for the innovative technology (with the use of AMF). This slightly negative result is mainly due to the implicit cost of family labor for both the traditional and innovative cultivation techniques. The results of our study can be considered a further step in favor of the use of cultivation techniques that improve crop productivity and, at the same time, are sustainable. They also support the spread of minor crops, which, nevertheless, are important to maintain agricultural activities in marginal territories. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Innovations for Sustainable Crop Production in the Mediterranean Region)

22 pages, 2565 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Interlinked Temperature and Light Effects on Lettuce Photosynthesis and Transpiration: Insights from a Dynamic Whole-Plant Gas Exchange System

by Simon Lauwers, Jonas R. Coussement and Kathy Steppe

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2180; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092180 - 13 Sep 2025

Viewed by 967

Abstract

Environmental control in closed environment agricultural systems (CEA) is challenging due to the high energy demand and the dynamic interactions between plants and their heterogeneous phylloclimate. Optimization of crop production in CEA systems therefore requires a thorough understanding of whole-plant functioning and the [...] Read more.

Environmental control in closed environment agricultural systems (CEA) is challenging due to the high energy demand and the dynamic interactions between plants and their heterogeneous phylloclimate. Optimization of crop production in CEA systems therefore requires a thorough understanding of whole-plant functioning and the interconnected plant-climate interactions. Such optimization is limited by an incomplete knowledge of how leaf-level measurements of gas exchange relate to whole-plant processes and how to scale-up point measurements of the heterogeneous environment to inform plant-level decisions. To address both, a dynamic whole-plant gas exchange system was developed to quantify the effect of temperature, relative humidity and light intensity on whole-plant photosynthetic and transpiration rates in lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.). Results showed that light intensity was the primary driver for whole-plant photosynthesis, with temperature optima increasing from 5 °C at a photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) of 150 µmol·m⁻²·s⁻¹ to 13 °C at 400 µmolm⁻²·s⁻¹. These optima for lettuce plants were 10 to 20 °C lower than those observed at leaf level due to a shifted balance between respiration and photosynthesis within the complex habitus of lettuce. The results showed a decoupling of transpiration and photosynthesis under high relative humidity, with vapour pressure deficit (VPD) values of 0.5 kPa or lower, which physically limited transpiration. The newly developed dynamic gas exchange system has proven to be a helpful tool for examining the relative importance and combined effects of environmental factors on whole-plant photosynthesis and transpiration. Potential future applications of this system include research on phylloclimate, implementation in production facilities, and validation of crop models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Light Environment Regulation of Crop Growth)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

30 pages, 2503 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Systematic Review of 59 Field Robots for Agricultural Tasks: Applications, Trends, and Future Directions

by Mattia Fontani, Sofia Matilde Luglio, Lorenzo Gagliardi, Andrea Peruzzi, Christian Frasconi, Michele Raffaelli and Marco Fontanelli

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2185; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092185 - 13 Sep 2025

Viewed by 2578

Abstract

Climate change and labour shortage are re-shaping farming methods. Agricultural tasks are often hard, tedious and repetitive for operators, and farms struggle to find specialized operators for such works. For this and other reasons (i.e., the increasing costs of agricultural labour) more and [...] Read more.

Climate change and labour shortage are re-shaping farming methods. Agricultural tasks are often hard, tedious and repetitive for operators, and farms struggle to find specialized operators for such works. For this and other reasons (i.e., the increasing costs of agricultural labour) more and more farmers have decided to switch to autonomous (or semi-autonomous) field robots. In the past decade, an increasing number of robots has filled the market of agricultural machines all over the world. These machines can easily cover long and repetitive tasks, while operators can be employed in other jobs inside the farms. This paper reviews the current state-of-the-art of autonomous robots for agricultural operations, dividing them into categories based on main tasks, to analyze their main characteristics and their fields of applications. Seven main tasks were identified: multi-purpose, harvesting, mechanical weeding, pest control and chemical weeding, scouting and monitoring, transplanting and tilling-sowing. Field robots were divided into these categories, and different characteristics were analyzed, such as engine type, traction system, application field, safety sensors, navigation system, country of provenience and presence on the market. The aim of this review is to provide a global view on agricultural platforms developed in the past decade, analyzing their characteristics and providing future perspectives for next robotic platforms. The analysis conducted on 59 field robots, those already available on the market and not, revealed that one fifth of the platforms comes from Asia, and 63% of all of them are powered by electricity (rechargeable batteries, not solar powered) and that numerous platforms base their navigation system on RTK-GPS signal, 28 out of 59, and safety on LiDAR sensor (12 out of 59). This review considered machines of different size, highlighting different possible choices for field operations and tasks. It is difficult to predict market trends as several possibilities exist, like fleets of small robots or bigger size platforms. Future research and policies should focus on improving navigation and safety systems, reducing emissions and improving level of autonomy of robotic platforms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Progress in Agricultural Robots in Arable Farming)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 4141 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Evaluation of the Impact of Different Drip Irrigation Systems on the Vegetative Growth and Fruitfulness of ‘Gala’ Apple Trees

by Vladimír Mašán, Patrik Burg, Lukáš Vaštík, Radoslav Vlk, Jiří Souček and Anna Krakowiak-Bal

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2161; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092161 - 10 Sep 2025

Viewed by 935

Abstract

The consequences of a changing climate in Central Europe are changes in precipitation patterns and the number of rainfall days per year, an increase in the dry summer months, and, most importantly, a reduction in the availability of water resources for orchard production. [...] Read more.

The consequences of a changing climate in Central Europe are changes in precipitation patterns and the number of rainfall days per year, an increase in the dry summer months, and, most importantly, a reduction in the availability of water resources for orchard production. This study presents a novel evaluation of irrigation systems in commercial apple orchards, highlighting how their installation can improve water use efficiency and orchard productivity. The following systems were used in the experiments: IR+F-A (drip line placed on a wire mesh), IR+F-B (two drip lines placed on both sides of an auxiliary structure), and IR+F-C (two drip lines placed below the soil surface). Among these, the IR+F-C system achieved the best performance, prolonging annual shoot growth by 10.5%, increasing fruit weight by up to 8.5%, and enhancing the proportion of Extra Class fruits by 29%, and yielding 6–10% more per hectare than the other irrigation treatments. These quantitative findings emphasize the novelty of subsurface drip irrigation under Central European conditions and demonstrate its potential to improve water use efficiency and fruit quality, offering a viable strategy for adapting orchard management to climate change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Horticultural and Floricultural Crops)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 2693 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Comparative Efficacy of UAVs (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles) and Ground-Based Bait Applications for Olive Fruit Fly (Bactrocera oleae) Control in Greek Olive Orchards

by Georgia D. Papadogiorgou, Konstantina Alipranti, Vasileios Giannopoulos, Sergey Odinokov, Dimitris Stavridis, Antonis Paraskevopoulos, Panagiotis Giatras, Stelios Christodoulou, Kostas Dimizas, Emmanouil Roditakis, Emmanouela Kapogia, Kostas Zarpas and Nikos T. Papadopoulos

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2158; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092158 - 9 Sep 2025

Viewed by 617

Abstract

The use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) in agricultural pest management has emerged as a promising alternative to conventional methods, particularly in challenging terrains. This study assessed the effectiveness of UAV-based versus ground-based bait spraying for controlling the olive fruit fly Bactrocera oleae [...] Read more.

The use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) in agricultural pest management has emerged as a promising alternative to conventional methods, particularly in challenging terrains. This study assessed the effectiveness of UAV-based versus ground-based bait spraying for controlling the olive fruit fly Bactrocera oleae in four regions in Greece (Larisa, Zakynthos, Trifillia, and Crete) over a four-year period (2021–2024). In each region, three olive orchards were selected: one received UAV-based bait applications, one was treated using standard ground-based bait application, and the third served as an untreated control. UAV applications were conducted using the M6E hexacopter, while ground treatments followed conventional protocols. Infestation levels were evaluated through systematic fruit sampling, assessing both overall and active infestations. Climatic and orchard data were also recorded to interpret variability in treatment outcomes. Results showed that both UAV and ground treatments significantly reduced infestation compared to the control. Active infestation ranged from 14.2–22.5% in control-untreated plots, 4.6–7.8% in UAV plots, and 5.3–8.4% in ground-treated plots. A significant year × treatment interaction indicated variable efficacy across years, with clearer treatment effects in 2021–2022. UAV applications were as effective or superior to ground spraying, especially in hard-to-reach areas. These findings support the integration of UAVs into pest management programs as a sustainable and efficient alternative for olive fly control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Pest and Disease Management)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 2326 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Substrate–Genotype Interaction Influences Growth and Phytochemical Composition of Wild and Commercial Purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.) Microgreens

by Ivana Kollárová, Ivana Mezeyová, Lucia Galovičová, Jana Žiarovská, Silvia Farkasová, Peter Pencák and Marcel Golian

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2141; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092141 - 6 Sep 2025

Viewed by 801

Abstract

Purslane is highly suitable for intensive microgreen cultivation due to its rapid growth, high germination rate, and exceptional nutritional profile, including omega-3 fatty acids, essential vitamins, and minerals. While previous studies have mostly emphasized its basic composition, our research investigated additional functional traits, [...] Read more.

Purslane is highly suitable for intensive microgreen cultivation due to its rapid growth, high germination rate, and exceptional nutritional profile, including omega-3 fatty acids, essential vitamins, and minerals. While previous studies have mostly emphasized its basic composition, our research investigated additional functional traits, such as pigment accumulation and antioxidant activity. We also explored the cultivation potential of a wild purslane genotype (G2), naturally growing in the Botanical Garden of the Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, as a sustainable alternative to commercially available seeds (G1). This study examined how genotype and substrate interactions influence growth performance, pigment concentration, and antioxidant capacity in Portulaca oleracea microgreens. Both genotypes were grown on two different substrates: agar mixed with perlite and mineral wool. Although conserved DNA-derived polymorphism marker analysis revealed a high degree of genetic similarity between G1 and G2, significant phenotypic differences were observed. G1 exhibited greater fresh biomass and shoot length, making it more visually appealing for commercial microgreen production. In contrast, G2 showed higher dry matter content and enhanced accumulation of chlorophylls and carotenoids. Antioxidant activity, measured by DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl), ABTS (2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)), and FRAP (Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power) assays, peaked in G1 cultivated on agar–perlite mix. These findings emphasize the importance of selecting the right genotype–substrate combination to optimize both quality and productivity in microgreen systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Horticultural and Floricultural Crops)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 3426 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Calcium Biofortification in Potato: Impacts on Photosynthetic Performance, Tuber Calcium Content, and Calcium Distribution in Two Commercial Cultivars

by Ana Rita F. Coelho, Isabel P. Pais, Mauro Guerra, Ana P. Rodrigues, José N. Semedo, Inês Luís, Ana Coelho Marques, Cláudia C. Pessoa, Diana Daccak, Fernando C. Lidon, Manuela Simões, Maria Manuela Silva, Paulo Legoinha, Paula Scotti-Campos, Fernando H. Reboredo and José C. Ramalho

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2140; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092140 - 5 Sep 2025

Viewed by 526

Abstract

Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is an important global food crop, being greatly valued for its high carbohydrate content and nutritional profile. In response to the world population’s rapid growth and the increasing need for nutritionally enhanced food quality, potato biofortification has become [...] Read more.

Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is an important global food crop, being greatly valued for its high carbohydrate content and nutritional profile. In response to the world population’s rapid growth and the increasing need for nutritionally enhanced food quality, potato biofortification has become a key focus of agronomic research. This study investigated the effect of calcium (Ca) biofortification on two potato cultivars (Picasso and Rossi) cultivated in Portugal, assessing its impact on the photosynthetic functioning and the Ca content and distribution of tubers. At the beginning of the tuberization stage, seven foliar applications of CaCl₂ or Ca-EDTA at 12 kg ha⁻¹ were performed. The application of Ca-EDTA led to an increased Ca content in peeled tubers of Picasso (37%) and Rossi (16%), and 88% and 79% in unpeeled tubers, in the same cv. order and as compared to their controls, with Ca predominantly accumulating in the epidermis/peel region. Photosynthetic performance was negatively impacted by the Ca-EDTA treatment in Picasso but not in Rossi, which was reflected in the significant declines in net photosynthesis (P_n) and maximal (F_v/F_m) and actual (F_v′/F_m) photochemical efficiency of photosystem II. Additionally, both genotypes showed negative impacts (greater in Picasso) on the quantum yield of non-cyclic electron transport (Y_(II)) and photochemical quenching (q_L) after five foliar applications. This contrasted with the absence of negative impacts under the use of CaCl₂, which resulted in 17.1% (Picasso) and 29.5% (RFossi) increase in Ca content in peeled tubers, without any significant differences between the unpeeled tubers of both cvs. Moreover, only with CaCl₂, the tuber weight and yield were not negatively impacted. These findings pointed out that, although with a lower Ca increase in the tubers, CaCl₂ was the best suitable option for the Ca biofortification of these cvs. at the applied doses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agronomic Biofortification Practices on Crops)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

26 pages, 2802 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Use of a Digital Twin for Water Efficient Management in a Processing Tomato Commercial Farm

by Sandra Millán, Cristina Montesinos, Jaume Casadesús, Jose María Vadillo and Carlos Campillo

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2132; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092132 - 5 Sep 2025

Viewed by 717

Abstract

The increasing pressure on water resources caused by agricultural intensification, the rising food demand and climate change requires new irrigation strategies that improve the sustainability and efficiency of agricultural production. The objective of this study is to evaluate the performance of the digital [...] Read more.

The increasing pressure on water resources caused by agricultural intensification, the rising food demand and climate change requires new irrigation strategies that improve the sustainability and efficiency of agricultural production. The objective of this study is to evaluate the performance of the digital twin (DT), Irri_DesK, in a 15-hectare commercial processing tomatoes plot in Extremadura (Spain) over two growing seasons (2023 and 2024). Three irrigation strategies were compared: conventional farmer management, management based on a remote-sensing platform (Smart4Crops) and automated scheduling using Irri_DesK DT-integrated soil moisture sensors, climate data and simulation models to adjust irrigation doses daily. Results showed that the DT-based strategy allowed for the application of regulated deficit irrigation strategies while maintaining productivity or fruit quality. In 2023, it achieved an economic water efficiency of 284.81 EUR/mm with a yield of 140 t/ha using 413 mm of water. In 2024, it maintained high production levels (126 t/ha) under more challenging conditions of spatial variability. These results support the potential of DTs for improving irrigation management in water-limited environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Water Use and Irrigation)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 5205 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Characterization of Hemp Hurd-Derived Biochar for Potential Agricultural Applications

by Alberto Assirelli, Elisa Fischetti, Antonio Scarfone, Enrico Santangelo, Monica Carnevale, Enrico Paris, Adriano Palma and Francesco Gallucci

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2136; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092136 - 5 Sep 2025

Viewed by 798

Abstract

Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is a high-yielding crop cultivated for fiber and seed production, generating substantial lignocellulosic residues such as hurds. These byproducts can be valorized through pyro-gasification, a thermochemical process that offers a sustainable alternative to combustion and produces biochar—a promising [...] Read more.

Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is a high-yielding crop cultivated for fiber and seed production, generating substantial lignocellulosic residues such as hurds. These byproducts can be valorized through pyro-gasification, a thermochemical process that offers a sustainable alternative to combustion and produces biochar—a promising soil amendment due to its ability to enhance soil quality and mitigate drought stress. This research explores the viability of utilizing industrial hemp hurds as a direct feedstock for biochar production within the context of agricultural exploitation. The study specifically focuses on assessing the feasibility of converting raw, unprocessed hemp hurds into biochar through pyrolysis. A comprehensive characterization of the resulting biochar is conducted to evaluate its properties and potential applications in agriculture, establishing a foundational understanding for future agronomic use. Specific analysis included proximate and ultimate analysis, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), SEM-EDS, and phytotoxicity testing. The biochar exhibited an alkaline pH (≥9), a low H/C ratio (0.37), and suitable macro- and micronutrient levels. Microstructural analysis revealed a porous architecture favorable for nutrient retention and water absorption. Germination tests with corn (Zea mays L.) showed a germination index above 90% for substrates containing 0.5–1% biochar. These findings establish a foundation for future research aimed at thoroughly exploring the agricultural potential of this material. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Industrial Crops Production in Mediterranean Climate)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 1107 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Simulation of Transpiration and Drainage in Soil-Based Tomato Production with Potential Hydroponic Application

by Ronnie J. Dunn and Hannah Kinmonth-Schultz

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2134; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092134 - 5 Sep 2025

Viewed by 833

Abstract

Hydroponic systems can drain nutrient-rich waste into the environment. Increasing irrigation efficiency would decrease effluent and improve cost efficiency for growers. However, current methods accessible to small- and mid-sized growers to determine moisture content in growth media are often imprecise. Simplified transpiration models [...] Read more.

Hydroponic systems can drain nutrient-rich waste into the environment. Increasing irrigation efficiency would decrease effluent and improve cost efficiency for growers. However, current methods accessible to small- and mid-sized growers to determine moisture content in growth media are often imprecise. Simplified transpiration models could inform irrigation needs. This study aimed to improve transpiration estimates using vapor pressure deficit (VPD) and solar radiation. We compared our model to an existing transpiration model. Three years of transpiration and environmental data from tomato production were used to calibrate (year 2) and validate (years 1 and 3) the model. Randomly chosen subsets from all years of data were also used. The new model (TVPD) predicted the observed values more closely than the previous model (PG) in year 1 (TVPD: RMSE = 0.1570 mm, r² = 0.95; PG: RMSE = 0.5594 to 0.6875 mm, r² = 0.27 to 0.78) but not in year 3 (TVPD: RMSE = 0.5430 mm, r² = 0.44; PG: RMSE = 0.1873 to 0.2065 mm, r² = 0.95). TVPD calibrated using random subsets of the combined data improved consistency and predictive capacity (RMSE = 0.2387 to 0.2419 mm, r² = 0.87 to 0.91). TVPD is a simpler alternative to complex models and to those focusing on solar radiation alone. TVPD is less reliable under low solar radiation (year 3); however, reliability could be improved by calibration across a broader environmental range. TVPD also allows for exploration of the relative influences of low VPD and high solar radiation on evapotranspiration found in greenhouse settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Water Use and Irrigation)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 1163 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Biochar Application Methods Matter: Biochemical and Enological Responses of an Italian Field-Grown Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) Using Solid and Liquid Formulations

by Riccardo Fedeli, Silvia Celletti and Stefano Loppi

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2124; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092124 - 4 Sep 2025

Viewed by 1331

Abstract

Viticulture is increasingly seeking sustainable practices that enhance grape quality while reducing reliance on synthetic inputs. Among bio-based strategies, biochar has attracted growing interest for its potential to improve soil fertility and influence plant metabolism. However, its effects can vary depending on formulation [...] Read more.

Viticulture is increasingly seeking sustainable practices that enhance grape quality while reducing reliance on synthetic inputs. Among bio-based strategies, biochar has attracted growing interest for its potential to improve soil fertility and influence plant metabolism. However, its effects can vary depending on formulation and application methods. This study evaluated the effects of the use of solid (SB) and liquid biochar (LB) on the biochemical and nutritional composition in leaves, berry skins, and must of a grapevine (Vitis vinifera L., cv. Sangiovese) cultivated in a vineyard in Tuscany (Italy). SB was applied once to the soil at 2.5% (w/w), while LB was applied five times/season at 10% (v/v) via fertigation. Results revealed formulation-specific effects on grapevine physiology and fruit composition. SB maintained leaf chlorophyll concentrations, increased total soluble proteins (+65%), total polyphenols (+57%), and tannin content (+33%) in berry skins and must, and reduced Cu and Zn. Conversely, LB reduced leaf chlorophyll concentrations (−24%) and nutrient contents (P, Fe, Cu, and Zn), but increased total flavonoids (+13%), antioxidant capacity (+20%), and vitamin C (+18%) in berry skins, alongside higher fructose and reducing sugars in musts. The findings highlight biochar’s potential as a bio-based input in viticulture, emphasizing the importance of formulation and application strategy. SB appears suited to long-term soil improvement and enhanced phenolic richness, while LB may modulate sugar metabolism for targeted enological outcomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Different Biostimulants and Biochars on Crop Production and Quality)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

26 pages, 2740 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Capsicum chinense Jacq. Response to Pyrolysis-Derived Amendments and Sustainable Fertilizers in Containerized Greenhouse Systems

by Dan Ioan Avasiloaiei, Mariana Calara, Petre Marian Brezeanu, Claudia Bălăiță, Ioan Sebastian Brumă and Creola Brezeanu

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2125; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092125 - 4 Sep 2025

Viewed by 842

Abstract

The controlled-environment cultivation of Capsicum chinense Jacq. is a high-value but input-sensitive system, where optimizing fertilization management practices (FMPs) is essential for maximizing yield and fruit quality. We tested the hypothesis that targeted FMPs—biochar, wood vinegar, and Cropmax—enhance vegetative growth, pigment accumulation, and [...] Read more.

The controlled-environment cultivation of Capsicum chinense Jacq. is a high-value but input-sensitive system, where optimizing fertilization management practices (FMPs) is essential for maximizing yield and fruit quality. We tested the hypothesis that targeted FMPs—biochar, wood vinegar, and Cropmax—enhance vegetative growth, pigment accumulation, and reproductive performance in three genotypes (‘Carolina Reaper’, ‘Trinidad Scorpion’, and ‘Habanero Chocolate’) under containerized greenhouse conditions. Across biometric, pigment, and yield metrics, biochar–Cropmax combinations produced the strongest responses, increasing plant height by up to 22%, leaf number by 51%, and chlorophyll content index by 36% over controls. Yield gains were substantial: ‘Trinidad Scorpion’ reached 301.79 g plant⁻¹ (+46%), ‘Habanero Chocolate’ 142.58 g (+32%), and ‘Carolina Reaper’ showed marked improvement in mean fruit mass (5.58 g). Biochar also elevated dry matter content to 10.31% and soluble solids to 8.35 °Brix. These results demonstrate that integrating biochar-based FMPs can significantly intensify C. chinense greenhouse production while aligning with sustainable horticultural objectives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Horticultural and Floricultural Crops)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 820 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Exogenous Proline Application Mitigates Salt Stress in Physalis ixocarpa Brot.: Morphophysiological, Spectroscopic, and Metabolomic Evidence

by Francisco Gregório Do-Nascimento-Neto, Eva Sánchez-Hernández, Alone Lima-Brito, Marilza Neves-do-Nascimento, Norlan Miguel Ruíz-Potosme, Jesús Martín-Gil and Pablo Martín-Ramos

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2119; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092119 - 3 Sep 2025

Viewed by 761

Abstract

Salt stress severely constrains agricultural productivity in arid and semi-arid regions. This study evaluated exogenous proline as an osmoprotector in Physalis ixocarpa Brot. (Mexican husk tomato) under salinity. Germination screening identified 75 mM NaCl as a threshold stress level, reducing germination by 38.9% [...] Read more.

Salt stress severely constrains agricultural productivity in arid and semi-arid regions. This study evaluated exogenous proline as an osmoprotector in Physalis ixocarpa Brot. (Mexican husk tomato) under salinity. Germination screening identified 75 mM NaCl as a threshold stress level, reducing germination by 38.9% while maintaining seedling viability. Proline pretreatment (30-min imbibition) at 8 mM restored germination to 78% and fresh weight to control levels under salt stress. In vitro experiments revealed that 8 mM proline enhanced chlorophyll content above salt-stressed controls while reducing root length from 9.72 to 5.08 cm, indicating resource reallocation toward photosynthetic protection. Infrared spectroscopy showed characteristic polysaccharide shifts and bands potentially associated with proline incorporation. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry metabolomics of stem–leaf extracts revealed salt-induced synthesis of nitrogenous osmolytes (such as long-chain amines) and carbohydrate reorganization from α-D-glucopyranoside to β-D-riboside. Proline treatment restored the original carbohydrate profile while generating pyrrolidine derivatives (2.83%), evidence of active proline metabolism. Phenolic antioxidants (e.g., catechol) present in controls were absent under both salt stress and proline treatment, suggesting that proline’s protective mechanism may operate through metabolic regulation of osmolyte pathways and membrane stabilization rather than inducing phenolic antioxidant synthesis. These findings demonstrate proline’s multifaceted protective mechanisms and support its potential application for enhancing salt tolerance in this crop. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Harnessing Exogenous Applications for Crop Stress Tolerance and Enhanced Productivity)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

19 pages, 2267 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Comparative Analysis of Base-Width-Based Annotation Box Ratios for Vine Trunk and Support Post Detection Performance in Agricultural Autonomous Navigation Environments

by Hong-Kun Lyu, Sanghun Yun and Seung Park

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2107; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092107 - 31 Aug 2025

Viewed by 620

Abstract

AI-driven agricultural automation increasingly demands efficient data generation methods for training deep learning models in autonomous robotic systems. Traditional bounding box annotation methods for agricultural objects present significant challenges including subjective boundary determination, inconsistent labeling across annotators, and physical strain from extensive mouse [...] Read more.

