Agronomy

14 pages, 1691 KB

Open AccessArticle

Intercropping with Different Companion Plants Affects the Growth and Soil Properties of Chrysanthemum morifolium

by Meng Lei, Zaibiao Zhu and Changlin Wang

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 119; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010119 - 2 Jan 2026

To address the soil degradation and growth inhibition caused by long-term monoculture of the medicinal plant Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. (Hangju), we conducted a controlled experiment comparing a monoculture (control) with seven different intercropping combinations. The intercropping treatments consisted of the main crop paired [...] Read more.

To address the soil degradation and growth inhibition caused by long-term monoculture of the medicinal plant Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. (Hangju), we conducted a controlled experiment comparing a monoculture (control) with seven different intercropping combinations. The intercropping treatments consisted of the main crop paired with pepper, schizonepeta, edible amaranth, dandelion, maize, soya, and purple perilla. Comprehensive assessments were conducted, encompassing plant growth parameters and rhizospheric soil properties. The soil properties included physicochemical characteristics, enzyme activities, and phenolic acid content (4-hydroxybenzoic acid, vanillic acid, and ferulic acid). The results indicated that intercropping significantly altered the rhizosphere environment of Hangju (p < 0.05). Purple perilla and maize emerged as particularly effective companion plants. Intercropping with purple perilla enhanced the aboveground biomass accumulation of Hangju and increased the activities of rhizosphere catalase, sucrase, β-glucosidase, and neutral phosphatase, although it also elevated the contents of three autotoxic phenolic acids. In contrast, intercropping with maize improved Hangju biomass and enhanced the activities of sucrase, urease, neutral phosphatase, and protease, while concurrently reducing the concentrations of all three phenolic acids. Overall, maize demonstrated optimal performance in comprehensively improving soil health by modulating enzyme activities, whereas purple perilla showed a distinct advantage in directly promoting plant growth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Innovative Cropping Systems)

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13 pages, 318 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Dose and Date of Application of Vermicompost and Its Combination with N-Fertilizer on Maize Grain Yield

by Peter Kováčik, Vladimír Šimanský, Mária Kmeťová, Štefan Týr and Iwona Ledwożyw-Smoleń

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010118 - 2 Jan 2026

Abstract

The European Union produces about 58 million tons of grain maize annually, and although Slovakia contributes only a small share, grain maize is an important crop occupying 10.6% of the country’s arable land. A two-year pot experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects [...] Read more.

The European Union produces about 58 million tons of grain maize annually, and although Slovakia contributes only a small share, grain maize is an important crop occupying 10.6% of the country’s arable land. A two-year pot experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of vermicompost (Vc) dose and application timing, applied alone or in combination with mineral nitrogen fertilizer, on maize grain yield and selected grain-quality parameters. The spring pre-sowing Vc application at 170 kg ha⁻¹ total N proved appropriate.. Increasing the Vc dose from 170 to 340 kg ha⁻¹ total N did not significantly influence grain yield, thousand kernel weight (TKW), or the contents of crude protein and starch. When soil was fertilized with Vc in autumn, the spring application of mineral N at 60 kg ha⁻¹ resulted in higher grain yield compared with the spring application of Vc at 170 kg ha⁻¹ total N. Application of Vc alone, regardless of dose or timing, did not affect starch content or TKW. The combined use of mineral and organic nitrogen sources appears to be the most effective strategy for maize nitrogen nutrition. Applying Vc in autumn or spring at 170 kg ha⁻¹ total N, followed by 60 kg ha⁻¹ mineral N in spring, created favorable conditions for achieving high grain yield and quality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations in Composting and Vermicomposting)

18 pages, 7161 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of the Impact of the Irrigation Regime and the Application of Fermented Organic Fertilizers on Soil Salinity Dynamics and Alfalfa Growth in Coastal Saline–Alkaline Land

by Qian Yang, Shanshan Shen, Qiu Jin and Jingnan Chen

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010117 - 1 Jan 2026

Abstract

Alfalfa cultivation is an effective way to achieve soil improvement while utilizing saline soils. Irrigation and drainage, as physical measures to leach salts, can effectively reduce the soil salt content, while application of organic fertilizer fermented with an effective microorganism (EM) may further [...] Read more.

