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Toxics
Volume 13
Issue 12
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Toxics, Volume 13, Issue 12 (December 2025) – 85 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): The growing co-occurrence of nanomaterials and conventional pollutants poses pressing questions regarding their combined ecological impacts. The findings presented in this study confirm that titanium dioxide nanoparticles (n-TiO2) function as a potent carrier of ammonia nitrogen, significantly enhancing its accumulation in zebrafish embryos. This synergistic interaction exacerbates developmental neurotoxicity, characterized by profound behavioral deficits and increased neuronal apoptosis. Notably, co-exposure disrupts both key neurotransmitter systems and critical neurodevelopmental pathways. These findings highlight n-TiO2 as a toxicity enhancer of conventional pollutants and underscore the necessity of integrated risk assessment for combined environmental exposures. View this paper
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16 pages, 1376 KB  
Article
Antibiotic Exposure in School Children in Tropical Environments: Impact of Dietary Habits and Potential Health Risks
by Lin Zhao, Xin-Yu Wang, Yang Xiang, Ting-Ting Xu, Shi-Jian Liu, Xiao-Ya Lin and Ying Guo
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1089; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121089 - 18 Dec 2025
Viewed by 342
Abstract
Due to their wide application, there is a large amount of residual antibiotics in our environment and food, raising concerns about health risks to children. In this study, 302 primary-school students in Hainan Province, China, were recruited to collect urine samples and questionnaires. [...] Read more.
Due to their wide application, there is a large amount of residual antibiotics in our environment and food, raising concerns about health risks to children. In this study, 302 primary-school students in Hainan Province, China, were recruited to collect urine samples and questionnaires. The internal exposure levels of sixteen antibiotics and three metabolites in urine were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS), and the contents of DNA oxidative damage markers, 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) and lipid peroxidation marker malondialdehyde (MDA), were also measured. Antibiotics and their metabolites were frequently detected, with a total concentration of < LOD-4.58 × 103 ng/mL. Binary logistic regression analysis revealed that the detection frequency of DFs of antibiotics was associated with animal-derived foods, such as red meat with fluoroquinolones (FQs) (OR = 76.4, 95% CI 1.68–3479), poultry with norfloxacin (NFX) (OR = 6.56, 95% CI 1.08–39.9), and aquatic products with ciprofloxacin (CIP) (OR = 3.96, 95% CI 1.32–11.9). Cumulative risk assessment based on microbial effects showed a hazard index of 3.5 for children, mainly driven by azithromycin (45.6%), oxytetracycline (18.1%), and CIP (33.9%). Multiple linear regression indicated that lipid peroxidation was significantly associated with high quantiles of three antibiotic classes, while DNA oxidation was positively correlated with all antibiotic classes except FQs. These findings indicate that children in Hainan are widely exposed to antibiotics. Although the exposure levels are generally low, chronic low-dose antibiotic exposure may contribute to disease development and oxidative stress damage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Biomonitoring Studies: Environmental Pollution and Possible Risks to Human Health)
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20 pages, 571 KB  
Article
Toxic Trace Element Concentration in Commercially Available Cigarettes in Poland, Europe
by Małgorzata Ćwieląg-Drabek, Joanna Domagalska, Marta Buczkowska and Agata Piekut
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1088; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121088 - 18 Dec 2025
Viewed by 425
Abstract
(1) Background: Tobacco use constitutes a significant preventable cause of morbidity and mortality on a global scale. It contributes to cumulative exposure to carcinogenic and toxic heavy metals, including cadmium, lead, nickel, and copper. Collectively, these metals promote oxidative stress, multi-organ damage, and [...] Read more.