AI-driven agricultural automation increasingly demands efficient data generation methods for training deep learning models in autonomous robotic systems. Traditional bounding box annotation methods for agricultural objects present significant challenges including subjective boundary determination, inconsistent labeling across annotators, and physical strain from extensive mouse movements required for elongated objects. This study proposes a novel base-width standardized annotation method that utilizes the base width of a vine trunk and a support post as a reference parameter for automated bounding box generation. The method requires annotators to specify only the left and right endpoints of object bases, from which the system automatically generates standardized bounding boxes with predefined aspect ratios. Performance assessment utilized Precision, Recall, F1-score, and Average Precision metrics across vine trunks and support posts. The study reveals that vertically elongated rectangular bounding boxes outperform square configurations for agricultural object detection. The proposed method is expected to reduce time consumption from subjective boundary determination and minimize physical strain during bounding box annotation for AI-based autonomous navigation models in agricultural environments. This will ultimately enhance dataset consistency and improve the efficiency of artificial intelligence learning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection AI, Sensors and Robotics for Smart Agriculture)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 3049 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Differences in Weed Taxa Community in a Young Apple Orchard (‘King Roat Red Delicious’ Cultivar) Depending on the Presence of Living Mulch and the Application of Two Nitrogen Fertilization Rates

by Urszula Barbara Bałuszyńska and Maria Licznar-Małańczuk

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2106; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092106 - 31 Aug 2025

Viewed by 886

Abstract

The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of two nitrogen doses in combination with strong creeping fescue (Festuca rubra L. ssp. rubra Gaudin) and Chewing’s red fescue (Festuca rubra L. ssp. commutata Gaudin) used as living mulches on [...] Read more.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of two nitrogen doses in combination with strong creeping fescue (Festuca rubra L. ssp. rubra Gaudin) and Chewing’s red fescue (Festuca rubra L. ssp. commutata Gaudin) used as living mulches on the weed community in an apple tree (Malus domestica Borkh.) orchard. The cover grasses were sown in the tree rows, and herbicide fallow served as the control. Grass living mulches effectively reduced the number and share of annual weed cover and limited the spread of perennial plants compared with herbicide fallow. Use of F. rubra L. subspecies did not favor the biodiversity of the orchard agroecosystem flora, due to the effective soil surface coverage by sod in the tree rows. Living mulch sod was characterized by lower variability in weed taxa compared with the abundant weed composition in the herbicide fallow, which also exhibited the highest number of weed taxa each year. Dominant species in the orchard across all treatments included Trifolium repens L. and Taraxacum spp. Doubling the nitrogen fertilization rate, while limiting the application area to the tree canopy, did not increase the perennial weed population in the living mulch sod. Both subspecies are useful as living mulch in a young apple orchard, but from the perspective of sod durability and weed control, strong creeping red fescue offers better prospects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Weed Biology and Ecology: Importance to Integrated Weed Management)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 327 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Desert Locust Management Is Plagued by Human-Based Impediments

by Allan T. Showler and Michel Lecoq

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2102; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092102 - 30 Aug 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 869

Abstract

Technical aspects of desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria) management have markedly improved since the late 1980s. Examples include modernized electronic communication systems linking stakeholders, global positioning system precision for reporting and treatment of locust aggregations, ultra-low-volume insecticide formulations and application techniques that [...] Read more.

Technical aspects of desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria) management have markedly improved since the late 1980s. Examples include modernized electronic communication systems linking stakeholders, global positioning system precision for reporting and treatment of locust aggregations, ultra-low-volume insecticide formulations and application techniques that reduce both environmental impact and chemical use, and computerized integration of multidisciplinary data for monitoring and forecasting outbreaks, upsurges, and plagues. Despite the remote and rugged terrain where the species thrives, tools and vehicles for surveillance and control generally exist—although they are not always available when needed. As technical aspects of desert locust control continue to be surmounted, human-based factors remain substantial, underlying, multifaceted obstacles. Funding shortfalls are frequently cited but rarely analyzed in depth. This article focuses on these underlying human constraints, including rigid conceptual dogmas, diverse forms of insecurity, political interference, weak communication among stakeholders, decreasing donor interest, confusion between emergency response and development objectives, loss of institutional memory, inadequate staff training, and limited attention to dynamic, real-time developments. These human-based impediments are critical because they underlie systemic unpreparedness and hinder the transition toward more integrated, proactive, and sustainable locust management approaches. As such, they contribute to the onset, intensity, and prolonged duration of desert locust episodes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Locust and Grasshopper Management: Challenges and Innovations)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

19 pages, 502 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Yield and Quality Parameters of Winter Wheat in a Wheat–Pea Mixed Cropping System

by Marianna Vályi-Nagy, István Kristó, Melinda Tar, Attila Rácz, Lajos Szentpéteri, Katalin Irmes, Csaba Gyuricza and Márta Ladányi

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2082; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092082 - 29 Aug 2025

Viewed by 795

Abstract

Modern agriculture is based on plant specialization, where the decrease in biodiversity makes vulnerable of our cultivated crops against climate change and the fluctuated market demands. Mixed cropping is a planned diversity in space, which is a powerful tool to conserving soil fertility. [...] Read more.

Modern agriculture is based on plant specialization, where the decrease in biodiversity makes vulnerable of our cultivated crops against climate change and the fluctuated market demands. Mixed cropping is a planned diversity in space, which is a powerful tool to conserving soil fertility. Our experiment was carried out in three growing seasons (2020/2021, 2021/2022, 2022/2023) with the combination of three winter wheat varieties (GK Szilárd, Cellule, GK Csillag) and a winter pea variety (Aviron) in four repeats and three seeding rates to determine yield and quality parameters (protein, gluten, Zeleny index, W-value) of wheat. Yield varied every year: The highest value was provided by the 50:100 mixture of GK Csillag/Aviron in 2021 (pure stands + 24%), then it gradually decreased in the following years. In terms of protein, Zeleny index and W-value, the Cellule/Aviron 50:100 achieved outstanding values, while in 2022 was preferred GK Szilárd/Aviron 50:100 combination. We verified a statistical difference between the wheat varieties in the case of gluten (in each year) in favor of GK Csillag/Cellule/GK Csillag and for the W-value (in 2021) in favor of Cellule. Plant density and seeding rate determined the final crop proportion within the mixture and indirectly affected yield quantity and quality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Promoting Intercropping Systems in Sustainable Agriculture—2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 2888 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Monitoring of Harmful Noctuid Pests with Synthetic Sex Pheromones and Semisynthetic Bisexual Lures (SBL): Benefits and Limitations of Separate, Parallel and Combined Use of the Methods

by Szabolcs Szanyi, Szilvia Pálóczi, Júlia Katalin Jósvai, Zoltán Varga, Miklós Tóth and Antal Nagy

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2086; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092086 - 29 Aug 2025

Viewed by 784

Abstract

Sex pheromones and semi-synthetic bisexual lure (SBL) were used both in parallel and in combination within single traps to monitor four widely distributed noctuid pest species. For Agrotis ipsilon, the SBL proved to be more effective than the species-specific sex pheromone, and [...] Read more.

Sex pheromones and semi-synthetic bisexual lure (SBL) were used both in parallel and in combination within single traps to monitor four widely distributed noctuid pest species. For Agrotis ipsilon, the SBL proved to be more effective than the species-specific sex pheromone, and it can be used alone instead of them, as well as for monitoring the pest. In the case of A. segetum and Lacanobia oleracea, the lures did not inhibit each other, and their parallel and combined use provided a more accurate representation of swarming dynamics and abundance peaks, as well as enabled the monitoring of female flight activity. Observations revealed shifts in the life cycle of L. oleracea and further supported the migratory nature of A. segetum. The parallel and combined application of the newly developed SBL and conventional sex pheromone lures may significantly enhance the precision of pest monitoring and forecasting, thereby supporting more precise planning and timing and more effective implementation of plant protection treatments in IPM strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances and Challenges for the Management of Lepidopteran Pests—2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 2890 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Potassium and Magnesium Balance the Effect of Nitrogen on the Yield and Quality of Sugar Beet

by Przemysław Barłóg and Witold Grzebisz

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2075; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092075 - 28 Aug 2025

Viewed by 697

Abstract

The yield-enhancing effect of nitrogen (N) in sugar beets depends on the appropriate balance of other nutrients, including potassium (K) and magnesium (Mg). To determine the effects of these nutrients on beet yield (BY), quality parameters, white sugar yield (WSY), and nitrogen use [...] Read more.

The yield-enhancing effect of nitrogen (N) in sugar beets depends on the appropriate balance of other nutrients, including potassium (K) and magnesium (Mg). To determine the effects of these nutrients on beet yield (BY), quality parameters, white sugar yield (WSY), and nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) indices, a three-year field study was conducted in western Poland. Eight different fertilization treatments with potassium salt (PS), Korn-Kali (KK), and magnesium sulfate (Mg) were tested, K₀, K₁ (PS), K₂ (PS), K₂ (PS) + Mg, K₁ (KK), K₂ (KK), K₂ (KK) + Mg, K₂ (KK) + Mg + FF, where 0, 1, and 2 are the K rates, respectively, for 0, 83, and 163 kg K ha⁻¹, and FF denotes foliar fertilization with magnesium sulfate. Potassium fertilization, both in the form of PS and KK, along with additional application of magnesium sulfate, positively affected BY and WSY. However, the response to fertilization depended strongly on seasonal factors, such as weather and soil conditions. Compared to the treatment without potassium (K₀), the average BY increased by 6.5–9.1%, and the WSY by 4.6–9.0%. Mineral fertilization had little effect on taproot quality parameters, including sucrose content. The exception was the concentration of α-amino-N, which significantly decreased with the application of K fertilizers. However, changes in α-amino-N content were not significantly related to WSY levels because this characteristic primarily depended on BY each year, and applying K and Mg to the soil improves NUE indices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fertilizer Innovation and Practice in Sustainable Intensified Agriculture)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 3153 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Variation of Protein and Protein Fraction Content in Wheat in Relation to NPK Mineral Fertilization

by Alina Laura Agapie, Marinel Nicolae Horablaga, Gabriela Gorinoiu, Adina Horablaga, Mihai Valentin Herbei and Florin Sala

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2076; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092076 - 28 Aug 2025

Viewed by 635

Abstract

Wheat is a crucial crop for human nutrition, and the demand for high-quality indicators within the “from farm to fork” concept is increasing. Based on this premise, this study examined how, at the farm level, the fertilization system can influence key quality indicators [...] Read more.

