Agronomy

16 pages, 2145 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cellulolytic Microbial Inoculation Enhances Sheep Manure Composting by Improving Nutrient Retention and Reshaping Microbial Community Structure

by Ze Zhou, Yincui Zhang, Changning Li, Xiaohong Chai, Shanmu He, Yang Lei and Weigang Fu

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010079 (registering DOI) - 26 Dec 2025

Abstract

Livestock manure is a major source of environmental pollution and greenhouse gas emissions if improperly managed. Aerobic composting represents a sustainable approach to manure recycling that can stabilize organic matter, mitigate carbon loss, and recover nutrients for agricultural use. In this study, sheep [...] Read more.

Livestock manure is a major source of environmental pollution and greenhouse gas emissions if improperly managed. Aerobic composting represents a sustainable approach to manure recycling that can stabilize organic matter, mitigate carbon loss, and recover nutrients for agricultural use. In this study, sheep manure was mixed with sawdust to optimize the carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio and enhance aeration, and the mixture was subjected to aerobic composting with a cellulose-degrading microbial inoculant. To rigorously evaluate the biological effects, a control treated with sterilized inoculant was included to eliminate nutrient inputs from the carrier matrix. The inoculant significantly improved composting performance by extending the thermophilic phase by five days and reducing the C/N ratio to 19.8 on day 32, thereby shortening the composting cycle. Moreover, microbial inoculation enhanced nutrient retention, resulting in a 20.14% increase in total nutrient content, while the germination index (GI) reached 89.75%, indicating high compost maturity and reduced phytotoxicity. Microbial community analysis revealed that cellulose-degrading inoculants significantly altered microbial richness and diversity and accelerated community succession. Redundancy analysis (RDA) and hierarchical partitioning analysis showed that total organic carbon (TOC) and GI were the main environmental drivers of bacterial community dynamics, whereas pH and GI primarily regulated fungal community succession. These findings suggest a strong link between compost maturity and microbial community restructuring. This study demonstrates that cellulose-degrading microbial inoculation accelerates the composting of sheep manure, enhances organic matter degradation, and improves fertilizer efficiency while reducing the phytotoxicity of the final product. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Utilization of Microorganisms for Sustainable Agricultural Development)

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18 pages, 6719 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Zinc Application on Maize Dry Matter, Zinc Uptake, and Soil Microbial Community Grown Under Different Paddy Soil pH

by Phanuphong Khongchiu, Jun Murase, Arunee Wongkaew, Kannika Sajjaphan, Orawan Kumdee, Apidet Rakpenthai and Sutkhet Nakasathien

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010078 (registering DOI) - 26 Dec 2025

Abstract

Zinc (Zn) is often of deficient in paddy soils, and optimizing its application is crucial for improving maize productivity in intensive rice–maize cropping systems. This study aimed to develop practical Zn fertilizer strategies suitable for paddy soils with varying pH levels, thereby improving [...] Read more.

Zinc (Zn) is often of deficient in paddy soils, and optimizing its application is crucial for improving maize productivity in intensive rice–maize cropping systems. This study aimed to develop practical Zn fertilizer strategies suitable for paddy soils with varying pH levels, thereby improving nutrient management and understanding of soil microbial responses. Field experiments were conducted during the 2020–2021 dry seasons at three sites: Chon Daen (pH 5.8), Noen Maprang (pH 6.7), and Lom Sak (pH 7.8). A two-factorial randomized complete block design with four replications was used, including four ZnSO₄·H₂O rates (0, 1.5, 3, and 6 times the DTPA-extractable Zn in soil) and two hybrid maize varieties, Suwan 5731 and Suwan 5819. Results showed that at Chon Daen, Zn application significantly enhanced shoot Zn uptake and soil Zn concentration, with SW5819 exhibiting greater Zn efficiency and biomass production. At Noen Maprang, Zn application did not significantly affect dry matter, while, at Lom Sak, Zn responses were moderate, though SW5819 maintained better growth and Zn uptake. Across sites, maize Zn efficiency was highest under acidic conditions and in SW5819. Soil microbial communities remained largely unaffected by Zn fertilization and were primarily influenced by soil pH, with Proteobacteria, Crenarchaeota, and Ascomycota dominating bacterial, archaeal, and fungal groups, respectively. These findings support the feasibility of Zn fertilization strategies to enhance both crop productivity and nutritional quality without altering the microbial community composition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations and Obstacles: Microbial Communities in the Journey of Soil Remediation)

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15 pages, 1876 KB

Open AccessArticle

Liming Alters Microbial Communities Affecting Nitrification in the Rhizosphere of Camellia sinensis

by Chang Zhao, Xiaoxiang He, Han Jiang, Xiaoyan Wang, Jinjuan Gao and Chanjuan Hu

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010077 (registering DOI) - 26 Dec 2025

Abstract

After years of cultivation, tea garden soils gradually become acidified and compacted. Liming to ameliorate soil acidification alters the soil microbial activity and community structure, ultimately affecting the soil nitrogen cycling and nitrogen use efficiency of tea plants. In this study, ammonium-preferring tea [...] Read more.