(1) Background: Tobacco use constitutes a significant preventable cause of morbidity and mortality on a global scale. It contributes to cumulative exposure to carcinogenic and toxic heavy metals, including cadmium, lead, nickel, and copper. Collectively, these metals promote oxidative stress, multi-organ damage, and an increased risk of cancer, cardiovascular, respiratory, and renal diseases; (2) Methods: The research material comprised 119 tobacco samples. The concentrations of cadmium, lead, copper, and nickel in the samples were subsequently determined. A series of calculations were conducted in order to estimate the non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health risks associated with the consumption of tobacco products under a variety of exposure scenarios; (3) Results: The concentrations of heavy metals in the tobacco samples ranged as follows, with mean values: Cd: 0.3–8.6 mg/kg (mean 1.0), Cu: 3.4–92.6 mg/kg (mean 12.3), Ni: 1.1–15.4 mg/kg (mean 3.4), and Pb: 0.2–1633.3 mg/kg (mean 46.5). A health risk assessment indicated that exposure through inhalation to cadmium Cd, Ni, and Pb, even in the minimal smoking scenario of one cigarette per day, consistently exceeded internationally established thresholds for carcinogenic risk; (4) Conclusions: The presence of high inter-brand variability and high-risk outliers underscores the necessity for enhanced regulation and monitoring of toxic metals in tobacco products. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Contaminants)
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24 pages, 1220 KB  
Systematic Review
Machine Learning for Predicting Human Drug-Induced Cardiotoxicity: A Scoping Review
by Ja-Young Han, Min Jung Kim, Hyunwoo Kim, KeunOh Choi, Seongjin Ju and Myeong Gyu Kim
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1087; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121087 - 17 Dec 2025
Viewed by 593
Abstract
Background: Drug-induced cardiotoxicity poses a major challenge in drug development and clinical safety. Although machine learning (ML) methods have shown potential in predicting cardiotoxic risks, prior research has largely focused on specific mechanisms such as human Ether-à-go-go-Related Gene (hERG) inhibition. This scoping review [...] Read more.
Background: Drug-induced cardiotoxicity poses a major challenge in drug development and clinical safety. Although machine learning (ML) methods have shown potential in predicting cardiotoxic risks, prior research has largely focused on specific mechanisms such as human Ether-à-go-go-Related Gene (hERG) inhibition. This scoping review systematically examined studies applying ML models to predict a broad range of drug-induced cardiotoxicity outcomes. Methods: A systematic search of PubMed, EMBASE, SCOPUS, and Web of Science identified studies developing ML models for cardiotoxicity prediction. Extracted data included sources, feature types, algorithms, and performance metrics, categorized by evaluation method (training, testing, cross-validation, or external validation). Results: Twenty-five studies met inclusion criteria, addressing outcomes such as arrhythmia, cardiac failure, heart block, hypertension, and myocardial infarction. Structured resources such as SIDER (Side Effect Resource) were the most common data sources, with features including molecular descriptors, fingerprints, and occasionally, target-based or transcriptomic data. Support vector machines (SVM) and random forest (RF) were the most common algorithms, showing robust predictive performance, with externally validated area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC-ROC) values above 0.70 and accuracy exceeding 0.75 in several studies. Despite variability and limited external validation, ML approaches demonstrate substantial promise for predicting diverse cardiotoxic outcomes. Conclusions: This review underscores the importance of integrating heterogeneous data and rigorous validation for improving cardiotoxicity prediction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Drugs Toxicity)
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17 pages, 2143 KB  
Article
Composition, Sources, and Health Risks of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Commonly Consumed Fish and Crayfish from Caohai Lake, Southwest China
by Yupei Hao, Tianyao Yang, Xueqin Wei, Xu Zhang, Xiongyi Miao, Gaohai Xu, Sheping Yang, Xiaohua Zhou, Huifang Zhao and Wei Bao
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1086; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121086 - 17 Dec 2025
Viewed by 387
Abstract
This study investigated the occurrence, sources, and health risks of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in commonly consumed fish and crayfish from the Caohai Lake, a typical plateau lake in southwest China. Four dominant species (crucian carp, common carp, yellow catfish, and crayfish) [...] Read more.