Wheat is a crucial crop for human nutrition, and the demand for high-quality indicators within the “from farm to fork” concept is increasing. Based on this premise, this study examined how, at the farm level, the fertilization system can influence key quality indicators relevant to wheat production and final products. This research was conducted under specific conditions of the Western Plain of Romania at the Agricultural Research and Development Station (ARDS), Lovrin, during 2015–2017. Fertilization involved the autumn application of phosphorus (concentrated superphosphate; 0, 40, 80, 120, 160 kg ha⁻¹ active substance, a.s.) and potassium (potassium chloride; 0, 40, 80, 120 kg ha⁻¹ a.s.). Nitrogen (ammonium nitrate; 0, 30, 60, 90, 120 kg ha⁻¹ active substance) was applied in spring in two stages. The combination of these three fertilizers resulted in 18 fertilized variants (T2 to T19), tested alongside an unfertilized control (T1). The experimental variants were arranged in four randomized replications. Grain quality was assessed based on protein content (PRO, %), gluten (GLT, g 100 g⁻¹), gliadins (Gliad, %), glutenins (Glut, g 100 g⁻¹), high-molecular-weight glutenins (HMW, g 100 g⁻¹), low-molecular-weight glutenins (LMW, g 100 g⁻¹), and the gliadin/glutenin ratio (Gliad/Glut). Compared to the average values for each indicator across the experiment, certain variants produced values above the mean, with statistical significance. Variant T16 stood out by producing values above the mean for all indicators, with statistical confidence. Multivariate analysis showed that five indicators with very strong (PRO, GLT) and strong (HMW, Glut, LMW) influence grouped in PC1, while two indicators (Gliad, Gliad/Glut) with very strong and strong influence grouped in PC2. The analysis revealed varying levels of correlation between the applied fertilizers, with nitrogen (N) showing very strong and strong correlations with most indicators, while phosphorus and potassium showed moderate-to-weak correlations. Regression analysis generated mathematical models that statistically described how each indicator varied in relation to the fertilizers applied. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 4427 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Three-Dimensional Convolutional Neural Networks (3D-CNN) in the Classification of Varieties and Quality Assessment of Soybean Seeds (Glycine max L. Merrill)

by Piotr Rybacki, Kiril Bahcevandziev, Diego Jarquin, Ireneusz Kowalik, Andrzej Osuch, Ewa Osuch and Janetta Niemann

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2074; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092074 - 28 Aug 2025

Viewed by 840

Abstract

The precise identification, classification, sorting, and rapid and accurate quality assessment of soybean seeds are extremely important in terms of the continuity of agricultural production, varietal purity, seed processing, protein extraction, and food safety. Currently, commonly used methods for the identification and quality [...] Read more.

The precise identification, classification, sorting, and rapid and accurate quality assessment of soybean seeds are extremely important in terms of the continuity of agricultural production, varietal purity, seed processing, protein extraction, and food safety. Currently, commonly used methods for the identification and quality assessment of soybean seeds include morphological analysis, chemical analysis, protein electrophoresis, liquid chromatography, spectral analysis, and image analysis. The use of image analysis and artificial intelligence is the aim of the presented research, in which a method for the automatic classification of soybean varieties, the assessment of the degree of damage, and the identification of geometric features of soybean seeds based on numerical models obtained using a 3D scanner has been proposed. Unlike traditional two-dimensional images, which only represent height and width, 3D imaging adds a third dimension, allowing for a more realistic representation of the shape of the seeds. The research was conducted on soybean seeds with a moisture content of 13%, and the seeds were stored in a room with a temperature of 20–23 °C and air humidity of 60%. Individual soybean seeds were scanned to create 3D models, allowing for the measurement of their geometric parameters, assessment of texture, evaluation of damage, and identification of characteristic varietal features. The developed 3D-CNN network model comprised an architecture consisting of an input layer, three hidden layers, and one output layer with a single neuron. The aim of the conducted research is to design a new, three-dimensional 3D-CNN architecture, the main task of which is the classification of soybean seeds. For the purposes of network analysis and testing, 22 input criteria were defined, with a hierarchy of their importance. The training, testing, and validation database of the SB3D-NET network consisted of 3D models obtained as a result of scanning individual soybean seeds, 100 for each variety. The accuracy of the training process of the proposed SB3D-NET model for the qualitative classification of 3D models of soybean seeds, based on the adopted criteria, was 95.54%, and the accuracy of its validation was 90.74%. The relative loss value during the training process of the SB3D-NET model was 18.53%, and during its validation process, it was 37.76%. The proposed SB3D-NET neural network model for all twenty-two criteria achieves values of global error (GE) of prediction and classification of seeds at the level of 0.0992. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Detection and Classification of External Traits in Crop Plants, Fruits, and Vegetables)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 1255 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Temperature Regimes Modulate Growth and Nutritional Quality of Three African Leaf Vegetables

by Omolara Rukayat Ibrahim, Fang He, Björn Thiele, Thorsten Kraska, Odunayo Clement Adebooye, Ulrich Schurr and Arnd Jürgen Kuhn

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2057; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092057 - 26 Aug 2025

Viewed by 597

Abstract

A large population in Africa, particularly West Africa, depends on leafy vegetables such as red amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus), Lagos spinach (Celosia argentea), and African eggplant (Solanum macrocarpon) as affordable and readily available sources of nutrition. These vegetables [...] Read more.

A large population in Africa, particularly West Africa, depends on leafy vegetables such as red amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus), Lagos spinach (Celosia argentea), and African eggplant (Solanum macrocarpon) as affordable and readily available sources of nutrition. These vegetables are rich sources of phenolics, minerals, vitamins, and bioactive compounds, contributing significantly to dietary nutrition and providing an important source of revenue for farmers. However, the temperature rise due to climate change threatens their availability and nutritional value. This study assessed the effects of temperature regimes (23, 30, and 40 °C) on the growth and quality of these vegetables under greenhouse conditions for 48 (A. cruentus and C. argentea) and 54 (S. macrocarpon) days after sowing by measuring biomass (leaf, stem, shoot, root dry weight, root/shoot and leaf area), photosynthetic parameters, pigments, sugars, mineral content, antioxidant activity, total phenolic compounds, total flavonoids, and free amino acids. Temperature significantly affected biomass, with A. cruentus and C. argentea showing declines of 13.5–32.2% and 5.1–27.8%, respectively, at 40 °C compared to 23 °C, indicating sensitivity to heat stress. Photosynthetic rates increased with a rise from 23 to 30 °C by 2.1–29.2% across all species. Sugar contents remained generally stable, except for notable decreases in glucose and soluble sugars by 43.3% and 40.5%, respectively, in C. argentea between 30 and 40 °C, and a 52.6% reduction in starch in S. macrocarpon from 23 to 40 °C. Mineral nutrient responses varied by species; however, they exhibited similar increases in nitrogen and phosphorus, as well as decreases in calcium and manganese, at higher temperatures. Notably, antioxidant capacity and total phenolic compounds declined significantly in C. argentea (8.1% and 8.0%) and S. macrocarpon (4.7% and 13.3%). In contrast, free amino acid contents increased by 35.2% and 28.8% in A. cruentus and S. macrocarpon, respectively. It was concluded that A. cruentus and C. argentea suffer reduced growth and nutrients at 40 °C, while S. macrocarpon maintains biomass but has some biochemical declines; antioxidant capacity and phenolics drop at high temperatures, free amino acids rise, and 30 °C is optimal for all three. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic The Effect of Climate Change on Crops and Natural Ecosystems, 2nd Volume)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 852 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effect of Water Restriction and Supplementary Nitrogen on the Growth Dynamics of Bromus valdivianus Phil.

by Ignacio F. López, Armin Rodríguez, Andrew D. Cartmill, José Dörner, Iván Calvache and Oscar Balocchi

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2052; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092052 - 26 Aug 2025

Viewed by 1248

Abstract

Decreasing summer precipitation is negatively affecting global productivity of grassland plant species. This study evaluated the effect of three levels of soil plant available water [80–90% PAW-H (high), 50–60% PAW-M (medium), and 20–30% PAW-L (low), which were soil water restriction (SWR) equivalent to [...] Read more.

Decreasing summer precipitation is negatively affecting global productivity of grassland plant species. This study evaluated the effect of three levels of soil plant available water [80–90% PAW-H (high), 50–60% PAW-M (medium), and 20–30% PAW-L (low), which were soil water restriction (SWR) equivalent to (v/v%) 10–20%, 40–50%, and 70–80%, respectively] and nitrogen (N 0 and 110 kg ha⁻¹) on growth and nutritional quality of Bromus valdivianus Phil. (Bv) mini-swards (MS; 125 L containers), arranged in three blocks. Total lamina length (TLL), leaf expansion rate (LER; cm d⁻¹), phyllochron (Phy) expressed as “days” and “°C day”, tiller mass (TM, g tiller⁻¹), number of live leaves (NLL), number of dead leaves (NDL), and accumulated herbage mass [AHM, g DM (dry mass) m²] were measured. Defoliation events, leaving 5 cm residual height, were carried out every 320 GDD (using a base growth temperature of 5 °C), and foliage samples for nutritive quality [DM, crude protein (CP), neutral detergent fibre (NDF), acid detergent fibre (ADF), water-soluble carbohydrates (WSC), and metabolic energy (ME)] were collected. Reducing PAW to 20–30% decreased the AHM by 60.7%, TLL by 52.7%, LER by 50%, and TM by 50%, with significant interaction between the main effects for AHM, TLL, and LER. The addition of N increased the AHM by 31.6%, LER by 21.6%, and TLL by 19.6%. The Phy remained undisturbed by decreasing PAW and increasing the N rate. Nutritive quality was generally not statistically different for the interaction or between N levels. However, low PAW levels resulted in statistically (p < 0.05) lower ME and higher concentrations of NDF. In general, growth, AHM, and nutritional quality of Bv during the summer period were driven by PAW levels and by the availability of N. Plant available water levels of 50% to 60% at 20 cm soil depth, with the addition of N, allowed Bv to reach its highest production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Grassland and Pasture Science)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 4894 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Identification of Candidate Genes Related to SPAD Value Using Multi-Year Phenotypic Data in Rice Germplasms by Genome-Wide Association Study (GWAS)

by Dong-Hyun Baek, Tae-Heon Kim, Chang-Ju Lee, Jingli Gao, Woo-Geun Park and Suk-Man Kim

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2050; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092050 - 26 Aug 2025

Viewed by 616

Abstract

This study aimed to identify candidate genes associated with chlorophyll content in rice via genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and to develop molecular markers for the selection of genetic resources and breeding lines exhibiting high chlorophyll content. Measurement of the Soil and Plant Analysis [...] Read more.

This study aimed to identify candidate genes associated with chlorophyll content in rice via genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and to develop molecular markers for the selection of genetic resources and breeding lines exhibiting high chlorophyll content. Measurement of the Soil and Plant Analysis Development (SPAD) values, indicative of chlorophyll content and photosynthetic potential, were measured in 198 rice genetic resources across three years under consistent nitrogen conditions. Nitrogen fertilizer (as urea) was applied at a rate of 90 kg N ha⁻¹. After analyzing the multi-year SPAD data, genetic resources with the coefficient of variation (CV) value exceeding 20% were excluded, and the remaining 175 accessions were used for subsequent analyses. Population structure analysis using the principal component analysis (PCA) and phylogenetic methods confirmed clear genetic differentiation, supporting the reliability of the GWAS. A GWAS using 289,569 SNPs identified 17 significant loci, among which four quantitative trait loci (QTLs)—qSV3-1, qSV3-2, qSV6, and qSV7—explained over 20% of phenotypic variance. Analysis of their additive effects revealed distinct SPAD distributions among QTL combination groups, with accessions harboring all four QTLs exhibiting the highest values. Candidate gene analysis within ± 200 kb of lead SNPs identified Os03g079100 (OsUCL8), involved in photosynthesis, near qSV3-2. A derived cleaved amplified polymorphic sequence (dCAPS) marker was developed to differentiate alleles at this locus and validated via restriction digestion. These results provide key genetic insights into chlorophyll accumulation and offer molecular markers for breeding high-yielding rice cultivars with enhanced chlorophyll content. The results of this study are expected to contribute to the development of sustainable rice varieties by utilizing the developed markers and identified candidate genes to increase SPAD values, thereby enhancing nitrogen use efficiency, improving photosynthetic capacity, and ultimately increasing rice productivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Breeding and Genetics)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 1770 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A New Method for Single-Plant Selection of Wheat Genotypes for Tolerance and Resistance to the Root-Lesion Nematode Pratylenchus thornei by Low-Density Sowing

by Neil A. Robinson, Jason G. Sheedy, Rebecca S. Zwart, Kirsty J. Owen, Jing Lin and John P. Thompson

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2049; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092049 - 26 Aug 2025

Viewed by 726

Abstract

A new method of selecting wheat genotypes for tolerance and resistance to Pratylenchus thornei could enhance early-generation selection in wheat-breeding programs. Currently, the tolerance of fixed genotypes is determined in field experiments at a P. thornei-infested site, and resistance indices are determined [...] Read more.