Alfalfa cultivation is an effective way to achieve soil improvement while utilizing saline soils. Irrigation and drainage, as physical measures to leach salts, can effectively reduce the soil salt content, while application of organic fertilizer fermented with an effective microorganism (EM) may further enhance the improvement effect of saline–alkaline soil by improving soil fertility and microbial community structure. However, there is still a lack of systematic assessment on the effects of applying these three measures on the saline soil–plant system. In this study, we used alfalfa as the plant material and set three water depths of 8 mm (IR1), 16 mm (IR2), and 24 mm (IR3) under the condition of irrigating every 10 days with remote-controlled timed and quantitative irrigation, which is the most acceptable to farmers in the era of smart agriculture. EM organic fertilizer dosage was designed as 0 kg/ha (CK), 1500 kg/ha (OF1), 3000 kg/ha (OF2), 4500 kg/ha (OF3), and 6000 kg/ha (OF4). The multiple-crop alfalfa yield, quality (crude protein (CP), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), and acid detergent fiber (ADF)), and soil electrical conductivity (EC) were observed. The results showed that after the application of EM organic fertilizer, the soil’s EC value of fertilized treatments was higher than that of CK, but this difference became smaller with the prolongation of alfalfa’s growing period, implying that EM organic fertilizer could absorb more soil salts by promoting alfalfa’s growth; the water depth was obviously negatively correlated with the soil’s EC value, demonstrating that the increase in the water depth had a stronger ability to reduce the soil salts. By the end of the experiment, the soil’s EC values were reduced by 21.4–43.7% for the treatments. The alfalfa yield was significantly increased by EM organic fertilizer application, and the three alfalfa yields were increased by 63.3–69.1%, 65.4–83.6%, and 52.6–56.2%, respectively, when fertilizer application was elevated from CK to OF4. The highest alfalfa yields were all found at IR2OF4, reaching 1164.7, 2637.3 and 2519.7 t/ha, corresponding to the first, second, and third alfalfa crops, respectively. The analysis of alfalfa quality indexes revealed that higher CP values were found in the IR2 treatments, and increasing fertilizer application from OF1–OF4 resulted in an increase in CP values by 2.4–9.1%, 1.5–7.4%, and 0.8–6.7% for the three alfalfa crops. Relatively low NDF and ADF values were observed for alfalfa under IR2 conditions; however, the application of EM organic fertilizer reduced the NDF and ADF values within a certain range. According to the results of the entropy weight evaluation model, IR3OF4, IR3OF2, and IR3OF3 were the top three treatments with the best overall benefits, respectively, with relative closeness values of 0.71, 0.70, and 0.68, in that order, which suggests that the appropriate water depth is 24 mm, while the appropriate EM organic fertilizer dosage is in the range of 3000–6000 kg/ha. There was a pattern observed in our study, in which the treatments with better overall benefits were better distributed at high water depths, which emphasizes the critical role of the irrigation volume in ameliorating saline soils. The conclusions of the study are intended to provide a practical basis for the comprehensive utilization and sustainable development of saline soils. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact of Irrigation or Drainage on Soil Environment and Crop Growth)

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20 pages, 1883 KB

Open AccessArticle

Agrivoltaics in the Tropics: Soybean Yield Stability and Microclimate Buffering Across Wet and Dry Seasons

by Sung Yoon, MinKyoung Kim, SeungYeun Han and Jai-Young Lee

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010116 - 1 Jan 2026

Abstract

Agrivoltaics (APV) offers a promising dual land-use solution for food and energy production, yet empirical data regarding its impact on leguminous crops in tropical monsoon climates remain limited. This study evaluated the microclimate, growth, and yield of soybean (Glycine max) under an APV [...] Read more.

Agrivoltaics (APV) offers a promising dual land-use solution for food and energy production, yet empirical data regarding its impact on leguminous crops in tropical monsoon climates remain limited. This study evaluated the microclimate, growth, and yield of soybean (Glycine max) under an APV system compared to an open-field control during the wet and dry seasons in Bogor, Indonesia. The APV structure reduced incident solar radiation by approximately 35%, significantly lowering soil temperatures and maintaining higher soil moisture across both seasons. In the wet season, the APV treatment significantly increased grain yield (3528.8 vs. 1708.3 kg ha⁻¹, +106%) relative to the open field by mitigating excessive heat and radiative loads, which enhanced pod retention. In the dry season, APV maintained a yield advantage (2025.6 vs. 1724.4 kg ha⁻¹, +17%), driven by improved water conservation and a higher harvest index. Notably, shading did not delay phenological development or hinder vegetative growth in either season. These findings demonstrate that APV systems can contribute to sustainably higher yields and stability in tropical environments by buffering against season-specific environmental stresses, suggesting a viable pathway for sustainable agricultural intensification in equatorial regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Farming Sustainability)

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21 pages, 10923 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genome-Wide Analysis of the GH3 Gene Family in Nicotiana benthamiana and Its Role in Plant Defense Against Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus

by Xueting Zhong, Xiuyan Fang, Yuan Sun, Ye Zeng, Zaihang Yu, Jiapeng Li and Zhanqi Wang

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010115 - 1 Jan 2026

Abstract

The Gretchen Hagen 3 (GH3) gene family, a key component of the early auxin-responsive gene family, plays a pivotal role in regulating plant growth, development, and stress responses. However, to date, a comprehensive genome-wide analysis of the GH3 gene family and [...] Read more.

The Gretchen Hagen 3 (GH3) gene family, a key component of the early auxin-responsive gene family, plays a pivotal role in regulating plant growth, development, and stress responses. However, to date, a comprehensive genome-wide analysis of the GH3 gene family and its potential role in plant defense against viruses, such as tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV), has not been conducted in Nicotiana benthamiana. Here, the GH3 gene family was thoroughly examined in N. benthamiana using a comprehensive genome-wide bioinformatic approach. A total of 25 potential GH3 genes were discovered in N. benthamiana. Phylogenetic analysis classified these NbGH3s into three different clades. Chromosomal distribution and synteny analyses revealed that NbGH3s are unevenly distributed across 14 chromosomes, with 20 segmental and one tandem duplication pairs. Promoter analysis suggested their involvement in phytohormone signaling and stress responses. Quantitative PCR showed that several NbGH3s are transcriptionally responsive to TYLCV infection, with five of them significantly upregulated in infected leaves. Furthermore, virus-induced gene silencing revealed that the suppression of NbGH3-3 and NbGH3-9 markedly increased host susceptibility to TYLCV, underscoring their critical roles in plant antiviral defense mechanisms. This research establishes a framework for understanding the functions of NbGH3s in plant growth and their response to TYLCV infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Pest and Disease Management)

