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Simulating Soil Moisture Dynamics in a Diversified Cropping System Under Heterogeneous Soil Conditions
Satureja kitaibelii Essential Oil and Extracts: Bioactive Compounds and Pesticide Properties
Sown Diversity Effects on the C and N Cycle and Interactions with Fertilization
Sustainable Fertilization of Organic Sweet Cherry to Improve Physiology, Quality, Yield, and Soil Properties
Prediction of Winter Wheat Parameters with Planet SuperDove Imagery and Explainable Artificial Intelligence

Journal Description

Agronomy

Agronomy is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on agronomy and agroecology published monthly online by MDPI. The Spanish Society of Plant Biology (SEBP) is affiliated with Agronomy and their members receive discounts on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), PubAg, AGRIS, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Plant Sciences) / CiteScore - Q1 (Agronomy and Crop Science)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 17.6 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.4 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2024).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Companion journals for Agronomy include: Seeds, Agrochemicals, Grasses and Crops.

Impact Factor: 3.3 (2023); 5-Year Impact Factor: 3.7 (2023)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2073-4395

Latest Articles

23 pages, 2569 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evolution of Non-Destructive and Destructive Peach ‘Redhaven’ Quality Traits During Maturation

by Marko Vuković, Dejan Ljubobratović, Maja Matetić, Marija Brkić Bakarić, Slaven Jurić and Tomislav Jemrić

Agronomy 2025, 15(6), 1476; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15061476 (registering DOI) - 17 Jun 2025

The main goal of this study was to investigate and better understand the evolution of the main non-destructive and destructive quality parameters of peach ‘Redhaven’ during ripening process. This study was conducted from 8 to 21 July 2023, during which peaches ‘Redhaven’ were [...] Read more.

The main goal of this study was to investigate and better understand the evolution of the main non-destructive and destructive quality parameters of peach ‘Redhaven’ during ripening process. This study was conducted from 8 to 21 July 2023, during which peaches ‘Redhaven’ were harvested each second day from a commercial orchard located in Novaki Bistranjski. Maturity categories were defined according to different firmness thresholds: maturity for long-distance chain stores (H1), maturity for medium-distance chain stores (H2), maturity below the defined maximum firmness in order to preserve optimal quality traits (H3), ready to buy (H4), ready to eat (H5), and overripe (H6). The chlorophyll absorbance index was the non-destructive parameter that was mostly distinguished between maturity categories (r = 0.78 with firmness), followed by a* and h° ground colour parameters. During the first three maturity categories (H1–H3), firmness had a notably smaller correlation with titratable acidity and the ratio of total soluble solids and titratable acidity, which is not the case for a* and h° ground colour parameters, chlorophyll absorbance index, and the share of additional colour. During the last three maturity categories (H4–H6), non-destructive parameters are not reliable for maturity prediction. When ground colour parameters are measured near petiole insertion, mostly smaller segregation between maturity categories is obtained compared to when measured at the rest of the fruit. Total polyphenol and flavonoid content in peach juice notably corelated only in the last two maturity categories with L* ground colour parameter. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Harvesting: Integrating Pre-Harvest and Post-Harvest Technologies for Crop Production)

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18 pages, 5660 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transcription Factor Protein (TFP)-Trait Relationships During Sugarcane Internode Development

by Frederik C. Botha and Annelie Marquardt

Agronomy 2025, 15(6), 1475; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15061475 (registering DOI) - 17 Jun 2025

Understanding how transcription factors regulate biomass accumulation and sucrose storage is essential for improving sugarcane productivity. In this study, we quantified transcription factor protein (TFP) abundance in sugarcane internodes across developmental stages and growth rates. These profiles were correlated with key biochemical traits, [...] Read more.

Understanding how transcription factors regulate biomass accumulation and sucrose storage is essential for improving sugarcane productivity. In this study, we quantified transcription factor protein (TFP) abundance in sugarcane internodes across developmental stages and growth rates. These profiles were correlated with key biochemical traits, including lignin, glucan, hemicellulose, and sucrose content. From 7333 identified proteins, 205 were annotated as transcription factors spanning 22 families. By applying Pearson correlation followed by Partial Correlation with Information Theory (PCIT), we identified 46 high-confidence TFP-trait associations. Key regulators, such as ScMYB113, ScMADS15, and ScbZIP85, exhibited trait-specific roles, influencing sucrose storage and cell wall biosynthesis. Network topology revealed distinct transcriptional modules linked to biomass production, polysaccharide deposition, and intermediary metabolism. Notably, sucrose and lignin accumulation intensified after internode elongation ceased, highlighting shifts in transcriptional control during maturation. This study delivers the first protein-level regulatory map linking transcription factors to metabolic traits in sugarcane and provides a framework for targeting candidate regulators to enhance biomass quality and yield in bioenergy crops such as sugarcane. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

19 pages, 4137 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Suitable Cultivation Regions in China for Siraitia grosvenorii Using a MaxEnt Model and Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry

by Fei Dong, Xiaojie Yan, Jingru Song, Xiyang Huang, Chuanming Fu, Fenglai Lu and Dianpeng Li

Agronomy 2025, 15(6), 1474; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15061474 - 17 Jun 2025

Global climate change is reshaping the habitat suitability of medicinal plants, potentially compromising their phytochemical integrity and therapeutic efficacy. Siraitia grosvenorii, an edible medicinal plant in China, has expanded its cultivation area into non-native habitats. Therefore, this study analyzed the suitable cultivation [...] Read more.