A new method of selecting wheat genotypes for tolerance and resistance to Pratylenchus thornei could enhance early-generation selection in wheat-breeding programs. Currently, the tolerance of fixed genotypes is determined in field experiments at a P. thornei-infested site, and resistance indices are determined by inoculated glasshouse experiments. For early-generation selection from segregating populations, resistance screening is limited to assessing single plants for resistance only using glasshouse experiments. The objective of this study was to develop a novel method that evaluates a single plant for both tolerance and resistance by using low density (LD) sowing in the field. Four replicated LD (1, 4, 16 and 32 plants/m²) field experiments evaluated 14 or 15 fixed wheat genotypes over two growing seasons in a field with damaging population densities of P. thornei (>2500 P. thornei/kg soil). To check the validity of these experiments, a linear regression analysis was performed for each experiment between the single plant grain yield and the population density of P. thornei with the published tolerance and resistance indices derived from multiple field and glasshouse experiments, respectively. Tolerance was best determined by the grain yield of each single plant grown at a density of 16 plants/m² in 2021 (R² = 0.63, p < 0.001) and 4 plants/m² in 2022 (R² = 0.79, p < 0.001), when compared to published results of tolerance indices assessed by grain yield from plots grown at 100 plants/m². Resistance was best determined from the final population density of P. thornei in the soil and roots under each single plant when grown at a density of 4 plants/m² in 2021 (R² = 0.73, p < 0.001) and 1 plant/m² in 2022 (R² = 0.54, p = 0.001), when compared to published resistance indices derived from multiple glasshouse resistance experiments. This study demonstrated that LD can be used to effectively identify individual plants with both tolerance and resistance to P. thornei, with single-plant ultra-low densities (ULD) between 1 and 4 plants/m² being the most suitable. The advantage of using ULD sowing in the field for segregating populations of wheat over single plant glasshouse resistance screening experiments is the ability to simultaneously screen plants for tolerance to P. thornei. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nematode Diseases and Their Management in Crop Plants)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

31 pages, 3324 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Optimizing Tomato Yield and Quality in Greenhouse Cultivation Through Fertilization and Soil Management

by Dan Ioan Avasiloaiei, Mariana Calara, Petre Marian Brezeanu, Claudia Bălăiță, Ioan Sebastian Brumă and Creola Brezeanu

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2045; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092045 - 26 Aug 2025

Viewed by 1234

Abstract

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) production in greenhouse systems increasingly relies on integrated fertilization and soil management strategies to enhance yield, fruit quality, and resilience to biotic stressors. This study evaluated the combined effects of five fertilization regimes and two contrasting soil tillage [...] Read more.

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) production in greenhouse systems increasingly relies on integrated fertilization and soil management strategies to enhance yield, fruit quality, and resilience to biotic stressors. This study evaluated the combined effects of five fertilization regimes and two contrasting soil tillage systems—rotary tillage (RT) and conventional plowing (P)—on the performance of greenhouse-grown ‘Bacuni’ tomatoes. Experimental assessments encompassed biometric traits, photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll and anthocyanins), carotenoid concentrations (carotenes and lycopene), soluble solids, and total dry matter contents, as well as agronomic variables including fruit weight, fruit number, and total yield. Incidence of key pests and diseases, alongside soil compaction levels, were also quantified. Fertilization with Nutriplant 20:20:20, as well as the application of Albit both resulted in a marked stimulation of vegetative growth, while the highest yields were recorded in P × Orgevit + Kerafol (6962.65 g plant⁻¹; +44.6% vs. control) and RT × Albit + Turboroot (6208.22 g plant⁻¹; +16.2% vs. control). Rotary tillage consistently improved nutrient uptake efficiency and yield relative to plowing, highlighting the role of soil structure in modulating plant performance. Treatments with Albit and Turboroot also enhanced resistance to Tetranychus urticae and Xanthomonas campestris, indicating a dual benefit for productivity and phytosanitary status. The results underscore the importance of harmonizing fertilization strategies with soil management practices to optimize greenhouse tomato production. Integrative approaches that combine biostimulants, organic amendments, and soil structural optimization offer a viable pathway toward high-yield, high-quality, and disease-resilient crops in controlled environment agriculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Horticultural and Floricultural Crops)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 1510 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Microclimatic Parameters, Soil Quality, and Crop Performance of Lettuce, Pepper, and Chili Pepper as Affected by Modified Growing Conditions in a Photovoltaic Plant: A Case Study in the Puglia Region (Italy)

by Vincenzo Tucci, Francesco Fabiano Montesano, Giambattista Maria Altieri, Giuseppe Bari, Eustachio Tarasco, Francesco Zito, Sergio Strazzella and Anna Maria Stellacci

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2035; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092035 - 25 Aug 2025

Viewed by 675

Abstract

The performance of lettuce, pepper, and chili pepper, and the biological soil quality, in a ground-mounted PV system under cultivation conditions typical of the Mediterranean environment of the Puglia region were evaluated. Microclimatic parameters, plant growth and yield response, soil quality assessed using [...] Read more.

The performance of lettuce, pepper, and chili pepper, and the biological soil quality, in a ground-mounted PV system under cultivation conditions typical of the Mediterranean environment of the Puglia region were evaluated. Microclimatic parameters, plant growth and yield response, soil quality assessed using the QBS-ar index, and land equivalent ratio (LER) were determined in three different cultivation areas: a cultivation area outside the photovoltaic plant but immediately adjacent to it (‘Control’); the inter-row area closest to the row of panels exposed to sunlight (‘Area close PV structure’); the inter-row area distant from the row of panels (‘Area distant PV structure’). Cumulated solar radiation, in particular during the summer growing cycles, was only slightly affected in the Area distant PV structure (1616 and 2130 MJ m⁻² for pepper and chili pepper, respectively, in the control area, in comparison to 1630 and 2044 MJ m⁻², in the Area distant PV structure), while it was strongly reduced in the Area close PV structure (883 and 1091 MJ m⁻² for pepper and chili pepper, respectively). In general, a reduction in air temperature and wind speed, as well as an increase in relative air humidity, was observed under PV conditions. On average, the evapotranspirative demand was reduced in the PV growing conditions compared to open field, with a more relevant effect in the sub-zone close to the photovoltaic structures, where cumulative ET0 was 28% and 34% lower than the Control in the pepper and chili pepper growing cycle, respectively. Lettuce growth was impaired by PV cultivation conditions, with an average reduction of 15% in plant height and 37% in marketable yield per plant, with no significant differences between the two sub-zones in the PV system. For pepper, the best growing conditions were observed in open field control compared to PV, but with differences related to the PV sub-zone. The plants grown in the Area distant PV structure were more negatively affected by the modified growing conditions, showing the lowest shoot and fruit fresh weight, the latter reduced by 51% compared to the Control; intermediate values were observed for these parameters in the Area close PV structure, with a less severe tendency to yield reduction. For chili pepper, both shoot and fruit fresh weight were lower in PV conditions, regardless of the sub-zone, with a reduction of 82% in yield per plant compared to the Control. However, despite the yield reductions, the LER was improved (1.60 and 1.40 in case of a lettuce + pepper or lettuce + chili pepper annual cropping program, respectively), highlighting a more efficient use of land, without negative or even ameliorative impacts on biological soil quality and biodiversity in terms of QBS-ar and microarthropods taxa abundance. Knowledge of the response of different crops under cultivation conditions typical of specific environments is necessary to define optimal cropping programs aimed at maximizing resource-use efficiency and land use. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Innovative Cropping Systems)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

34 pages, 768 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Synergistic Pest Management Strategies for Turfgrass: Sustainable Control of Insect Pests and Fungal Pathogens

by Luka Batistič and Stanislav Trdan

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2036; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092036 - 25 Aug 2025

Viewed by 1086

Abstract

Turfgrass systems in European urban green spaces, including sports fields, golf courses, and residential lawns, must balance high performance with compliance with stricter pesticide regulations. This review examines Synergistic Pest Management (SPM), an advanced form of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) that integrates monitoring, [...] Read more.

Turfgrass systems in European urban green spaces, including sports fields, golf courses, and residential lawns, must balance high performance with compliance with stricter pesticide regulations. This review examines Synergistic Pest Management (SPM), an advanced form of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) that integrates monitoring, biological, cultural, and targeted chemical strategies for sustainable control of major turfgrass pests. Focus is placed on key insect pests such as Tipula spp. larvae and chafer beetle grubs (Scarabaeidae) and fungal pathogens, including Microdochium nivale, Clarireedia spp., Laetisaria fuciformis, Gaeumannomyces graminis var. avenae, and Colletotrichum spp., which cause significant losses in Central Europe and similar regions. Effective combinations include entomopathogenic nematodes with fungi, endophyte-infected cultivars with optimized mowing and irrigation, and low-dose insecticides paired with biological agents. The review considers how soil conditions, environmental timing, and maintenance practices influence success. Practical tools such as decision-support matrices and a seasonal calendar are provided for regional use. SPM can reduce chemical inputs, enhance biodiversity, and improve turf resilience, but adoption is limited by biological sensitivity, product availability, costs, and technical demands. SPM aligns with EU Directive 2009/128 and offers a pathway to sustainable turfgrass pest management. Future efforts should focus on regional validation, practitioner training, and precision technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations in Turfgrass Management for Enhanced Sustainability and Conservation)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 6010 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Simulating Water Use and Yield for Full and Deficit Flood-Irrigated Cotton in Arizona, USA

by Elsayed Ahmed Elsadek, Said Attalah, Peter Waller, Randy Norton, Douglas J. Hunsaker, Clinton Williams, Kelly R. Thorp, Ethan Orr and Diaa Eldin M. Elshikha

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2023; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092023 - 23 Aug 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 757

Abstract

Improved irrigation guidelines are needed to maximize crop water use efficiency. Combining field data with simulation models can provide information for better irrigation management. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the effects of two flood irrigation treatments on fiber yield [...] Read more.

Improved irrigation guidelines are needed to maximize crop water use efficiency. Combining field data with simulation models can provide information for better irrigation management. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the effects of two flood irrigation treatments on fiber yield (FY) and quality during the 2023 and 2024 growing seasons in Maricopa, Arizona, USA. Two irrigation treatments, denoted as F100% and F80%, were arranged in a randomized complete block design with three replicates. Then, AquaCrop was used to simulate cotton yield (Y_Tot), water use (ET_obs), and total soil water content (WC_Tot) for the two irrigation treatments. Six statistical metrics, including the coefficient of determination (R²), the normalized root-mean-square error (NRMSE), the mean absolute error (MAE), simulation error (S_e), the index of agreement (D_index), and the Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency coefficient (NSE), were employed to assess model performance. The results of the field trial demonstrated that reducing the irrigation rate to 80% of ET_c negatively impacted cotton FY and ET water productivity (ETWP); the FY declined by 45.2% (ETWP = 0.097 kg·ha⁻¹) in 2023 and by 38.1% (ETWP = 0.133 kg·ha⁻¹) in 2024. Conversely, F100% produced a more uniform and stronger fiber than F80%, with the uniformity index (UI) and fiber strength (STR) measuring 81.7% and 29.5 g tex⁻¹ in 2023 and 82.2% and 30.0 g tex⁻¹ in 2024, indicating that UI and STR were well correlated with soil water during both growing seasons. AquaCrop showed an excellent performance in simulating cotton CC during the two growing seasons. The R², NRMSE, D_index, and NSE were between 0.97 and 0.99, 8.45% and 14.36%, 0.98 and 0.99, and 0.96 and 0.98, respectively. Moreover, the AquaCrop model accurately simulated Y_Tot during these seasons, with R², NRMSE, D_index, and NSE for pooled yield data of 0.93, 8.05%, 0.95, and 0.78, respectively. The model consistently overestimated Y_Tot, ET_obs, and WC_Tot, but within an acceptable S_e (S_e < 15%) during both growing seasons, except for WC_Tot under the 80% treatment in 2023 (S_e = 26.4%). Consequently, AquaCrop can be considered an effective tool for irrigation management and yield prediction in arid climates such as Arizona. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Biosystem and Biological Engineering)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 2402 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Influence of Organic Mulching Strategies on Apple Tree (Mallus domestica BORKH.) Development, Fruit Quality and Soil Enzyme Dynamics

by Ioana Maria Borza, Cristina Adriana Rosan, Daniela Gitea, Manuel Alexandru Gitea, Alina Dora Samuel, Carmen Violeta Iancu, Ioana Larisa Bene, Daniela Padilla-Contreras, Cristian Gabriel Domuta and Simona Ioana Vicas

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2021; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092021 - 22 Aug 2025

Viewed by 707

Abstract

Mulching is a sustainable agronomic practice that can improve soil quality and fruit characteristics in crops. This study investigated the influence of sheep wool mulch and a soil conditioner on growth, the accumulation of bioactive compounds, and soil enzymatic activity in apple orchards. [...] Read more.