After years of cultivation, tea garden soils gradually become acidified and compacted. Liming to ameliorate soil acidification alters the soil microbial activity and community structure, ultimately affecting the soil nitrogen cycling and nitrogen use efficiency of tea plants. In this study, ammonium-preferring tea plants (Camellia sinensis) were cultivated in lime-amended soils across a pH gradient (pH 4.5, pH 5.5, pH 6.5, and pH 7.5) to assess the impacts of soil liming on the structure and composition of the rhizosphere microbial community. The results demonstrated that, as the soil pH increased, the diversity and richness of both bacterial and fungal communities exhibited a gradual decline. The biomasses of AOA and AOB were dominated in acid soils and alkaline soils, respectively. The abundance of Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, and Bacteroidetes in pH 6.5 and pH 7.5 were 16.56–22.56%, 16.29–18.09%, and 1.65–4.52% times higher than those in pH 4.5 and pH 5.5 soils. Ascomycota and Basidiomycota were accounting for 89.93% of all the species. Across the rising pH gradient, the relative abundance of Ascomycota significantly increased by 9.64–20.49%, whereas Basidiomycota decreased by 1.11–15.01%. The RDA analysis results showed the soil pH was the main effect factor for the differences in the structure and composition of bacterial and fungal communities. This conclusion provides theoretical support for the optimization of acidic soil improvement techniques after long-term tea cultivation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Effective Strategies for Rangeland Conservation and Sustainable Management)

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16 pages, 2202 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Formulation on Spray Nozzle Performance for Applications from Unmanned Aerial Spraying Systems (UASSs)

by Qi Liu, Ding Ma, Haiyan Zhang, Lei Liang, Long Zhang, Yuxiang Wang and Yubin Lan

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010076 (registering DOI) - 26 Dec 2025

Abstract

The atomization performance of the nozzle is a critical factor influencing the pesticide application efficiency and drift behavior of agricultural unmanned aerial spraying systems (UASSs). However, the underlying atomization mechanisms of such nozzles have not yet been fully elucidated. In this study, a [...] Read more.

The atomization performance of the nozzle is a critical factor influencing the pesticide application efficiency and drift behavior of agricultural unmanned aerial spraying systems (UASSs). However, the underlying atomization mechanisms of such nozzles have not yet been fully elucidated. In this study, a Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) system was employed to evaluate the liquid sheet breakup mode, breakup length, droplet size distribution, and velocity distribution of a fan-shaped nozzle used in UASSs. Experiments were conducted under a series of spray pressures (ranging from 0.10 to 0.50 MPa, with an increment of 0.05 MPa) using sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate (SDS) surfactant solutions at four concentrations (0%, 0.2%, 0.5%, and 1.0%). The results demonstrated that both the SDS surfactant and spray pressure significantly influenced the liquid sheet breakup process and atomization behavior. High concentrations of surfactant solution had a pronounced effect on the surface tension of the spraying liquid, delaying the onset of liquid sheet breakup, enlarging the overall droplet size distribution, and reducing the droplet velocity components along the X-axis and Y-axis. Conversely, higher spray pressures facilitated liquid sheet breakup, decreased the overall droplet size, and increased the droplet velocity distribution. This study provides fundamental experimental data for quantifying the effects of solution surface tension and spray pressure on the atomization performance of fan-shaped nozzles. These data provide systematic support for the evaluation of nozzle atomization performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Next-Generation Pesticide Application Technologies: Precision, Safety and Environmental Sustainability)

17 pages, 1186 KB

Open AccessArticle

Biochar Silicon Content Divergently Regulates N₂O Emissions and Cadmium Availability in Acidic Soils

by Xintong Xu, Xixian Xie, Hongyuan Huang, Yadi Yu, Xiaoqin Lai and Ling Zhang

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010075 (registering DOI) - 26 Dec 2025

Abstract

Acidic agricultural soils are frequently challenged by co-occurring heavy metal contamination and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. While biochar is widely used for integrated remediation, the specific role of silicon (Si) in modulating its effectiveness in cadmium (Cd) stabilization and nitrous oxide (N₂ [...] Read more.

