Agronomy

14 pages, 655 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mating Disruption as an Effective Method for Controlling Lymantria dispar (L.): Results of the First Investigation in Europe

by Tanja Bohinc, Paraskevi Agrafioti, Christos G. Athanassiou, Sergeja Adamič Zamljen, Matej Vidrih, Antonela Frlan and Stanislav Trdan

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 322; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030322 - 27 Jan 2026

Abstract

In a three-year study, we investigated the efficacy of mating disruption (MD) on the spongy moth, Lymantria dispar L. in a forest complex in Slovenia. We included two treatments in the experiment: a negative control and a MD-treated area, where we used an [...] Read more.

In a three-year study, we investigated the efficacy of mating disruption (MD) on the spongy moth, Lymantria dispar L. in a forest complex in Slovenia. We included two treatments in the experiment: a negative control and a MD-treated area, where we used an MD product formulated as a biodegradable gel (water based, biodegradable). We applied the gel to the trunks of the forest trees (33.3 g active ingredient/ha) once per season, specifically on 4th August 2022, 28th June 2023, and 24th June 2024. To evaluate the method’s performance, pheromone traps were utilized in both treatments. The data indicate consistent effectiveness throughout the three-year period, characterized by the minimal male captures observed in the MD treatment areas after the gel was applied. The first moths were captured in the traps at DD (Degree-Day) values ranging from 661.7 to 773.3 and continued to be captured up to DD values between 1576.1 and 1642.8. Following the application of the MD, the population in the MD treatment was reduced by 100% in the first year. In the second year, the reduction was 96.33%, while in the third year of the experiment, the number of captured moths in the MD treatment was 99.20% lower compared to the control. Considering the overall data, the method disrupted Lymantria dispar male orientation effectively. Moreover, we also feel that these results show the most promise for using this method in urban and suburban areas, where L. dispar larvae can cause allergies in humans and animals and where the use of insecticides is reduced. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Pest and Disease Management)

27 pages, 14018 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Crop Yield Estimation and Spatial Analysis of Agro-Climatic Indices Based on High-Resolution Climate Simulations in Türkiye’s Lakes Region, a Typical Mediterranean Biogeography

by Fuat Kaya, Sinan Demir, Mert Dedeoğlu, Levent Başayiğit, Yurdanur Ünal, Cemre Yürük Sonuç, Tuğba Doğan Güzel and Ece Gizem Çakmak

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 321; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030321 - 27 Jan 2026

Abstract

Mediterranean biogeography is characterized as a global “hotspot” for climate change; understanding the impacts of these changes on local agricultural systems through high-resolution analyses has thus become a critical need. This study addresses this gap by evaluating the holistic effects of climate change [...] Read more.

Mediterranean biogeography is characterized as a global “hotspot” for climate change; understanding the impacts of these changes on local agricultural systems through high-resolution analyses has thus become a critical need. This study addresses this gap by evaluating the holistic effects of climate change on site-specific agriculture systems, focusing on the Eğirdir–Karacaören (EKB) and Beyşehir (BB) lake basins in the Lakes Region of Türkiye. This study employed machine learning modeling techniques to forecast changes in the yields of key crops, such as wheat, maize, apple, alfalfa, and sugar beet. Detailed spatial analyses of changes in agro-climatic conditions (heat stress, chilling requirement, frost days, and growing degree days for key crops) between the reference period (1995–2014) and two decadal periods projected for 2040–2049 and 2070–2079 were conducted under the Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSP3-7.0). Daily temperature, precipitation, relative humidity, and solar radiation data, derived from high-resolution climate simulations, were aggregated into annual summaries. These datasets were then spatially matched with district-level yield statistics obtained from the official data providers to construct crop-specific data matrices. For each crop, Random Forest (RF) regression models were fitted, and a Leave-One-Site-Out (LOSOCV) cross-validation method was used to evaluate model performance during the reference period. Yield prediction models were evaluated using the mean absolute error (MAE). The models achieved low MAE values for wheat (33.95 kg da⁻¹ in EKB and 75.04 kg da⁻¹ in BB), whereas the MAE values for maize and alfalfa were considerably higher, ranging from 658 to 986 kg da⁻¹. Projections for future periods indicate declines in relative yield across both basins. For 2070–2079, wheat and maize yields are projected to decrease by 10–20%, accompanied by wide uncertainty intervals. Both basins are expected to experience a substantial increase in heat stress days (>35 °C), a reduction in frost days, and an overall acceleration of plant phenology. Results provided insights to inform region-specific, evidence-based adaptation options, such as selecting heat-tolerant varieties, optimizing planting calendars, and integrating precision agriculture practices to improve resource efficiency under changing climatic conditions. Overall, this study establishes a scientific basis for enhancing the resilience of agricultural systems to climate change in two lake basins within the Mediterranean biogeography. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agroclimatology and Crop Production: Adapting to Climate Change)

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17 pages, 845 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Nitrogen Management Strategies on Nitrogen Losses via Leaching and Runoff from Paddy Fields Under Rainfall-Adapted Irrigation

by Shan Zhang, Yonggang Duan, Jianqiang Zhu, Weihan Wang and Dongliang Qi

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 320; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030320 - 27 Jan 2026

Abstract

Rainfall-adapted irrigation (RAI), the application of controlled-release nitrogen fertilizer (CRNF), and deep placement of nitrogen fertilizer can contribute to the improvement of resource utilization efficiency. Nevertheless, the interactive effects of these factors on nitrogen loss via runoff and leaching from paddy fields remain [...] Read more.