Mulching is a sustainable agronomic practice that can improve soil quality and fruit characteristics in crops. This study investigated the influence of sheep wool mulch and a soil conditioner on growth, the accumulation of bioactive compounds, and soil enzymatic activity in apple orchards. A two-year field experiment (2023–2024) was conducted using three experimental methods: mulching with sheep wool (V2), application of a soil conditioner, corn starch-based polymer (V3), and a combination of sheep wool and corn starch-based polymer (V4) along with a control (V1). Tree growth parameters, fruit physicochemical properties, total phenolic and flavonoid content, and soil enzyme activities (dehydrogenase, catalase, phosphatase) were assessed. Data were analyzed using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Pearson’s correlation. PCA showed that the combined variant (V4) improved fruit size, weight, and bioactive compound content, while wool mulch alone (V2) was associated with higher fruit yield and better vegetative growth. Catalase activity correlated positively and consistently with bioactive compounds in both years, while phosphatase activity showed an intensified positive relationship in 2024. Dehydrogenase activity was negatively correlated with phenolic content in both seasons. Organic and integrated mulching practices can beneficially modulate both aboveground and belowground plant–soil interactions. The combined variant proved to be the most effective strategy, enhancing fruit nutritional quality and supporting sustainable apple orchard management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Organic Amendments in Agricultural Production—3rd Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 447 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Evaluation of Insect Farming Residue (Frass) as a Phosphate Fertilizer Within the Context of the Circular Economy

by Juan Nieto-Cantero, Miguel A. Romero-Gil, Gina P. Suárez-Cáceres, Antonio Delgado and Víctor M. Fernández-Cabanás

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2019; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092019 - 22 Aug 2025

Viewed by 1009

Abstract

Phosphorus (P) stock scarcity is driving the need to develop alternatives to mineral fertilizers. The growing production of insects for high-protein feed results in significant amounts of residues (frass), which can be used as fertilizers. However, its efficiency as such a basic indicator [...] Read more.

Phosphorus (P) stock scarcity is driving the need to develop alternatives to mineral fertilizers. The growing production of insects for high-protein feed results in significant amounts of residues (frass), which can be used as fertilizers. However, its efficiency as such a basic indicator for promoting the recycling of these residues has been rarely assessed. This work aimed to evaluate the efficiency of frass as a P fertilizer. To this end a study was conducted involving P fractionation of frass from two different species (TM: Tenebrio molitor and BSF: black soldier fly or Hermetia illucens) together with vermicompost and a 48-day pot experiment with lettuce (Lactuca sativa). In both frasses, water-soluble P and organic P accounted for more than 30% and 50% of total P, respectively. These P fractions explained the short- and long-term effects of frasses as P fertilizer, which showed a higher P use efficiency than mineral phosphate and vermicompost, with mineral fertilizer replacement values (MFRVs) of 150 and 180% for BSF and TM frass, respectively. Additionally, frass increased P bioavailability in soils more than superphosphate and boosted C and P cycling, thereby enhancing the soil P availability to plants. Therefore, frasses can be effective alternatives to mineral P fertilizers which also contribute to the enhancement of soil health indicators. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Circular Economy: Chemical, Microbiological and Environmental Implications of Mineral and Organic Fertilizers Use in Soils)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 1821 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Verification of Agricultural Practices for Winter Pea–Cereals Intercropping

by Agnieszka Klimek-Kopyra, Ewa Hanus-Fajerska, Iwona Kamińska, Tomasz Głąb, Reinhard W. Neugschwandtner and Wiktor Chudzik

Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2017; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092017 - 22 Aug 2025

Viewed by 722

Abstract

Recently, an urgent need has been identified to increase the biodiversity of the cereal crops that dominate European farmlands. In this aspect, the addition of pea as a component of winter cereals seems justified, but the appropriate selection of the cultivars to create [...] Read more.

Recently, an urgent need has been identified to increase the biodiversity of the cereal crops that dominate European farmlands. In this aspect, the addition of pea as a component of winter cereals seems justified, but the appropriate selection of the cultivars to create a mixture suitable for agricultural practice is probably essential. Therefore, arbitrarily selected winter pea cultivars were intercropped with some chosen cereals in order to assess certain yield parameters using a two-factorial field experiment conducted on brown soil. The studied factors were the cultivar of pea (Pisum sativum), ‘Pandora’ and ‘E.F.B. 33′ respectively, and the cropping system: single crop vs. cereal/legume intercropping mixture. Cereals used were rye (Secale cereale L.) ‘Amber’ and triticale (× Triticosecale) ‘Borwo’. To assess the potential of winter pea in this cultivation system, the yield level, some plant parameters (above- and belowground), and LER and CR indices were applied. Additionally, to demonstrate the effect of intercropping on pea, the root system, root nodulation, and nitrogen uptake efficiency were assessed. It was shown that yield and plant indices were closely related to the intercropping variant used. The key element determining the potential of the cultivated crops was the selection of cultivars. The most productive one was proved pea ‘E.F.B. 33’, which formed the largest number of nodules when intercropped with triticale. Moreover, it was ascertained that the drought period during the formation of nodules negatively affected their structure, which had a rather negative impact on the pea yield. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Crop Yield and Quality: Insights from Precision Agriculture and Agronomic Practices)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 1862 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Yield and Plant Gas Exchange in Perennial Biomass Crops (BPGs) Under Different Water Regimes

by Elena Crapio, Sebastiano Andrea Corinzia, Alessandra Piccitto, Salvatore Luciano Cosentino and Giorgio Testa

Agronomy 2025, 15(8), 2007; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15082007 - 21 Aug 2025

Viewed by 510

Abstract

The increasing demand for renewable energy, coupled with the urgent challenges posed by climate change, has positioned perennial biomass crops (BPGs) as essential and sustainable alternatives for bioenergy production. This study investigated the impact of irrigation regimes on the physiological performance of three [...] Read more.

The increasing demand for renewable energy, coupled with the urgent challenges posed by climate change, has positioned perennial biomass crops (BPGs) as essential and sustainable alternatives for bioenergy production. This study investigated the impact of irrigation regimes on the physiological performance of three BPG species—Arundo donax L., Saccharum spontaneum, and Miscanthus—with a focus on leaf gas exchange (net assimilation rate and transpiration rate) and instantaneous water use efficiency (iWUE) at varying levels of irrigation input, adopting a split-plot experimental design under the Mediterranean climatic conditions of Sicily (Italy). The results clearly showed that A. donax, a C3 species, outperformed the C4 species S. spontaneum and Miscanthus, exhibiting significantly higher stomatal conductance and net photosynthesis, especially under irrigated conditions. S. spontaneum demonstrated the highest iWUE, particularly in rainfed treatments, reflecting its efficient use of water. Miscanthus showed the greatest sensitivity to water stress, with a more pronounced decline in photosynthesis during drought periods. This study accentuated the role of effective water management and genotype selection in optimizing biomass yield and resource efficiency, providing valuable insights for improving crop productivity in Mediterranean and other semi-arid regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Response Mechanism of Plants to Water in Efficient Water-Saving Irrigation Technologies)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 1683 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Use of Spent Mushroom Substrates in Radish (Raphanus ssp.) Microgreens Cultivation

by Barbara Frąszczak, Mirosław Mleczek and Marek Siwulski

Agronomy 2025, 15(8), 2012; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15082012 - 21 Aug 2025

Viewed by 721

Abstract

This study evaluated the effects of incorporating spent mushroom substrates (SMS) derived from Agaricus bisporus, Pleurotus ostreatus, and Lentinula edodes into peat-based growing media on the morphological traits, photosynthetic parameters, and mineral composition of radish and black radish microgreens. Six substrate [...] Read more.

This study evaluated the effects of incorporating spent mushroom substrates (SMS) derived from Agaricus bisporus, Pleurotus ostreatus, and Lentinula edodes into peat-based growing media on the morphological traits, photosynthetic parameters, and mineral composition of radish and black radish microgreens. Six substrate mixtures were tested, with 2.5–30% SMS and two composting durations (97 and 153 days). The results showed that a low proportion of A. bisporus SMS (2.5–5%) significantly enhanced biomass production, plant length, and leaf area, particularly in radish. In contrast, higher proportions (20–30%) of P. ostreatus and L. edodes SMS, especially when short-time composted, inhibited plant growth and photosynthetic performance (Fv/Fm, PIabs), likely due to phytotoxic compounds, high salt content, or nutrient imbalances. Mineral analysis revealed substantial increases in K, Fe, and Zn accumulation in microgreens grown on selected SMS media, particularly Agaricus 5% and Lentinula 30, while also highlighting the risk of excessive Na or heavy metal content in some treatments. Differences between the species were observed: black radish produced higher dry mass and accumulated more minerals, suggesting greater adaptability to suboptimal substrates. These findings support the potential use of well-composted SMS as a sustainable growing media component for microgreens, provided proper substrate selection, composting, and dosage control are applied. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Biosystem and Biological Engineering)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

27 pages, 6327 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Impact of Organic and Conventional Agricultural Management on Subsurface Soil Microbiota in Mediterranean Vineyards

by Marc Viñas, Joan Marull, Miriam Guivernau, Enric Tello, Yolanda Lucas, Mar Carreras-Sempere, Xavier Giol-Casanova, Immaculada Funes, Elisenda Sánchez-Costa, Robert Savé and Felicidad de Herralde

Agronomy 2025, 15(8), 2001; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15082001 - 20 Aug 2025

Viewed by 933

Abstract

The impact of long-term organic (ECO) versus conventional (CON) agricultural management on subsurface soil microbiota diversity and soil physicochemical properties remains unclear in Mediterranean vineyards. This study evaluated long-term ECO and CON effects in the Alt Penedès terroir (Spain), focusing on subsurface soil [...] Read more.

The impact of long-term organic (ECO) versus conventional (CON) agricultural management on subsurface soil microbiota diversity and soil physicochemical properties remains unclear in Mediterranean vineyards. This study evaluated long-term ECO and CON effects in the Alt Penedès terroir (Spain), focusing on subsurface soil microbial diversity and soil characteristics. ECO increased the fungal-to-bacterial ratio and ammonium-oxidizing bacteria but reduced total subsurface soil bacterial populations and soil organic carbon. While ECO did not enhance annual yield production in the vineyard, fungal abundance, and ammonium-oxidizing archaea, it slightly increased the overall alpha diversity (Shannon and Inverse Simpson indexes) and significantly altered taxa composition in subsurface soil with a more robust and modular community. Crop management, soil texture, training system, and rootstock, but not vine variety, significantly influenced beta diversity in subsurface soil. The Mantel test revealed subsurface soil texture, Ca²⁺/Mg²⁺ ratio, and salinity as the main key soil drivers shifting the microbial community (beta diversity), while C/N and topsoil organic matter significantly correlated with bacterial abundance; NH₄⁺ correlated with fungal abundance; and N-Kjeldahl, pH, and Mg²⁺/K⁺ correlated with alpha diversity. Integrating soil microbiota and physicochemical monitoring allowed us to confirm the positive effect of long-term agroecological practices on subsurface soil health and to identify the critical factors shaping their microbial communities in Mediterranean vineyards. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Production and Microorganism Potential in Modern Agro-Ecosystems—2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

32 pages, 1243 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Soybean Molecular Breeding Through Genome Editing Tools: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives

by Chan Yong Kim, Sivabalan Karthik and Hyeran Kim

Agronomy 2025, 15(8), 1983; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15081983 - 18 Aug 2025

Viewed by 1444

Abstract

Soybean (Glycine max L.) is an essential crop for global food, feed, and industrial applications, but its production is increasingly challenged by climate change and environmental stresses. Traditional breeding and transgenic approaches have contributed to improvements in yield and quality; however, limitations [...] Read more.