Global climate change is reshaping the habitat suitability of medicinal plants, potentially compromising their phytochemical integrity and therapeutic efficacy. Siraitia grosvenorii, an edible medicinal plant in China, has expanded its cultivation area into non-native habitats. Therefore, this study analyzed the suitable cultivation region under different periods in China based on the MaxEnt model, and 59 samples were investigated to explore the interrelationships between chemical constituents and climatic variables through multivariate statistical analysis, which will contribute to meeting the sustainable supply of high-quality S. grosvenorii. We discovered that appropriate habitats cover an area of 58.76 × 10⁴ km², mainly in the southern parts of China. Under future climate conditions, suitable habitats decrease and shift to the northeast along the current habitats. The precipitation levels of the driest month, precipitation seasonality, and temperature seasonality were crucial for its distribution. Furthermore, 11 elements were identified to distinguish samples from different suitable areas through orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis. Correlation analysis revealed a strong association between chemical constituents and various climatic factors. This study offers valuable insights into potential S. grosvenorii cultivation areas in China and provides reference indicators for quality evaluation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Machine Learning and Modelling in Food Crops)

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16 pages, 15746 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Treated Swine Wastewater on Elemental Distribution in the Growth of Habanero Pepper Seedlings

by Carlos David Hernández-Pinto, Marisela Ix-chel Vega-De-Lille, Germán Giácoman-Vallejos, Carmen Ponce-Caballero, Calos Alberto Quintal-Franco, Roger Iván Méndez-Novelo, Carlos Juan Alvarado-López and Emanuel Hernández-Núñez

Agronomy 2025, 15(6), 1473; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15061473 - 17 Jun 2025

The growing global demand for food has driven an increase in both swine and agricultural production, although swine wastewater poses a significant environmental risk. This study employed elemental mapping techniques to evaluate the effects of swine wastewater irrigation on the spatial distribution and [...] Read more.

The growing global demand for food has driven an increase in both swine and agricultural production, although swine wastewater poses a significant environmental risk. This study employed elemental mapping techniques to evaluate the effects of swine wastewater irrigation on the spatial distribution and concentration of essential and non-essential elements, as well as on the morphological responses of habanero pepper (Capsicum chinense Jacq.) seedlings. Six treatments were tested, ranging from 0% to 100% swine wastewater (T1 = 20%, T2 = 40%, T3 = 60%, T4 = 80%, T5 = 100%, and T6 = control with conventional fertilization), using a completely randomized design with five replications. Emergence, elemental distribution, morphology, and seedling quality were evaluated. The highest emergence percentages and rates were observed in the 20% wastewater treatment and the control groups. Diluted wastewater treatments promoted potassium and calcium uptake, which correlated with improved seedling growth and vigor, while irrigation with 100% wastewater led to excessive chlorine and sulfur accumulation, negatively affecting morphology. These results indicate that the controlled dilution of swine wastewater optimizes nutrient availability and seedling development, offering an environmentally sustainable alternative for producing high-quality habanero pepper seedlings. This study provides novel insights into the environmental implications of swine wastewater reuse through elemental mapping, underscoring its potential to support sustainable and regenerative agriculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Biotransformation of Agricultural Waste: Opportunities and Challenges)

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16 pages, 3034 KiB

Open AccessReview

Diversified Cropping Modulates Microbial Communities and Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Enhancing Soil Nutrients

by Zhongyan Wang, Huaqiang Xuan, Bei Liu, Hongfeng Zhang, Tongyan Zheng, Yunxia Liu, Luping Dai, Yi Xie, Xianchao Shang, Li Zhang, Long Yang, Sitakanta Pattanaik, Ling Yuan and Xin Hou

Agronomy 2025, 15(6), 1472; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15061472 - 17 Jun 2025

Crop diversification has been acknowledged as a means of lowering the environmental impact of agriculture without sacrificing agricultural output in recent years due to the growth of intensive agriculture. Crop rotation and intercropping—the methodical growing of two or more crops on one plot—are [...] Read more.

