Agronomy

22 pages, 1284 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Soil Management Practices on Olive Orchard Soil Health and Arthropod Diversity in Messenia, Greece

by Kodie Chontos, Christos Pantazis and Håkan Berg

Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 404; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040404 (registering DOI) - 7 Feb 2026

Soil degradation driven by intensive management practices has become of increasing concern for olive cultivation, as trends for desertification and loss of arable land have emerged across the Mediterranean basin. Agroecological management practices, such as mulching made from olive tree pruning remains, have [...] Read more.

Soil degradation driven by intensive management practices has become of increasing concern for olive cultivation, as trends for desertification and loss of arable land have emerged across the Mediterranean basin. Agroecological management practices, such as mulching made from olive tree pruning remains, have shown potential for improving soil structure, nutrient retention and biodiversity. This study aimed to enhance the understanding of how soil management influences soil properties and arthropod diversity in small-scale olive orchards in a heterogeneous landscape in south-west Greece. Soil was sampled from 11 orchards managed under one of two systems: conventional (herbicide use, tillage, mowing) and agroecological (cover cropping, mulching), encompassing a diversity of management practices. Physicochemical properties were measured alongside soil arthropod abundance and diversity, allowing for comparisons at two levels: between management systems and among practices nested within each system. When compared across broader systems, the agroecological orchards, compared to conventional orchards, had greater porosity (56.38% and 48.75%), and soil organic matter (8.99% and 6.87%), though differences in soil composition likely accounted for some of the variation. Additionally, metrics for arthropod diversity were improved under agroecological management, with 21% higher Shannon diversity and 16.8% greater evenness compared to conventional management. Ordination analysis and generalized linear models further supported these findings illustrating the relationship between agroecological management, soil health and arthropod diversity. These results support a growing body of research which illustrate the potential of agroecological management in enhancing soil health and biodiversity in olive orchards and contributing to the development of more resilient agroecosystems within the Mediterranean basin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Soil Fertility and Plant Nutrition for Sustainable Agriculture—2nd Edition)

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16 pages, 4664 KB

Open AccessArticle

Foliar Applications of Calcium, Magnesium, and Seaweed Mixture to Mitigate Chronic and Apoplectic Forms of Esca Disease and Improve Yield in Vineyards

by Francesco Calzarano, Fabio Osti, Giancarlo Pagnani, Leonardo Seghetti and Stefano Di Marco

Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 403; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040403 (registering DOI) - 7 Feb 2026

Abstract

Esca disease, the most widespread grapevine trunk disease in Europe, is characterized by both chronic and acute forms. In both cases, alterations in the plant’s physiological processes are significant and lead to yield losses and/or plant death. Studies have highlighted the effects of [...] Read more.

Esca disease, the most widespread grapevine trunk disease in Europe, is characterized by both chronic and acute forms. In both cases, alterations in the plant’s physiological processes are significant and lead to yield losses and/or plant death. Studies have highlighted the effects of a mixture of foliar fertilizers and seaweeds in reducing foliar symptoms and improving both the quantity and quality of yield. These effects have now been evaluated on additional cultivars and in other vineyard areas. Furthermore, for the first time, the activity of the fertilizer mixture in reducing apoplexy and the resulting vine mortality has been assessed. During the 2022–2023 biennium, in four vineyards of the Lambrusco cultivar in the Province of Reggio Emilia, Northern Italy, affected by both chronic and acute forms of the disease, foliar applications of the mixture were carried out at 10-day intervals starting from the “nine leaves unfolded” BBCH (Biologische Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt and Chemical industry) stage 19 up to the “berries developing color” BBCH stage 83. The results confirmed the activity of the fertilizer mixture in reducing chronic symptoms, which appeared particularly pronounced in 2022, when rainfall quantity and distribution allowed regular development of phenological stages. In that year, in all vineyards, a reduction of approximately 50% and 60% in the incidence and severity of chronic leaf symptoms was recorded. Under these optimal growth conditions, treated vines generally showed superior yield and quality. Conversely, in 2023, characterized by heavy rains, smaller effects on foliar symptoms and no improvements in yield were observed. Applications of the mixture resulted in a significant reduction in apoplexy and, consequently, vine mortality, as verified in 2024. This effect did not appear to be influenced by climatic conditions. This study confirms that applications of the mixture aimed at reducing symptom expression and yield damage are a valid addition to the few available control practices. The positive effects observed on the acute form for the first time require further investigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Pest and Disease Management)

19 pages, 7513 KB

Open AccessArticle

Divergent Dynamics and Drivers of Soil Organic Carbon in Mulberry Plantations Across Contrasting Calcisols and Chromic Luvisols in a Karst Region of Southwest China

by Yanjin Shi, Mei Lu, Junfang Cui, Shiqing Peng, Fang Zhang, Xiaohong Wang, Zhanfeng Ye, Wenzhong Yu and Dan Xing

Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 402; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040402 (registering DOI) - 7 Feb 2026

Abstract

The fragile Karst landscapes of southwest China face persistent challenges of soil degradation and rocky desertification. While sustainable land use such as mulberry plantation can support ecological restoration, the dynamics of soil organic carbon (SOC) and its driving mechanisms across contrasting soil types [...] Read more.