Soybean (Glycine max L.) is an essential crop for global food, feed, and industrial applications, but its production is increasingly challenged by climate change and environmental stresses. Traditional breeding and transgenic approaches have contributed to improvements in yield and quality; however, limitations in genetic diversity and regulatory hurdles for genetically modified organisms (GMOs) underscore the need for innovative strategies to address these challenges. Genome editing technologies, particularly CRISPR/Cas9, have revolutionized soybean molecular breeding by enabling precise modifications of genes related to key agronomic traits such as yield, seed composition, and stress tolerance. These advances have accelerated the development of soybean varieties with enhanced nutritional value and adaptability. Recent progress includes improvements in editing efficiency, specificity, and the ability to target multiple genes simultaneously. However, the application of genome editing remains concentrated in a few model cultivars, and challenges persist in optimizing transformation protocols, minimizing off-target effects, and validating edited traits under field conditions. Future directions involve expanding the genetic base, integrating genome editing with synthetic biology, and addressing regulatory and public acceptance issues. Overall, genome editing offers significant potential for sustainable soybean improvement, supporting food security and agricultural resilience in the face of global challenges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Advances in Crop Protection and Agrobiotechnology)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 4900 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Development of a Real-Time Irrigation Strategy Based on Cumulative Reference Evapotranspiration (ET₀) for Cabbage Cultivation in Paddy-Converted Fields

by Xin Wang, Yongjae Lee, To Kang and Jongseok Park

Agronomy 2025, 15(8), 1981; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15081981 - 18 Aug 2025

Viewed by 777

Abstract

This study developed an efficient cultivation strategy for cabbage production in paddy fields. To address poor drainage, discarded coir substrates (CS) were reused and compared with conventional paddy soil (PS). Four irrigation levels (ETc140, ETc100, ETc60, and ETc0) were applied to both CS [...] Read more.

This study developed an efficient cultivation strategy for cabbage production in paddy fields. To address poor drainage, discarded coir substrates (CS) were reused and compared with conventional paddy soil (PS). Four irrigation levels (ETc140, ETc100, ETc60, and ETc0) were applied to both CS and PS to evaluate their interactive effects. An automated irrigation system was deployed, integrating a weather sensor and solenoid valves via a LoRa-based IoT network. Hourly ET₀ was calculated based on Penman–Monteith in real time, and an irrigation event was triggered when cumulative ET₀ reached 1 mm (CS) or 3 mm (PS). The automated irrigation system showed stable performance. Hourly ET₀ estimates were 97% consistent with Korea Meteorological Administration data. The actual total irrigation depth (ID_actual) remained within 2% of the calculated depth (ID). Under moderate irrigation depths (ETc60 and ETc100), the reuse of CS significantly improved cabbage photosynthetic efficiency. Both CS-ETc60 and CS-ETc100 treatments maintained superior yield performance compared with other treatments. This integrated strategy not only offers a practical solution for improving water use efficiency but also enhances the multifunctional utilization of paddy fields, supporting the transition toward more sustainable agricultural practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Innovative Cropping Systems)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 1029 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Fertilisation Potential of Combined Use of Wood Biomass Ash and Digestate in Maize Cultivation

by Elżbieta Rolka, Mirosław Wyszkowski, Anna Skorwider-Namiotko and Radosław Szostek

Agronomy 2025, 15(8), 1968; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15081968 - 15 Aug 2025

Viewed by 528

Abstract

In recent years, there has been growing interest in using wood biomass for energy production, which has led to an increase in post-processing waste in the form of wood biomass ash (WBA). Due to the rich composition of WBA, its fertilising potential should [...] Read more.

In recent years, there has been growing interest in using wood biomass for energy production, which has led to an increase in post-processing waste in the form of wood biomass ash (WBA). Due to the rich composition of WBA, its fertilising potential should be considered. In the conducted studies, WBA was used both alone and in combination with digestate (DG). The WBA was obtained from the Municipal Heat Energy Company and the DG from the Agricultural Biogas Plant in the form of unseparated liquid digestate (ULD), separated solid digestate (SSD) and separated liquid digestate (SLD). The studies included four series: (1) WBA, (2) WBA + ULD, (3) WBA + SSD and (4) WBA + SLD. In each series, WBA was introduced in three increasing doses (0.5, 1.0 and 1.5, expressed in hydrolytic acidity units (HACs) and determined based on the general alkalinity of the material). The digestates (DGs) were applied in fixed doses, which were balanced with respect to the nitrogen introduced into the soil. The test plant was the maize (Zea mays L.) variety Garantio, which was grown in a vegetation hall. The obtained results indicate that the combined use of WBA and DGs (especially ULD and SLD) had a positive effect on the plant height, leaf greenness index (SPAD), and thus, maize yield and dry matter content. In the series with DG addition, the maize yield ranged from 615.5 g (WBA + SSD) to 729.6 g pot⁻¹ (WBA + SLD), which was 28–52% higher than in the series with WBA alone. In turn, the application of increasing doses of WBA alone did not significantly affect the biomass yield but significantly increased the content of N (34%), K (60%), Mg (56%), Ca (60%) and Na (4%). In the series with WBA and DGs, the increase in the content of the above-mentioned macronutrients depended on the type of DG and the dose of WBA. The exception among the macronutrients was P, whose content generally decreased (by 4–23%) with an increasing WBA dose, regardless of the test series. The most favourable results in terms of the chemical composition, excluding the P content, were observed following the combined application of WBA and liquid forms of DG (ULD and SLD). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances in Sustainable Fertilization: Efficiency and Environmental Challenges)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 1037 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Nanoparticle-Driven Modulation of Soil Fertility and Plant Growth: Evaluating Fe₂O₃ and CuO Nanofertilizers in Sandy Loam Soils

by Beata Smolińska

Agronomy 2025, 15(8), 1967; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15081967 - 15 Aug 2025

Viewed by 679

Abstract

The excessive use of conventional fertilizers has led to low nutrient-use efficiency and significant environmental challenges. To address these limitations, this study aimed to evaluate the effects of Fe₂O₃ and CuO nanoparticles (NPs) as potential nanofertilizers, on the soil chemical [...] Read more.

The excessive use of conventional fertilizers has led to low nutrient-use efficiency and significant environmental challenges. To address these limitations, this study aimed to evaluate the effects of Fe₂O₃ and CuO nanoparticles (NPs) as potential nanofertilizers, on the soil chemical composition, nutrient fractionation, enzyme activity, and Lepidium sativum L. growth. The results of the study showed that Fe₂O₃-NPs improved nitrogen bioavailability and enhanced plant biomass, particularly at low to moderate doses. CuO-NPs, in contrast, reduced nitrogen and phosphorus mobility and showed phytotoxic effects at high concentrations. Enzyme activity was suppressed at high NP levels, likely due to oxidative stress. Nutrient fractionation revealed the increased immobilization of phosphorus and the moderate mobilization of potassium and copper, depending on NP type. Based on the results, Fe₂O₃-NPs show potential as a nanofertilizer for enhancing soil fertility and plant growth in sandy loam soils, whereas CuO-NPs require caution due to toxicity risks. Future research should focus on long-term environmental impact, optimal NP concentrations, and their interaction with soil microbial communities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances in Sustainable Fertilization: Efficiency and Environmental Challenges)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 1808 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

White Lupin and Hairy Vetch as Green Manures: Impacts on Yield and Nutrient Cycling in an Organic Almond Orchard

by Soraia Raimundo, Margarida Arrobas, António Castro Ribeiro and Manuel Ângelo Rodrigues

Agronomy 2025, 15(8), 1974; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15081974 - 15 Aug 2025

Viewed by 629

Abstract

Organic farming systems, which prohibit synthetic fertilizers, often rely on legumes for their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen (N). In orchards, legumes can be established as cover crops between tree rows to enhance nutrient cycling. This study evaluated the effects of two legume [...] Read more.

Organic farming systems, which prohibit synthetic fertilizers, often rely on legumes for their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen (N). In orchards, legumes can be established as cover crops between tree rows to enhance nutrient cycling. This study evaluated the effects of two legume cover crops, white lupin (Lupinus albus L.) and hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth), compared to a Control treatment with conventional tillage, which is the most commonly used method of soil management in the region, in an organically managed almond [Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A.Webb] orchard compliant with European Union standards, in an experiment arranged as a completely randomized design. In the first year, kernel yield was highest in the Control treatment (404 kg ha⁻¹), while significantly lower yields were recorded for white lupin (246 kg ha⁻¹) and hairy vetch (283 kg ha⁻¹), likely due to competition for resources between cover crops and trees. In the second year, however, the trend reversed, with cover crop treatments yielding significantly more (Lupin: 313 kg ha⁻¹; Vetch: 296 kg ha⁻¹) than the Control (199 kg ha⁻¹). The cover crops accumulated over 150 kg ha⁻¹ of N in their tissues, enhancing soil N availability and increasing N concentrations in almond leaves. In addition to N, cover crops influenced the cycling of other nutrients, increasing potassium (K) and boron (B) concentrations while reducing calcium (Ca) and manganese (Mn) in plant tissues. Despite being derived from a two-year study, these results highlight the complexity of interpreting cover crop effects, underscoring the need for further long-term research to provide more comprehensive guidance to growers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Horticultural and Floricultural Crops)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

31 pages, 1639 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Utilizing Different Crop Rotation Systems for Agricultural and Environmental Sustainability: A Review

by Zainulabdeen Kh. Al-Musawi, Viktória Vona and István Mihály Kulmány

Agronomy 2025, 15(8), 1966; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15081966 - 14 Aug 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3257

Abstract

Monoculture involves growing the same crop on the same land over at least two crop cycles. Continuous monoculture can increase the population density of pests and pathogens over time, thereby reducing agricultural yields and increasing dependence on chemical inputs. Crop rotation is an [...] Read more.

Monoculture involves growing the same crop on the same land over at least two crop cycles. Continuous monoculture can increase the population density of pests and pathogens over time, thereby reducing agricultural yields and increasing dependence on chemical inputs. Crop rotation is an agricultural practice that involves systematically and sequentially planting different crops in the same field over multiple growing seasons. This review explores the advantages of crop rotation and its contribution to promoting sustainable farming practices, such as legume integration and cover cropping. It is based on a thematic literature review of peer-reviewed studies published between 1984 and 2025. We found that crop rotation can significantly improve soil structure and organic matter content and enhance nutrient cycling. Furthermore, soil organic carbon increased by up to 18% when legumes were included in rotations compared to monoculture systems in Europe, while also mitigating greenhouse gas emissions, enhancing carbon sequestration, and decreasing nutrient leaching and pesticide runoff. Farmers can adopt several strategies to optimise crop rotation benefits, such as diversification of various crops, legume integration, cultivation of cover crops, and rotational grazing. These practices ensure agricultural sustainability and food security and support climate resilience. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Innovative Cropping Systems)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 1159 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effect of Light on the Yield and Nutrient Composition of Selected Mint Species Grown in a Controlled Environment

by Krzysztof K. Jadwisieńczak, Zdzisław Kaliniewicz, Joanna Majkowska-Gadomska, Emilia Mikulewicz, Anna Francke, Marek Marks and Dariusz J. Choszcz

Agronomy 2025, 15(8), 1959; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15081959 - 14 Aug 2025

Viewed by 944

Abstract

The experiment was conducted in a greenhouse and a growth chamber, in a randomized block design, with three replicates. The use of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) with varying wavelengths, combined with adequate nutrition, positively influence yield and the content of essential macronutrients and micronutrients [...] Read more.