Crop diversification has been acknowledged as a means of lowering the environmental impact of agriculture without sacrificing agricultural output in recent years due to the growth of intensive agriculture. Crop rotation and intercropping—the methodical growing of two or more crops on one plot—are promising practices in this regard. Therefore, we conducted a quantitative bibliometric analysis of observed data between 2014 and 2024 to identify current research hotspots and future research trends in intercropping and crop rotation. A further secondary search for research advances in four key sub-areas (soil physicochemical properties, microbial diversity, greenhouse gas emissions (CO₂, N₂O, or CH₄) and crop yield) was conducted based on keyword clustering. Our findings suggest that a crop diversification strategy can significantly increase soil nutrient content, optimize soil physicochemical properties, and regulate microbial community structure. In addition, this strategy can help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (CO₂, N₂O, CH₄), which will have a positive impact on the atmospheric environment. Crop diversification improves crop yield and quality, which in turn increases farmers’ economic returns. In order to maximize the effective production methods of crop rotation and intercropping, and to increase the efficiency of resource usage, this paper examines the development of research and practice on two cropping patterns worldwide. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Progress on Pathogenicity of Fungi in Crops—2nd Edition)

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30 pages, 3838 KiB

Open AccessReview

Overview of Agricultural Machinery Automation Technology for Sustainable Agriculture

by Li Jiang, Boyan Xu, Naveed Husnain and Qi Wang

Agronomy 2025, 15(6), 1471; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15061471 - 16 Jun 2025

Automation in agricultural machinery, underpinned by the integration of advanced technologies, is revolutionizing sustainable farming practices. Key enabling technologies include multi-source positioning fusion (e.g., RTK-GNSS/LiDAR), intelligent perception systems utilizing multispectral imaging and deep learning algorithms, adaptive control through modular robotic systems and bio-inspired [...] Read more.

Automation in agricultural machinery, underpinned by the integration of advanced technologies, is revolutionizing sustainable farming practices. Key enabling technologies include multi-source positioning fusion (e.g., RTK-GNSS/LiDAR), intelligent perception systems utilizing multispectral imaging and deep learning algorithms, adaptive control through modular robotic systems and bio-inspired algorithms, and AI-driven data analytics for resource optimization. These technological advancements manifest in significant applications: autonomous field machinery achieving lateral navigation errors below 6 cm, UAVs enabling targeted agrochemical application, reducing pesticide usage by 40%, and smart greenhouses regulating microclimates with ±0.1 °C precision. Collectively, these innovations enhance productivity, optimize resource utilization (water, fertilizers, energy), and mitigate critical labor shortages. However, persistent challenges include technological heterogeneity across diverse agricultural environments, high implementation costs, limitations in adaptability to dynamic field conditions, and adoption barriers, particularly in developing regions. Future progress necessitates prioritizing the development of lightweight edge computing solutions, multi-energy complementary systems (integrating solar, wind, hydropower), distributed collaborative control frameworks, and AI-optimized swarm operations. To democratize these technologies globally, this review synthesizes the evolution of technology and interdisciplinary synergies, concluding with prioritized strategies for advancing agricultural intelligence to align with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for zero hunger and responsible production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations in Agriculture for Sustainable Agro-Systems)

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14 pages, 1023 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aeration and Chemical Additives Prevent Hyperhydration and Allow the Production of High-Quality In Vitro Potato Plantlets

by Pál Szarvas and Judit Dobránszki

Agronomy 2025, 15(6), 1470; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15061470 - 16 Jun 2025

The production of healthy propagating material of the potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is based on in vitro micropropagation. In vitro conditions, however, can cause stress leading to reduced quality, growth and development of in vitro plantlets. The effects of aeration and chemical [...] Read more.

The production of healthy propagating material of the potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is based on in vitro micropropagation. In vitro conditions, however, can cause stress leading to reduced quality, growth and development of in vitro plantlets. The effects of aeration and chemical additives on the in vitro growth and development and quality of potato plantlets were investigated. Four different jar closure types were tested, i.e., an intact metal cap (control), two layers of semi-permeable plastic foil, a metal cap with a single hole, or a metal cap with three holes. Under tightly sealed conditions (intact metal cap) the effects of silver nitrate (2.0 mg L⁻¹) and 1-naphtylacetic acid (0.1 mg L⁻¹) alone or in combination with each other, meta-topoline (0.1 mg L⁻¹), ascorbic acid (10.0 mg L⁻¹), salicylic acid (0.1 mg L⁻¹), jasmonic acid (0.1 mg L⁻¹) and glutamic acid (0.3 mg L⁻¹) were studied. Morpho-physiological parameters were measured at the end of the subculture. Leaf development was a good indicator of the presumed ethylene effect. The development and quality of the plantlets were best in cultures sealed with three-holed caps. Of the chemicals applied, only the presence of silver nitrate resulted in high-quality plantlets. The combined application of silver nitrate and 1-naphthaleneacetic acid promoted root growth and development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Tissue Culture and Plant Somatic Embryogenesis–2nd Edition)

14 pages, 890 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Species-Specific Chemotactic Responses of Entomopathogenic and Slug-Parasitic Nematodes to Cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa L.

by Marko Flajšman, Stanislav Trdan and Žiga Laznik

Agronomy 2025, 15(6), 1469; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15061469 - 16 Jun 2025

The increasing environmental and health concerns associated with synthetic pesticides underscore the need for sustainable alternatives in pest management. This study investigates the chemotactic responses of five nematode species—Heterorhabditis bacteriophora, Steinernema carpocapsae, Steinernema feltiae, Phasmarhabditis papillosa, and Oscheius [...] Read more.