The fragile Karst landscapes of southwest China face persistent challenges of soil degradation and rocky desertification. While sustainable land use such as mulberry plantation can support ecological restoration, the dynamics of soil organic carbon (SOC) and its driving mechanisms across contrasting soil types remain poorly understood, limiting the development of targeted pedogenically aware carbon management strategies. A comparative field study was conducted in central Guizhou, China, over an eight-month mulberry growing season (April to November). We monitored SOC, physicochemical properties, GRSP, and enzyme activities in plantations established on two contrasting limestone-derived soils (Calcisols and Chromic Luvisols). This study aimed to clarify the relationships between SOC and key soil parameters within each soil type and to identify their dominant driving factors. Soil type significantly influenced SOC concentration, dynamics, and its regulatory mechanisms. SOC was significantly higher and exhibited greater seasonal variability in Calcisols (31.51–39.71 g·kg⁻¹) than in Chromic Luvisols (22.50–28.51 g·kg⁻¹), with Calcisols maintaining 1.28–1.57 times the SOC concentration of Chromic Luvisols. Regression analysis revealed that SOC was significantly positively correlated with TN, AN, AK, and GRSP, but significantly negatively correlated with AP. Random forest modeling further identified distinct key correlated factors in each soil type as follows: TN, T-GRSP, and Urease were primary in Calcisols, whereas TN, T-GRSP, and pH dominated in Chromic Luvisols. Partial least squares path modeling confirmed that soil type does not directly associate with SOC but exerts an indirect effect by modulating core biochemical mediators specifically (Alkaline protease, T-GRSP, and TN); The model also indicated that pH and TN exert direct positive effects on SOC accumulation. In Karst mulberry systems, pedogenically distinct soils (Calcisols vs. Chromic Luvisols) shape SOC storage, stability, and regulatory mechanisms through divergent biogeochemical pathways. SOC management should therefore be soil-type-specific, prioritizing nitrogen synergy in Calcisols and pH-mediated stabilization in Chromic Luvisols, rather than applying uniform strategies. This study thereby establishes a mechanistic framework for understanding and managing SOC in heterogeneous Karst landscapes, providing a critical foundation for developing targeted, soil-specific carbon sequestration practices in ecologically vulnerable regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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21 pages, 4342 KB

Open AccessArticle

Auto3DPheno: Automated 3D Maize Seedling Phenotyping via Topologically-Constrained Laplacian Contraction with NeRF

by Yi Gou, Xin Tan, Mingyu Yang, Xin Zhang, Liang Xu, Qingbin Jiao, Sijia Jiang, Ding Ma and Junbo Zang

Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 401; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040401 (registering DOI) - 7 Feb 2026

Abstract

Analyzing three-dimensional (3D) phenotypic parameters of maize seedlings is of significant importance for maize cultivation and selection. However, existing methods often struggle to balance cost, efficiency, and accuracy, particularly when capturing the complex morphology of seedlings characterized by slender stems. To address these [...] Read more.

Analyzing three-dimensional (3D) phenotypic parameters of maize seedlings is of significant importance for maize cultivation and selection. However, existing methods often struggle to balance cost, efficiency, and accuracy, particularly when capturing the complex morphology of seedlings characterized by slender stems. To address these issues, this study proposes a novel end-to-end automated framework for extracting phenotypes using only consumer-grade RGB cameras. The pipeline initiates with Instant-NGP to rapidly reconstruct dense point clouds, establishing the 3D data foundation for phenotypic extraction. Subsequently, we formulate a directed topological graph-based mechanism. By mathematically defining bifurcation constraints via vector analysis, this mechanism guides a depth-first traversal strategy to explicitly disentangle stem and leaf skeletons. Building upon these decoupled skeletons, organ-level point cloud segmentation is achieved through constraint-based expansion, followed by density-based spatial clustering (DBSCAN) to detect individual leaves. Algorithms combining point cloud geometry with 3D Euclidean distance are also implemented to calculate key phenotypes including plant height and stem width. Finally, single-leaf skeleton fitting is used to estimate leaf length, and principal component analysis (PCA) is adopted to determine the stem–leaf angle, realizing the comprehensive automatic extraction of maize seedling phenotypes. Experiments show that the proposed method achieves high accuracy in extracting key phenotypic parameters. The mean relative errors for plant height, stem width, leaf length, stem-leaf angle, and leaf area are 0.76%, 2.93%, 1.26%, 2.13%, and 3.33%, respectively. Compared with existing methods as far as we know, the proposed method significantly improves extraction efficiency by reducing the processing time per plant to within 5 min while maintaining such high accuracy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Digital Agriculture, Smart Farming and Crop Monitoring)