This study investigated the occurrence, sources, and health risks of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in commonly consumed fish and crayfish from the Caohai Lake, a typical plateau lake in southwest China. Four dominant species (crucian carp, common carp, yellow catfish, and crayfish) were collected and analyzed. The results showed a generally low level of PAH contamination (mean: 26.7 μg/kg wet weight), with bioaccumulation tendency decreasing as the number of PAH rings increased. Crayfish exhibited the highest total concentration of PAHs, whereas yellow catfish accumulated the most carcinogenic PAHs. Positive matrix factorization (PMF) model identified four primary sources—petroleum leakage, coal combustion, traffic emissions, and biomass burning—with petroleum-derived PAHs being the most significant contributor. The assessment of health risk indicated that while the average hazard index (HI) was below 1, approximately 10% of the samples posed a potential non-carcinogenic risk, particularly from crayfish and yellow catfish. The incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) for DahA, BaP, BaA, and BbF all exceeded the negligible risk level of 10−6 but remained below 10−4. Notably, the mean total ILCR (TILCR) approached 10−4, with yellow catfish presenting the highest carcinogenic risk, highlighting concerns of the carcinogenic risk of PAHs. Source-oriented risk assessment revealed that petroleum leakage was the dominant contributor to non-carcinogenic risk (>55%), while traffic emissions contributed most to carcinogenic risk (>57%). To mitigate carcinogenic risk, implementing stormwater diversion systems along the circular lakeside roads is recommended to reduce the input of traffic-derived PAHs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Exposome Analysis and Risk Assessment)
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21 pages, 4955 KB  
Article
Temporal Evolution, Source Apportionment, and Health Risks of Atmospheric Halocarbons: A Case Study in the Central Yangtze River Delta Region
by Yuchun Jiang, Anqi Zhang, Qiaoli Zou, Hanfei Zuo, Jinmei Ding, Lu Zhang, Lingling Jin, Da Xu, Yuwen Niu, Bingye Xu and Xiaoqian Li
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1085; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121085 - 17 Dec 2025
Viewed by 332
Abstract
Recently, the environmental impact of halocarbons has become increasingly concerning, particularly due to the growing influence of non-regulated halocarbons on stratospheric ozone depletion and their adverse health effects in the troposphere. Previous model studies have highlighted the importance of halocarbon emissions from the [...] Read more.
Recently, the environmental impact of halocarbons has become increasingly concerning, particularly due to the growing influence of non-regulated halocarbons on stratospheric ozone depletion and their adverse health effects in the troposphere. Previous model studies have highlighted the importance of halocarbon emissions from the YRD. However, only several reports have discussed the long-term pollution characteristics and health risks of halocarbons in the YRD based on observational data. The continuous observation of halocarbons was conducted in the central part of the YRD (Shanxi site) from 2018 to 2023. The result showed that rise in halocarbon levels was primarily driven by alkyl halides, including dichloromethane (1.194 ppb to 1.831 ppb), chloromethane (0.205 ppb to 1.121 ppb), 1,2-dichloroethane (0.399 ppb to 0.772 ppb), and chloroform (0.082 ppb to 0.300 ppb). The PMF and CBPF analysis revealed that pharmaceutical manufacturing (37.0% to 60.2%), chemical raw material manufacturing (8.0% to 19.9%), solvent use in machinery manufacturing (12.4% to 24.7%), solvent use in electronic industry, and background sources were the main sources of halocarbons at the Shanxi site. Among them, the contributions of chemical raw material manufacturing, as well as of solvent use in machinery manufacturing and electronic industry, are increasing. These aspects are all dominated by local emissions. Furthermore, the carcinogenic risks of chloroform and 1,2-dichloroethane, which rank first in this regard, are increasing. Also, attention should be paid to solvent use in the electronic industry and the background. The probabilities of these activities coming with health risks that exceed the acceptable levels are 94.8% and 94.9%. This study enriches the regional observation data in the YRD region, offering valuable insights into halocarbon pollution control measures for policy development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Analysis of Environmental Distribution, Mechanisms of Effects, and Risk of Pollutants Driven by New Technologies)
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18 pages, 1799 KB  
Article
Heavy Metal Accumulation and Human Health Risk in Mediterranean Mussels from the Southern Marmara Sea, Türkiye
by Saadet Hacısalihoğlu
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1084; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121084 - 17 Dec 2025
Viewed by 599
Abstract
This study evaluated the accumulation of heavy metals (As, Cd, Cu, Hg, Pb, and Zn) in Mediterranean mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) collected from five coastal stations (Küçükkumla, Kurşunlu, Güzelyalı, Mudanya, and Zeytinbağı; n = 20 mussels per station; composited into one sample [...] Read more.