The increasing environmental and health concerns associated with synthetic pesticides underscore the need for sustainable alternatives in pest management. This study investigates the chemotactic responses of five nematode species—Heterorhabditis bacteriophora, Steinernema carpocapsae, Steinernema feltiae, Phasmarhabditis papillosa, and Oscheius myriophilus—to three major cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa: Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabigerol (CBG), and cannabidiol (CBD). Using a standardized chemotaxis assay, we quantified infective juvenile movement and calculated Chemotaxis Index (CI) values across varying cannabinoid concentrations. Our results revealed strong species-specific and dose-dependent responses. THC and CBG elicited significant attractant effects in P. papillosa, S. feltiae, and H. bacteriophora, with CI values ≥ 0.2, indicating their potential as behavioral modulators. In contrast, CBD had weaker or repellent effects, particularly at higher concentrations. O. myriophilus exhibited no consistent response, underscoring species-specific variation in chemosensory sensitivity. These findings demonstrate the potential utility of cannabinoids, especially THC and CBG, as biocompatible cues to enhance the efficacy of nematode-based biological control agents in integrated pest management (IPM). Further field-based studies are recommended to validate these results under realistic agricultural conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nematode Diseases and Their Management in Crop Plants)

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18 pages, 5001 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Repair Effects of Scenedesmus obliquus on Cucumber Seedlings Under Saline–Alkali Stress

by Zhao Liu, Yanlong Dong, Xiaoxia Jin, Yan Liu, Zhonghui Yue and Wei Li

Agronomy 2025, 15(6), 1468; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15061468 - 16 Jun 2025

In this study, cucumber seedlings were treated with Scenedesmus obliquus at different concentrations (0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1 g·L⁻¹) under saline–alkali stress (60 mM and 90 mM). The effects of Scenedesmus obliquus on the repair of cucumber seedlings under saline–alkali stress were [...] Read more.

In this study, cucumber seedlings were treated with Scenedesmus obliquus at different concentrations (0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1 g·L⁻¹) under saline–alkali stress (60 mM and 90 mM). The effects of Scenedesmus obliquus on the repair of cucumber seedlings under saline–alkali stress were explored from physiological and morphological perspectives by measuring growth physiological indices and observing microstructure. It provides a cytological basis for the development of microalgae biofertilizer. The results showed that the addition of Scenedesmus obliquus effectively alleviated the physiological and structural damage in cucumber seedlings caused by saline–alkali stress, with the best mitigation effect at 0.75 g·L⁻¹. More specifically, the addition of Scenedesmus obliquus significantly improved seedling fresh weight and plant height under saline–alkali stress, increased stem vascular vessel diameter, thickened vessel walls, reduced structural damage, the structural recovery of mitochondria, nuclei, and other organelles in the phloem; The results showed that root xylem vessel distribution became more centralized, vessel diameter decreased, and wall thickness decreased, with other changes similar to those in the stem; The number and volume of mesophyll cells increased, chloroplast morphology recovered, and chlorophyll content rose, effectively alleviating the impact of saline–alkali stress on photosynthesis. MDA content decreased, mitigating oxidative damage caused by saline–alkali stress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

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18 pages, 2410 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Contribution of Roots and Shoots of Three Summer Cover Crops to Soil C and N Cycling Post-Termination

by Dorna Saadat, Masoud Hashemi, Stephen Herbert and Artie Siller

Agronomy 2025, 15(6), 1467; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15061467 - 16 Jun 2025

Although summer cover crops (CCs) have relatively short growing periods, they can significantly enhance soil health by contributing to carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) cycling. Three summer CCs—including oat, buckwheat, and pea—were planted in June–July and evaluated for their biomass, allocation of assimilates [...] Read more.

Although summer cover crops (CCs) have relatively short growing periods, they can significantly enhance soil health by contributing to carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) cycling. Three summer CCs—including oat, buckwheat, and pea—were planted in June–July and evaluated for their biomass, allocation of assimilates to roots, C and N yield, and residue decomposition patterns after termination in a 14-week period. Total biomass (roots + shoots) was highest in buckwheat (5822 kg ha⁻¹), followed by oat (4836 kg ha⁻¹) and then pea (20 22 kg ha⁻¹). Across species, the allocation of assimilates to roots decreased from 34% at 30 days after planting to 18% at termination. Total C yield was 2409, 1941, and 808 kg ha⁻¹ for buckwheat, oat, and pea, respectively, with root C content considerably lower than shoot C content. The initial carbon-to-nitrogen (C:N) ratios in the roots and shoots of pea were substantially lowest among the species and remained below the 25:1 threshold, indicating potential for net N mineralization. In contrast, oat and buckwheat exhibited initial C:N of 40–50 in roots and around 30 in shoots. These ratios shifted during decomposition. After a 14-week decomposition period, all CCs had released over 50% of their root and shoot biomass. However, the release of their C and N did not directly align with biomass decay. Approximately 70% of the C in roots and shoots of oats and buckwheat remained unreleased after 14 weeks. The slow N release from oat and buckwheat residues suggests potential N immobilization, which could lead to nitrogen deficiency in subsequent crops. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Agrotechnical Factors and Farming Systems on Soil Properties and Plant Productivity)

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17 pages, 1982 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Adaptability of Different Wheat Varieties to Deep Sowing in Henan Province of China

by Cheng Yang, Rongkun Wang, Cheng Tian, Deqi Zhang, Hongjian Cheng, Xiangdong Li, Baoting Fang, Haiyang Jin, Hang Song, Baoming Tian, Fang Wei and Ge Yan

Agronomy 2025, 15(6), 1466; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15061466 - 16 Jun 2025

Appropriate deep sowing holds significant potential in enhancing wheat production, particularly in dry and low-rainfall regions. Henan Province is a major winter wheat-producing area in China; evaluating the adaptability of wheat varieties to deep sowing through scientific methods is crucial to improve wheat [...] Read more.

Appropriate deep sowing holds significant potential in enhancing wheat production, particularly in dry and low-rainfall regions. Henan Province is a major winter wheat-producing area in China; evaluating the adaptability of wheat varieties to deep sowing through scientific methods is crucial to improve wheat production. This study investigates 26 wheat cultivars in Henan. By assessing key traits of seeds and seedlings at various sowing depths, we analyzed the effects of sowing depth on seed germination and seedlings. A comprehensive index for deep sowing tolerance was established using principal component analysis (PCA) and the membership function method, followed by the classification of the varieties according to their tolerance to deep sowing. The results indicated that, with increased sowing depth, seedling emergence time, coleoptile length, and coleoptile internode length increased, while seedling emergence rate, seedling height, leaf area, and shoot dry weight per unit area decreased. Based on PCA and membership function values, the 26 wheat varieties were classified into three categories: deep sowing tolerant, moderately tolerant, and intolerant, comprising 3, 19, and 4 varieties. This study provides valuable insights for optimizing wheat variety selection and improving sowing practices in Henan Province, offering both theoretical and practical contributions to local wheat production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Efficient Crop Cultivation Techniques on Plant Nutrition and Physiology)

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31 pages, 3235 KiB

Open AccessReview

Agronomy and Environmental Sustainability of the Four Major Global Vegetable Oil Crops: Oil Palm, Soybean, Rapeseed, and Sunflower

by Denis J. Murphy

Agronomy 2025, 15(6), 1465; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15061465 - 16 Jun 2025

Four crops, oil palm, soybean, rapeseed, and sunflower, are collectively responsible for >91% of all globally traded vegetable oil production, worth an annual USD 223 billion. However, these crops fall into two distinctive categories with respect to their agronomy, yield, socioeconomic value, and [...] Read more.

Four crops, oil palm, soybean, rapeseed, and sunflower, are collectively responsible for >91% of all globally traded vegetable oil production, worth an annual USD 223 billion. However, these crops fall into two distinctive categories with respect to their agronomy, yield, socioeconomic value, and overall sustainability. The dichotomy between perennial oil palm and the three annual oilseed crops is perhaps best shown in their relative efficiencies in oil production versus the amount of land that they occupy. Hence, land-friendly oil palm produces >90 Mt of oil on 29 Mha of land, with an average oil yield of 3.3 t/ha. In contrast, the three land-hungry annual crops collectively produce 121 Mt of oil on a huge land area of 191 Mha, giving a much lower average oil yield of 0.6 t/ha. In this study, the dichotomy between oil palm and the three major oilseed crops is examined further by comparing their respective carbon emission and uptake dynamics. The direct comparison of four such different crops is challenging, as much of the previous work has focused on single crops involving differing methodologies. The analysis therefore provides a novel perspective that enables several important conclusions to be drawn for policy decisions on the use of limited land resources. In particular, the sustainable production of vegetable oils needs to be reconsidered in the context of factors such as climate change, threats to food security, and the performance of the global economy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

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15 pages, 1027 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Green Solutions for Agriculture: Topical and Oral Effect of Botanical Extracts in the Sustainable Management of Plutella xylostella (Linnaeus, 1758) (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae)

by Isabella Maria Pompeu Monteiro Padial, Silvana Aparecida de Souza, Claudia Andrea Lima Cardoso, Juliana Rosa Carrijo Mauad, Anelise Samara Nazari Formagio and Rosilda Mara Mussury

Agronomy 2025, 15(6), 1464; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15061464 - 16 Jun 2025

The growing demand for sustainable phytosanitary products has renewed interest in botanical insecticides as viable pest control tools. Amid rising demand for sustainable crop protection, this study screens Cerrado plants traditionally used in medicine to pinpoint bioactive compounds that could replace synthetic pesticides. [...] Read more.