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26 pages, 2230 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Biostimulants Containing Rhizobacteria on the Growth of Wheat, Barley, and Oilseed Rape Under Various Soil Moisture Conditions

by Arkadiusz Filipczak, Łukasz Sobiech, Agnieszka Wita, Roman Marecik, Wojciech Białas, Monika Grzanka, Robert Idziak and Piotr Szulc

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 400; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030400 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

Preparations containing appropriate microorganisms stimulate plant growth and are increasingly used to alleviate plant stress, including water deficit stress. Despite the growing interest in PGPR, little is known about the post-emergence efficacy of formulations based on native strains under water stress. In this [...] Read more.

Preparations containing appropriate microorganisms stimulate plant growth and are increasingly used to alleviate plant stress, including water deficit stress. Despite the growing interest in PGPR, little is known about the post-emergence efficacy of formulations based on native strains under water stress. In this study, we tested the post-emergence efficacy of preparations based on Bacillus velezensis_KT27 and Bacillus subtilis + Pseudomonas simiae + Bacillus velezensis_S103 at doses of half a liter and one liter × 200 L × ha⁻¹ in culture fluid or oil dispersion each at a final microbial cell concentration of 5 × 10⁸ (CFU/mL) for the tested strains. Our hypothesis was that the different biostimulants may positively affect plants’ tolerance to water stress. To this end, analyses of plant height, fresh weight, dry weight, chlorophyll, flavonol and anthocyanin content, and chlorophyll fluorescence were conducted under greenhouse conditions for winter wheat, winter barley, and winter oilseed rape. The preparations promoted the growth and water-stress tolerance of the selected plants, with effectiveness depending on strain, plant, dose, and formulation. B. velezensis_KT27 (0.5 L in oil dispersion) increased the dry weight of winter wheat by 17% (optimal) and 14% (water deficit stress) and of winter barley by 17% and 28%. Bacillus spp. + Pseudomonas spp. (0.5 L in oil dispersion) increased winter oilseed rape dry weight by 13% in both conditions. These findings highlight the potential of Bacillus spp. and Pseudomonas spp. for post-emergence biostimulation under variable soil levels of moisture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Pest and Disease Management)

24 pages, 4095 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of the Use of Double Roof with Increased Ventilation on the Development of Fungal Diseases in a Mediterranean Greenhouse

by María Ángeles Moreno-Teruel, Alejandro López-Martínez, Eugenio Ávalos-Sánchez, Francisco Domingo Molina-Aiz, Diego Luis Valera-Martínez, Kristoff Proost, Frederic Peilleron and Fátima Baptista

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 399; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030399 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

Mediterranean greenhouses commonly rely on passive climate control techniques to reduce dependence on energy-intensive systems. This study was conducted in Almería (Spain) in a multi-span greenhouse divided into two sectors: a West sector equipped with a double-roof system using a pink sunlight spectrum [...] Read more.

Mediterranean greenhouses commonly rely on passive climate control techniques to reduce dependence on energy-intensive systems. This study was conducted in Almería (Spain) in a multi-span greenhouse divided into two sectors: a West sector equipped with a double-roof system using a pink sunlight spectrum photoconverter film combined with an increased natural ventilation surface, and an East control sector with standard ventilation and a calcium carbonate-whitened roof. The effects of this integrated passive climate management configuration on the development of naturally occurring fungal diseases were evaluated in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.), pepper (Capsicum annuum L.), and cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.). Powdery mildew (Leveillula taurica) and early blight (Alternaria linariae) were observed in tomato; powdery mildew in pepper; and downy mildew (Pseudoperonospora cubensis), powdery mildew (Podosphaera xanthii), and gummy stem blight (Stagonosporopsis spp.) in cucumber. Across crop cycles, the sector combining double roofing and enhanced ventilation consistently exhibited lower disease severity for powdery mildew, downy mildew, and gummy stem blight compared with the control sector. In contrast, early blight did not show a clear or consistent response to the greenhouse configuration. Overall, the results indicate that the combined use of a double-roof system with a sunlight spectrum photoconverter film and increased natural ventilation can contribute to improved microclimate regulation and reduced fungal disease pressure under Mediterranean greenhouse conditions. This integrated passive approach may therefore represent a useful complementary component of sustainable disease management strategies in protected horticulture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Innovation in Sustainable and Organic Vegetable Crops Production)