The experiment was conducted in a greenhouse and a growth chamber, in a randomized block design, with three replicates. The use of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) with varying wavelengths, combined with adequate nutrition, positively influence yield and the content of essential macronutrients and micronutrients in mint plants, which play a key role in the processes of growth and development. The average total yield of mint ranged from 23.1 g plant⁻¹ to 48.1 g plant⁻¹, while marketable yield ranged from 22.5 g plant⁻¹ to 47.6 g plant⁻¹. Exposure to violet LED light led to the highest increase in yield. The content of all analyzed macronutrients increased in plants of the evaluated mint species exposed to LED light. On average, the content of N, P, K in the aerial parts of mint plants increased significantly by around 25%, 56%, and 42%, respectively, under exposure to violet LED light, and by around 19%, 44%, and 37%, respectively, under exposure to yellow LED light. The values of K:Ca, K:Mg, and K:(Ca + Mg) ratios were higher in plants grown under LED light than in plants exposed to sodium light, whereas the opposite was noted for the Ca:P ratio. Exposure to violet or yellow LED light did not induce significant changes in Mn, Zn, Cu, and Fe uptake by mint plants. The micronutrient content of plants was largely determined by mint species. Mentha piperita plants had the highest Zn content, and Mentha suaveolens plants had the highest concentrations of Mn, Cu, and Fe. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights in Crop Management to Respond to Climate Change)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 671 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Agronomic Practices to Maximize Seed and Straw Yield of Monoecious Hemp Cultivar ‘Henola’

by Jakub Frankowski, Agnieszka Łacka, Dominika Sieracka and Konrad Banaś

Agronomy 2025, 15(8), 1961; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15081961 - 14 Aug 2025

Viewed by 928

Abstract

Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.), as a valuable source of biomass, has been utilized for textile purposes, the production of environmentally friendly polymeric materials, modern composites, and paper. Moreover, hemp can be used for biofuel production. Therefore, optimal conditions for the cultivation of [...] Read more.

Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.), as a valuable source of biomass, has been utilized for textile purposes, the production of environmentally friendly polymeric materials, modern composites, and paper. Moreover, hemp can be used for biofuel production. Therefore, optimal conditions for the cultivation of hemp varieties are essential. The aim of this study was to optimize agronomic practices—sowing date, row spacing, and mineral fertilization —to maximize straw and seed yield of the monoecious hemp cultivar ‘Henola’ under temperate climate conditions. Field experiments were conducted over three growing seasons using a randomized block design, testing five fertilization treatments, three sowing dates, and three row spacings. Statistical analysis revealed that high nitrogen doses (PK + 120 N) significantly increased both straw and seed yields. The optimal sowing period was from late April to early May. Narrower row spacings (0.2 m and 0.35 m) favored higher seed yields, while row spacing had no significant effect on straw biomass. These findings support the development of evidence-based recommendations for maximizing hemp yield depending on end-use objectives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Farming Sustainability)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 2268 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Raman Spectroscopy as a Tool for Early Identification of Tan Spot Disease and Assessment of Fungicide Response in Wheat

by Ioannis Vagelas

Agronomy 2025, 15(8), 1952; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15081952 - 13 Aug 2025

Viewed by 714

Abstract

Tan spot disease, caused by Pyrenophora tritici-repentis, poses a significant threat to wheat production worldwide. Early detection and precise fungicide application are essential for effective disease management. This study explores the potential of Raman spectroscopy—specifically surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) and coherent anti-Stokes [...] Read more.

Tan spot disease, caused by Pyrenophora tritici-repentis, poses a significant threat to wheat production worldwide. Early detection and precise fungicide application are essential for effective disease management. This study explores the potential of Raman spectroscopy—specifically surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) and coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS)—as non-invasive tools for identifying fungal infection and assessing wheat’s biochemical response to propiconazole treatment. The methodology is entirely theoretical; no laboratory experiments were conducted. Instead, all spectral graphs and figures were generated through a collaborative process between the author and Microsoft Copilot, which served as a rendering tool. These AI-assisted visualizations simulate Raman responses based on known molecular interactions and literature data. The results demonstrate the conceptual feasibility of Raman-based diagnostics for precision agriculture, offering a sustainable approach to disease monitoring and fungicide management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Early Detection of Diseases in Crops for Efficient Application of Pesticides)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 2561 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Preharvest Far-Red Light Affects Respiration Rate and Carbohydrate Status in Lettuce Grown in a Vertical Farm and Stored Under Modified Atmosphere Conditions

by Ellen Van de Velde, Lauriane Van Wilder, Marie-Christine Van Labeke, Bruno De Meulenaer, Kathy Steppe, Frank Devlieghere and Emmy Dhooghe

Agronomy 2025, 15(8), 1957; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15081957 - 13 Aug 2025

Viewed by 711

Abstract

Vertical farming allows for precise control of environmental conditions, including light quality, enabling the optimization of plant growth and the synthesis of specific phytochemicals. However, the effects of such conditions on postharvest quality remain underexplored. In this study, butterhead lettuce (Lactuca sativa [...] Read more.

Vertical farming allows for precise control of environmental conditions, including light quality, enabling the optimization of plant growth and the synthesis of specific phytochemicals. However, the effects of such conditions on postharvest quality remain underexplored. In this study, butterhead lettuce (Lactuca sativa cv. ‘Alyssa’) was grown for three weeks under light-emitting diode (LED) lighting (190 µmol m⁻² s⁻¹; 89% red, 11% blue), with or without supplemental far-red light (ca. 50 µmol m⁻² s⁻¹). Growth and quality parameters were assessed at harvest, followed by postharvest evaluation of fresh-cut lettuce stored under equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging (EMAP: 3% O₂, balance N₂) at 7 °C in darkness for 13 days. The respiration rate of the produce was also determined. Far-red light supplementation increased dry weight (+17%) and elevated glucose (+57%) and fructose (+64%) levels at harvest, without affecting fresh weight, pigment content, vitamin C, or sucrose levels. Although respiration rates during storage were about 54% higher for lettuce grown under far-red light, visual quality seemed slightly better preserved. Total aerobic psychrotrophic counts showed no significant differences between treatments at harvest or during storage. These findings suggest that far-red light can enhance certain quality traits of lettuce, particularly carbohydrate accumulation and dry weight, but the associated rise in respiration may limit these benefits postharvest. Further research is needed to clarify its long-term impact in vertical farming systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Light Environment Regulation of Crop Growth)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 10522 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Genome-Wide Association Study of Agricultural and Biochemical Traits in Radiation-Induced Colored Wheat

by Min Jeong Hong, Chan Seop Ko and Dae Yeon Kim

Agronomy 2025, 15(8), 1933; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15081933 - 11 Aug 2025

Viewed by 636

Abstract

Colored wheat lines, which feature elevated anthocyanin content and associated traits, represent valuable genetic resources for enhancing the plant’s nutritional and aesthetic properties. This genome-wide association study (GWAS) utilized a set of radiation-induced mutant lines to identify genetic loci linked to agricultural and [...] Read more.

Colored wheat lines, which feature elevated anthocyanin content and associated traits, represent valuable genetic resources for enhancing the plant’s nutritional and aesthetic properties. This genome-wide association study (GWAS) utilized a set of radiation-induced mutant lines to identify genetic loci linked to agricultural and biochemical traits. The GWAS models Fixed and Random Model Circulating Probability Unification, and the Bayesian-information and Linkage-Disequilibrium Iteratively Nested Keyway were employed to increase the reliability of marker–trait associations (MTAs). In total, 35 significant MTAs were identified, and seven single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were commonly detected by both models. To explore candidate genes, a ± 1.5-Mb window around each significant SNP was analyzed according to the estimated linkage disequilibrium decay, revealing 635 genes. Among these, several genes were annotated as transcription factors and enzymes associated with flavonoid biosynthesis and modification, including MYB, WD-repeat proteins, and UDP-glycosyltransferases. Expression profiling and RT-qPCR further supported the functional relevance of selected SNP–gene pairs, particularly for anthocyanin accumulation and seed color variation. In summary, the integration of GWAS, gene annotation, and expression data could provide valuable insights into the genetic basis of complex traits in wheat, providing data for future molecular studies and marker-assisted breeding of colored wheat mutant cultivars. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Approaches to Enhancing Crop Productivity: Molecular, Hormonal, and Agronomic Perspectives)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

31 pages, 2141 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Climate, Soil, and Microbes: Interactions Shaping Organic Matter Decomposition in Croplands

by Muhammad Tahir Khan, Skaidrė Supronienė, Renata Žvirdauskienė and Jūratė Aleinikovienė

Agronomy 2025, 15(8), 1928; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15081928 - 10 Aug 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2258

Abstract

Soil organic matter (SOM) decomposition is a critical biogeochemical process that regulates the carbon cycle, nutrient availability, and agricultural sustainability of cropland systems. Recent progress in multi-omics and microbial network analyses has provided us with a better understanding of the decomposition process at [...] Read more.

Soil organic matter (SOM) decomposition is a critical biogeochemical process that regulates the carbon cycle, nutrient availability, and agricultural sustainability of cropland systems. Recent progress in multi-omics and microbial network analyses has provided us with a better understanding of the decomposition process at different spatial and temporal scales. Climate factors, such as temperature and seasonal variations in moisture, play a critical role in microbial activity and enzyme kinetics, and their impacts are mediated by soil physical and chemical properties. Soil mineralogy, texture, and structure create different soil microenvironments, affecting the connectivity of microbial habitats, substrate availability, and protective mechanisms of organic matter. Moreover, different microbial groups (bacteria, fungi, and archaea) contribute differently to the decomposition of plant residues and SOM. Recent findings suggest the paramount importance of living microbial communities as well as necromass in forming soil organic carbon pools. Microbial functional traits such as carbon use efficiency, dormancy, and stress tolerance are essential drivers of decomposition in the soil. Furthermore, the role of microbial necromass, alongside live microbial communities, in the formation and stabilization of persistent SOM fractions is increasingly recognized. Based on this microbial perspective, feedback between local microbial processes and landscape-scale carbon dynamics illustrates the cross-scale interactions that drive agricultural productivity and regulate soil climate. Understanding these dynamics also highlights the potential for incorporating microbial functioning into sustainable agricultural management, which offers promising avenues for increasing carbon sequestration without jeopardizing soil nutrient cycling. This review explores current developments in intricate relationships between climate, soil characteristics, and microbial communities determining SOM decomposition, serving as a promising resource in organic fertilization and regenerative agriculture. Specifically, we examine how nutrient availability, pH, and oxygen levels critically influence these microbial contributions to SOM stability and turnover. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Farming Sustainability)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 3303 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Improving Groundcover Establishment Through Seed Rate, Seed Ratio, and Hydrophilic Seed Coating

by Jack Moran, A. Susana Goggi, Ken J. Moore, Shui-zhang Fei and Shelby Gruss

Agronomy 2025, 15(8), 1927; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15081927 - 10 Aug 2025

Viewed by 770

Abstract

Kentucky bluegrass (KBG) is well-suited as a perennial groundcover in corn production due to its vigorous growth during the fall and spring and its natural dormancy during the summer, aligning with the corn growing season. However, seeds of KBG germinate slowly, potentially resulting [...] Read more.

Kentucky bluegrass (KBG) is well-suited as a perennial groundcover in corn production due to its vigorous growth during the fall and spring and its natural dormancy during the summer, aligning with the corn growing season. However, seeds of KBG germinate slowly, potentially resulting in poor stand establishment in the Midwest, USA. This study was conducted to assess the effect of the seeding rate, the seed ratio in a perennial ryegrass/KBG mixture (PRG:KBG), and seed treatment on KBG percentage groundcover, green rating, the red/far-red ratio, soil temperature, soil moisture, and summer biomass. The split-plot design consisted of KBG seeds treated with the Hydroloc^TM hydrophilic polymer and untreated seeds with seeding rates and ratios in a randomized design. Hydroloc™ seed treatment showed a significant difference in the fall percentage of groundcover but did not affect the spring groundcover. The seed ratio had a significant effect on the fall and spring groundcover, with a ratio of 1:1 (PRG:KBG) performing best, followed by 1:3, 1:5, and 0:1. The seeding rate was also significant, with 44.8 kg ha⁻¹ having the highest groundcover, followed by 22.4 kg ha⁻¹ and 11.2 kg ha⁻¹. The red/far-red readings, which reflect plant density, gave corresponding results to the percentage of groundcover. The Hydroloc™ hydrophilic polymer increases the groundcover percentage by improving KBG establishment. These results are important for farmers and seed companies interested in using KBG as a perennial groundcover in corn production systems. We recommend a seed ratio of 1:1 (PRG:KBG) and a seeding rate of 22.4 kg ha⁻¹ to provide a dense and rapid-establishing groundcover that is also financially viable for the farmer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Innovative Cropping Systems)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Editor’s Choice Articles

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI