Agronomy

17 pages, 4343 KB

Open AccessArticle

Exogenous 6-BA Inhibits Fruit Cracking by Regulating the Hormonal Balance and Transcriptome Characteristics of the Jujube Fruit Peel

by Wen Tang, Cheng Yang, Yang Cao, Zhenlei Wang, Peihua Du and Minjuan Lin

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010016 (registering DOI) - 20 Dec 2025

Abstract

Fruit cracking in jujube is a major constraint on the sustainable development of the jujube industry. In this study, 60 mg L⁻¹ of 6-Benzylaminopurine (6-BA) was foliar-sprayed at the early fruit stage. Fruit cracking incidence was recorded during the green and white [...] Read more.

Fruit cracking in jujube is a major constraint on the sustainable development of the jujube industry. In this study, 60 mg L⁻¹ of 6-Benzylaminopurine (6-BA) was foliar-sprayed at the early fruit stage. Fruit cracking incidence was recorded during the green and white fruit periods, and these observations were integrated with transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses to explore the potential mechanisms by which 6-BA influences fruit cracking. The results showed that the fruit cracking in the treatment groups was 53% and 18% of that in the control group during the green period and the white period, respectively. In jujube peel, catalase (CAT) activity was significantly increased in the treated peel during both periods. In the peel metabolites, compounds belonging to the cytokinin (CTK) category exhibited significant accumulation in both periods. Transcriptomic analysis showed that differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were enriched in pathways related to starch and sucrose metabolism, plant hormone signal transduction, and cellular polysaccharide metabolism. These findings suggest that 6-BA treatment may alleviate jujube fruit cracking by enhancing antioxidant capacity, modulating hormone homeostasis, and upregulating genes associated with carbohydrate and cell wall metabolism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

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26 pages, 6425 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Disinfectant Efficacy Against Tomato Brown Rugose Fruit Virus: Surface and Method Effects in Greenhouse Production

by Erika Janet Zamora-Macorra, Crystal Linda Merino-Domínguez, Carlos Ramos-Villanueva, Irvin Mauricio Mendoza-Espinoza, Elizabeth Cadenas-Castrejón and Katia Aviña-Padilla

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010015 (registering DOI) - 20 Dec 2025

Abstract

Tomato brown rugose fruit virus (ToBRFV) has become a major threat to global tomato production due to its exceptional mechanical transmissibility and virion stability. Effective sanitation is essential for containment, yet the performance of commonly used disinfectants on greenhouse-relevant surfaces remains poorly characterized. [...] Read more.

Tomato brown rugose fruit virus (ToBRFV) has become a major threat to global tomato production due to its exceptional mechanical transmissibility and virion stability. Effective sanitation is essential for containment, yet the performance of commonly used disinfectants on greenhouse-relevant surfaces remains poorly characterized. This study evaluated multiple disinfectant formulations, applied by spraying or dipping, on polyethylene film, pruning shears, and human hands. After controlled inoculation with a standardized inoculum, treated surfaces were swabbed and extracts mechanically inoculated onto Nicotiana rustica L. Lesion number was visually quantified, and lesion area was measured using a computational image-analysis pipeline. Fifth-generation quaternary ammonium compounds (5°QAS) showed the highest virucidal activity on smooth, non-porous surfaces, reducing lesion numbers to fewer than 10 per leaf at 800–1000 ppm and maintaining infection severities below 1%. Glutaraldehyde at 500 ppm also performed strongly, achieving severities as low as 0.20% on plastic. Metallic pruning shears consistently retained infectious particles, with untreated controls exceeding 100 lesions per leaf and treated samples showing incomplete inactivation. Mechanical agents such as powdered milk and soap reduced infection but did not eliminate transmission. No clear dose–response trend was observed. The two most effective treatments, 5°QAS at 800–1000 ppm and glutaraldehyde at 500 ppm, significantly reduced or prevented systemic infection in tomato assays. These findings demonstrate that sanitation efficacy depends on formulation, surface type, and application method, providing operationally relevant guidelines for ToBRFV management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infectious Plant Diseases: Emerging Threats and Advances in Plant Protection)

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14 pages, 2077 KB

Open AccessArticle

Machine Learning Assessment of Soil Carbon Sequestration Potential: Integrating Land Use, Pedology, and Machine Learning in Croatia

by Lucija Galić, Mladen Jurišić, Ivan Plaščak and Dorijan Radočaj

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010014 (registering DOI) - 20 Dec 2025

Abstract

Spatially quantifying the soil carbon sequestration potential (SCSP) is crucial for targeting climate change mitigation strategies like carbon farming. However, static mapping approaches often fail by assuming that the drivers of soil organic carbon (SOC) are stationary. We hypothesized that the hierarchy of [...] Read more.