7 pages, 173 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Recycling of Organic Wastes in Agriculture: Serving for Sustainable Agriculture

by Halyna Kominko and Grzegorz Izydorczyk

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 398; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030398 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

The transition toward sustainable agriculture is increasingly shaped by two converging pressures: the need to secure food production under climate and resource constraints and the imperative to reduce environmental burdens associated with linear “take–make–dispose” systems [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycling of Organic Wastes in Agriculture: Serving for Sustainable Agriculture)

14 pages, 2191 KB

Open AccessArticle

Molecular Mapping of a Stripe Rust Resistance Locus on Chromosome 4A in Wheat

by Xin Bai, Xue Li, Liujie Wang, Xiaojun Zhang, Tianling Cheng, Zhijian Chang, Juqing Jia and Xin Li

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 397; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030397 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

Wheat is among the most important staple crops worldwide; however, its yield and quality are severely threatened by stripe rust caused by Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici (Pst). CH806 is a Thinopyrum intermedium-derived resistant breeding line developed in our laboratory [...] Read more.

Wheat is among the most important staple crops worldwide; however, its yield and quality are severely threatened by stripe rust caused by Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici (Pst). CH806 is a Thinopyrum intermedium-derived resistant breeding line developed in our laboratory that is highly resistant to the prevalent Chinese Pst races CYR32, CYR33, and CYR34 in field trials. A genetic population was developed by crossing CH806 with the susceptible cultivar Chuanmai 24. Phenotypic evaluation of the progeny under field conditions revealed segregation for stripe rust resistance in the F₂ generation. On the basis of the resistance phenotypes of the F₂ and F_2:3 populations, homozygous resistant and homozygous susceptible F₂ individuals were selected to construct resistant and susceptible DNA bulks, respectively, for genotyping using the Wheat 120K SNP array. Bulked segregant analysis indicated that the most significant SNPs were predominantly clustered on chromosome 4A. Subsequently, publicly available simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers on chromosome 4A and newly developed SSR markers within the candidate region that were enriched for polymorphic SNPs were used for linkage analysis. The resistance locus, temporarily designated YrCH806, was mapped to an interval flanked by markers Xwmc48/Xwmc89 and SSR4A-60, with genetic distances of 4.4 cM and 2.5 cM, respectively, corresponding to a physical position of 515.8–574.7 Mb on the wheat reference genome. The closest flanking marker, SSR4A-60, was successfully converted into a Kompetitive Allele-Specific PCR (KASP) marker. This high-throughput marker was subsequently utilized to screen a panel of wheat germplasms for the distribution of YrCH806. This study provides a novel resistance source and associated molecular markers for improving stripe rust resistance in wheat breeding programs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Breeding and Genetics)

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21 pages, 2659 KB

Open AccessArticle

Legume Intercropping Can Boost Early-Stage Carob Plantation Establishment

by Sofia Matsi, Stella Pempetsiou, Emmanouela Christofi, Irene Nikolaou and Dimitrios Sarris

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 396; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030396 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

Tree intercropping systems with leguminous cover crops and aromatic plants may provide sustainable yields, which could be improved by beneficial microbes (BMs) and zeolite, while their effects on young tree growth remain unclear. We tested whether such systems enhance early growth in young [...] Read more.

Tree intercropping systems with leguminous cover crops and aromatic plants may provide sustainable yields, which could be improved by beneficial microbes (BMs) and zeolite, while their effects on young tree growth remain unclear. We tested whether such systems enhance early growth in young carob trees compared with conservation tillage (TLG) trees growing under rainfed semi-arid conditions. Intercropping included carobs with (i) Lathyrus ochrus, Trifolium squarrosum, and Lens culinaris combined (CC-System), (ii) Thymbra capitata planted between legumes (CCT-System), and soil amended with (iii) BM (Micosat-F-Olivo) and zeolite. All systems outperformed TLG in annual tree height increase with the CC-System excelling (TLG +13%, CC-System +42%; p < 0.05). The CC-System also significantly outpaced TLG in stem thickening (TLG 62%, CC-System 167%; p < 0.01) with BM and/or zeolite also appearing as beneficial. Improved performance was related to significantly higher dry season soil moisture, while a high L. ochrus abundance reduced thyme survival (p < 0.01). The CCT-System was also found to be less capable in weed suppression during a wet year. Thus, applying our legume intercropping system (with BM/zeolite) represents an effective nature-based solution for enhancing young carob tree growth under rainfed conditions, while adding thyme may somewhat trade productivity for biodiversity and associated ecosystem services. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Promoting Intercropping Systems in Sustainable Agriculture—2nd Edition)

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16 pages, 2096 KB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Carbon–Nitrogen Metabolism and Productivity of Smooth Bromegrass Through Alfalfa Incorporation and Nitrogen Application

by Feng Hao, Jiabing Yu, Tiefeng Yu, Haibo An and Kai Gao

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 395; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030395 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

The incorporation of alfalfa into grass systems reduces reliance on nitrogen fertilizer application. Over two consecutive years, we investigated the regulation of carbon and nitrogen metabolism in grasses and productivity enhancement under four nitrogen application rates (0, 105, 210, and 315 kg·ha⁻¹ [...] Read more.

The incorporation of alfalfa into grass systems reduces reliance on nitrogen fertilizer application. Over two consecutive years, we investigated the regulation of carbon and nitrogen metabolism in grasses and productivity enhancement under four nitrogen application rates (0, 105, 210, and 315 kg·ha⁻¹) and five alfalfa incorporation levels (0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40%); incorporation (%) refers strictly to seeding proportion (% of the monoculture seeding rate). Within the range of 20–30% alfalfa incorporation and 105–210 kg·ha⁻¹ nitrogen application, key physiological and biochemical parameters, except the net photosynthetic rate (P_n), reached their peak values compared to the N0A0 (no nitrogen and no alfalfa) treatment. Transpiration rate (T_r), intercellular CO₂ concentration (C_i), and stomatal conductance (G_s) increased by 43.64%, 40%, and 48.09%, respectively. P_n peaked under the N2A0 treatment (210 kg·ha⁻¹ nitrogen application and no alfalfa), increased by 65.63%. Nitrate reductase (NR), glutamine synthetase (GS), and ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase (RuBisCO) activity increased by 154.60%, 112.39%, and 199.19%, respectively. Total sugar (TS) and protein production (YCP) increased by 122.22% and 145.17%, respectively. The entropy-weighted TOPSIS evaluation based on multi-objective assessment showed that the combination of 20% alfalfa incorporation with 105 kg N·ha⁻¹ application is an efficient model for enhancing forage productivity in the Horqin Sandy Land. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Grassland and Pasture Science)

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6 pages, 174 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Intelligent Information Systems for Agriculture Based onVision Technology

by Arjun Neupane, Tej Bahadur Shahi and Richard Koech

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 394; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030394 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

The traditional approach to agriculture is changing due to rapid advances in technologies such as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), proximal and remote sensors, and the Internet of Things (IoT) [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Information System for Agriculture Based on Vision Technology)

12 pages, 2308 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fine-Mapping and Candidate Gene Analysis of qAT3 for Alkalinity Tolerance in Rice

by Lei Lei, Jinsong Zhou, Guohua Ding, Liangzi Cao, Yu Luo, Lei Chen, Yang Ren, Jiangxu Wang, Kai Liu, Qingjun Lei, Yusong Miao, Tingting Xie, Wei Zheng and Shichen Sun

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 393; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030393 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

Salinity–alkalinity stress is one of the major abiotic stresses that limit rice production in the world. The salinity–alkalinity tolerance of rice at the germination stage has a direct effect on the survival and final yield of seedlings in direct sowing. However, there are [...] Read more.

Salinity–alkalinity stress is one of the major abiotic stresses that limit rice production in the world. The salinity–alkalinity tolerance of rice at the germination stage has a direct effect on the survival and final yield of seedlings in direct sowing. However, there are few reports of quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping and mapping-based cloning of alkaline tolerance at the bud burst stage. Here, new alkaline tolerance loci were constructed for F_2:3 and BC₃F₄ by using IR36 and Long-Dao124 (LD124) rice varieties with significant differences in alkaline tolerance. Through linkage analysis and a fine-mapping strategy, qAT3 was identified as the major QTL for alkaline tolerance at the bud burst stage, which could explain 14.79% of the phenotypic variation on average. Then the interval was fine-mapped to 110.265 kb, and the candidate gene LOC_Os03g03150 was predicted by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) analysis and sequencing analysis. This provides a key theory for the molecular breeding of alkali-tolerant genes and the study of the molecular mechanism of alkali tolerance in LD124. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Breeding and Genetics)

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28 pages, 2701 KB

Open AccessReview

Mycofumigation with Beneficial Yeasts: An Eco-Friendly Approach Against Postharvest Pathogens

by Rochelle C. Olana, Dulanjalee Lakmali Harishchandra, Sukanya Haituk, Christian Joseph R. Cumagun and Ratchadawan Cheewangkoon

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 392; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030392 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

Postharvest fungal diseases result in substantial crop losses, with disease severity often exacerbated by inadequate handling practices and unfavorable environmental conditions. Conventional fungicides have been widely employed; however, the frequent use has led to serious challenges, including the emergence of fungicide resistance and [...] Read more.