Acidic agricultural soils are frequently challenged by co-occurring heavy metal contamination and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. While biochar is widely used for integrated remediation, the specific role of silicon (Si) in modulating its effectiveness in cadmium (Cd) stabilization and nitrous oxide (N₂O) mitigation remains insufficiently understood. This study evaluated the co-remediation efficacy of two types of high-Si (bamboo leaves, ML; rice straw, RS) and two types of low-Si (Camellia oleifera leaves, CL; Camellia oleifera shells, CS) biochar, produced at 450 °C, within a Cd-contaminated and nitrogen-fertilized acidic soil. Results from a 90-day incubation showed that while all biochar effectively immobilized Cd, the low-Si CL biochar exhibited a superior stabilization efficiency of 66.2%. This enhanced performance was attributed to its higher soil organic carbon (SOC) and moderate dissolved organic carbon (DOC) release, which facilitated robust Cd²⁺ sorption and complexation. In contrast, high-Si biochar was more effective in mitigating cumulative N₂O emissions (up to 67.8%). This mitigation was strongly associated with an elevated abundance of the nosZ gene (up to 48.1%), which catalyzes the terminal step of denitrification. Soil pH and DOC were identified as pivotal drivers regulating both Cd bioavailability and N₂O dynamics. Collectively, low-Si biochar is preferable for Cd stabilization in acidic soils, whereas high-Si biochar is more effective at elevating pH and reducing N₂O emissions. These findings emphasize that optimizing co-remediation outcomes necessitates a targeted approach, selecting biochar based on the specific contamination profile and desired environmental benefits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Progress in Biochar and Microbial Remediation for Heavy Metal Agricultural Soil)

29 pages, 14822 KB

Open AccessArticle

Estimation of Cotton Aboveground Biomass Based on UAV Multispectral Images: Multi-Feature Fusion and CNN Model

by Shuhan Huang, Xinjun Wang, Hanyu Cui, Qingfu Liang, Songrui Ning, Haoran Yang, Panfeng Wang and Jiandong Sheng

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010074 (registering DOI) - 26 Dec 2025

Abstract

Precise estimation of cotton aboveground biomass (AGB) plays a crucial role in effectively analyzing growth variations and development of cotton, as well as guiding agricultural management practices. Multispectral (MS) sensors mounted on UAVs offer a practical and accurate approach for estimating the AGB [...] Read more.

Precise estimation of cotton aboveground biomass (AGB) plays a crucial role in effectively analyzing growth variations and development of cotton, as well as guiding agricultural management practices. Multispectral (MS) sensors mounted on UAVs offer a practical and accurate approach for estimating the AGB of cotton. Many previous studies have mainly emphasized the combination of spectral and texture features, as well as canopy height (CH). However, current research overlooks the potential of integrating spectral, textural features, and CH to estimate AGB. In addition, the accumulation of AGB often exhibits synergistic effects rather than a simple additive relationship. Conventional algorithms, including Bayesian Ridge Regression (BRR) and Random Forest Regression (RFR), often fail to accurately capture the nonlinear and intricate correlations between biomass and its relevant variables. Therefore, this research develops a method to estimate cotton AGB by integrating multiple feature information with a deep learning model. Spectral and texture features were derived from MS images. Cotton CH extracted from UAV point cloud data. Variables of multiple features were selected using Spearman’s Correlation (SC) coefficients and the variance inflation factor (VIF). Convolutional neural network (CNN) was chosen to build a model for estimating cotton AGB and contrasted with traditional machine learning models (RFR and BRR). The results indicated that (1) combining spectral, textural features, and CH yielded the highest precision in cotton AGB estimation; (2) compared to traditional ML models (RFR and BRR), the accuracy of applying CNN for estimating cotton AGB is better. CNN has more advanced power to learn complex nonlinear relationships among cotton AGB and multiple features; (3) the most effective strategy in this study involves combining spectral, texture features, and CH, selecting variables using the SC and VIF methods, and employing CNN for estimating AGB of cotton. The R² of this model is 0.80, with an RMSE of 0.17 kg·m⁻² and an MAE of 0.11 kg·m⁻². This study develops a framework for evaluating cotton AGB by multiple features fusion with a deep learning model. It provides technical support for monitoring crop growth and improving field management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Deep and Machine Learning in Crop Monitoring and Management—2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 2212 KB

Open AccessArticle

Soil Organic Carbon and Nitrogen Fractions as Affected by the Co-Incorporation of Rice and Chinese Milk Vetch Residues in Paddy Fields

by Yuanfeng Hao, Zhi Wang, Shanshan Wang, Chunyang Gu, Hongjuan Lu, Zonglin Shi and Shuo Li

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010073 (registering DOI) - 26 Dec 2025

Abstract

Co-incorporating rice straw and Chinese milk vetch (CMV) residues can enhance soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration and productivity. However, limited information exists regarding its effects on SOC and nitrogen (N) pools as well as the sustainability of rice production in the middle and [...] Read more.

Co-incorporating rice straw and Chinese milk vetch (CMV) residues can enhance soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration and productivity. However, limited information exists regarding its effects on SOC and nitrogen (N) pools as well as the sustainability of rice production in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River Basin. A 3-year field experiment was conducted to assess the effects of co-incorporating rice and CMV residues into paddy soils with chemical-N reduction on SOC and total N (TN) sequestration, SOC and N fractions, grain yields and the sustainable yield index (SYI) in Ma’anshan City, Anhui Province. The treatments included winter fallow–rice rotation without or with both rice straw incorporation and fertilization, as the control (CK and WF-IF, respectively), and rice-CMV rotation with the co-incorporation of rice and CMV residues under 100%, 80%, and 70% recommended N fertilization (CMV-IF, CMV-MIF and CMV-LIF, respectively). Compared with the CK, the CMV-IF significantly increased the rice grain yield and the SYI by 82.1% and 90.4%, respectively. The SOC and TN stocks under CMV-IF were significantly enhanced by 6.3% and 26.4%, respectively, relative to the CK. The CMV-IF exhibited the highest soil active organic C (AOC) and active total N (ATN) contents, followed by CMV-MIF, CMV-LIF, WF-IF, and CK. Microbial biomass C and microbial biomass N were the primary components of soil AOC and ATN, respectively, and linked more explicitly to the SYI than other soil C and N parameters. Therefore, the co-incorporation of rice and CMV residues, coupled with 70~80% recommended N fertilization, might represent an environmentally friendly field management practice for rice production in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River Basin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Innovative Cropping Systems)