Spatially quantifying the soil carbon sequestration potential (SCSP) is crucial for targeting climate change mitigation strategies like carbon farming. However, static mapping approaches often fail by assuming that the drivers of soil organic carbon (SOC) are stationary. We hypothesized that the hierarchy of SOC controllers is fundamentally non-stationary, shifting from intrinsic stabilization capacity (pedology) in stable ecosystems to extrinsic flux kinetics (climate) in dynamic systems. We tested this by developing a land-use-specific (LULC; Cropland, Forest land, Grassland) ensemble machine learning (ML) framework to quantify the soil carbon saturation deficit (SCSD) across Croatia’s pedologically diverse landscape on 622 soil samples. The LULC-stratified ensemble models (SVM, RF, CUB) achieved moderate to good predictive accuracy under cross-validation (R² = 0.41–0.60). Crucially, the feature importance analysis (permutation MSE loss) proved our hypothesis: in Forest land, SOC was superiorly controlled by intrinsic capacity (Soil CEC, Soil pH), defining the mineralogical C-saturation “ceiling”; in Grasslands, control shifted to extrinsic C-input kinetics (Precipitation: Bio19, Bio12), which “fuel” the microbial carbon pump (MCP) via root exudation; and in Croplands, the model revealed a hybrid control, limited by remaining intrinsic capacity (CEC, Clay) but strongly influenced by C-loss kinetics (Temperature: Bio08), which regulates microbial carbon use efficiency (CUE). This study demonstrates that LULC-specific dynamic modeling is a prerequisite for accurately mapping SCSP. By identifying soils with both high intrinsic capacity (high CEC/Clay) and high degradation (high SCSD), our data-driven assessment provides a critical tool for spatially targeting carbon farming interventions for maximum climate mitigation return on investment (ROI). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing Assessment of Soil and Crop Health Under Varying Agronomic Practices)

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14 pages, 3601 KB

Open AccessArticle

Contrasting Soil Microbial Composition, Diversity, and Network Stability Under Different Land Use Intensities

by Chunhua Jia, Lei Ma, Zhaohui Liu, Ying Zhao and Li Wang

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010013 (registering DOI) - 20 Dec 2025

Abstract

Soil microbial communities are fundamental to ecosystem function and soil health, yet how differing land-use intensities shape these communities and their interaction networks remains unclear. We investigated soils from greenhouse cultivation (GH), arched shed systems (ASs), and open farmlands (FLs) to compare microbial [...] Read more.

Soil microbial communities are fundamental to ecosystem function and soil health, yet how differing land-use intensities shape these communities and their interaction networks remains unclear. We investigated soils from greenhouse cultivation (GH), arched shed systems (ASs), and open farmlands (FLs) to compare microbial composition, diversity, and network stability under contrasting management intensities. GH soils had the highest electrical conductivity, ca. ~3.9 times higher than FL soil and ~1.9 times higher than AS soil, alongside elevated soil organic matter, total N, and available nutrients. AS soil maintained intermediate nutrient levels. Bacterial α-diversity was higher in AS and GH soils than in FL soil, whereas fungal α-diversity was comparable among systems despite differences in community composition. Microbial co-occurrence network analysis revealed the most complex and robust network in ASs, followed by FLs, while GH soil had the simplest and least stable network. Structural equation modeling showed that soil chemical properties had the largest direct influence on network complexity and stability, followed by soil enzyme activities; microbial diversity and key taxa also contributed to network complexity and stability. Overall, the moderately managed AS was superior to GH and FLs in sustaining a diverse and resilient soil microbiome and network. These findings provided actionable knowledge for optimizing land management to maintain soil ecological function. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Farming Sustainability)

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16 pages, 10625 KB

Open AccessArticle

Expression of WsSQS and WsSQS2 in Tobacco Divergently Regulates Terpenoid Metabolism and Enhances Squalene Accumulation

by Yuanfeng Lv, Ying Yang, Zaifeng Du, Tian Tian, Wenwen Zhang, Guihong Qi, Yinan Yang, Shihao Sun and Xiaoyang Lin

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010012 (registering DOI) - 20 Dec 2025

Abstract

Biosynthesis of squalene in the plant chassis has broad application prospects, and identifying efficient enzymes is of great importance. Here, we analyzed the function of squalene synthase genes WsSQS and WsSQS2 from Withania somnifera for squalene biosynthesis in tobacco. WsSQS and WsSQS2 shared [...] Read more.

Biosynthesis of squalene in the plant chassis has broad application prospects, and identifying efficient enzymes is of great importance. Here, we analyzed the function of squalene synthase genes WsSQS and WsSQS2 from Withania somnifera for squalene biosynthesis in tobacco. WsSQS and WsSQS2 shared 93.7% amino acid (aa) similarity, with divergent residues related to catalysis, NADPH binding, and membrane anchoring. Heterologous expression of WsSQS and WsSQS2 in tobacco increased squalene content by 2.05-fold and 1.68-fold, respectively, with the OE-WsSQS lines reaching 3.19 μg/g DW and the OE-WsSQS2 lines reaching 2.58 μg/g DW, compared to the control plants. Further transcriptomic assays revealed that overexpression of WsSQS induced broader transcriptional changes in the squalene metabolic pathway than WsSQS2. Specifically, the overexpression of WsSQS up-regulated AACT, HMGS, MVD, IspE, FPPS1, FPPS2, and SQS upstream of squalene biosynthesis and down-regulated GGPPS3 downstream of FPP biosynthesis, which is the direct precursor of squalene biosynthesis, while WsSQS2 exerted a more targeted impact, primarily up-regulating HMGS and the key rate-limiting enzyme gene HMGR in the squalene biosynthesis pathway. These findings are consistent with the high efficiency of WsSQS in squalene biosynthesis in tobacco. In summary, this study provides fundamental molecular and biochemical insights into the utilization of heterologous SQSs for squalene production based on the tobacco chassis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metabolomics-Centered Mining of Crop Metabolic Diversity and Function)

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12 pages, 760 KB

Open AccessArticle

Transcriptome Analysis of the Response of Aphis glycines Feeding on Ambrosia artemisiifolia

by Xue Han, Changchun Dai, Jian Liu and Zhenqi Tian

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010011 (registering DOI) - 19 Dec 2025

Abstract

Common ragweed, Ambrosia artemisiifolia L., a noxious invasive plant, produces novel secondary metabolites. However, it attracts soybean aphid, Aphis glycines, a significant pest of soybean, to feed on it. Elucidating the molecular mechanisms of A. glycines adaptation to A. artemisiifolia may help [...] Read more.