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14 pages, 2223 KB

Open AccessArticle

Promotion of Sweet Potato Growth and Yield by Decreasing Soil CO₂ Concentrations with Forced Aeration

by Yoshiaki Kitaya

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010114 - 1 Jan 2026

Abstract

Effects of forced aeration on sweet potato growth and yield by decreasing CO₂ concentrations in the rooting zone were investigated. The following four experiments were conducted with forced aeration in the rooting zone of sweet potato: (1) with air containing different CO [...] Read more.

Effects of forced aeration on sweet potato growth and yield by decreasing CO₂ concentrations in the rooting zone were investigated. The following four experiments were conducted with forced aeration in the rooting zone of sweet potato: (1) with air containing different CO₂ concentrations to clarify the effects of CO₂ in the rooting zone on the net photosynthetic rate and leaf conductance, (2) with atmospheric air into cultivating soil ridges through porous pipes as a feasibility study, (3) with varying forced-aeration rates, and (4) with varying time intervals of forced aeration to find a more efficient aeration method. The results are summarized as follows: (1) During the six-week growing period, the mean values of net photosynthetic rates and leaf conductance for 1% CO₂ and 2% CO₂ were 0.8 and 0.7 times, respectively, those in the Control with 0.04% CO₂. (2) When the aeration rate was 1.5 L min⁻¹ per 1 m of ridge length, the CO₂ concentration reduced to 0.1–0.2% in the rooting zone, whereas the control ridge with non-forced aeration was 0.5–1.4% CO₂. The fresh and dry weight yields of sweet potato tubers were 1.18 and 1.19 times those of the control, respectively. (3) The CO₂ concentrations decreased as the aeration rate increased. The dry weights of tuberous roots in forced-aeration ridges at aeration rates of 1.25 and 2.5 L min⁻¹ were 1.19 and 1.26 times those in the control, respectively. Sweet potato growth was promoted when forced aeration reduced CO₂ in the rooting zone. (4) The yield increased by 24% even when forced aeration was performed for just 15 min per day after irrigation. In conclusion, reducing rooting zone CO₂ concentrations through forced aeration, even for 15 minutes daily, improves sweet potato yield by approximately 20%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological and Anatomical Responses of Crops to Environmental Factors)

21 pages, 2849 KB

Open AccessReview

Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Mitigate Crop Multi-Stresses Under Mediterranean Climate: A Systematic Review

by Claudia Formenti, Giovanni Mauromicale, Gaetano Pandino and Sara Lombardo

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010113 - 1 Jan 2026

Abstract

Agricultural systems in Mediterranean-type climates are increasingly threatened by drought, salinity, extreme temperatures, heavy metal contamination, and pathogen pressure, all of which undermine crop productivity and agroecosystem stability. In this context, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), natural symbionts of most terrestrial plants, emerge as [...] Read more.

Agricultural systems in Mediterranean-type climates are increasingly threatened by drought, salinity, extreme temperatures, heavy metal contamination, and pathogen pressure, all of which undermine crop productivity and agroecosystem stability. In this context, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), natural symbionts of most terrestrial plants, emerge as key biological agents capable of enhancing crop resilience. Following PRISMA guidelines, this systematic review synthesizes current knowledge on the role of AMF in mitigating abiotic and biotic stresses, highlighting their potential as a central component of sustainable Mediterranean agriculture. The available evidence demonstrates that AMF symbiosis significantly increases plant tolerance to multiple stressors across major crop families, including Poaceae, Fabaceae, Solanaceae, and Asteraceae. Under abiotic constraints, AMF improve water and nutrient uptake via extensive hyphal networks, modulate ion homeostasis under salinity, enhance tolerance to thermal extremes, and reduce heavy metal toxicity by immobilizing contaminants. Regarding biotic stresses, AMF induce systemic resistance to pathogens, stimulate secondary metabolite production that deters herbivores, and suppress parasitic nematode populations. Moreover, co-inoculation with other biostimulants, such as plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria, shows synergistic benefits, further improving crop productivity and resource-use efficiency. Overall, AMF represent an effective and multifunctional nature-based tool for improving the sustainability of Mediterranean agroecosystems. However, further research is required to evaluate AMF performance under simultaneous multiple stress factors, thereby reflecting real-world conditions and enabling a more integrated understanding of their agronomic potential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptations and Responses of Cropping Systems to Climate Change)

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23 pages, 1066 KB

Open AccessArticle

Moderate Drought Stress Enhances Grain Quality in Upland Rice by Optimizing Nitrogen Metabolism and Endosperm Structure

by Xiao Tong, Tianyang Zhou, Yating Zhang, Junfei Gu and Yajie Zhang

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010112 - 1 Jan 2026

Abstract

Water scarcity is a major constraint to upland rice production, and optimizing drought management to balance yield and quality is critical for sustainable agriculture. This study investigated the effects of three soil water potential (SWP) levels—0 kPa (control), −20 kPa (moderate drought), and [...] Read more.