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15 pages, 2398 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Different Potassium Fertilizer Application Rates on the Yield and Potassium Utilization Efficiency of Maize in Xinjiang, China

by Gonghao Cao, Licun Zhang, Guodong Wang, Jiliang Zheng and Fei Liang

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010072 (registering DOI) - 26 Dec 2025

Abstract

Potassium (K) is crucial for global maize (Zea mays L.) production, yet the issue of “high K fertilizer input but low utilization efficiency” in K-rich soils of Xinjiang remains underexplored. A three-year field experiment (2020, 2021, 2024) in Xinjiang evaluated the effects [...] Read more.

Potassium (K) is crucial for global maize (Zea mays L.) production, yet the issue of “high K fertilizer input but low utilization efficiency” in K-rich soils of Xinjiang remains underexplored. A three-year field experiment (2020, 2021, 2024) in Xinjiang evaluated the effects of reduced K application on maize growth, grain yield (GY), and K-use efficiency. Five treatments were tested: K100 (136.0 kg K₂O·ha⁻¹), K60 (83.5 kg K₂O·ha⁻¹), K40 (55.6 kg K₂O·ha⁻¹), K0 (no K), and CK (no fertilizer). The research shows that K60 significantly outperforms K100 in terms of physiological parameters (plant height + 2.7–34.7%, leaf area index (LAI) + 6.3–26.8%, dry matter + 22.0–28.8%); GY and thousand kernel weight (TKW) improved by 6.9–15.1% and 9.3–30.3%, respectively. The potassium fertilizer productivity (PFP_K) and potassium fertilizer agronomic efficiency (AE_K) increased by 78–112.3% and 176.4–2085% compared to the K100. During the three-year period, the maximum net income of K60 reached 28,206 CNY·ha⁻¹, which was 18.9–20.7% higher than that of K100. Regression analysis identified an optimal K rate of 82.2–85 kg·ha⁻¹ for maximum yield. Least squares structural equation mode (PLS-SEM) and correlation analyses revealed that moderate K reduction enhanced vegetative growth and optimized yield structure, indirectly boosting yield, thereby directly driving net income. Thus, reducing K input can achieve “lower input with higher efficiency”, offering a practical basis for optimizing K management in arid-region maize systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Safe and Efficient Utilization of Water and Fertilizer in Crops)

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29 pages, 7545 KB

Open AccessArticle

Winter Wheat Yield Estimation Under Different Management Practices Using Multi-Source Data Fusion

by Hao Kong, Jingxu Wang, Taiyi Cai, Jun Du, Chang Zhao, Chanjuan Hu and Han Jiang

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010071 (registering DOI) - 25 Dec 2025

Abstract

Accurate crop yield estimation under differentiated management practices is a core requirement for the development of smart agriculture. However, current yield estimation models face two major challenges: limited adaptability to different management practices, thus exhibiting poor generalizability, and ineffective integration of multi-source remote [...] Read more.

Accurate crop yield estimation under differentiated management practices is a core requirement for the development of smart agriculture. However, current yield estimation models face two major challenges: limited adaptability to different management practices, thus exhibiting poor generalizability, and ineffective integration of multi-source remote sensing features, limiting further improvements in estimation accuracy. To address these issues, this study integrated UAV-based multispectral and thermal infrared remote sensing data to propose a yield estimation framework based on multi-source feature fusion. First, three machine learning algorithms—Partial Least Squares Regression (PLSR), Random Forest (RF), and Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost)—were employed to retrieve key biochemical parameters of winter wheat. The RF model demonstrated superior performance, with retrieval accuracies for chlorophyll, nitrogen, and phosphorus contents of R² = 0.8347, 0.5914, and 0.9364 and RMSE = 0.2622, 0.4127, and 0.0236, respectively. Subsequently, yield estimation models were constructed by integrating the retrieved biochemical parameters with phenotypic traits such as plant height and biomass. The RF model again exhibited superior performance (R² = 0.66, RMSE = 867.28 kg/ha). SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) analysis identified May chlorophyll content (Chl-5) and March chlorophyll content (Chl-3) as the most critical variables for yield prediction, with stable positive contributions to yield when their values exceeded 2.80 mg/g and 2.50 mg/g, respectively. The quantitative assessment of management practices revealed that the straw return + 50% inorganic fertilizer + 50% organic fertilizer (RIO50) treatment under the combined organic–inorganic fertilization regime achieved the highest measured grain yield (11,469 kg/ha). Consequently, this treatment can be regarded as an optimized practice for attaining high yield. This study confirms that focusing on chlorophyll dynamics during key physiological stages is an effective approach for enhancing yield estimation accuracy under varied management practices, providing a technical basis for precise field management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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38 pages, 1347 KB