Rainfall-adapted irrigation (RAI), the application of controlled-release nitrogen fertilizer (CRNF), and deep placement of nitrogen fertilizer can contribute to the improvement of resource utilization efficiency. Nevertheless, the interactive effects of these factors on nitrogen loss via runoff and leaching from paddy fields remain ambiguous. Consequently, a two-year field experiment was conducted to evaluate the interactive effects of four nitrogen management strategies on nitrogen losses through runoff and leaching from paddy fields and rice yield under RAI when compared to conventional flooding irrigation (CI). Compared to CI, RAI significantly reduced total nitrogen loss via runoff (−49.8%) and leaching (−35.9%) by lowering volume of runoff and leaching. Compared to conventional nitrogen application (surface application of common urea with 240 kg N ha⁻¹), deep placement of CRNF with 192 kg N ha⁻¹ decreased floodwater nitrogen concentration, reducing total nitrogen loss by 46.8% via runoff and 50.9% via leaching. Importantly, RAI combined with deep placement of CRNF with 192 kg N ha⁻¹ minimized nitrogen losses through leaching and runoff from paddy fields and maximized grain yield (8251 kg ha⁻¹) by improving nitrogen accumulation in rice. Collectively, RAI combined with deep-placed CRNF with an 80% nitrogen rate could reduce non-point source pollution from paddy fields. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Carbon Sequestration, Emission Reduction, and Efficiency Enhancement: Innovative Practices and Prospects)

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14 pages, 7352 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spring- and Summer Heat Waves Caused Opposite Effects on Soil Respiration in a Eurasian Meadow Steppe

by Yang Shao, Qi Tong, Tsegaye Gemechu Legesse, Changliang Shao and Xiaoguang Zhang

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 319; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030319 - 27 Jan 2026

Abstract

Heat waves (HWs), characterized by periods of unusually high temperature, would inevitably affect the soil microenvironment and then soil respiration (Rs), which is considered to be the most active part of the global carbon cycle. An in situ spring and summer HWs simulation [...] Read more.

Heat waves (HWs), characterized by periods of unusually high temperature, would inevitably affect the soil microenvironment and then soil respiration (Rs), which is considered to be the most active part of the global carbon cycle. An in situ spring and summer HWs simulation experiment combined with a locally common human disturbance (mowing) was conducted to separate Rs into autotrophic respiration (Ra) and heterotrophic respiration (Rh) on a natural Eurasian meadow steppe in 2018 and 2019. HWs significantly affected grassland Rs, Rh and Ra (p < 0.01) and also interacted with mowing, but the effect of spring HW and summer HW were different. During the summer HWs, daily Rs of the non-mowed plots increased by 1.07 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ (11.71%) and increased in the mowed plots by 2.15 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ (23.81%). During the spring HWs, daily Rs of the non-mowed plots decreased by 0.13 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ (2.36%) and decreased by 0.52 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ (9.02%) in the mowed plots. Rs, Rh and Ra were inhibited by spring HWs, but promoted by summer HWs. Our results indicated that the occurring time change in HWs would cause widely divergent influences on the ecosystem, and mowing would decrease the anti-interference ability of the ecosystem, which acted as an enhancement on both the positive and negative effects of HWs. These findings have important implications for accurate model prediction and carbon budget assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multifunctionality of Grassland Soils: Opportunities and Challenges)

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20 pages, 4476 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of a Combined Remediation Strategy Using Complex Microbial Agents and Corn Straw on Saline–Alkali Soil

by Yan Wang, Wanying Liu, Hangzhe Fan, Ying Zhou, Zhanyu Chen, Fengjie Sun and Xiyan Cui

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 318; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030318 - 27 Jan 2026

Abstract

Identifying plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria tolerant to saline–alkali conditions is critical for developing effective microbial agents and multi-strategy approaches to remediate saline–alkali soil. Two salt–alkali-tolerant bacterial strains—phosphorus-solubilizing Bacillus pumilus JL-C and cellulose-decomposing B. halotolerans XW-3—were isolated from saline–alkali soil, with both exhibiting multiple plant-growth-promoting properties, [...] Read more.

Identifying plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria tolerant to saline–alkali conditions is critical for developing effective microbial agents and multi-strategy approaches to remediate saline–alkali soil. Two salt–alkali-tolerant bacterial strains—phosphorus-solubilizing Bacillus pumilus JL-C and cellulose-decomposing B. halotolerans XW-3—were isolated from saline–alkali soil, with both exhibiting multiple plant-growth-promoting properties, including nitrogen fixation and the generation of indole-3-acetic acid, siderophores, and 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate deaminase. Alfalfa pot experiments were conducted under four treatments: a control, the strain JL-C treatment, the strain XW-3 treatment, and a co-inoculation treatment (JL-C/XW-3), all mixed with corn straw and applied to the saline–alkali soil. The results demonstrated that the co-inoculation treatment yielded the most significant growth-promoting effects on alfalfa, showing enhanced antioxidant enzyme activities; increased contents of proline, soluble sugar, and protein; reduced malondialdehyde content; lowered pH and electrical conductivity; elevated activities of key enzymes; and increased levels of available nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and organic matter content in the soil. The pot experiments were confirmed by field experiments. The results of 16S rRNA high-throughput sequencing revealed changes in the bacterial community composition in the alfalfa rhizosphere, showing shifts in the relative abundance of several bacterial taxa often reported as plant-associated or potentially beneficial. This study establishes a combined remediation strategy for saline–alkali soil utilizing complex microbial agents and corn straw. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Stress Tolerance: From Genetic Mechanism to Cultivation Methods)

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18 pages, 1675 KB

Open AccessArticle

γ-PGA Enhances Zea mays L. Seedling Growth by Fertile Rhizosphere Establishment and Osmotic Modulation in Saline Soil

by Xin Li, Weiming Shi, Herbert J. Kronzucker, Xiaodong Ding and Yilin Li

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 317; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030317 - 27 Jan 2026

Abstract

Soil salinization is a major threat to agricultural sustainability. Poly-gamma-glutamic acid (γ-PGA), a biopolymer produced by microbial fermentation, has received attention as a biostimulant due to its positive effects on crop performance. However, the function of γ-PGA in crop salt stress tolerance and [...] Read more.

Soil salinization is a major threat to agricultural sustainability. Poly-gamma-glutamic acid (γ-PGA), a biopolymer produced by microbial fermentation, has received attention as a biostimulant due to its positive effects on crop performance. However, the function of γ-PGA in crop salt stress tolerance and its effect on the rhizosphere are unclear. This study explores the effects of γ-PGA application on rhizosphere soil nutrients and the soil–physical environment and examines the salt tolerance response of maize seedlings grown in saline–alkali soil under such an application regime. The results show a significant promotion of maize seedling growth and of nutrient accumulation with γ-PGA application under salt stress; plant dry weight, stem diameter, and plant height increased 121%, 39.5%, 18.4%, respectively, and shoot accumulation of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and carbon increased by 1.38, 2.11, 1.50, and 1.36 times, respectively, under an optimal-concentration γ-PGA treatment (5.34 mg kg⁻¹ (12 kg ha⁻¹)) compared with the control. γ-PGA treatment significantly decreased rhizospheric pH and soil electrical conductivity and significantly increased nutrient availability in the rhizosphere, especially available nitrogen (AN) and available potassium (AK). Compared with the control, AN, available phosphorus (AP), and AK increased by 13.9%, 7.70%, and 17.7%, respectively, under an optimal concentration treatment with γ-PGA. γ-PGA application also significantly increased the activities of urease, acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, dehydrogenase, and cellulose in rhizosphere soil by 35.5–39.3%, 35.4–39.3%, 5.59–8.85%, 18.9–19.8%, and 19.2–47.0%, respectively. γ-PGA application significantly decreased Na⁺ concentration and increased K⁺ concentration in shoots, resulting in a lowering of the Na⁺/K⁺ ratio by 30.5% and an increase in soluble sugar and soluble protein contents. Therefore, rhizosphere application of water-soluble and biodegradable γ-PGA facilitates the creation of an optimized rhizospheric environment for maize seedling and overcomes osmotic and ionic stresses, offering possibilities for future use in drip-irrigation systems in the cultivation of crops on saline-alkali land. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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19 pages, 3418 KB

Open AccessArticle

Physiological Mechanisms of Nano-CeO₂ and Nano-TiO₂ as Seed-Priming Agents in Enhancing Drought Tolerance of Barley Seedlings

by Xiang Ye, Ruijiao Song and Juncang Qi

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 316; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030316 - 27 Jan 2026

Abstract

Nanotechnology holds great promise for alleviating drought stress in crops. This study elucidates and compares the distinct physiological mechanisms by which two nanomaterials, nano-cerium oxide (CeO₂) and nano-titanium dioxide (TiO₂), function as seed-priming agents to enhance drought tolerance in [...] Read more.

Nanotechnology holds great promise for alleviating drought stress in crops. This study elucidates and compares the distinct physiological mechanisms by which two nanomaterials, nano-cerium oxide (CeO₂) and nano-titanium dioxide (TiO₂), function as seed-priming agents to enhance drought tolerance in barley. A comprehensive analysis encompassing germination performance, hormonal dynamics, starch metabolism, osmotic adjustment, photosynthetic pigments, and the antioxidant system revealed that each nanomaterial operates through a unique pathway. Specifically, priming with 150 mg·L⁻¹ nano-CeO₂ (CP-150) primarily promoted root development and stress resilience. This effect was achieved by persistently reducing abscisic acid (ABA) levels, elevating gibberellin (GA₃), enhancing amylase activity to mobilize seed reserves, and increasing soluble protein accumulation in roots. In contrast, priming with 500 mg·L⁻¹ nano-TiO₂ (TP-500) was more effective in enhancing shoot physiology and adaptive capacity by rapidly inducing auxin (IAA), robustly stimulating the antioxidant enzyme system, and increasing photosynthetic pigment content. The temporally and spatially complementary actions of these nanomaterials, with nano-CeO₂ fostering root-based resilience and nano-TiO₂ boosting shoot-level functions, synergistically support seed germination and seedling establishment under drought conditions. This study provides a mechanistic foundation for designing targeted nano-priming strategies to improve crop drought resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

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31 pages, 5186 KB

Open AccessArticle

Simulating Daily Evapotranspiration of Summer Soybean in the North China Plain Using Four Machine Learning Models

by Liyuan Han, Fukui Gao, Shenghua Dong, Yinping Song, Hao Liu and Ni Song

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 315; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030315 - 26 Jan 2026

Abstract

Accurate estimation of crop evapotranspiration (ET) is essential for achieving efficient agricultural water use in the North China Plain. Although machine learning techniques have demonstrated considerable potential for ET simulation, a systematic evaluation of model-architecture suitability and hyperparameter optimization strategies specifically for summer [...] Read more.

Accurate estimation of crop evapotranspiration (ET) is essential for achieving efficient agricultural water use in the North China Plain. Although machine learning techniques have demonstrated considerable potential for ET simulation, a systematic evaluation of model-architecture suitability and hyperparameter optimization strategies specifically for summer soybean ET estimation in this region is still lacking. To address this gap, we systematically compared several machine learning architectures and their hyperparameter optimization schemes to develop a high-accuracy daily ET model for summer soybean in the North China Plain. Synchronous observations from a large-scale weighing lysimeter and an automatic weather station were first used to characterize the day-to-day dynamics of soybean ET and to identify the key driving variables. Four algorithms—support vector regression (SVR), Random Forest (RF), extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost), and a stacking ensemble—were then trained for ET simulation, while Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), Genetic Algorithms (GAs), and Randomized Grid Search (RGS) were employed for hyperparameter tuning. Results show that solar radiation (R_S), maximum air temperature (T_max), and leaf area index (LAI) are the dominant drivers of ET. The Stacking-PSO-F3 combination, forced with Rs, T_max, LAI, maximum relative humidity (RH_max), and minimum relative humidity (RH_min), achieved the highest accuracy, yielding R² values of 0.948 on the test set and 0.900 in interannual validation, thereby demonstrating excellent precision, stability, and generalizability. The proposed model provides a robust technical tool for precision irrigation and regional water resource optimization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water and Fertilizer Regulation Theory and Technology in Crops)

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16 pages, 824 KB

Open AccessArticle

Exopolysaccharides from Rhizobium tropici Promote the Formation and Stability of Soil Aggregates: Insights from Soil Incubation

by Xinyun Xie, Steve L. Larson, John H. Ballard, Qinku Zhang, Huimin Zhang and Fengxiang X. Han

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 314; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030314 - 26 Jan 2026

Abstract

This study aimed to investigate the effects of r-type exopolysaccharides (EPSs) produced by the symbiotic bacteria Rhizobium tropici on soil aggregate formation and stability in loess sandy soil and to elucidate the independent and synergistic roles of EPSs in soil structure development. Experiments [...] Read more.

This study aimed to investigate the effects of r-type exopolysaccharides (EPSs) produced by the symbiotic bacteria Rhizobium tropici on soil aggregate formation and stability in loess sandy soil and to elucidate the independent and synergistic roles of EPSs in soil structure development. Experiments were conducted under both sterile and non-sterile soil conditions to distinguish the direct effects of EPSs from their interactions with indigenous soil microorganisms. Soil samples were treated with varying concentrations of EPSs and compared with untreated controls after undergoing a simulated weathering process. Aggregates were classified into four size fractions: <53 μm, 53–250 μm, 250–2000 μm, and 2000–5000 μm. Aggregate distribution and soil stability indicators, including the percentage of water-stable aggregates larger than 0.25 mm, mean weight diameter (MWD), geometric mean diameter (GMD), and fractal dimension (D), were analyzed. EPS application significantly promoted the formation of larger soil aggregates (>53 μm), with approximately 80% increases in the number of aggregates in the 53–250 μm and 2000–5000 μm fractions compared to the control. Soil stability was markedly enhanced, with a 41.7% increase in >0.25 mm water-stable aggregates, a 36.4% rise in MWD, and a 0.3% increase in GMD. The D decreased by 1.2% under 0.2‰ EPS treatment, indicating a more ordered soil structure. EPSs play a key role in promoting soil aggregate formation and enhancing soil stability. While microbial presence has a limited short-term effect on aggregation, the synergistic interaction between microorganisms and EPSs over time significantly enhances soil stability. This study provides new insights into understanding the independent and synergistic roles of EPSs in soil structure formation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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24 pages, 1217 KB

Open AccessArticle

Preliminary Biochemical, Physiological, and Yield Responses of Sweet Corn to Organic and Chemical Fertilization Across Genotypes

by Petru-Liviu Nicorici, Saad Masood Abdelnaby Elhawary, Jose Luis Ordóñez-Díaz, Mónica Sanchez-Parra, Georgiana Rădeanu, Gianluca Caruso, Jose Manuel Moreno-Rojas, Oana-Raluca Rusu, Mihaela Roșca and Vasile Stoleru

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 313; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030313 - 26 Jan 2026

Abstract

Sweet corn (Zea mays var. saccharata) is a widely cultivated crop valued for its sweet flavor and high nutritional content. Over the past decade, the area devoted to sweet corn grain production has increased substantially, driven by both its nutritional qualities [...] Read more.

Sweet corn (Zea mays var. saccharata) is a widely cultivated crop valued for its sweet flavor and high nutritional content. Over the past decade, the area devoted to sweet corn grain production has increased substantially, driven by both its nutritional qualities and its economic value. In this context, we aimed to evaluate the impact of three genotypes (Royalty F₁, Hardy F₁ and Deliciosul de Bacau,) under two fertilization types (chemical and organic) compared with a control version on yield, biometrical, biochemical, and quality parameters. This research was carried out between 2022 and 2023 at an experimental station situated in the North-East region of Romania. The results revealed significant influences of cultivar, fertilization method, and the interaction between these two experimental factors on most of the analyzed indicators. Regardless of the fertilization type, the genotype Hardy F₁ showed higher levels of photosynthetic activity, polyphenols (2.22 mg/g d.w.) and sucrose (6.7 g/100 g d.w.), leading to greater yield (13,995 kg/ha) than that of Deliciosul de Bacau and Royalty F₁. Research on fertilization has shown that sweet corn grains under an organic method have higher levels of lycopene, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total phenolic content (TPC), and fructose. In contrast, chemical fertilization more effectively supported growth, photosynthetic activity, yield, and the content of antioxidants and tannins. Regarding the combined influence of these factors, most of the nutritional characteristics of Royalty F1 were enhanced by organic fertilization, whereas those of the Hardy F1 genotype were improved by chemical fertilization. These findings provide practical guidance for selecting appropriate genotype–fertilization combinations to optimize the yield and nutritional quality of sweet corn and highlight key priorities for further research on sustainable fertilization strategies under climate change conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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15 pages, 978 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genetic Diversity and Morpho-Agronomic Characterization of Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp Genotypes Under Heat Stress

by Weslley Oliveira da Silva, Tiago Lima do Nascimento, Wislayne Pereira Neto, Jadson Lima da Silva, Camila Barbosa dos Santos, Tailane Amorim Luz, Layana Alves do Nascimento, Maurisrael de Moura Rocha, Natoniel Franklin de Melo and Francislene Angelotti

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 312; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030312 - 26 Jan 2026

Abstract

Global warming poses a threat to food security, particularly for essential crops like cowpea, which exhibits sensitivity to heat stress. This study aimed to evaluate the morpho-agronomic diversity of cowpea genotypes under different daily temperature regimes. The experiment was conducted in growth chambers, [...] Read more.

Global warming poses a threat to food security, particularly for essential crops like cowpea, which exhibits sensitivity to heat stress. This study aimed to evaluate the morpho-agronomic diversity of cowpea genotypes under different daily temperature regimes. The experiment was conducted in growth chambers, and biometric and productive traits were measured to quantify genetic divergence using Mahalanobis distance and UPGMA clustering. Temperature increases markedly altered trait expression. Under the 20–26–33 °C regime, 100-grain weight, leaf dry weight, pod weight, and stem dry weight accounted for 54.44% of the total variation. Under the higher temperature regime (24.8–30.8–37.8 °C), number of pods, plant height, stem fresh weight, and leaf dry weight explained 67.27% of the diversity, evidencing the impact of heat stress on vegetative and productive traits. Cluster analysis identified five distinct groups, confirming genetic variability and temperature-dependent dissimilarity patterns. Genotypes Bico de Ouro 17-53, Bico de Ouro 17-33 and BRS Tumucumaque maintained higher grain number and grain weight under elevated temperatures, whereas others showed yield reductions of up to 65%. These findings demonstrate exploitable genetic variability for heat tolerance in cowpea and support the use of morpho-agronomic traits as effective criteria for selecting genotypes adapted to warmer environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Breeding and Genetics)

30 pages, 8651 KB

Open AccessArticle

Disease-Seg: A Lightweight and Real-Time Segmentation Framework for Fruit Leaf Diseases

by Liying Cao, Donghui Jiang, Yunxi Wang, Jiankun Cao, Zhihan Liu, Jiaru Li, Xiuli Si and Wen Du

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 311; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030311 - 26 Jan 2026

Abstract

Accurate segmentation of fruit tree leaf diseases is critical for yield protection and precision crop management, yet it is challenging due to complex field conditions, irregular leaf morphology, and diverse lesion patterns. To address these issues, Disease-Seg, a lightweight real-time segmentation framework, is [...] Read more.

Accurate segmentation of fruit tree leaf diseases is critical for yield protection and precision crop management, yet it is challenging due to complex field conditions, irregular leaf morphology, and diverse lesion patterns. To address these issues, Disease-Seg, a lightweight real-time segmentation framework, is proposed. It integrates CNN and Transformer with a parallel fusion architecture to capture local texture and global semantic context. The Extended Feature Module (EFM) enlarges the receptive field while retaining fine details. A Deep Multi-scale Attention mechanism (DM-Attention) allocates channel weights across scales to reduce redundancy, and a Feature-weighted Fusion Module (FWFM) optimizes integration of heterogeneous feature maps, enhancing multi-scale representation. Experiments show that Disease-Seg achieves 90.32% mIoU and 99.52% accuracy, outperforming representative CNN, Transformer, and hybrid-based methods. Compared with HRNetV2, it improves mIoU by 6.87% and FPS by 31, while using only 4.78 M parameters. It maintains 69 FPS on 512 × 512 crops and requires approximately 49 ms per image on edge devices, demonstrating strong deployment feasibility. On two grape leaf diseases from the PlantVillage dataset, it achieves 91.19% mIoU, confirming robust generalization. These results indicate that Disease-Seg provides an accurate, efficient, and practical solution for fruit leaf disease segmentation, enabling real-time monitoring and smart agriculture applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Detection and Classification of External Traits in Crop Plants, Fruits, and Vegetables)