Postharvest fungal diseases result in substantial crop losses, with disease severity often exacerbated by inadequate handling practices and unfavorable environmental conditions. Conventional fungicides have been widely employed; however, the frequent use has led to serious challenges, including the emergence of fungicide resistance and ecological concerns. Mycofumigation is a biocontrol approach that utilizes antimicrobial volatile organic compounds (VOCs) produced by beneficial fungi, including yeasts, offering a promising, eco-friendly alternative. Fungal pathogens can be controlled even without direct contact between the biocontrol agent and the crop, making it suitable and feasible for postharvest applications. The review examines how yeast VOCs exert their antifungal effects at structural and genetic levels, categorizes the major classes of VOCs with demonstrated efficacy, and evaluates their application strategies, including both single-compound and composite formulations. Additionally, practical implementation of yeast-based mycofumigants was discussed, highlighting successful applications against important postharvest pathogens under controlled conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancing Sustainable Agriculture: Biopesticides and the Biological Control for Pest Management)

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15 pages, 455 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Mushroom Spawn and Its Effects on Mushroom Growth and Development: A Systematic Review

by Hong Tham Dong, Delwar Akbar, Yujuan Li and Cheng-Yuan Xu

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 391; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030391 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

Mushrooms are among the most important indoor-grown horticultural cash crops. Recent increases in consumption are driven by shifts toward healthier diets and a growing vegan population. Mushroom spawn is one of key factors that influence consistency, quality, and the yield of mushrooms. Many [...] Read more.

Mushrooms are among the most important indoor-grown horticultural cash crops. Recent increases in consumption are driven by shifts toward healthier diets and a growing vegan population. Mushroom spawn is one of key factors that influence consistency, quality, and the yield of mushrooms. Many studies of mushroom spawn have been published but the performance of mushroom spawn under different conditions has not been summarised. Comprehensive literature searches were conducted to identify the effects of spawn on biological efficiency, and 40 publications were included in this systematic review. Most of the studies were conducted on oyster mushroom (Pleurotus spp.), and grain spawn was popularly used when studying mushroom. Spawn type and rate were demonstrated to affect mycelium growth, which directly influenced mushroom yield. The use of liquid spawn increased mycelium growth, reduced spawn running time, and enhanced mushroom yield. Most studied cases used spawn rates of 3–5% and the biological yield efficiency (BE) of Pleurotus spp. was varied from 5.18 to 173.38% if using grain spawn. The BEs of Hericicum erinacea and Volvariella volvacea inoculated with grain spawn were lower at 22.3–44.4% and 9.42–15.79%, respectively. Recently developed stick and block spawn types seem to be promising spawn with a BE ranging from 68.65 to 70.94%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Biosystem and Biological Engineering)

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24 pages, 6060 KB

Open AccessArticle

YOLO-CSB: A Model for Real-Time and Accurate Detection and Localization of Occluded Apples in Complex Orchard Environments

by Yunxiao Pan, Yiwen Chen, Xing Tong, Mengfei Liu, Anxiang Huang, Meng Zhou and Yaohua Hu

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 390; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030390 - 5 Feb 2026

Abstract

Apples are cultivated over a large global area with high yields, and efficient robotic harvesting requires accurate detection and localization, particularly in complex orchard environments where occlusion by leaves and fruits poses substantial challenges. To address this, we proposed a YOLO-CSB model-based method [...] Read more.

Apples are cultivated over a large global area with high yields, and efficient robotic harvesting requires accurate detection and localization, particularly in complex orchard environments where occlusion by leaves and fruits poses substantial challenges. To address this, we proposed a YOLO-CSB model-based method for apple detection and localization, designed to overcome occlusion and enhance the efficiency and accuracy of mechanized harvesting. Firstly, a comprehensive apple dataset was constructed, encompassing various lighting conditions and leaf obstructions, to train the model. Subsequently, the YOLO-CSB model, built upon YOLO11s, was developed with improvements including the integration of a lightweight CSFC Block to reconstruct the backbone, making the model more lightweight; the SEAM component is introduced to improve feature restoration in areas with occlusions, complemented by the efficient BiFPN approach to boost detection precision. Additionally, a 3D positioning technique integrating YOLO-CSB with an RGB-D camera is presented. Validation was conducted via ablation analyses, comparative tests, and 3D localization accuracy assessments in controlled laboratory and structured orchard settings, The YOLO-CSB model demonstrated effectiveness in apple target recognition and localization, with notable advantages under leaf and fruit occlusion conditions. Compared to the baseline YOLO11s model, YOLO-CSB improved mAP by 3.02% and reduced the parameter count by 3.19%. Against mainstream object detection models, YOLO-CSB exhibited significant advantages in detection accuracy and model size, achieving a mAP of 93.69%, precision of 88.82%, recall of 87.58%, and a parameter count of only 9.11 M. The detection accuracy in laboratory settings reached 100%, with average localization errors of 4.15 mm, 3.96 mm, and 4.02 mm in the X, Y, and Z directions, respectively. This method effectively addresses complex occlusion environments, enabling efficient detection and precise localization of apples, providing reliable technical support for mechanized harvesting. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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26 pages, 923 KB