Open AccessReview

Hormonal and Environmental Factors Influencing Secondary Somatic Embryogenesis

by Milica D. Bogdanović, Katarina B. Ćuković and Slađana I. Todorović

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010070 - 25 Dec 2025

Abstract

Secondary somatic embryogenesis (SSE) represents a powerful tool for clonal propagation, efficient genetic modification, and plant conservation, enabling the continuous production of secondary somatic embryos (SSEs) from previously formed embryogenic tissues. The efficiency of SSE is determined both by external factors such as [...] Read more.

Secondary somatic embryogenesis (SSE) represents a powerful tool for clonal propagation, efficient genetic modification, and plant conservation, enabling the continuous production of secondary somatic embryos (SSEs) from previously formed embryogenic tissues. The efficiency of SSE is determined both by external factors such as exogenous hormonal and environmental conditions and internal cues such as explant type and genotype. Auxins, particularly synthetic 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), represent key factors in inducing and maintaining embryogenic competence, while cytokinins often modulate the differentiation and proliferation of SSEs. The interplay of plant growth regulators (PGRs) not only affects the frequency of SSE induction, but also the morphology and proper development of the resulting embryos. Here, we provide a comprehensive review on hormonal treatments, especially the role of auxins and cytokinins and environmental factors such as temperature, light, and culture medium composition, that shape the embryogenic potential in SSE, with species-specific responses frequently being observed. The importance of primary explant selection, as well as the liquid phase and potential scale-up with bioreactors, are also discussed. Other challenges related to genotype recalcitrance, limited efficiency, maturation and conversion rates, and the lack of an advanced molecular approach are further addressed, providing a framework for improved regeneration and reliability across diverse species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Tissue Culture and Plant Somatic Embryogenesis–2nd Edition)

23 pages, 1598 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cascading Effects of Soil Properties, Microbial Stoichiometry, and Plant Phenology on Nematode Communities in Greenhouse Melons

by Jing Ju, Peng Chen, Wei Mao, Xianglin Liu, Haitao Zhao and Ping Liu

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010069 - 25 Dec 2025

Abstract

Intensive greenhouse management profoundly alters soil biogeochemical processes and biotic interactions, distinguishing greenhouse soils from open-field systems. Understanding the drivers of soil fauna assembly is essential for sustaining soil health and productivity. In this study, we examined nematode community drivers in greenhouse melon [...] Read more.

Intensive greenhouse management profoundly alters soil biogeochemical processes and biotic interactions, distinguishing greenhouse soils from open-field systems. Understanding the drivers of soil fauna assembly is essential for sustaining soil health and productivity. In this study, we examined nematode community drivers in greenhouse melon systems under 2- and 10-year rotations using environmental DNA sequencing. Plant phenology, more than rotation, shaped nematode communities, particularly omnivore predators and bacterivores. This driver was mirrored by a shift in nematode faunal indices from an enriched, bacterial-dominated state at seedling stages to a structured state at maturity. LDA Effect Size and random forest identified key genera (Prismatolaimus, Acrobeloides, and Ceramonema), demonstrating multidimensional drivers of community assembly. Redundancy analysis showed soil organic matter (SOM) and acid phosphatase as major drivers. Mantel tests indicated that the microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen ratio (MBC/MBN) consistently explained community variation (relative abundance: r = 0.229; functional diversity: r = 0.321). Structural equation modeling linked available phosphorus to microbial carbon cycling via cumulative carbon mineralization (CCM, 0.41) and MBC (0.40). SOM increased MBN (0.62) but suppressed Chao1 (−0.76). MBN had the strongest positive effect on Pielou_e (0.49). pH negatively affected functional diversity (−0.33), while nitrate nitrogen (0.35) and CCM (0.32) had positive effects. Our results indicate that MBC and MBN act as microbial bridges linking soil properties to nematode diversity, providing a mechanistic basis for optimizing greenhouse soil management and ecosystem functioning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Arable Farming Measures on Soil Quality—2nd Edition)

24 pages, 1826 KB

Open AccessArticle

Environmental Stress Tolerance and Intraspecific Variability in Cortaderia selloana: Implications for Invasion Risk in Mediterranean Wetlands

by M. Isabel Martínez-Nieto, Eugeny Penchev Stefanov, Adrián Sapiña-Solano, Diana-Maria Mircea, Oscar Vicente and Monica Boscaiu

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010068 - 25 Dec 2025

Abstract

Cortaderia selloana is an invasive grass spreading rapidly and becoming a serious environmental concern in many areas of the world. The species expanded to the Iberian Peninsula, including its eastern coast, where it increasingly occupies diverse ecosystems. This is the first evaluation of [...] Read more.