Water scarcity is a major constraint to upland rice production, and optimizing drought management to balance yield and quality is critical for sustainable agriculture. This study investigated the effects of three soil water potential (SWP) levels—0 kPa (control), −20 kPa (moderate drought), and −40 kPa (severe drought)—on grain quality, nitrogen metabolism, and endosperm structure in two upland rice varieties (Brazilian upland rice and Zhonghan 3). Compared with the control, moderate drought significantly improved grain quality: whole milled rice recovery increased by 5.3–7.8%, chalky grain rate decreased by 16.1–29.6%, amylose content declined by 8.65–12.19%, and glutelin content rose by 9.3–12.9%. Under moderate drought, nitrogen metabolism appeared to be upregulated, as indicated by increased activities of glutamine synthetase (GS, +18.6%) and glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH, +14.2%) and higher glutamate content (+21.4%) in Zhonghan 3, with similar but slightly attenuated responses in Brazilian upland rice. Moderate drought was associated with elevated glutelin accumulation and a more compact endosperm microstructure, suggesting a potential link between nitrogen metabolism and grain development. In contrast, severe drought impaired both grain quality and yield. Correlation analysis (n = 12) revealed that the GS/GDH ratio and glutelin content were significantly correlated with improved grain quality—positively with milled rice recovery (r = 0.58* to 0.82**, p < 0.05 or 0.01) and negatively with chalkiness, amylose content, and setback viscosity (r = −0.58* to −0.93**, p < 0.05 or 0.01). These findings indicate that maintaining SWP at −20 kPa represents a feasible strategy to enhance upland rice grain quality, offering a theoretical basis for water-saving, quality-oriented production systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

20 pages, 904 KB

Open AccessReview

Cylindrocladium Black Rot of Peanut and Red Crown Rot of Soybean Caused by Calonectria ilicicola: A Review

by Ying Xue, Xiaohe Geng, Xingxing Liang, Guanghai Lu, Guy Smagghe, Lingling Wei, Changjun Chen, Yunpeng Gai and Bing Liu

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 111; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010111 - 1 Jan 2026

Abstract

Calonectria ilicicola (anamorph: Cylindrocladium parasiticum) is a globally important soil-borne fungal pathogen, causing Cylindrocladium black rot (CBR) in peanuts (Arachis hypogaea) and red crown rot (RCR) in soybeans (Glycine max), two legume crops central to global food security. [...] Read more.

Calonectria ilicicola (anamorph: Cylindrocladium parasiticum) is a globally important soil-borne fungal pathogen, causing Cylindrocladium black rot (CBR) in peanuts (Arachis hypogaea) and red crown rot (RCR) in soybeans (Glycine max), two legume crops central to global food security. Under favorable conditions, these diseases can cause yield losses of 15–50%, with severe epidemics causing substantial economic damage. A defining feature of C. ilicicola is its production of melanized microsclerotia that persist in soil for up to seven years, complicating long-term disease management across major production regions worldwide. The recent spread of RCR into the U.S. Midwest highlights the adaptive potential of the pathogen and underscores the urgency of updated, integrated control strategies. This review synthesizes current knowledge on disease symptoms, pathogen biology, the life cycle, isolation techniques, and molecular diagnostics, with particular emphasis on recent genomic and multiomics advances. These approaches have identified key virulence-associated genes and core pathogenicity factors, providing new insights into host–pathogen interactions and enabling more targeted resistance breeding through marker-assisted selection and the use of wild germplasm. We critically evaluate integrated disease management strategies, including host resistance, chemical and biological control, cultural practices, and physical interventions, highlighting their complementarities and limitations. By integrating classical pathology with emerging molecular and ecological innovations, this review provides a comprehensive background for developing more effective and sustainable management approaches for CBR and RCR. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Progress on Pathogenicity of Fungi in Crops—2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 3917 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cultivation Management Reshapes Soil Profile Configuration and Organic Carbon Sequestration: Evidence from a 45-Year Field Study

by Si-Yu Cui, Zhong-Xiu Sun, Si-Yi Duan, Wei-Wen Qiu and Ying-Ying Jiang

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010110 - 1 Jan 2026

Abstract

Long-term human cultivation activities are the key factors of the vertical distribution and storage dynamics of soil organic carbon (SOC) in cropland. Based on a 45-year long-term field experiment, this study systematically compared SOC dynamics and carbon storage characteristics in soil profiles (0–200 [...] Read more.