Common ragweed, Ambrosia artemisiifolia L., a noxious invasive plant, produces novel secondary metabolites. However, it attracts soybean aphid, Aphis glycines, a significant pest of soybean, to feed on it. Elucidating the molecular mechanisms of A. glycines adaptation to A. artemisiifolia may help identify target genes useful for pest management. High-throughput transcriptome sequencing identified 4250 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), with 2399 upregulated and 1851 downregulated. KEGG pathway enrichment analysis suggested that these DEGs were significantly involved in core detoxification-related pathways, including metabolism of xenobiotics by cytochrome P450, drug metabolism, ascorbate and aldarate metabolism, and pentose and glucuronate interconversions. Further analysis revealed significant upregulation of 17 UDP-glycosyltransferase (UGT) genes, with AgUGT342B2, AgUGT343B2, AgUGT344J2, AgUGT344L2, and AgUGT344N2 showing 6.34-, 6.22-, 2.14-, 3.98-, and 7.49-fold higher expression, respectively, than in A. glycines fed on soybean. Bioassays demonstrated that A. glycines reared on A. artemisiifolia exhibited significantly reduced sensitivity to three common insecticides, imidacloprid, thiamethoxam, and lambda-cyhalothrin, with LC₅₀ values increasing by 5.8-fold, 2.8-fold, and 3.6-foldhigher, respectively, than those reared on soybean. These findings indicate that feeding on A. artemisiifolia induces UGT gene family upregulation in A. glycines, conferring cross-resistance to multiple insecticide classes. This study reveals a molecular mechanism linking host adaptation to insecticide resistance, highlighting the ecological and evolutionary consequences of invasive plant-herbivore interactions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Legume Crop Protection—2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 2185 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Biochar Addition on Topsoil Carbon–Nitrogen Cycling and CO₂ Emissions in Reduced-Nitrogen, Film-Mulched Drip-Irrigated Silage Maize Systems

by Zhonghao Jiang, Yanhua Lu, Heng Zhang, Guang Li, Yan Tan, Yingying Zhu, Yang Xie and Bingsheng Wang

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010010 (registering DOI) - 19 Dec 2025

Abstract

This study conducted a systematic evaluation over two years (2023–2024) through field experiments to assess the regulatory effects of biochar on soil properties, carbon and nitrogen cycling, and CO₂ emissions under mulched drip irrigation with varying nitrogen application levels. The core findings [...] Read more.

This study conducted a systematic evaluation over two years (2023–2024) through field experiments to assess the regulatory effects of biochar on soil properties, carbon and nitrogen cycling, and CO₂ emissions under mulched drip irrigation with varying nitrogen application levels. The core findings indicate that the effects of biochar are strongly dependent on the nitrogen levels. Under reduced nitrogen conditions, biochar demonstrated a synergistic benefit: with a 15% nitrogen reduction (N2-BC), it significantly enhanced soil water retention (increasing moisture by 68.6% at the tasseling stage); with a 30% nitrogen reduction (N1-BC), it improved soil structure (bulk density decreased by 2.1%, porosity increased by 4.3%). Additionally, biochar differentially activates soil carbon and nitrogen pools: under the 30% nitrogen reduction treatment (N1-BC), soil organic carbon increased to 8.34 g kg⁻¹ during the jointing stage, while dissolved organic carbon reached 0.536 g kg⁻¹ at tasseling, and total nitrogen content rose significantly. Notably, the regulatory effect of biochar on CO₂ emissions shifted toward marked suppression as nitrogen input decreased (N1-BC), achieving a net cumulative reduction of 21.4% under deep nitrogen reduction treatment. Correlation analysis further integrated these processes, demonstrating that improvements in the soil physical structure are closely linked to enhanced carbon and nitrogen cycling. This study clarifies that in reduced-N systems, the application of biochar can synergistically achieve “carbon sequestration–nitrogen conservation–emission reduction,” providing a basis for developing green, low-C farmland production models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

16 pages, 2263 KB

Open AccessArticle

Improving Soil Health and Rice Yields with the Application of Soil Amendments in Acidic Paddy Soils

by Jian Liu, Ting Wang, Lihua Lan, Qingjiu Meng, Jun Xu, Minjun Hu, Tehseen Sajid and Jun Meng

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010009 - 19 Dec 2025

Abstract

The over-application of nitrogen fertilizers has expedited soil acidification, resulting in the deterioration of agricultural soil quality and a decline in rice yields. This study evaluated the performance of seven soil amendments, including lime (L), biochar (BC), composted manure (CM), and alkaline inorganic [...] Read more.