Cortaderia selloana is an invasive grass spreading rapidly and becoming a serious environmental concern in many areas of the world. The species expanded to the Iberian Peninsula, including its eastern coast, where it increasingly occupies diverse ecosystems. This is the first evaluation of C. selloana’s tolerance to salinity and water deficit, combined with heat stress, during two key developmental stages: germination and early vegetative growth. Experimental trials were conducted using seeds and juvenile plants from two populations. Elevated temperature reduced germination, biomass accumulation, and shoot elongation, particularly when combined with water or salt stress. Drought exerted the strongest inhibitory effect on photosynthetic pigments, whereas salinity mainly affected carotenoid content, mostly in one of the populations analysed. Proline accumulation increased under drought and salinity, reaching up to 70 µmol·g⁻¹ DW, but to a lesser extent when combined with a heat treatment, suggesting enhanced proline catabolism at high temperature. Total soluble sugars tended to increase under water deficit (from ~75 to >100 mg equivalent of glucose g⁻¹ DW), indicating a potential osmoprotective shift from proline to carbohydrates. These results highlight intraspecific variability in stress tolerance and emphasise that C. selloana’s success in Mediterranean environments depends on its capacity to withstand transient but not prolonged combined stresses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agroecology Innovation: Achieving System Resilience)

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20 pages, 6323 KB

Open AccessArticle

DSS-YOLO: A Lightweight Flower and Stamen Detection Model for Greenhouse Tomato Pollination Assistance

by Shan Zhang, Dongfang Zhang, Jun Zhang, Jiaqi Wang, Yibing Zhang, Xiaofei Fan and Yuhong Zhou

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010067 - 25 Dec 2025

Abstract

The accurate detection of tomato flowers and stamens in greenhouse environments is a key technology for achieving automated pollination and intelligent crop management. However, during the detection process, tomato flowers and stamens often face challenges such as overlapping, leaf occlusion, complex backgrounds, and [...] Read more.

The accurate detection of tomato flowers and stamens in greenhouse environments is a key technology for achieving automated pollination and intelligent crop management. However, during the detection process, tomato flowers and stamens often face challenges such as overlapping, leaf occlusion, complex backgrounds, and difficulties in small-scale feature extraction, which severely impact detection accuracy. Therefore, this paper proposes a lightweight detection model, termed DSS-YOLO. First, the backbone network of YOLOv11n was replaced with HGNetv2, and depthwise separable convolution (DWConv) was incorporated to construct a multiscale lightweight feature extraction network, named DWHGNetv2. This design enhances the feature extraction capability for tomato flowers while reducing computational cost and overall model complexity. Second, traditional convolution-based downsampling layers were replaced with the SCDown module to improve computational efficiency and feature representation. Furthermore, the SIoU loss function was introduced to optimize the localization accuracy of angle-sensitive targets, such as stamens. Experimental results demonstrate that DSS-YOLO consistently outperforms the baseline YOLOv11n. Compared with YOLOv11n, the model size, parameter count, and computational cost are reduced by 34%, 36%, and 35%, respectively, while precision, recall, and mean Average Precision at an IoU threshold of 0.5 (mAP@0.5) are improved by 1.1%, 1.0%, and 0.7%, respectively. These results indicate that DSS-YOLO provides a robust and efficient solution for high-precision tomato flower and stamen detection, meeting the practical requirements of pollination robots in greenhouse environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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27 pages, 1246 KB

Open AccessArticle

From Oligotrophic to Eutrophic States: Floristic Responses to Long-Term Organic and Mineral Fertilization in Mountain Grasslands

by Ioana Ghețe, Borlea Mihaela, Claudiu Șerban and Alexandru Ghețe

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010066 - 25 Dec 2025

Abstract

High-Nature-Value (HNV) mountain grasslands are highly sensitive to nutrient enrichment, and understanding their responses to contrasting fertilization regimes is essential for safeguarding biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. This study compared the long-term effects of organic and mineral fertilization on floristic composition, vegetation types, and [...] Read more.

High-Nature-Value (HNV) mountain grasslands are highly sensitive to nutrient enrichment, and understanding their responses to contrasting fertilization regimes is essential for safeguarding biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. This study compared the long-term effects of organic and mineral fertilization on floristic composition, vegetation types, and diversity in HNV grasslands in the Apuseni Mountains. After 15 years of differentiated inputs, moderate organic fertilization preserved a floristic structure closely related to oligotrophic grasslands and maintained a high degree of structural heterogeneity typical of habitat type 6520, while supporting a diverse assemblage of stress-tolerant species. In contrast, mineral fertilization induced marked shifts toward mesotrophic and eutrophic communities, reduced species richness, and promoted the dominance of nitrophilous grass. Multivariate analyses (PCoA, MRPP, and ISA) consistently distinguished the treatments, revealing distinct successional pathways shaped by nutrient sources and input intensity. Overall, the findings demonstrate the high sensitivity of HNV grasslands to fertilization and underscore the ecological importance of moderate organic inputs in maintaining community stability and characteristic floristic patterns in nutrient-limited mountain ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Grassland and Pasture Science)