Open AccessReview

Thermochemical Conversion of Food Waste into Biochar/Hydrochar for Soil Amendment: A Review

by Jiachen Qian, Shunfeng Jiang, Baoqiang Lv and Xiangyong Zheng

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 389; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030389 - 5 Feb 2026

Abstract

Current agriculture faces the challenge of producing sufficient food from diminishing land resources, due to deteriorating soil quality and accelerated population growth. Numerous studies have demonstrated that biochar/hydrochar can serve as efficient soil amendments by improving soil fertility and enhancing crop productivity. Various [...] Read more.

Current agriculture faces the challenge of producing sufficient food from diminishing land resources, due to deteriorating soil quality and accelerated population growth. Numerous studies have demonstrated that biochar/hydrochar can serve as efficient soil amendments by improving soil fertility and enhancing crop productivity. Various food wastes are promising raw materials for biochar/ hydrochar production due to their abundant organic matter. Recently, thermochemical techniques such as pyrolysis, hydrothermal carbonization (HTC), and microwave-assisted pyrolysis (MAP) have been widely proposed for converting food waste into biochar/hydrochar for soil amendment. However, the composition of food waste is complex and the parameters for its thermal treatment are highly variable, leading to uncertainties in the performance of the derived biochar/hydrochar for soil applications. This study aims to establish a structure–activity relationship linking food waste carbonization technology, the properties of the obtained biochar/hydrochar, and its functions as a soil amendment. Furthermore, the detailed mechanisms by which biochar improves plant growth or poses potential ecological risks to agricultural land are discussed. This review is intended to provide a guideline for the large-scale application of food waste-derived char for soil amendment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biochar-Based Fertilizers for Resilient Agriculture)

29 pages, 1906 KB

Open AccessReview

Enhancing Cereal Crop Tolerance to Low-Phosphorus Conditions Through Fertilisation Strategies: The Role of Silicon in Mitigating Phosphate Deficiency

by Ilona Kulus and Iwona Ciereszko

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 388; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030388 - 5 Feb 2026

Abstract

Phosphorus is a fundamental macronutrient, yet its low bioavailability in most soils makes phosphorus deficiency one of the most persistent constraints limiting global crop productivity. Although mineral fertilisation has long been the primary strategy for maintaining adequate P supply, inefficient fertiliser use and [...] Read more.

Phosphorus is a fundamental macronutrient, yet its low bioavailability in most soils makes phosphorus deficiency one of the most persistent constraints limiting global crop productivity. Although mineral fertilisation has long been the primary strategy for maintaining adequate P supply, inefficient fertiliser use and strong soil phosphorus fixation result in substantial losses. As a result, current research is shifting toward integrated phosphorus management approaches that combine optimised fertilisation techniques, unconventional phosphorus sources, and biological tools that mobilise soil-bound phosphorus. At the same time, silicon has emerged as a promising modulator of plant stress resilience, which can also influence phosphorus homeostasis. Silicon enhances plant physiological robustness by strengthening tissues, improving photosynthetic performance, and activating antioxidant pathways. Silicon may also modify phosphorus mobility in soils, promoting more efficient uptake and utilisation in plant tissues. This review synthesises current knowledge on physiological and molecular plant responses to phosphorus deficiency. It compares modern fertilisation strategies, ranging from precision fertilisation to unconventional phosphorus fertilisers. Particular attention is devoted to the emerging role of silicon in improving phosphorus availability and in enhancing crop plant phosphorus-use efficiency. The review concludes with future research directions that may help integrate silicon-based interventions into sustainable nutrient-management systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phosphorus–Silicon Crosstalk in Plants: Enhancing Nutrient Efficiency and Alleviating Stress)

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23 pages, 3533 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on an Automatic Seeding Performance Detection and Intelligent Reseeding Device for Leafy Vegetable Plug Seedlings

by Lei Zhong, Junming Huang, Yijuan Qin, Jie Wang, Shengye He, Yuming Luo, Xu Ma, Xueshen Chen and Suiyan Tan

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 387; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030387 - 5 Feb 2026

Abstract

To address the issues of a low single-seed qualification index and a high missed-seeding index in the process of leafy vegetable plug seedling sowing, this study proposes a lightweight seeding performance detection model named VS-YOLO based on YOLO11n. The model is then deployed [...] Read more.