Long-term human cultivation activities are the key factors of the vertical distribution and storage dynamics of soil organic carbon (SOC) in cropland. Based on a 45-year long-term field experiment, this study systematically compared SOC dynamics and carbon storage characteristics in soil profiles (0–200 cm) between cultivated land and adjacent natural forest. The findings reveal the hierarchical regulatory effects of tillage management on the soil carbon pool. The results show that: (1) Under both land use types, SOC content decreased exponentially with depth, but values in cultivated soils were 0.35–1.54% lower than in forest soils at each layer. SOC content in surface soil (0–78 cm) was significantly higher than in the subsoil (78–158 cm) and substratum layers (158–200 cm) (p < 0.01). At equivalent depths, SOC in cultivated land was significantly lower than in forest land (p < 0.01). Over 45 years, the SOC accumulation rate in the surface soil of cropland (0.07 g·kg⁻¹·yr⁻¹) was only half that of forest land (0.14 g·kg⁻¹·yr⁻¹). (2) The controls of soil physicochemical properties on SOC differed with land use: in forest soils, SOC correlated positively with clay content (r = 0.63, p < 0.01), whereas in cultivated soils, SOC was primarily regulated by total nitrogen (r = 0.94, p < 0.01) and sand content (r = 0.60, p < 0.01) and negatively correlated with bulk density (r = −0.55, p < 0.01) and pH value (r = −0.45, p < 0.05). (3) Long-term tillage significantly reshaped soil profile structure, thickening the plough layer from 20 cm to 78 cm. Surface carbon storage reached 20.76 t·ha⁻², an increase of 11.13 t·ha⁻² compared with forest soil (p < 0.01). However, storage decreased by 4.99 t·ha⁻² and 7.60 t·ha⁻² in the subsoil and substratum layers, respectively (p < 0.01). The SOC storage increment rate was 50.95 t·ha⁻²·yr⁻¹ higher than that of forest soil in the surface layer but 46.81 t·ha⁻²·yr⁻¹ and 11.12 t·ha⁻²·yr⁻¹ lower in deeper layers. These results confirm that cultivation alters soil structure and material cycling, enhancing carbon enrichment in surface soils while accelerating depletion of deeper carbon pools. This provides new insights into the vertical differentiation mechanisms of SOC under long-term agricultural management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Evolution, Management, and Sustainable Utilization)

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20 pages, 1079 KB

Open AccessArticle

Response of Maize Varieties with Different Nitrogen Efficiencies to Nitrogen Fertilizer

by Yulong Yang, Tao Wen, Huifeng Wang, Junfeng Ma, Xinlong Shi, Shufeng Yan, Xinyuan Mu, Chunmiao Li, Haoying Zheng, Dian Liu and Xia Zhao

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 109; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010109 - 1 Jan 2026

Abstract

While pursuing high yields, China’s maize industry is facing a series of complex challenges that not only affect production efficiency but also relate to the sustainable development of the industry. Maize varieties with different nitrogen use efficiencies (NUEs) significantly influence yield. Therefore, investigating [...] Read more.

While pursuing high yields, China’s maize industry is facing a series of complex challenges that not only affect production efficiency but also relate to the sustainable development of the industry. Maize varieties with different nitrogen use efficiencies (NUEs) significantly influence yield. Therefore, investigating the response mechanisms of maize varieties with varying NUEs to nitrogen fertilization can provide theoretical foundations and technical support for achieving high and stable yields, as well as for the breeding of new varieties. Based on previous research findings, this experiment selected three maize varieties with different NUE levels. A field trial was conducted with eight nitrogen fertilization gradient levels to analyze their responses to varying nitrogen inputs, thereby further evaluating the performance of maize varieties with different nitrogen use efficiencies. The results indicated that increasing nitrogen application significantly enhanced maize yield; however, with continued nitrogen application, the yield exhibited a trend of initial increase followed by a decrease or stabilization. The highest yields for Jingpin 450 (JP450), Xianyu 335 (XY335), and Qiule 368 (QL368) were achieved under the N250, N300, and N250 treatments, respectively, reaching 8.9 t·ha⁻¹, 9.2 t·ha⁻¹, and 10.1 t·ha⁻¹. Across all nitrogen treatments, QL368 > XY335 > JP450. Maize varieties with high nitrogen efficiency maintained higher post-anthesis nitrogen accumulation throughout the growth period, thereby promoting the translocation of post-anthesis nitrogen to the grains, increasing grain nitrogen content at maturity, and ultimately improving yield. The dual-high-efficiency maize variety QL 368 (QiuLe 368) achieved high yields under both low- and high-nitrogen conditions, primarily due to its high pre-anthesis nitrogen translocation rate and substantial post-anthesis nitrogen accumulation. This enhanced nitrogen translocation to the grains, improved nitrogen use efficiency, further strengthened the plant’s dry matter production capacity, and ultimately led to high yield and efficiency in maize production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic High-Efficiency Utilization of Water-Fertilizer Resources and Green Production of Crops)

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19 pages, 4511 KB

Open AccessArticle

Selection of High-Yield Varieties (Lines) and Analysis on Molecular Regulation Mechanism About Yield Formation of Seeds in Alfalfa

by Zhili Ren and Huiling Ma

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 108; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010108 - 1 Jan 2026

Abstract

The goal of this study was to elucidate the genetic and molecular regulatory mechanisms underlying agronomic traits in elite alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.). Through the analysis of 44 varieties and lines, we measured 19 yield-related traits and performed transcriptome sequencing to investigate [...] Read more.