The growing demand for sustainable phytosanitary products has renewed interest in botanical insecticides as viable pest control tools. Amid rising demand for sustainable crop protection, this study screens Cerrado plants traditionally used in medicine to pinpoint bioactive compounds that could replace synthetic pesticides. These products have complex chemical compositions, with compounds acting synergistically through multiple mechanisms, including oral (ingestion of allelochemicals) and topical (contact of allelochemicals on epidermis) toxicity. This study evaluated the oral and topical toxicity of aqueous leaf extracts from Anemopaegma arvense (AEAa), Coussarea hydrangeifolia (AECh), Tapirira guianensis (AETg), and Duguetia furfuracea (AEDf) on Plutella xylostella. In the oral toxicity test, first-instar larvae were fed treated diets until pupation, with biological parameters monitored until adulthood. The extracts caused an average of 45% larval mortality, reduced pupal duration, and lowered egg production. In the topical toxicity test, only the extract from T. guianensis showed significant effect (p = 0.0171), causing 30% mortality in third-instar larvae. The other extracts showed no significant topical toxicity, and AECh showed no lethal or sublethal effects at all. Phytochemical screening was assessed by quantitative spectrophotometric assays, and semi-quantitative classical colorimetric tests. Major compound classes identified were tannins, flavonoids, triterpenoids, coumarins, and alkaloids. These findings highlight the potential of the evaluated plant extracts for pest control, particularly via ingestion, while also underscoring the need for further studies to better understand their efficacy and mechanisms of action. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring Plant Extracts for Optimal Pest Management and Environmental Balance)

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25 pages, 9063 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Zonal Estimation of the Earliest Winter Wheat Identification Time in Shandong Province Considering Phenological and Environmental Factors

by Jiaqi Chen, Xin Du, Chen Wang, Cheng Cai, Guanru Fang, Ziming Wang, Mengyu Liu and Huanxue Zhang

Agronomy 2025, 15(6), 1463; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15061463 - 16 Jun 2025

Early-season crop mapping plays a critical role in yield estimation, agricultural management, and policy-making. However, most existing methods assign a uniform earliest identification time across provincial or broader extents, overlooking spatial heterogeneity in crop phenology and environmental conditions. This often results in delayed [...] Read more.

Early-season crop mapping plays a critical role in yield estimation, agricultural management, and policy-making. However, most existing methods assign a uniform earliest identification time across provincial or broader extents, overlooking spatial heterogeneity in crop phenology and environmental conditions. This often results in delayed detection or reduced mapping accuracy. To address this issue, we proposed a zonal-based early-season mapping framework for winter wheat by integrating phenological and environmental factors. Aggregation zones across Shandong Province were delineated using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) based on factors such as start of season, end of season, temperature, slope, and others. On this basis, early-season winter wheat identification was conducted for each zone individually. Training samples were generated using the Time-Weighted Dynamic Time Warping (TWDTW) method. Time-series datasets derived from Sentinel-1/2 imagery (2021–2022) were processed on the Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform, followed by feature selection and classification using the Random Forest (RF) algorithm. Results indicated that Shandong Province was divided into four zones (A–D), with Zone D (southwestern Shandong) achieving the earliest mapping by early December with an overall accuracy (OA) of 97.0%. Other zones reached optimal timing between late December and late January, all with OA above 95%. The zonal strategy improved OA by 3.6% compared to the non-zonal approach, demonstrated a high correlation with official municipal-level statistics (R² = 0.97), and surpassed the ChinaWheat10 and ChinaWheatMap10 datasets in terms of crop differentiation and boundary delineation. Historical validation using 2017–2018 data from Liaocheng City, a prefecture-level city in Shandong Province, achieved an OA of 0.98 and an F₁ score of 0.96, further confirming the temporal robustness of the proposed approach. This zonal strategy significantly enhances the accuracy and timeliness of early-season winter wheat mapping at a large scale. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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15 pages, 6554 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Effects of Planting Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) and Adding Biochar on Soil Fertility in Jujube Orchards

by Tingrui Jing, Shuang Liang, Chubo Liu, Shipeng Liu and Luanzi Sun

Agronomy 2025, 15(6), 1462; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15061462 - 16 Jun 2025

Soil fertility has an important impact on orchard yield and quality, and sandy soil limits the economic yield of orchards due to its low water and fertilizer retention capacity. Although biochar and alfalfa planting have been widely utilized separately in soil improvement, few [...] Read more.

Soil fertility has an important impact on orchard yield and quality, and sandy soil limits the economic yield of orchards due to its low water and fertilizer retention capacity. Although biochar and alfalfa planting have been widely utilized separately in soil improvement, few studies have examined the effects of combined alfalfa planting and biochar application on jujube orchard soils. This study investigates the effects of alfalfa planting alone and alfalfa planting combined with different levels of biocarbon addition on soil properties. A field experiment was conducted in a jujube orchard in Yanchuan County, Shaanxi Province, with four treatments: clear tillage control (CK), alfalfa planting only (B1), alfalfa planting + 1.5 kg·m⁻² biocarbon (B2), and alfalfa planting + 3 kg·m⁻² biocarbon (B3). The results show that planting alfalfa significantly increased soil moisture content (SMC) and soil organic matter (SOM) content by 27.79% and 17.65%, respectively, and biochar addition significantly increased soil carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus content by 8.11–37.7%, enhanced the soil moisture content (SMC) by 98.13–100.22%, promoted the growth of alfalfa, and increased vegetation cover (p < 0.05). The combination of biochar and alfalfa improves soil fertility more effectively than alfalfa alone. It can increase the soil N and P nutrient contents, improve soil available nutrients, promote alfalfa growth in a short period, and provide a feasible solution for soil improvement in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversified Cropping and Fertilization Practices to Enhance Soil Enzyme Activity, Soil Properties, and Plant Production)