To address the issues of a low single-seed qualification index and a high missed-seeding index in the process of leafy vegetable plug seedling sowing, this study proposes a lightweight seeding performance detection model named VS-YOLO based on YOLO11n. The model is then deployed on the edge device, the NVIDIA Jetson Xavier NX. A concise and intuitive graphical user interface (GUI) was developed and an automated detection system for vegetable seeding performance was constructed. Based on the empty cells identified by the system, a real-time data transmission mechanism between the Jetson device and a PLC-based control unit is established, enabling the intelligent reseeding device to perform precise reseeding at the designated cell location, achieving row-wise and cell-specific intelligent planting. VS-YOLO incorporates several innovative improvements, including the introduction of a Context Anchor Attention (CAA) module to form the C2PSA_CAA module, the adoption of the Wise Intersection over Union version 3 (WIoU v3) loss function, and the addition of an extra-small object detection head. These enhancements significantly improve the classification and recognition capability for small-sized vegetable seeds while notably reducing the number of model parameters. Experimental results show that VS-YOLO achieves a mAP@0.5 of 96.5% and an F1 Score of 93.45% in detecting the seeding performance of three types of vegetable seeds, outperforming YOLO11n’s 91.5% and 85.19% by 5.0% and 8.26%. The parameter count of VS-YOLO is only 1.61 M, which is 37.6% lower than YOLO11n’s 2.58 M, making it lightweight. Operating at a productivity rate of 120 trays per hour, the system achieved an accuracy of 99.03%, 89.83%, and 92.26% for single-seed prediction, multiple-seeding prediction, and missed-seeding prediction. The single-seed qualification index and missed-seeding index were 93.43% and 4.68%. After reseeding, these indices improved to 97.61% and 0.32%, representing an increase of 4.18% in the single-seed qualification index and a decrease of 4.36% in the missed-seeding index. The significant enhancement offers new ideas and technical approaches for the advancement of seeding performance detection and reseeding systems for vegetable plug seedling production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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25 pages, 10360 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Standardized Framework for Cleaning Non-Normal Yield Data from Wheat and Barley Crops, and Validation Using Machine Learning Models for Satellite Imagery

by Patricia Arizo-García, Sergio Castiñeira-Ibáñez, Enric Cruzado-Campos, Beatriz Ricarte, Constanza Rubio and Alberto San Bautista

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 386; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030386 - 5 Feb 2026

Abstract

Modern combine harvesters can collect real-time geolocated yield data, but it is subject to errors. Various protocols have been proposed to clean this data, each with varying levels of complexity. This data is valuable for precision agriculture to implement site-specific management and to [...] Read more.

Modern combine harvesters can collect real-time geolocated yield data, but it is subject to errors. Various protocols have been proposed to clean this data, each with varying levels of complexity. This data is valuable for precision agriculture to implement site-specific management and to train models to predict yield using remote sensing data. Machine learning and deep learning techniques have shown their potential for precision agriculture, and their performance shows no significant differences between models trained with data cleaned using a computationally demanding protocol or a simpler one, such as parametric filtering. However, parametric filtering approaches primarily rely on statistics that are highly sensitive to data distribution and do not effectively filter inliers. The objective of this study is to develop a data-cleansing method that leverages robust statistical measures, specifically the median and interquartile range, to effectively identify and filter outliers and inliers while retaining valid observations in datasets collected from combine harvesters, thereby minimizing the influence of non-normal data distributions. Different levels of data cleaning were applied to a total of 7399 ha of wheat and barley crops, and the quality of each cleaning level was compared. The selected protocol improved the spatial structure of the data, deleting up to 42% and 33% of the data at the polygon level, for wheat and barley, respectively. It increased the mean and median, and decreased the standard deviation and coefficient of variation of the data. Between 78.7% and 82.9% of the fields showed a normal distribution after applying the selected method, and machine learning performance improved compared with the raw data. Compared with previous data cleaning studies, the present work proposes an automatic, low-computational, parametric filtering method that uses robust statistics for non-normal distributions. In addition, its scalability has been demonstrated by applying the method to a large dataset, improving data quality and the performance of yield-prediction ML models in all cases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrating Yield Maps, Soil Data, and IoT for Smarter Farming)

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