This study evaluated the accumulation of heavy metals (As, Cd, Cu, Hg, Pb, and Zn) in Mediterranean mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) collected from five coastal stations (Küçükkumla, Kurşunlu, Güzelyalı, Mudanya, and Zeytinbağı; n = 20 mussels per station; composited into one sample per site) along the southern coast of the Marmara Sea (Bursa, Türkiye), and assessed the associated potential health risks. Analyses using ICP-OES revealed spatial variations in metal concentrations among stations. Statistical analyses (p < 0.05) showed no significant differences in As levels, whereas Cd, Cu, Hg, Pb, and Zn concentrations differed significantly. Mudanya exhibited the highest levels of Zn and Hg, while Cd was particularly elevated in Mudanya and Güzelyalı. Kurşunlu showed the highest Cu concentrations, and Küçükkumla had the highest Pb levels. Human health risk assessments for the adult population (EDI, EWI, THQ, HI) were all below 1.0, indicating no appreciable non-carcinogenic risk under the assumed adult dietary exposure scenario, based on internationally recognized toxicological reference values (FAO/WHO, JECFA, and EC Regulation 1881/2006). However, relatively higher HI values in Mudanya (0.695) and Küçükkumla (0.646) suggest the need for closer monitoring. Overall, the findings demonstrate that mussels serve as effective bioindicators of coastal metal contamination in the southern Marmara Sea and underscore the importance of continuous biomonitoring to safeguard both ecosystem and public health. Full article
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14 pages, 1864 KB  
Article
Bioaccumulation of Potential Harmful Elements in Fossorial Water Voles Inhabiting Non-Polluted Crops
by Aitor Somoano, Roser Adalid, Jacint Ventura, Francesc Muñoz-Muñoz, Màrius Vicent Fuentes, Mario Menéndez-Miranda and Marcos Miñarro
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1083; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121083 - 16 Dec 2025
Viewed by 305
Abstract
Although the health risks associated with exposure to potentially harmful elements (PHEs) are well documented, there is still limited research on their accumulation at trace concentrations in small mammals inhabiting agricultural ecosystems. This study provides the first comprehensive assessment of PHE accumulation in [...] Read more.