The over-application of nitrogen fertilizers has expedited soil acidification, resulting in the deterioration of agricultural soil quality and a decline in rice yields. This study evaluated the performance of seven soil amendments, including lime (L), biochar (BC), composted manure (CM), and alkaline inorganic material (AM), and their combinations, such as L with BC, L with CM, and BC with AM, in regulating soil pH, nutrient levels, heavy metal bioaccumulation, and rice yields at two field sites. The results demonstrated that soil pH increased by 0.33–1.57 units after amendment application. Compared with the control, the amendments reduced the concentrations of available cadmium in soils by 7–57%, available copper by 32–91%, available nickel by 12–88%, and available zinc by 18–99%. Moreover, they induced a reduction in exchangeable H⁺ and Al³⁺ levels, improving various properties and soil health. Furthermore, these amendments caused an increase in rice yields and a decrease in Cd and Ni accumulation in rice grains by 5–30% and 11–40%, respectively. Structural equation modeling indicated that the accumulation of heavy metals in rice is mainly mediated by soil pH via its impact on exchangeable acidity. This impact subsequently modifies soil nutrient availability, thereby influencing metal bioaccumulation. Overall, the application of these amendments presents promising strategies for mitigating soil acidification and improving agricultural productivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

21 pages, 5640 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spray Deposition on Nursery Apple Plants as Affected by an Air-Assisted Boom Sprayer Mounted on a Portal Tractor

by Ryszard Hołownicki, Grzegorz Doruchowski, Waldemar Świechowski, Artur Godyń, Paweł Konopacki, Andrzej Bartosik and Paweł Białkowski

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010008 - 19 Dec 2025

Abstract

Contemporary nurseries of fruit trees and ornamental plants constitute a key component in the production of high-quality planting material. At present, conventional technology dominates in nurseries in Poland and throughout the European Union. It is based on universal agricultural tractors working with numerous [...] Read more.

Contemporary nurseries of fruit trees and ornamental plants constitute a key component in the production of high-quality planting material. At present, conventional technology dominates in nurseries in Poland and throughout the European Union. It is based on universal agricultural tractors working with numerous specialized machines—typically underutilized—including sprayers, inter-row cultivation equipment, fertilizer spreaders, and tree lifters. This concept entails several limitations and high investment costs. Because of the considerable size and turning radius of such machinery, a dense network of service roads (every 15–18 m) and wide headlands must be maintained. These areas, which constitute approximately 20% of the total surface, are effectively wasted yet require continuous agronomic maintenance. An alternative concept employs a set of implements mounted on a high-clearance portal tractor (1.6–1.8 m), forming a specialized unit capable of moving above the rows of nursery crops. The study objective of the research was to evaluate the air distribution generated by an air-jet system installed on a crop-spray boom mounted on a portal sprayer, and to assess spray deposition during treatments in nursery trees. Such a configuration enables the mechanization of a broader range of nursery operations than currently possible, while reducing investment costs compared with conventional technology. One still underutilized technology consists of sprayers with an auxiliary airflow (AA) generated by air sleeves. Mean air velocity was measured in three vertical planes, and they showed lower air velocity between 1.0 m and 5.5 m. Spray deposition on apple nursery trees was assessed using a fluorescent tracer. The experimental design consists of a comparative field experiment with and without air flow support, spraying at two standard working rates (200 and 400 L·ha⁻¹) and determining the application of the liquid to plants in the nursery. The results demonstrated a positive effect of the AA system on deposition. At a travel speed of 6.0 km·h⁻¹ and an application rate of 200 L·ha⁻¹, deposition on the upper leaf surface was 68% higher with the fan engaged. For a 400 L·ha⁻¹ rate, deposition increased by 47%, with both differences statistically significant. The study showed that the nursery sprayer mounted on a high-clearance portal tractor and equipped with an AA system achieved an increase of 58% in spray deposition on the upper leaf surface when the fan was operating at 200 L·ha⁻¹ and 28% at 400 L·ha⁻¹. Substantial differences were found between deposition on the upper and lower leaf surfaces, with the former being 20–30 times greater. Given the complexity of nursery production technology, sprayers that ensure the highest possible biological efficacy and high quality of nursery material will play a pivotal role in its development. At the current stage, AA technology fulfils these requirements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Biosystem and Biological Engineering)

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15 pages, 2406 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Chloro-Organophosphate Ester on Photosynthesis, Chlorophyll Fluorescence, Antioxidation and Nutrients of Green Onion (Allium fistulosum L.)

by Song Gao, Yuwei Guo, Yanzhou Wang, Ning Li, Touming Liu, Yuanyuan Guo and Kun Xu

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010007 - 19 Dec 2025

Abstract

Chloro-organophosphate ester (Cl-OPE) accumulation in soil and aquatic environments, and their potential hazard to crops, has attracted widespread attention. However, little is known about the potential adverse effects of Cl-OPEs on plants. Green onions are a specialty vegetable worldwide, and the heavy application [...] Read more.

Chloro-organophosphate ester (Cl-OPE) accumulation in soil and aquatic environments, and their potential hazard to crops, has attracted widespread attention. However, little is known about the potential adverse effects of Cl-OPEs on plants. Green onions are a specialty vegetable worldwide, and the heavy application of pesticides during their growth period has led to increasingly severe soil contamination in cultivation areas. We evaluated the toxic effects of Cl-OPEs on green onions and examined their toxicity mechanism. After 20 days of treatment, physiological parameters were measured across five biological replicates per treatment. Results indicated that as Cl-OPE concentrations increased, green onion leaf malondialdehyde (MDA) content and reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels rose significantly. Concurrently, the activities of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD) and catalase (CAT) were significantly enhanced. However, leaf chlorophyll content and net photosynthetic rate (Pn) decreased significantly, indicating that Cl-OPE-induced oxidative stress inhibited photosynthesis. Meanwhile, the nutrient content of green onions gradually decreased as the concentration of Cl-OPEs increased. In conclusion, Cl-OPEs can damage chloroplasts by promoting ROS accumulation, which results in the yellowing of green onion leaves. The resulting decrease in Pn reduced the plant’s ability to assimilate nutrients. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Horticultural and Floricultural Crops)