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14 pages, 1284 KB

Open AccessArticle

Edible Coatings Based on Bacterial Nanocellulose and Its Functionalization Extend Postharvest Strawberry Conservation

by María Julieta Moreno, Verónica Eugenia Ruiz, Exequiel Elías González, Marcos Gabriel Derita and María Eugenia Sesto Cabral

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 310; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030310 - 26 Jan 2026

Abstract

Strawberry is a non-climacteric fruit with a short postharvest shelf life. Recently, edible coatings have attracted the attention of the food industry. Cellulose is the most abundant carbohydrate polymer on Earth, and is also a renewable natural material, biocompatible with food. This work [...] Read more.

Strawberry is a non-climacteric fruit with a short postharvest shelf life. Recently, edible coatings have attracted the attention of the food industry. Cellulose is the most abundant carbohydrate polymer on Earth, and is also a renewable natural material, biocompatible with food. This work aimed to evaluate the postharvest quality of strawberries coated with edible coatings based on hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) and bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) and its functionalization, using vegetal extracts with reported antifungal activity. Five treatments were applied on postharvest strawberries: C (control, with no coating); Cel (HPMC:BNC in a 95:5 ratio); EPAC (cellulose + Persicaria acuminata extract); EO (cellulose + Pelargonium graveolens essential oil) and CBZ (cellulose + carbendazim). Weight, firmness, total soluble solids, titratable acidity, ripe index, respiration rate, ethylene production rate, and natural fungal incidence were measured. Furthermore, the C and Cel fruit surface was observed by SEM. Cel and EPAC treatments proved to be beneficial in maintaining the quality of the treated fruit during storage. Both coatings contributed to a lower weight loss and firmness. They also decreased the respiratory rate and the natural fungal incidence, delaying the senescence of the treated strawberries. These treatments can be alternatives to extend strawberry life postharvest. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agrochemistry and Application of Natural Products to Agricultural Research: 2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 1375 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cluster Root Formation in Macadamia integrifolia Seedlings: Responses to Phosphorus and Variation Among Grafted Scions

by Kwanho Jeong, Suzy Rogiers, Abraham J. Gibson, Jos Mieog, Manisha Thapa, Tobias Kretzschmar, Bronwyn J. Barkla and Terry J. Rose

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 309; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030309 - 26 Jan 2026

Abstract

Cluster roots enhance phosphorus (P) acquisition in macadamia (Macadamia integrifolia), yet their development under different P levels and effects of different grafted scion/rootstock combinations are not well understood. This study examined cluster root formation in seedlings under varying soil P levels [...] Read more.

Cluster roots enhance phosphorus (P) acquisition in macadamia (Macadamia integrifolia), yet their development under different P levels and effects of different grafted scion/rootstock combinations are not well understood. This study examined cluster root formation in seedlings under varying soil P levels and evaluated cluster root differences between two different rootstocks, each grafted with five different scions. Cluster roots first appeared at 42 days after planting (DAP), with low P promoting greater root number but without increasing biomass. High P application (800 mg P pot⁻¹) suppressed cluster root number by around 50%, corresponding to leaf P concentrations of ~1.05 mg g⁻¹. Scions and rootstocks influenced cluster root development, with the H2 rootstock supporting more cluster roots than Beaumont. These results show that cluster root formation in macadamia is modulated by both P availability and genetics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Progress in Plant Nutrition Research and Plant Physiology: 2nd Edition)

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14 pages, 2268 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fitness Costs of Broflanilide Resistance: Susceptibility, Resistance Risk and Adaptive Trade-Offs in Spodoptera frugiperda

by Priscilla Amponsah, Ali Hasnain, Qiutang Huang, Zhipeng Wang, Yichi Zhang, Xiaoli Chang, Youhui Gong and Chunqing Zhao

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 308; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030308 - 26 Jan 2026

Abstract

The fall armyworm (FAW) Spodoptera frugiperda is a polyphagous pest that causes significant damage to various crops and rapidly develops resistance to insecticides. Broflanilide, a novel meta-diamide insecticide, has shown effectiveness against lepidopteran pests, but the risk of resistance and associated fitness costs [...] Read more.