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14 pages, 2342 KB

Open AccessArticle

A One-Month-Delayed Secondary Harvest Induced by Pre-Flowering Shoot Tipping Improves Yield and Quality of ‘Chunguang’ Grape Under Protected Cultivation in Northern China

by Yonggang Yin, Nan Jia, Bin Han, Changjiang Liu, Yan Sun, Xinyu Wang, Shuli Han and Minmin Li

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 65; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010065 - 25 Dec 2025

Abstract

Protected cultivation ensures stable conditions for premium table grape production but involves high initial costs. A double-cropping system enabling a delayed secondary harvest within a single season may increase yield and accelerate cost recovery, yet the characteristics of the secondary harvest remain poorly [...] Read more.

Protected cultivation ensures stable conditions for premium table grape production but involves high initial costs. A double-cropping system enabling a delayed secondary harvest within a single season may increase yield and accelerate cost recovery, yet the characteristics of the secondary harvest remain poorly understood. In the paper, we compared the fruit quality of FH (first harvest) and SH (second harvest) of the early-ripening cultivar ‘Chunguang’ produced in northern China. The results showed that the SH contributed to a 23.9% increase in total yield. SH berries were smaller, with a mean weight of 6.7 g, and exhibited darker skins, higher anthocyanin content (11 mg g⁻¹ fresh skin), higher seed number, higher accumulated sugar components, and 4.55 mg L⁻¹ of titratable acids. This study provides the first evidence that a secondary harvesting system under protected cultivation can simultaneously enhance yield and fruit quality in northern grape-growing regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Agronomical Practices on Crop Quality and Sensory Profile—3rd Edition)

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17 pages, 12172 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Advantage of Tree–Shrub–Grass Vegetation Structures in Urban Green Spaces for Mitigating Atmospheric Pollutant NO₂

by Xiangyi Zhang, Ying Chen, Qianqian Sheng, Shuang Song, Yuxiang Liang and Zunling Zhu

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 64; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010064 - 25 Dec 2025

Abstract

Urban green spaces, as crucial components, can effectively mitigate atmospheric pollutants such as NO₂. However, the heterogeneous driving forces and the underlying quantitative mechanisms of different vegetation community structures in response to NO₂ exposure remain insufficiently explored. This study utilized [...] Read more.

Urban green spaces, as crucial components, can effectively mitigate atmospheric pollutants such as NO₂. However, the heterogeneous driving forces and the underlying quantitative mechanisms of different vegetation community structures in response to NO₂ exposure remain insufficiently explored. This study utilized a laboratory-based artificial fumigation method to examine the NO₂ mitigation benefits and response mechanisms of three representative vegetation structures (tree–shrub–grass, tree-shrub, and tree-grass) as well as their monoculture communities under NO₂ stress. The objective was to elucidate the variations in NO₂ reduction capacity and the adaptive mechanisms associated with different vegetation structures. The results demonstrated that, under NO₂ exposure, the NO₂ reduction rate of the tree–shrub–grass mixed community was 56.15 mg·h⁻¹. NO₂ stress inhibited leaf morphogenesis and plant growth. However, the tree–shrub–herbaceous community enhanced its NO₂ tolerance by reallocating photosynthetic products and increasing epidermal thickness, stomatal density, and the compactness of tissue structure, thereby strengthening its mechanical barrier function. The NO₂ reduction rate was positively correlated with parameters such as net photosynthetic rate, stomatal density, leaf width, transpiration rate, and stomatal conductance, but negatively correlated with fluorescence and the leaf length-to-width ratio. A comprehensive evaluation based on fuzzy membership functions ranked the NO₂ mitigation and tolerance capacities of plant communities as follows: the tree–shrub–herbaceous community exhibited the strongest capacity for NO₂ reduction and stress tolerance. Thus, in NO₂-polluted areas, priority should be given to establishing tree–shrub–grass composite vegetation structures, whose multidimensional resistance mechanisms provide both a theoretical foundation and a technical pathway for the ecological restoration of urban green spaces. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Plant Physiological and Ecological Responses to Environmental Stress)

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23 pages, 2104 KB

Open AccessReview

Effects of Iron Oxide Phase Transformations in Paddy Soils on Organic Carbon Stabilization: A Review

by Xinyu Gao, Zhuoyi Li, Xinran Liang, Bo Li, Zuran Li, Lei Wang, Yongmei He, Fangdong Zhan, Yuan Li and Siteng He

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010063 - 25 Dec 2025

Abstract

Iron oxides are crucial for the long-term storage of soil organic carbon (SOC) in paddy soils, making them a key factor in global carbon cycles and important for strategies aimed at combating climate change. This review examines the role of iron oxides in [...] Read more.