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21 pages, 2743 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing Row Spacing to Enhance Tomato Yield, Radiation Interception and Use Efficiency in Greenhouses

by Shuangwei Li, Minjie Xu, Kaiyuan Han, Shiyi Tan, Yinglei Zhao, Chenghao Zhang and Shan Hua

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010006 - 19 Dec 2025

Abstract

Canopy configuration affects crop yields by optimizing radiation interception and/or use efficiency in greenhouses. Although tomato metrics have been reported, the effects of row spacing on growth, yield and radiation for different cultivars are not well documented. Here, we examined tomato growth, yield, [...] Read more.

Canopy configuration affects crop yields by optimizing radiation interception and/or use efficiency in greenhouses. Although tomato metrics have been reported, the effects of row spacing on growth, yield and radiation for different cultivars are not well documented. Here, we examined tomato growth, yield, radiation interception and use efficiency in a greenhouse with four row spacing patterns (T1: 50 cm, T2: 60 cm, T3: 70 cm and T4: 80 cm) and two tomato cultivars (Aomeila1618 and Zhefen202) over a two-year period. A constructed intermediate model was used to simulate tomato radiation interception. Although there were great differences in the genotypes between the two selected cultivars, 50 cm (T1) was the optimal row spacing to produce a larger leaf area per unit of land area, intercept more radiation and ultimately achieve higher yield than the other three row spacing patterns (T2, T3 and T4). The mean total radiation interception across years and cultivars was 559.43 MJ m⁻² in T1, 2.8–3.8% higher than in the other three row spacing patterns. Despite similar dry matter and RUE to Aomeila1618, Zhefen202 in the narrow strip used light more efficiently. These results will help to optimize canopy structures by taking cultivar-specific responses in RUE and growth traits into consideration for high-efficiency tomato production in greenhouses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Horticultural and Floricultural Crops)

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52 pages, 4048 KB

Open AccessReview

Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Agricultural Crops and Management Practices: The Impact of the Integrated Crop Emission Mitigation Framework on Greenhouse Gas Reduction

by Agampodi Gihan S. D. De Silva, Zainulabdeen Kh. Al-Musawi, Asish Samuel, Shyama Malika Malwalage, Thusyanthini Ramanathan, István Mihály Kulmány and Zoltán Molnár

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010005 - 19 Dec 2025

Abstract

Greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural crops remain a critical challenge for climate change mitigation. This review synthesizes evidence on cropland management interventions and global N₂O mitigation potential. Agricultural practices such as cover cropping, agroforestry, reduced tillage, and diversification show promise in [...] Read more.

Greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural crops remain a critical challenge for climate change mitigation. This review synthesizes evidence on cropland management interventions and global N₂O mitigation potential. Agricultural practices such as cover cropping, agroforestry, reduced tillage, and diversification show promise in reducing CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O emissions, yet uncertainties in measurement, verification, and socio-economic adoption persist. This review highlights that biochar application reduces N₂O emissions by 16.2% (95% CI: 9.8–22.6%) in temperate systems, demonstrating greater consistency compared to no-till agriculture, which shows higher variability (11% reduction, 95% CI: −19% to +1%). Legume-based crop rotations reduce N₂O emissions by up to 39% through improved nitrogen efficiency and increase soil organic carbon by up to 18%. However, reductions in synthetic fertilizer use (65% lower in legume vs. cereal systems) can be offset by the effects of biological nitrogen fixation. Optimized nitrogen fertilization, when combined with enhanced-efficiency fertilizers, can reduce N₂O emissions by 55–64%. Complementing this, global-scale analysis underscores the dominant role of optimized nitrogen fertilization in curbing N₂O emissions while sustaining yields. To bridge gaps between practice-level interventions and global emission dynamics, this paper introduces the ICEMF, a novel approach combining field-based management strategies with spatially explicit emission modeling. Realistic implementation currently achieves 25–35% of technical potential, but bundled interventions combining financial incentives, training, and institutional support can increase adoption to 40–60%, demonstrating ICEMF’s value through integrated, context-adapted approaches. Only peer-reviewed articles published in English between 1997 and 2025 were selected to ensure recent and reliable findings. This review highlights knowledge gaps, evaluates policy and technical trade-offs, and proposes ICEMF as a pathway toward scalable and adaptive mitigation strategies in agriculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agroecology Innovation: Achieving System Resilience)

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16 pages, 2954 KB

Open AccessArticle

Response of Soil Organic Carbon Components in Pinus yunnanensis Stand to Altitude Variation

by Binzhi Wang, Haitao Li, Xiaoyi Li, Xinran Liang, Lei Wang, Fangdong Zhan, Yongmei He, Zhihao Si and Siteng He

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010004 - 19 Dec 2025

Abstract

Under global climate change, the response of mountain forest soil carbon pools to elevation is central to carbon cycle research, and Pinus yunnanensis stands, which span a wide elevation range, serve as a typical subject for studying how soil properties in mountain ecosystems [...] Read more.