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23 pages, 3361 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monocropping Degrades Soil Quality Index and Soil Multifunctionality Compared to Natural Grasslands and Restored Shrubland in China’s Qilian Mountains (Based on Single-Year Sampling)

by Longji Zhang, Shaochong Wei, Hang Xiang and Xiaojun Yu

Agronomy 2025, 15(6), 1461; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15061461 - 16 Jun 2025

As the ecological security barrier in northwestern China, understanding how natural grassland (NG) utilization pattern transformation in the northern Qilian foothills affects soil quality and ecosystem multifunctionality supports regional ecosystem management. The study compared soil chemical and biological properties, soil quality index (SQI), [...] Read more.

As the ecological security barrier in northwestern China, understanding how natural grassland (NG) utilization pattern transformation in the northern Qilian foothills affects soil quality and ecosystem multifunctionality supports regional ecosystem management. The study compared soil chemical and biological properties, soil quality index (SQI), and soil ecosystem multifunctionality (SMF) among four grassland utilization patterns in the northern foothills of the Qilian Mountains, Gansu Province, China. Soil samples were collected in early October 2024 following crop harvest from the following systems: traditionally grazed NG, monocropping Hordeum vulgare (barley; MHV), monocropping Avena sativa (oat; MAS), and Hippophae rhamnoides shrubland (sea buckthorn; HRS). The results showed that compared with NG, SQI was decreased by 52.69% (p = 0.000059) under MHV treatment and by 18.78% (p = 0.03) under MAS treatment, while HRS did not have a significant reduction in SQI. Under the three patterns of transformative utilization of NG, SMF followed the order of HRS (0.11) > MAS (−0.06) > MHV (−0.51). Overall, the establishment of restoration vegetation (sea buckthorn shrubland) retained SQI under different grassland utilization patterns in the study area, whereas long-term monocropping resulted in significant reductions in SQI and SMF due to compromised chemical and biological properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Impact of Land Use Change on Soil Quality Evolution)

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21 pages, 12149 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Analysis of TALE Gene Family in Gramineae

by Zicong Liang, Shuai Shi, Baoping Xue, Dongyang Li, Yue Liu and Chang Liu

Agronomy 2025, 15(6), 1460; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15061460 - 16 Jun 2025

The transcription factor known as TALE (three-amino acid loop extension) is essential for plant growth, cell differentiation and responses to environmental stresses. Although the TALE gene family has been identified in various plants, there has been a lack of comprehensive whole-genome identification and [...] Read more.

The transcription factor known as TALE (three-amino acid loop extension) is essential for plant growth, cell differentiation and responses to environmental stresses. Although the TALE gene family has been identified in various plants, there has been a lack of comprehensive whole-genome identification and analysis in Gramineae species. In this study, 123 TALE family genes were identified in five Gramineae species, which can be categorized into two main subgroups: KONX and BELL. Most of the TALE genes in the same subgroup displayed analogous gene structures and conserved motifs. Furthermore, whole genome duplication (WGD) significantly contributes to the expansion of the TALE gene family in Gramineae. The promoter region of TALE genes in Gramineae contains a large number of cis-elements associated with abiotic stress and hormone response. Tissue-specific expression analysis indicated that most OsTALE, ZmTALE and AtTALE genes were highly expressed in stems and leaves. Additionally, RNA-seq data revealed that OsTALE, ZmTALE and AtTALE genes were found to respond to abiotic stress treatments. Furthermore, we found that the expression levels of SbTALE11/19 were up-regulated in response to PEG and NaCl treatment, respectively. This study provides a significant reference for further research on the biological function of TALE transcription factors in Gramineae plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Breeding and Genetics)

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14 pages, 1262 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exogenous Cytokinins Regulate Nitrogen Metabolism in Soybean Under Low Phosphorus Stress

by Yubo Yao, Yongguo Xue, Jun Yan, Xiaofei Tang, Dan Cao, Wenjin He, Xiaoyan Luan, Qi Liu, Zifei Zhu and Xinlei Liu

Agronomy 2025, 15(6), 1459; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15061459 - 16 Jun 2025

Low phosphorus (P) stress impacts nitrogen (N) metabolism in soybeans. This study investigated the effects of exogenous cytokinin (Trans-Zeatin) on soybean N metabolism under low P stress by treating seeds with Trans-Zeatin and analyzing N accumulation, ¹⁵N abundance, nodule N fixation accumulation, [...] Read more.