Iron oxides are crucial for the long-term storage of soil organic carbon (SOC) in paddy soils, making them a key factor in global carbon cycles and important for strategies aimed at combating climate change. This review examines the role of iron oxides in paddy soils, particularly their interaction with SOC, which helps stabilize carbon and contributes to mitigating climate change. These processes of iron oxide phase transformations, wet–dry cycles, and microbial activity help trap carbon in the soil, supporting climate change mitigation efforts. Wet–dry cycles promote mineral dissolution and re-precipitation, forming new reactive surfaces and OC-Fe complexes. Future research should adopt a multi-scale approach to better connect molecular mechanisms with ecosystem-level carbon processes. A deeper understanding of iron oxide behavior in paddy soils will support the development of sustainable soil management practices and improve models for predicting soil carbon sequestration under climate change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agroecology Innovation: Achieving System Resilience)

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14 pages, 790 KB

Open AccessCommunication

Direct Biochar–Root Interactions May Alter Cadmium Sequestration at the Interface: A Hydroponic Study

by Cidong Jiang, Lihui Xiang, Yu Cheng, Qiang Liu, Jackson Nkoh Nkoh and Hailong Lu

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010062 - 25 Dec 2025

Abstract

Biochar is widely recognized for its ability to immobilize heavy metals in soil, yet its direct effect on plant physiological metal-sequestration capacity remains poorly understood. This study explores a critical distinction between two mechanisms: direct, concurrent metal immobilization by biochar versus its capacity [...] Read more.

Biochar is widely recognized for its ability to immobilize heavy metals in soil, yet its direct effect on plant physiological metal-sequestration capacity remains poorly understood. This study explores a critical distinction between two mechanisms: direct, concurrent metal immobilization by biochar versus its capacity to physiologically precondition plants, altering their inherent metal uptake and distribution. Using a hydroponic design with pH-matched controls, the latter was isolated by preconditioning rice plants with peanut straw biochar (PSB) or corn straw biochar (CSB) and subsequently removing amendments before cadmium (Cd) exposure. Our results reveal that biochar (PSB) preconditioning may modify root architecture and surface chemistry, enhancing negative zeta potential and functional group density. This modification increased root Cd adsorption capacity by 50.1% and 142.7% within 2 h or 2.2% and 52.6% within 48 h compared to the normal and pH-adjusted controls, respectively, with shifted metal speciation toward stable complexes. However, this enhanced root sequestration coincided with an increased translocation factor, elevating shoot Cd content by 78% compared to the normal control. In contrast, CSB preconditioning showed negligible effects. Our findings suggest that biochar’s net impact on metal distribution is probably the product of two temporally distinct processes: chemical immobilization in growth media versus physiological preconditioning effects. This dual mechanism framework may explain the variability in literature reports on the effect of biochar on heavy metal uptake by plants. It also highlights the need for holistic biochar risk assessment that considers both chemical and plant physiological pathways in both soil and hydroponic systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Biosystem and Biological Engineering)

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18 pages, 5554 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Combined Stover and Biochar Return on Soil Organic Matter and Microbial Characteristics

by Tong Wu, Shuqiang Wang, Xianying Zhang, Yulan Zhang, Yuan Li, Zhuo Wang, Xin Chen, Zhuoran Chen, Zhenhua Chen and Nan Jiang

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010061 - 25 Dec 2025

Abstract

China possesses abundant stover resources, and promoting the recycling of stover instead of open burning is a crucial measure for reducing carbon emissions and protecting the atmospheric environment. This study systematically investigated the effects of four stover management strategies—stover removal (CK), direct stover [...] Read more.

China possesses abundant stover resources, and promoting the recycling of stover instead of open burning is a crucial measure for reducing carbon emissions and protecting the atmospheric environment. This study systematically investigated the effects of four stover management strategies—stover removal (CK), direct stover return (SD), stover biochar return (BC), and a combined half-stover half-biochar return (SB)—on soil physicochemical properties, enzyme activities, and microbial communities in the meadow brown soil of Northeast China. The results demonstrated that BC treatment significantly increased the soil total carbon (TC), total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), available phosphorus (AP), and available potassium (AK) contents. SB treatment showed the most pronounced enhancement in TP. Regarding enzyme activities, Compared with CK, SD significantly increased the activity of N-acetyl -β -D-glucosaminase (NAG). Furthermore, all stover return practices significantly enhanced bacterial community diversity but suppressed fungal diversity. SB treatment resulted in the greatest improvement in bacterial richness and diversity. Beta diversity analysis revealed that SD and SB significantly altered the soil microbial community structure, whereas BC had a minimal impact. In conclusion, the combined application of stover and biochar (SB) exhibited the most consistent and beneficial outcomes across multiple soil health indicators, highlighting its potential as an effective integrated strategy for enhancing soil fertility, promoting carbon sequestration, and sustaining the health of the meadow brown soil ecosystem in Northeast China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Agriculture: Waste-to-Resource Innovations in Cropping Systems)

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