Under global climate change, the response of mountain forest soil carbon pools to elevation is central to carbon cycle research, and Pinus yunnanensis stands, which span a wide elevation range, serve as a typical subject for studying how soil properties in mountain ecosystems respond to elevation gradients. To reveal the variation patterns and underlying regulatory mechanisms of soil nutrients and organic carbon components in Pinus yunnanensis stands across different altitudinal gradients, this study took Pinus yunnanensis stands at three altitude gradients (1604 m, 2377 m, 3206 m) within Yunnan Province as research objects, collected stratified soil samples, and determined soil chemical properties, organic carbon components, enzyme activity, and microbial biomass. The results showed that changes in elevation significantly influence soil nutrient content: soil pH gradually decreases with increasing elevation; soil organic carbon, total nitrogen, alkali-hydrolyzable nitrogen, available phosphorus, and readily available potassium first increase then decrease with elevation, reaching their highest levels at Jin’an Town (JA); total phosphorus and total potassium gradually increase with elevation, peaking at Xiaozhongdian Town (XZD); particulate organic carbon, mineral-bound organic carbon, and microbial biomass carbon follow similar patterns to organic carbon, all showing enrichment in the surface layer; JA exhibits the highest carbon cycle enzyme activity and bacterial biomass, while XZD shows dominant fungal biomass. Partial Least Squares Path Modeling (PLS-PM) analysis indicates that elevation strongly positively drives microbial biomass, indirectly regulating enzyme activity and chemical properties, ultimately jointly influencing organic carbon components. In conclusion, soil properties varied markedly, and under stable precipitation, the thermal gradient emerged as the primary driver; the mid-elevation site (2377 m) showed optimal soil functioning, with peak nutrient and carbon stocks linked to heightened microbial and enzymatic activity, and path modeling confirmed that temperature, via microbial mediation, is the key regulator of soil organic carbon dynamics in these pine forests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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12 pages, 566 KB

Open AccessArticle

From Salt Tolerance Threshold Analysis to Optimized Cultivation: An Integrated Variety–Technology Pathway for the Forage Mulberry Variety ‘Fengyuan No. 1’

by Bing Geng, Yujie Ren, Yaru Dong, Guang Guo, Zhaohong Wang and Dongxiao Zhao

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010003 - 19 Dec 2025

Abstract

This study aimed to establish an integrated variety–technology cultivation pathway for the new forage mulberry variety ‘Fengyuan No. 1’, linking salt tolerance mechanisms with practical application. A systematic investigation was conducted via a pot experiment with a 0–5‰ NaCl gradient and a field [...] Read more.

This study aimed to establish an integrated variety–technology cultivation pathway for the new forage mulberry variety ‘Fengyuan No. 1’, linking salt tolerance mechanisms with practical application. A systematic investigation was conducted via a pot experiment with a 0–5‰ NaCl gradient and a field trial comparing three cultivation modes: Ridge Planting (RP), Furrow Planting (FP), and Flat-Bed Planting (FBP). Key findings are as follows. (1) The salt tolerance threshold was clearly defined: a 100% survival rate at salinity ≤ 4‰ (with no injury symptoms at ≤3‰), and 5‰ identified as the lethal threshold (33.33% survival). Salt stress triggered a resource reallocation strategy, increasing the leaf-to-stem fresh weight ratio from 1.53 (0‰) to 2.78 (5‰) to prioritize leaf photosynthetic function. Stable leaf circularity (0.83–0.87) indicated morphological stress resistance. (2) Optimized cultivation pathways were identified: FBP was the core pathway for maximizing biomass accumulation (root, stem, and leaf fresh weights were 5.0, 2.3, and 1.5 times those of RP, respectively) and resulted in the lowest leaf Na⁺ accumulation (124 mg/kg), making it suitable for lightly to moderately saline–alkali land (≤4‰). FP served as an effective pathway for salt avoidance and height promotion (plant height: 113.18 cm). RP constituted a specialized pathway for high-quality forage, yielding the highest crude protein content (23.3 g/100 g). (3) Cultivation modes significantly affected functional components; FBP activated alkaloid DNJ synthesis (215.16 mg/kg), whereas RP and FP increased osmolyte GABA accumulation (~586 mg/kg). In conclusion, this study integrates a complete technical pathway from salt tolerance mechanism analysis to diversified cultivation options, providing a systematic variety–technology solution for the industrial development of forage mulberry on coastal saline–alkali land. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Strategies for Forage Breeding and Cultivation Under Challenging Conditions)

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26 pages, 1585 KB

Open AccessArticle

Interplay of Phosphorus and Rhizobium Inoculation on Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Across Variable Indigenous Rhizobia Soils in Southern Ethiopia

by Tadele Geremu, Girma Abera, Bekele Lemma and Frank Rasche

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010002 - 19 Dec 2025

Abstract

Soil fertility constraints, particularly N and P deficiencies, limit the productivity of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in Ethiopia. This study is the first to systematically evaluate the combined effects of phosphorus (P) fertilization and Rhizobium inoculation on biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) [...] Read more.