Low phosphorus (P) stress impacts nitrogen (N) metabolism in soybeans. This study investigated the effects of exogenous cytokinin (Trans-Zeatin) on soybean N metabolism under low P stress by treating seeds with Trans-Zeatin and analyzing N accumulation, ¹⁵N abundance, nodule N fixation accumulation, nodule N fixation rate, nodule nitrogenase activity, soluble protein content, and free amino acid profiles. The results showed that exogenous cytokinin enhanced N accumulation in aboveground tissues, roots, and nodules, as well as nodule N fixation accumulation and fixation rate (from day 35 onward) under low P stress. Additionally, it promoted both acetylene reduction activity (ARA) and specific nitrogenase activity (SNA) in soybean nodules. By increasing the absorption of fertilizer-derived N, exogenous cytokinin alleviated the inhibitory effects of low P stress on the early growth and development of soybeans. Notably, under low P conditions, exogenous cytokinin significantly elevated the soluble protein content in nodules. However, the underlying mechanisms governing changes in free amino acid profiles require further investigation. This study provides a theoretical foundation for developing strategies to regulate soybean N metabolism under low P stress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Biological Nitrogen Fixation in Plants)

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19 pages, 2611 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Predictive Model Linking Electrical Characteristics to Semi-Lethal Temperature in Potted Apple Trees with Validation on Mature Specimens

by Bo Sun, Shuaiyang Wu, Xiaohang Nie, Linguang Jia, Xueying Zhang and Ji Qian

Agronomy 2025, 15(6), 1458; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15061458 - 16 Jun 2025

In the context of increasingly frequent extreme low-temperature events, developing a rapid and non-destructive method to evaluate plant cold tolerance is of great scientific significance for accurately assessing the cold hardiness of fruit trees. In this study, the correlations between 23 electrophysiological features—including [...] Read more.

In the context of increasingly frequent extreme low-temperature events, developing a rapid and non-destructive method to evaluate plant cold tolerance is of great scientific significance for accurately assessing the cold hardiness of fruit trees. In this study, the correlations between 23 electrophysiological features—including electrical signal and impedance parameters—and the cold tolerance indicator semi-lethal temperature (LT50) were analyzed. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to identify the optimal electrical parameters reflecting cold resistance in apples. A multiple linear regression model was then constructed based on these parameters, and its accuracy was validated using 13-year-old field-grown apple trees. The results showed the following: (1) Six electrical parameters (r₁, r_e, r, Min, Std, and Peak) were significantly correlated with LT50 (p < 0.05) and made major contributions to the first principal component (PC1), confirming their status as optimal indicators of cold tolerance. (2) A regression model for predicting LT50 was established using these parameters, achieving a coefficient of determination (R²) of 0.9187, indicating excellent model fit. (3) Model validation yielded R² values of 0.9323 and 0.9999, MAE values of 1.243 and 0.900, MAPE values of 6.64% and 4.02%, and RMSE values of 1.29 and 1.12, respectively. The predicted LT50 values closely matched measured values in an overall trend, confirming the high accuracy of the model. These findings demonstrate that electrophysiological parameters can effectively reflect the dynamic changes in cold tolerance of apple trees during overwintering and provide a theoretical and methodological foundation for rapid and convenient cold hardiness assessment in other deciduous fruit species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Horticultural and Floricultural Crops)

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19 pages, 5254 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genome-Wide Identification and Characterization of the Polygalacturonase Gene Family in Common Vetch (Vicia sativa)

by Xiaobing Yang, Tianmiao Liu, Zhongfu Yang, Zhou Li, Xuechun Zhao, Jihui Chen, Xinyao Gu, Jin He, Chao Chen and Rui Dong

Agronomy 2025, 15(6), 1457; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15061457 - 15 Jun 2025

The polygalacturonase (PG) gene family plays a crucial role in plant cell wall metabolism and participates in various biological processes, such as fruit ripening, pod dehiscence, and pollen tube growth. However, the members of the PG gene family in Vicia sativa [...] Read more.

The polygalacturonase (PG) gene family plays a crucial role in plant cell wall metabolism and participates in various biological processes, such as fruit ripening, pod dehiscence, and pollen tube growth. However, the members of the PG gene family in Vicia sativa remain largely unexplored. We identified and analyzed the PG gene family members in V. sativa to investigate their gene expansion, functional evolution, and potential associations with agronomic traits. A total of 83 V. sativa PG genes (VsPGs) were identified, 51 of which retained all four characteristic PG domains (I–IV). We classified the VsPGs into seven subgroups (A–G) based on the results of phylogenetic analysis, and collinearity analysis suggested that segmental duplication was the primary driver of family expansion. The VsPG promoters were enriched with elements responsive to abscisic acid, low temperatures, and aluminum stress. Transcriptomic and qPCR analyses revealed tissue-specific and stress-responsive expression patterns of the VsPGs. Notably, VsPG48 and VsPG60 were highly expressed in the ventral sutures of pod-dehiscent varieties, whereas VsPG2 and VsPG41, among others, were co-upregulated under cold and aluminum stress. This study provides a foundation for further exploration of the biological functions of VsPGs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Formation of Specialized Traits and the Regulation of Directional Development in Forage)

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