The goal of this study was to elucidate the genetic and molecular regulatory mechanisms underlying agronomic traits in elite alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.). Through the analysis of 44 varieties and lines, we measured 19 yield-related traits and performed transcriptome sequencing to investigate the factors driving yield variation. The results indicated extensive variation in agronomic traits among the tested accessions, with the coefficients of variation (CVs) ranging from 7.85% to 42.66%, suggesting substantial potential for genetic improvement. Correlation analysis revealed that seed yield was significantly and positively correlated with the number of reproductive branches and inflorescences at maturity, whereas early vegetative growth was negatively correlated with 100-seed weight. The 44 accessions were categorized into three clusters: Cluster II (the largest group) exhibited balanced traits; Cluster I showed vigorous early growth but low pod yield; and Cluster III was characterized by the highest pod and branch numbers. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) explained 65.88% of the total variation (first six components), identifying GNS31 and GNS43 as the superior and inferior genotypes, respectively. Furthermore, transcriptome profiling detected the highest number of differentially expressed genes (10,089 DEGs) in pod tissues, with 66% being upregulated. Functional enrichment analyses (GO and KEGG) highlighted that varietal differences were primarily enriched in secondary metabolism, lipid metabolism, and plant hormone signal transduction pathways. Notably, within the auxin pathway, the SAUR and GH3 families displayed significant tissue-specific expression in pods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Grassland and Pasture Science)

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13 pages, 2392 KB

Open AccessArticle

Magnetic Deep Eutectic Solvent-Based Single-Drop Microextraction for the Determination of Triazine Herbicides in Environmental Waters

by Xinyuan Bi, Wenying Wu, Xiaorong Xue, Xu Jing and Qiang Zhang

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010107 - 1 Jan 2026

Abstract

A magnetic deep eutectic solvent-based single-drop microextraction technique coupled with high-performance liquid chromatography (MDES-SDME-HPLC) was established for the determination of five triazine herbicides in environmental water samples. MDES, used as the extraction solvent, was composed of heptanoic acid, methyltrioctylammonium chloride, and iron chloride. [...] Read more.

A magnetic deep eutectic solvent-based single-drop microextraction technique coupled with high-performance liquid chromatography (MDES-SDME-HPLC) was established for the determination of five triazine herbicides in environmental water samples. MDES, used as the extraction solvent, was composed of heptanoic acid, methyltrioctylammonium chloride, and iron chloride. This pretreatment method requires only 50 μL of MDES, thereby avoiding the use of large volumes of toxic organic solvents. The MDES containing the target triazine herbicides was rapidly separated from the aqueous matrix by applying an external magnetic force, thus eliminating the need for centrifugation or additional reagents to achieve phase separation. The method demonstrated a linear range of 0.2–20 μg L⁻¹, with a limit of detection of 0.06 μg L⁻¹. Recoveries obtained from different environmental water matrices ranged from 75.5% to 102.4%. The greenness of the method was confirmed using five independent green analytical assessment tools. This approach represents a green and efficient analytical technique for detecting triazine herbicides in environmental water samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Navigating Pesticide Residues: Safeguarding Agricultural Product Quality)

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28 pages, 3642 KB

Open AccessArticle

In Vitro Phytochemical Profiling, and Antioxidant Activity Analysis of Callus and Cell Suspension Cultures of Washingtonia filifera Elicited with Chitosan

by Huda Enaya Mahood, Virginia Sarropoulou, Thalia Tsapraili and Thiresia-Teresa Tzatzani

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010106 - 31 Dec 2025

Abstract

Washingtonia filifera is important for its ecological, economic, cultural, horticultural, ornamental, and medicinal potential. Elicitation of in vitro cultures presents a promising and efficient method for the large-scale production of valuable bioactive compounds. This study assessed the effect of chitosan concentration (0, 20, [...] Read more.

Washingtonia filifera is important for its ecological, economic, cultural, horticultural, ornamental, and medicinal potential. Elicitation of in vitro cultures presents a promising and efficient method for the large-scale production of valuable bioactive compounds. This study assessed the effect of chitosan concentration (0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 mg L⁻¹) on biomass growth [fresh weight (FW), dry weight (DW)] and phytochemical profile [total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), DPPH antioxidant activity, total phenolic productivity (TPP), total flavonoid productivity (TFP)] in W. filifera callus and cell suspension cultures. Among different plant growth regulator combinations tested, 3 mg L⁻¹ 2,4-D + 0.5 mg L⁻¹ 2ip gave higher callus induction (90%) (MS medium, 12 weeks). A maximum growth curve (FW: 180 mg) of cell suspension culture was achieved 7 weeks after initiation (shaker at 90 rpm for 24 h). Cell suspension exhibited higher FW, DW, TPC, TFC, DPPH, TPP, and TFP than callus, while flavonoid production was higher than phenolic production. FW and DW were higher in both systems, with 40 mg L⁻¹ chitosan. Chitosan at 60 mg L⁻¹ best enhanced the phytochemical profile of both the 4-week solidified callus and the 7-week liquid cell suspension (TPC: 29.9 and 32.1 mg GAE g⁻¹ DW; TFC: 40.5 and 56.1 mg QE g⁻¹ DW; TPP: 969.2 and 1122.6 mg L⁻¹; TFP: 1313.9 and 1521.7 mg L⁻¹; DPPH: 87.4 and 92.3%), respectively, while 40 mg L⁻¹ chitosan was equally effective regarding DW, TFC, and TFP in cell suspension. Chitosan elicitation provides a powerful strategy to upregulate phenolic and flavonoid biosynthesis in W. filifera in vitro systems, conferring superior antioxidant potential. The identification of peak elicitation parameters (chitosan concentration, exposure time) allows for the targeted enhancement of bioactive compound yields, suggesting a viable path for industrial bioproduction and commercialization in pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, and functional foods, leveraging bioreactor technology for efficient scale-up. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Tissue Culture and Regeneration Techniques for Crop Enhancement)