Soil fertility constraints, particularly N and P deficiencies, limit the productivity of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in Ethiopia. This study is the first to systematically evaluate the combined effects of phosphorus (P) fertilization and Rhizobium inoculation on biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) and yield across soils with varying levels of indigenous rhizobia populations in southern Ethiopia. The aim of the study was to evaluate the effects of P fertilization and Rhizobium inoculation on nodulation, growth, yield, nutrient concentration, and BNF in soils characterized by high, moderate, and low indigenous rhizobia populations. Field experiments were conducted over two years using four P rates (0, 10, 20, and 30 kg P ha⁻¹) and five Rhizobium strains (uninoculated, 102CB, 106CB, 44CB, and HB-429). P application significantly improved nodulation, growth, yield, nutrient concentration, and N₂ fixation, with 20 kg P ha⁻¹ consistently resulting in superior performance. At this rate, grain yields reached 2.51, 2.25, and 2.31 t ha⁻¹ in soils with high, moderate, and low indigenous rhizobia populations, respectively. Inoculation responses depended strongly on indigenous rhizobia abundance: in soils with high indigenous populations, inoculation did not significantly improve growth and yield, whereas in low-population soils, inoculation with strain 102CB produced the highest yield (2.06 t ha⁻¹). For BNF, 20 kg P ha⁻¹ resulted in the highest fixation (44.61 and 36.82 kg N ha⁻¹) in soils with high and moderate indigenous rhizobia populations. Inoculation with 102CB further enhanced N fixation to 44.77 and 36.13 kg N ha⁻¹ in these soils. In low-population soils, the combined application of 102CB and 20 kg P ha⁻¹ significantly increased BNF to 55.34 kg N ha⁻¹. Overall, these findings demonstrate that P fertilization provides universal benefits, while inoculation effectiveness is site-specific. Integrating P fertilization with effective Rhizobium strains offers a practical and sustainable strategy to improve common bean productivity and sustainability of common bean–based farming systems in Ethiopia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Biosystem and Biological Engineering)

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12 pages, 647 KB

Open AccessArticle

Polyhalite as a Potassium Source for Fertilization of Ratoon Cane in a Cerrado Oxisol

by Stella Mendes Pio de Oliveira, Alex Oliveira Smaniotto, João Vitor Sevilla do Prado, João Gabriel do Carmo Guerreiro Borges, Carlos Ribeiro Rodrigues and Gustavo Castoldi

Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010001 - 19 Dec 2025

Abstract

Potassium (K) is the nutrient most required by sugarcane crops and is predominantly supplied through potassium chloride (KCl). However, as KCl production is highly concentrated in a few countries, Brazil—the world’s largest sugarcane producer—relies heavily on imported K fertilizers. In this context, identifying [...] Read more.

Potassium (K) is the nutrient most required by sugarcane crops and is predominantly supplied through potassium chloride (KCl). However, as KCl production is highly concentrated in a few countries, Brazil—the world’s largest sugarcane producer—relies heavily on imported K fertilizers. In this context, identifying alternative sources, even if also imported, is strategic to diversify supply and reduce the risks associated with dependence on a single product. This study evaluated the performance of polyhalite, a natural multinutrient mineral, compared with KCl, as an alternative fertilizer for ratoon cane (CTC 4 variety) grown in a clay-textured Oxisol in Jataí, Brazil. A two-year field experiment was conducted evaluating four treatments: control (without K fertilization), KCl, polyhalite, and a 25/75 polyhalite + KCl blend. Potassium fertilization increased culm yield by about 38–61% compared with the unfertilized control. In addition, the association of polyhalite + KCl promoted greater plant height compared to the treatment without K fertilization and, when comparing the K sources applied alone, polyhalite promoted a larger culm diameter and a higher leaf S content than KCl. These results demonstrate the agronomic advantages of polyhalite and its blends for sugarcane fertilization, which reiterates their potential as efficient and sustainable alternatives to KCl and as part of a broader strategy for fertilizer-source diversification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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19 pages, 1159 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing the Impact of Pontederia crassipes Extracts on the Saprophytic Soil Fungus Trametes versicolor: Implications for Agricultural Use

by Cátia Venâncio, Ana Ramisote, Pedro Pato and Carla Patinha

Agronomy 2025, 15(12), 2921; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15122921 - 18 Dec 2025

Abstract

Invasive species are a recurring global problem, and the water hyacinth (Pontederia crassipes) is a well-known example. Various strategies have been explored to manage its spread, including its use as an agricultural amendment. However, when P. crassipes biomass is incorporated into [...] Read more.

Invasive species are a recurring global problem, and the water hyacinth (Pontederia crassipes) is a well-known example. Various strategies have been explored to manage its spread, including its use as an agricultural amendment. However, when P. crassipes biomass is incorporated into soil and undergoes degradation, it may increase soil conductivity and promote metal leaching, potentially affecting soil biota, particularly microbiota. Saprophytic fungi play a key role in the decomposition and renewal of organic matter, and their resilience to stressors is crucial for maintaining soil function. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of P. crassipes biomass extracts on the saprophytic fungus Trametes versicolor by evaluating fungal growth and metabolic changes [including sugar content, phosphatase enzymatic activity, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production]. The fungus was exposed for 8 days to a dilution series of extracts (100%—undiluted, to 3.13%) prepared from P. crassipes biomass collected at five locations in Portuguese wetlands. Two sites were in the south, within a Mediterranean climate (Sorraia and Estação Experimental António Teixeira), and three were in the north, within an Atlantic climate (São João de Loure, Pateira de Fermentelos, and Vila Valente), representing both agricultural-runoff–impacted areas and recreational zones. Extracts were used to simulate a worst-case scenario. All extracts have shown high conductivity (≥15.4 mS/cm), and several elements have shown a high soluble fraction (e.g., K, P, As, or Ba), indicating substantial leaching from the biomass to the extracts. Despite this, T. versicolor growth rates were generally not inhibited, except for exposure to the São João de Loure extract, where an EC₅₀ of 45.3% (extract dilution) was determined and a significant sugar content decrease was observed at extract concentrations ≥25%. Possibly due to the high phosphorous leachability, both acid and alkaline phosphatase activities increased significantly at the highest percentages tested (50% and 100%). Furthermore, ROS levels increased with increasing extract concentrations, yet marginal changes were observed in growth rates, suggesting that T. versicolor may efficiently regulate its intracellular redox balance under stress conditions. Overall, these findings indicate that the degradation of P. crassipes biomass in soils, while altering chemical properties and releasing soluble elements, may not impair and could even boost microbiota, namely saprophytic fungi. This resilience highlights the potential ecological benefit of saprophytic fungi in accelerating the decomposition of invasive plant residues and contribution to soil nutrient cycling and ecosystem recovery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Degradation and Restoration: Challenges and Prospects for Agroecological Development)