The fall armyworm (FAW) Spodoptera frugiperda is a polyphagous pest that causes significant damage to various crops and rapidly develops resistance to insecticides. Broflanilide, a novel meta-diamide insecticide, has shown effectiveness against lepidopteran pests, but the risk of resistance and associated fitness costs in FAW remain unclear. This study evaluated the development of resistance to broflanilide over nine generations of selection using the diet incorporation method at the 70% lethal concentration (LC₇₀) concentration. Following nine generations of selection, the LC₅₀ value increased from 0.134 mg/kg to 0.232 mg/kg, showing a 1.73-fold increase in resistance ratio (RR). The calculated heritability of resistance (h²) was 0.084, which suggested that resistance of FAW against broflanilide is evolving at a slow rate. Based on the projected rate of resistance progression, a 10-fold increase in LC₅₀ would take between 30.1 and 66.4 generations, assuming selection mortality rates of 90% and 50%, respectively. Fitness costs were evaluated using age-stage, two-sex life table analysis, revealing reduced fecundity and pupal weight in the broflanilide-selected (Brof-SEL) strain compared to the wild-type. The relative fitness of the Brof-SEL strain was 0.38, indicating trade-offs in biological traits. These findings suggested a low risk of rapid resistance development against broflanilide. However, effective integrated pest management strategies against FAW require the judicious use of this insecticide in combination with biological control measures, including the deployment of parasitoids and predators, to promote a more environmentally sustainable approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Pest and Disease Management)

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19 pages, 10270 KB

Open AccessArticle

Functional Biofertilizer with Microbial and Enzyme Complex Improves Nutrients, Microbial Characteristics, and Crop Yield in Albic Soil of Heilongjiang Province, China

by Zhuoran Chen, Yue Wang, Xianying Zhang, Mingyi Zhao, Yuan Li, Shuqiang Wang, Lingli Wang, Yulan Zhang, Zhenhua Chen, Nan Jiang, Libin Tian, Yongjie Piao and Rui Jiang

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 307; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030307 - 26 Jan 2026

Abstract

Soils with an albic horizon (characterized by a bleached, nutrient-poor eluvial layer), classified primarily as Albic Planosols and associated groups (e.g., Albic Luvisols and Retisols) in the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB), are widespread in Northeast China and suffer from inherent [...] Read more.

Soils with an albic horizon (characterized by a bleached, nutrient-poor eluvial layer), classified primarily as Albic Planosols and associated groups (e.g., Albic Luvisols and Retisols) in the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB), are widespread in Northeast China and suffer from inherent poor nutrient availability and low crop productivity. The present study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of novel microbial–enzyme composite biofertilizers in ameliorating Albic soils. This comprehensive assessment investigated their effects on soil nutrient availability, microbial community structure, and the activities of key enzymes involved in nutrient cycling (e.g., dehydrogenase and phosphatase). Concurrently, the impact on maize crop performance was determined by measuring changes in agronomic traits, including chlorophyll content, stem diameter, and final grain yield. A field experiment was conducted in Heilongjiang Province during the 2023 maize growing season using a randomized block design with six treatments: CF (conventional chemical fertilizer, 330 kg·ha⁻¹ NPK), OF (chemical fertilizer + 1500 kg·ha⁻¹ organic carrier), BF1 (OF + 75 kg·ha⁻¹ marine actinomycetes), BF2 (OF + 75 kg·ha⁻¹ actinomycetes + 45 kg·ha⁻¹ phytase), BF3 (OF + 75 kg·ha⁻¹ actinomycetes + 45 kg·ha⁻¹ mycorrhizal fungi + 45 kg·ha⁻¹ phytase), and BF4 (OF + 75 kg·ha⁻¹ actinomycetes + 45 kg·ha⁻¹ mycorrhizal fungi + 45 kg·ha⁻¹ phytase + 45 kg·ha⁻¹ β–glucosidase). The results showed that biofertilizers significantly increased microbial abundance and enzyme activity. The integrated treatment BF4 notably enhanced topsoil fungal abundance by 188.1% and dehydrogenase activity in the 0–20 cm layer, while also increasing available phosphorus by 92.6% at maturity. Although BF4 improved soil properties the most, BF3 produced the highest maize yield—boosting grain output by 18.3% over CF—and improved stem diameter and chlorophyll content. Strong correlations between microbial parameters and enzyme activities indicated a nutrient-cycling mechanism driven by microorganisms, with topsoil fungal abundance positively linked to alkaline phosphatase activity (r = 0.72) and subsoil bacterial abundance associated with available phosphorus (r = 0.65), demonstrating microbial–mediated carbon–phosphorus coupling. In conclusion, microbial–enzyme biofertilizers, particularly BF4, provide a sustainable strategy for enhancing Albic soil fertility and crop productivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conventional and Alternative Fertilization of Crops)

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26 pages, 4762 KB

Open AccessArticle

Morphology, Heterosis, and Fertility of Novel CMS-Based Solanum melongena × S. aethiopicum Hybrids

by Konstantinos Krommydas, Athanasios Mavromatis, Fotios Bletsos and Demetrios Roupakias

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 306; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030306 - 26 Jan 2026

Abstract

Although cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) is well established in eggplant, CMS-based interspecific hybrids with allied species have not yet been reported or studied. In this study, five previously developed CMS-based interspecific F₁ hybrids between eggplant and Solanum aethiopicum Group Aculeatum (=S. [...] Read more.