Although the health risks associated with exposure to potentially harmful elements (PHEs) are well documented, there is still limited research on their accumulation at trace concentrations in small mammals inhabiting agricultural ecosystems. This study provides the first comprehensive assessment of PHE accumulation in fossorial water voles (Arvicola scherman) from two low-input apple orchards (Nava and Oles) located in Asturias, northwestern Spain, demonstrating its value as a potential bioindicator of trace element inputs. We quantified the concentrations of three toxic metals (Pb, Cd, and Hg) and selenium (Se), an element with concentration-dependent toxicity, in kidney, liver, and muscle tissues. We also determined inter-population differences and associations with body condition. Overall, element concentrations generally reflected the natural content of the local soils, except for Cd in the kidney, which exceeded soil levels, highlighting its strong affinity for this organ. Significant differences in Pb, Cd, and Se accumulation were found among tissues, with the kidney showing the highest levels, underscoring the importance of organ-specific monitoring. The observed positive correlations between body condition and Se and Cd in kidney tissue, and Cd in liver tissue, particularly in the Nava population, suggest that individual health status modulates exposure and accumulation dynamics. Higher PHE burdens were found in Oles specimens, pointing to a potential threshold effect where higher contamination may begin to impair physiological condition. In contrast, Hg showed a negative relationship with body condition, suggesting possible adverse effects even in these low-input systems. These findings highlight the importance of carefully interpreting physiological biomarkers within an ecological context and demonstrate the potential for trace elements to propagate through the food web, with possible cascading effects on predator health and key ecosystem services, such as natural pest control. Future research should extend to more contaminated sites and adopt an integrative framework combining biomonitoring, dietary ecology, and stress physiology to better assess the ecological risks posed by trace elements in agroecosystems. Full article
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32 pages, 3224 KB  
Review
Comprehensive Review of Microbial, Plant, Biochar, Mineral, and Nanomaterial Solutions for Lead-Contaminated Wastewater
by Aminur Rahman, Md Azizul Haque, Md Mahbubur Rahman, Pottathil Shinu, Muhammad Muhitur Rahman, Aftab Ahmad Khan and Sayeed Rushd
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1082; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121082 - 16 Dec 2025
Viewed by 376
Abstract
Lead (Pb) pollution in wastewater is an immense problem for public health and the environment because it persists in the water bodies for a long period of time. Over the past years, many different techniques of Pb remediation have been discovered to eliminate [...] Read more.
Lead (Pb) pollution in wastewater is an immense problem for public health and the environment because it persists in the water bodies for a long period of time. Over the past years, many different techniques of Pb remediation have been discovered to eliminate Pb pollution. This systematic review analyzed the major findings of Pb removal from wastewater using microbial biosorption, agro-waste- and fruit peel-based adsorbents, plant-assisted phytoremediation, engineered biochars, clay and natural minerals, and nanomaterials. Each of these methods is critically reviewed in terms of removal efficiency, limitations, cost-effectiveness, how it works, how well it eliminates the problem, environmental compatibility, regeneration potential, and scalability, as supported by recent experimental and case studies. This review provides a comprehensive comparison of all the remediation methods in one framework. It also shows the potential of the integrated and hybrid systems, a combination of biological and high-technology material-based strategies, to reach high-performance Pb remediation in the long run. Therefore, the study aims to assist policymakers, environmental engineers, and researchers who are interested in finding a sustainable solution to Pb contamination by providing a comparative overview of the existing and recently developed remediation methods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Environmental Remediation: Research Advances Towards a Comprehensive Sustainability Approach)
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13 pages, 2545 KB  
Article
Source-Specific PM2.5 Exposure and Associated Health Risks During Beijing Winter
by Xin Liu, Zhiqing Liu, Wenming Pei, Xiaoyu Zhang, Xiaoting Jie, Zhi Yang, Liwei Liu, Yuxing Gao, Ruoyu Hu and Mingzhu Zhang
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1081; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121081 - 16 Dec 2025
Viewed by 564
Abstract
Atmospheric fine particles (PM2.5, aerodynamic diameter ≤ 2.5 µm) have a serious effect on human health. This study combined concentration weighted trajectory (CWT) analysis with the HYSPLIT trajectory ensemble (Ens-HYSPLIT-CWT), to separate the sources of PM2.5 transported to Beijing, and [...] Read more.