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23 pages, 8882 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genome-Wide Identification, Structural Characterization, and Stress-Responsive Expression of the PsPP2C Gene Family in Pea (Pisum sativum)

by Zhi-Wei Wang, Min Liu, Yun-Zhe Cong, Wen-Jiao Wang, Tao Zhang, Hui-Tong Sang, Song Hou, Zi-Meng Sun, Guan Li, Ru-Mei Tian, Yong-Yi Yang, Kun Xie, Longxin Wang, Kai-Hua Jia and Na-Na Li

Agronomy 2025, 15(12), 2920; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15122920 - 18 Dec 2025

Abstract

Protein phosphatase 2Cs (PP2Cs) constitute a widespread family of signaling regulators in plants and play central roles in abscisic acid (ABA)-mediated stress signaling; however, the PP2C gene family has not yet been systematically identified and characterized in pea (Pisum sativum), a [...] Read more.

Protein phosphatase 2Cs (PP2Cs) constitute a widespread family of signaling regulators in plants and play central roles in abscisic acid (ABA)-mediated stress signaling; however, the PP2C gene family has not yet been systematically identified and characterized in pea (Pisum sativum), a salt-sensitive legume crop. In this study, we identified 89 PsPP2C genes based on domain features and sequence homology. These genes are unevenly distributed across seven chromosomes and classified into ten subfamilies, providing a comparative framework for evaluating structural and regulatory diversification within the PsPP2C family. The encoded proteins vary substantially in length, physicochemical properties, and predicted subcellular localization, while most members contain the conserved PP2Cc catalytic domain. Intra- and interspecies homology analyses identified 19 duplicated gene pairs in pea and numerous orthologous relationships with several model plants; all reliable gene pairs exhibited Ka/Ks < 1, indicating pervasive purifying selection. PsPP2C genes also showed broad variation in exon number and intron phase, and their promoter regions contained diverse light-, hormone-, and stress-related cis-elements with heterogeneous positional patterns. Expression profiling across 11 tissues revealed pronounced tissue-specific differences, with generally higher transcript abundance in roots and seeds than in other tissues. Under salt treatment, approximately 20% of PsPP2C genes displayed concentration- or time-dependent transcriptional changes. Among them, PsPP2C67 and PsPP2C82—both belonging to the clade A PP2C subfamily—exhibited the most pronounced induction under high salinity and at early stress stages. Functional annotation indicated that these two genes are involved in ABA-related processes, including regulation of abscisic acid-activated signaling pathway, plant hormone signal transduction, and MAPK signaling pathway-plant. Collectively, this study provides a systematic characterization of the PsPP2C gene family, including its structural features, evolutionary patterns, and transcriptional responses to salt stress, thereby establishing a foundation for future functional investigations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cultivar Development of Pulses Crop—2nd Edition)

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23 pages, 3204 KB

Open AccessArticle

Organic Amendments Drive Soil Organic Carbon Sequestration and Crop Growth via Microorganisms and Aggregates

by Donglin Zong, Ying Quan, Petri Penttinen, Ling Qi, Jiangtao Wang, Xiaoyan Tang, Kaiwei Xu and Yuanxue Chen

Agronomy 2025, 15(12), 2919; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15122919 - 18 Dec 2025

Abstract

Exogenous carbon addition is widely regarded as an effective soil management strategy for rapidly increasing soil organic carbon, improving soil structure and function. However, a systematic comparison of the effects of diverse organic amendments on key soil attributes and processes is needed to [...] Read more.

Exogenous carbon addition is widely regarded as an effective soil management strategy for rapidly increasing soil organic carbon, improving soil structure and function. However, a systematic comparison of the effects of diverse organic amendments on key soil attributes and processes is needed to inform their targeted application. We evaluated the impacts of seven organic amendments (biochar, organic fertilizer, corn straw, soybean straw, rapeseed straw, green manure, and carbon material) on a purple soil (Luvic Xerosols) in a pot experiment. The results showed that organic fertilizer and carbon material performed best in enhancing soil nutrient availability and promoting soil organic carbon content. Straw amendments promoted the formation of macro-aggregates. Green manure and straws enhanced carbon transformation-related β-glucosidase and cellobiohydrolase activities. Random Forest and structural equation modeling indicated that the organic amendments enhanced maize carbon sequestration capacity and biomass by improving aggregate stability and regulating the fungal community and by increasing nutrients and enhancing active carbon fractions. Green manure and organic fertilizer demonstrated the most significant agronomic effects. These findings provide guidelines for targeted organic amendment selection in purple soil regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Health and Nutrient Cycling Mediated by Plant-Microbial-Soil Interactions)

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