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14 pages, 2060 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Preharvest Application of Sodium Benzoate and Potassium Sorbate on Fungal Decay Incidence and Postharvest Quality of Cold-Stored Fino Lemon Fruit

by María Gutiérrez-Pozo, Vicente Serna-Escolano, Marina Giménez-Berenguer, María Á. Botella, Pedro J. Zapata and María J. Giménez

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010105 - 31 Dec 2025

Abstract

The Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f. industry suffers significant losses due to fungal diseases. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of sodium benzoate (SB) and potassium sorbate (PS) on the incidence of fungal decay and fruit quality when used as preharvest [...] Read more.

The Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f. industry suffers significant losses due to fungal diseases. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of sodium benzoate (SB) and potassium sorbate (PS) on the incidence of fungal decay and fruit quality when used as preharvest treatments on Fino lemon trees over two consecutive seasons (2021–2023). Lower concentrations of SB and PS (0.1% and 0.5%) applied in one or two treatments successfully controlled fungal decay. On average, SB achieved a greater reduction in decay, ranging from 45% to 60%, compared to PS’s reduction of 25% to 50%. This approach minimised the negative impact on lemon fruit quality, in contrast to the highest doses (more than 1%) and the greatest number of applications (more than three times), which increased lemon susceptibility to decay. Furthermore, lemons treated with 0.5% SB twice enhanced antioxidant systems, showing a 35% increase in total phenolic content in the flavedo at harvest compared to the control. Consequently, the application of 0.5% SB twice at preharvest emerges as a promising and potential alternative to conventional fungicides for effective fungal decay control and maintenance of acceptable lemon quality traits during cold storage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological, Biochemical, and Molecular Mechanisms of Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Fruits)

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20 pages, 8059 KB

Open AccessArticle

Shifts in Fertilization Regime Alter Carbon Cycling in Paddy Soils: Linking the Roles of Microbial Community, Functional Genes, and Physicochemical Properties

by Yuxin Wang, Qinghong Gao, Tao Wang, Geng Sun and San’an Nie

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010104 - 31 Dec 2025

Abstract

Fertilization regimes impact the carbon cycle processes in paddy soils. However, the effects of shifting fertilization regimes on the structure of microbial communities and functional genes involved in soil carbon (C)-cycling remain unclear. A long-term field experiment was established with three paired fertilization [...] Read more.

Fertilization regimes impact the carbon cycle processes in paddy soils. However, the effects of shifting fertilization regimes on the structure of microbial communities and functional genes involved in soil carbon (C)-cycling remain unclear. A long-term field experiment was established with three paired fertilization shift treatments: chemical fertilizer (CF) and CF to normal-rate organic fertilizer (CF-NOM); normal-rate organic fertilizer (NOM) and NOM to CF (NOM-CF); high-rate organic fertilizer (HOM) and HOM to CF (HOM-CF). Metagenomic sequencing and bioinformatics analysis were employed to investigate the effects of fertilization shifts on soil C-cycling microbial community structure, functional genes, and environmental factors. The results showed that compared to CF treatment, CF-NOM significantly increased soil organic carbon (SOC), mineral-associated organic carbon (MAOC), particulate organic carbon (POC), microbial biomass carbon (MBC), dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and the emissions of CO₂ and CH₄ (p < 0.05). The NOM-CF led to significant reductions in MAOC, MBC, DOC, and CO₂ and CH₄ emissions. The HOM-CF shift caused significant decreases in SOC, MAOC, POC, MBC, DOC, and CO₂ and CH₄ emissions. Fertilization shifts had no significant effect on the α-diversity of C-cycling microbial communities (p > 0.05), but β-diversity showed a significant restructuring of community composition. Network analysis indicated that fertilization shifts increased positive microbial correlations while reducing network modularity. C-cycling functional genes responded sensitively to fertilization disturbances, especially key genes in the carbon fixation pathway (cdhDE, cooS). Redundancy analysis indicated that soil bulk density (BD) and POC are key environmental factors regulating functional differences in carbon metabolism, which collectively influenced microbial community structure and functional gene abundance along with other factors. We concluded that the C-cycling process in paddy soil was greatly altered by shifts in fertilization regimes, influenced by microbial diversity, functional genes, and network structure linked to soil characteristics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Microbial Functions Affecting Soil Carbon Cycling)

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34 pages, 786 KB

Open AccessReview

Synergy Between Agroecological Practices and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi

by Ana Aguilar-Paredes, Gabriela Valdés, Andrea Aguilar-Paredes, María Muñoz-Arbelaez, Margarita Carrillo-Saucedo and Marco Nuti

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010103 - 30 Dec 2025

Abstract

Agroecology is increasingly shaped by the convergence of traditional knowledge, farmers’ lived experiences, and scientific research, fostering a plural dialog that embraces the ecological and socio-political complexity of agricultural systems. Within this framework, soil biodiversity is essential for maintaining ecosystem functions, with soil [...] Read more.