Atmospheric fine particles (PM2.5, aerodynamic diameter ≤ 2.5 µm) have a serious effect on human health. This study combined concentration weighted trajectory (CWT) analysis with the HYSPLIT trajectory ensemble (Ens-HYSPLIT-CWT), to separate the sources of PM2.5 transported to Beijing, and further investigate the effect of PM2.5 originated from different sources on human health. We found that north region air masses usually come with clean events under the blessing of meteorological conditions, combined with the clean air mass transported from the north, as high wind speed near the surface promotes the horizontal diffusion of pollutants. Additionally, north region air masses contribute to the decrease in aerosol optical depth (AOD) at Beijing and surrounding areas, with AF (daily attributable fraction associated with short-term PM2.5 exposure) values of Beijing only at 0.14. During the study period (from January to March 2024), south region air masses usually come with high PM2.5 values, which is correlated to the meteorological conditions and pollutant spatial distribution. The air masses coming from the south region contain high temperature and relative humidity (RH), promoting the occurrence of high pollution events. AOD spatial distribution observed from satellites showed that except for the dominance of north region air mass sources, the south region presents high AOD values, further resulting in the highest AF value of 0.75 obtained at Beijing, which is 5 times higher than the north region’s dominant AF mean value. It is worth noting that the air mass originated from the east region, which originally contributed relatively clean air masses before emission reduction, increased its contribution to air mass pollution after emission reduction due to the decrease in pollution concentration in other regions. As a result, the mean PM2.5 in this source area was second only to south region air masses and local emission sources, and the AF value even exceeded local emissions, second only to south region air mass sources, reaching 0.5. This result emphasizes that in future pollution control policy adjustments and research on human health, attention needs to be paid to the contribution of eastward air masses. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring and Modeling of Air Pollution)
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19 pages, 2627 KB  
Article
Human Exposure to Metals and Potential Human Health Risk in a Volcanic Environment in Italy
by Giovanni Forte, Venerando Rapisarda, Flavia Ruggieri, Beatrice Battistini, Lisa Bauleo, Veronica Filetti, Elena Grignani, Piero Lovreglio, Serena Matera, Paola Senia, Francesca Vella, Ermanno Vitale, Beatrice Bocca and Ivo Iavicoli
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1080; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121080 - 15 Dec 2025
Viewed by 394
Abstract
Mt. Etna is the highest and most active stratovolcano in Europe, located in Catania (Sicily, Italy). Its persistent degassing, frequent explosions, and lava flows release large amounts of ash and gases into the atmosphere. This study aimed to assess whether chronic exposure to [...] Read more.
Mt. Etna is the highest and most active stratovolcano in Europe, located in Catania (Sicily, Italy). Its persistent degassing, frequent explosions, and lava flows release large amounts of ash and gases into the atmosphere. This study aimed to assess whether chronic exposure to local volcanic emissions leads to an increased internal dose of trace elements (As, Ba, Be, Bi, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Li, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, Sn, Sr, Tl, U, V, W, Zn) in Catania adult residents. To this end, urine samples were collected from 167 individuals residing in Catania and compared with 193 residents of other Sicilian areas located farther from the volcano. Results revealed significantly higher urinary concentrations of As, Hg, Mn, Pb, and Tl in the exposed group, suggesting volcanic activity as a relevant source of exposure. The levels of the other elements were instead affected by other factors such as lifestyle habits and the consumption of specific foods and beverages. The urinary concentrations of trace elements were consistent with reference values reported in other European studies, and the levels remained well within the health-based guidance values. There is evidence of an increased internal dose of a few elements in the Sicilian population exposed to volcano activity, but the observed increases are unlikely to pose a significant health risk. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Exposome Analysis and Risk Assessment)
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30 pages, 8187 KB  
Review
The Production of Biochar and Its Impact on the Removal of Various Emerging Pollutants from Wastewater: A Review
by Zafran Ullah, Collin G. Joseph, Zhen-Yu Tian, Muhammad Yasin, Muhammad Naeem Khan, Sajid Ali, Aqsa Khan, Jonathan Suazo-Hernández, Patricia Poblete-Grant and Muhammad Ikram Nabeel
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1079; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121079 - 15 Dec 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 609
Abstract
Recent advances in agricultural biotechnology and sustainable farming have drawn attention to biochar as a multifunctional material for environmental remediation. Among its emerging applications, biochar has demonstrated remarkable potential in wastewater treatment, particularly as an efficient and sustainable adsorbent for pollutant removal. Numerous [...] Read more.