Although cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) is well established in eggplant, CMS-based interspecific hybrids with allied species have not yet been reported or studied. In this study, five previously developed CMS-based interspecific F₁ hybrids between eggplant and Solanum aethiopicum Group Aculeatum (=S. integrifolium) and Group Gilo (=S. gilo), together with their parental lines, were morphologically evaluated for 67 seedling, vegetative, floral, and fruit traits, and their heterosis for vegetative growth was studied. Male fertility was assessed based on anther morphology and pollen viability, while female fertility was evaluated through backcrosses to both parents. The hybrids exhibited predominantly intermediate phenotypes and clustered distinctly from parental lines as confirmed by principal component analysis. Remarkable heterosis was observed for most growth-related traits, indicating favorable nuclear–cytoplasmic interactions despite the use of CMS eggplant lines as maternal parents. All hybrids showed complete male sterility, characterized by non-viable pollen and pronounced anther homeotic alterations, the latter indicating CMS-related effects on male fertility. Female fertility was severely reduced, likely due to meiotic irregularities, as evidenced by the failure of most attempted backcrosses. However, successful recovery of BC₁ progeny after backcrossing one CMS-based F₁ hybrid to S. gilo demonstrates partial reproductive compatibility and provides a genetic bridge for CMS introgression into S. gilo. These results indicate that CMS systems are suitable for eggplant interspecific crosses aimed at vigorous rootstock production and CMS cytoplasm introgression into allied germplasm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genetics and Breeding of Field Crops in the 21st Century—2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 2991 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Co-Application of Diammonium Phosphate Fertilizer with Microbial Inoculant on Soil Nitrogen Levels and Alfalfa Growth Performance in Saline-Alkali Soil

by Shuai Wang, Changning Li, Xiaohu Wang, Chen Zhang, Yi Feng, Yang Lei and Jiahao Xu

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 305; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030305 - 25 Jan 2026

Abstract

Soil salinization leads to soil nutrient loss and decreased crop yield. This research aims to determine the optimal reduction rate of diammonium phosphate (DAP) and suitable microbial inoculant for alfalfa cultivation and nitrogen-level improvement in saline-alkali land. The experiment consisted of a factorial [...] Read more.

Soil salinization leads to soil nutrient loss and decreased crop yield. This research aims to determine the optimal reduction rate of diammonium phosphate (DAP) and suitable microbial inoculant for alfalfa cultivation and nitrogen-level improvement in saline-alkali land. The experiment consisted of a factorial arrangement of three DAP fertilizer levels (X1, 60%; X2, 70%; and X3, 80%) and four microbial inoculants (Y1, rhizobial inoculant; Y2, phosphate-solubilizing microbial inoculant; Y3, composite microbial inoculant; and Y4, control) in a split-plot design. The results indicated that DAP fertilizer, microbial inoculant, and their interaction significantly affected (p < 0.05) forage yield, crude protein, available nitrogen (N), and enzyme activities. Under 80% DAP fertilizer combined with the composite microbial inoculant, forage yield, plant height, soil urease (S-UE), and ammonium nitrogen (NH₄⁺-N) reached maximum values of 17.1 t ha⁻¹, 65.7 cm, 292.3 μg d⁻¹ g⁻¹, and 3.1 mg kg⁻¹, respectively. However, the soil total nitrogen (TN) significantly increased at the 60% DAP fertilizer application rate (p < 0.05). Overall, this study demonstrates that co-application of DAP fertilizer with compound microbial inoculant delivers a green, science-based fertilization approach for improving nitrogen levels and alfalfa cultivation in saline-alkali soils. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Utilization of Microorganisms for Sustainable Agricultural Development)

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13 pages, 1314 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Evaluation of Plant-Derived Protein Hydrolysates as Biostimulants for Enhancing Growth and Mitigating Fe-Deficiency Stress in Tomato

by Eleonora Coppa, Francesco Caddeu, Mariateresa Cardarelli, Giuseppe Colla and Stefania Astolfi

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 304; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030304 - 25 Jan 2026

Abstract

Sustainable agriculture increasingly relies on biostimulants like protein hydrolysates (PHs) to enhance crop resilience. This study characterized and compared three plant-derived PHs (PH1, PH2, and PH3) from the Malvaceae, Brassicaceae, and Fabaceae families, respectively, under optimal (40 µM Fe³⁺-EDTA) [...] Read more.

Sustainable agriculture increasingly relies on biostimulants like protein hydrolysates (PHs) to enhance crop resilience. This study characterized and compared three plant-derived PHs (PH1, PH2, and PH3) from the Malvaceae, Brassicaceae, and Fabaceae families, respectively, under optimal (40 µM Fe³⁺-EDTA) and iron (Fe)-deficient (4 µM Fe³⁺-EDTA) conditions. Initial assays demonstrated that the PHs possessed significant antioxidant capacity and influenced biological activity: PH2 and PH3 promoted pollen germination, while PH1 exhibited a weaker stimulatory effect. In vivo experiments on tomato plants revealed that PH application effectively modulated root architecture and biomass accumulation. Moreover, PH2 and PH3 significantly mitigated Fe deficiency’s impact, by maintaining biomass and preventing chlorosis. Interestingly, while Fe deficiency typically triggers massive root Fe³⁺-chelate reductase activity, PH treatments, particularly PH2, significantly down-regulated this response. This suggests that PHs may improve internal Fe use efficiency or facilitate alternative uptake pathways. Overall, these findings establish a link between the intrinsic bioactive properties of PHs and their biostimulant action, highlighting their potential as innovative tools for improving nutrient use efficiency and crop resilience in sustainable farming systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Nutrient Dynamics: From Soil to Harvest and Beyond)

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