Agroecology is increasingly shaped by the convergence of traditional knowledge, farmers’ lived experiences, and scientific research, fostering a plural dialog that embraces the ecological and socio-political complexity of agricultural systems. Within this framework, soil biodiversity is essential for maintaining ecosystem functions, with soil microbiology, and particularly arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), playing a pivotal role in enhancing soil fertility, plant health, and agroecosystem resilience. This review explores the synergy between agroecological practices and AMF by examining their ecological, economic, epistemic, and territorial contributions to sustainable agriculture. Drawing on recent scientific findings and Latin American case studies, it highlights how practices such as reduced tillage, crop diversification, and organic matter inputs foster diverse and functional AMF communities and differentially affect their composition and ecological roles. Beyond their biological efficacy, AMF are framed as relational and socio-ecological agents—integral to networks that connect soil regeneration, food quality, local autonomy, and multi-species care. By bridging ecological science with political ecology and justice in science-based knowledge, this review offers a transdisciplinary lens on AMF and proposes pathways for agroecological transitions rooted in biodiversity, cognitive justice, and territorial sustainability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Biostimulants in Agriculture—2nd Edition)

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22 pages, 8230 KB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Dynamics of Xylem and Soil–Root Temperatures in Olive and Almond Trees and Their Relationship with Air Temperature

by Miguel Román-Écija, Blanca B. Landa, Luca Testi and Juan A. Navas-Cortés

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010102 - 30 Dec 2025

Abstract

Air temperature is commonly used to represent plant thermal conditions, although temperatures within woody tissues and the soil–root zone can differ substantially under field conditions. This study characterized the thermal dynamics of xylem tissue and the soil–root interface in almond and olive orchards [...] Read more.

Air temperature is commonly used to represent plant thermal conditions, although temperatures within woody tissues and the soil–root zone can differ substantially under field conditions. This study characterized the thermal dynamics of xylem tissue and the soil–root interface in almond and olive orchards under Mediterranean field conditions in Southern Spain. Using long-term in-field measurements, temperatures were monitored in branch and trunk xylem tissues and at the soil–root interface, and regression models were developed to provide empirical correction relationships between air and internal temperatures across seasons and sensor position. Branch xylem temperatures closely matched air temperature for both minima and maxima. In contrast, trunk xylem and the soil–root interface showed pronounced thermal buffering. Trunk xylem maximum temperature was significantly (3.4 to 5.4 °C) lower than air temperature during summer. Shaded soil–root interface temperatures were 5.2 to 9.0 °C lower than air temperature in spring and summer but 5.9 to 11.7 °C higher than air temperature in autumn and winter. These patterns indicate a strong capacity of woody tissues and the soil–root system to moderate external thermal conditions. By quantifying air-to-tissue and air-to-soil relationships under field conditions, this study provides microclimatic data that can improve agronomic models and temperature-driven disease risk frameworks for vascular pathogens infecting woody crops. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infectious Plant Diseases: Emerging Threats and Advances in Plant Protection)

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20 pages, 3060 KB

Open AccessArticle

Root Growth Plasticity and Nitrogen Metabolism Underpin Prolonged Cold Stress Tolerance at Tillering Stage in Japonica Rice

by Weibin Gong, Jian Jin, Wenhua Zhou, Yan Jia, Shenyan Fu, Zhijie Luo, Jinyi Zhao, Chenchen Cao, Jingguo Wang, Hongwei Zhao and Caixian Tang

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010101 - 30 Dec 2025

Abstract

Cold stress impairs crop productivity through cascading inhibition of root growth, nitrogen (N) metabolism, and photosynthesis, yet the systematic linkages among these physiological disruptions remain poorly understood. It is crucial to elucidate the mechanisms by which cold-tolerant varieties maintain root growth and N-metabolizing [...] Read more.

Cold stress impairs crop productivity through cascading inhibition of root growth, nitrogen (N) metabolism, and photosynthesis, yet the systematic linkages among these physiological disruptions remain poorly understood. It is crucial to elucidate the mechanisms by which cold-tolerant varieties maintain root growth and N-metabolizing enzyme homeostasis. This two-year field study investigated how cold duration at the tillering stage impacted root traits, N metabolism, photosynthesis, and their relationships with the yield of two japonica rice varieties differing in cold tolerance. A cold-tolerant (Dongnong 428) and a cold-sensitive variety (Songjing 10) were grown in a paddy field for two consecutive growing seasons in 2021 and 2022. Cold water (15 °C) was irrigated for 0 (denoted as D0), 5 (D5), 10 (D10), and 15 days (D15) during the tillering stage. Compared to D0, cold-water treatments significantly reduced root traits and total dry weight of both varieties. Cold stress significantly impaired N metabolism and photosynthesis, leading to significant reductions in N efficiency. The magnitude of these changes turned to greater with cold-water treatment duration. Dongnong 428 showed stronger cold tolerance, attributed to its maintenance of superior root traits and photosynthetic performance, as well as higher activities of enzymes in the roots, which sustained N assimilation and utilization. These factors primarily contributed to Dongnong 428 achieving 11.6–20.9% higher yields compared to Songjing 10. Cold stress during the tillering stage disrupts root growth and photosynthesis, impairs plant N acquisition ability, resulting in substantial yield loss. Cold-tolerant varieties maintain superior root morphology/functionality and photosynthetic performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evaluating Extreme Temperature Impacts on Crop Growth and Physiology)

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