Recent advances in agricultural biotechnology and sustainable farming have drawn attention to biochar as a multifunctional material for environmental remediation. Among its emerging applications, biochar has demonstrated remarkable potential in wastewater treatment, particularly as an efficient and sustainable adsorbent for pollutant removal. Numerous studies over the past decades have highlighted its effectiveness in eliminating a wide range of contaminants. This efficiency is mainly due to its abundant feedstock availability, simple production processes, and favorable surface and structural properties. This review summarizes current developments in biochar use for wastewater treatment, emphasizing its adsorption capabilities and the underlying mechanisms responsible for pollutant removal. Key modification strategies, physical, chemical, and biological, are discussed in detail to illustrate how biochar performance can be optimized for specific treatment goals. Furthermore, the prospects of biochar-based technologies are explored, with a focus on their role in addressing both inorganic and organic pollutants. This review also describes the use of biochar in adsorbing metals, organic contaminants, and industrial waste. The integration of biochar into sustainable water management systems presents a promising pathway toward achieving long-term environmental and agricultural resilience. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic New Advances in Adsorptive and Extractive Methods for Pollutant Removal)
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21 pages, 3100 KB  
Article
Toxicological Assessment of Trace Element Exposure in Relation to Sudden Unexplained Death (SUD): Environmental Geochemistry and Dietary Risk in Central-Eastern Yunnan, China
by Yangchun Han, Litao Hao, Shixi Zhang and Kunli Luo
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1078; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121078 - 14 Dec 2025
Viewed by 554
Abstract
Sudden Unexplained Death (SUD) has been reported in specific regions of Yunnan Province, China, yet its environmental causes remain unclear. This study aimed to explore the potential toxicological link between trace element exposure and SUD by investigating the concentrations of multiple elements in [...] Read more.
Sudden Unexplained Death (SUD) has been reported in specific regions of Yunnan Province, China, yet its environmental causes remain unclear. This study aimed to explore the potential toxicological link between trace element exposure and SUD by investigating the concentrations of multiple elements in soil, corn, and drinking water from typical SUD and non-SUD villages in central-eastern Yunnan. Elemental abundances were determined, and dietary exposure and non-carcinogenic health risks for adults and children were assessed. Results showed that soils in SUD villages were markedly deficient in Na but enriched in Se and Cr compared with non-SUD villages. Corn and drinking water were generally low in essential trace elements, with notable Co deficiency in corn and Fe, Li, Mn, and Cu deficiency in water. Cr and Mn in corn were identified as the main contributors to non-carcinogenic risks, especially for children. Comparative analysis with Keshan Disease (KD) villages in Shaanxi Province indicated distinct elemental patterns, suggesting different pathogenic mechanisms. Overall, environmental Na deficiency and exposure to Cr and Mn may be potential toxicological factors associated with SUD, warranting further investigation into their physiological effects and regional disease etiology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Disease Risks and Toxic Pathway from Environmental Chemical Exposure)
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13 pages, 2091 KB  
Article
Assessing Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS) Toxicity and Carcinogenicity Through Zebrafish (Danio rerio) Xenograft Assays
by Tessa Block, Joan Renee DeMaio, Lela Skopec, Margaret Ayers and Eric Glasgow
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1077; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121077 - 14 Dec 2025
Viewed by 535
Abstract
Persistent environmental pollutants such as per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have been associated with a wide range of toxic effects, including cancer. There are over 12,000 PFAS compounds, which may act as carcinogens individually or in combinations. Therefore, efficient in vivo new approach [...] Read more.
Persistent environmental pollutants such as per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have been associated with a wide range of toxic effects, including cancer. There are over 12,000 PFAS compounds, which may act as carcinogens individually or in combinations. Therefore, efficient in vivo new approach models of carcinogenicity are needed for evaluating environmental contaminant compounds and chemical mixtures. Here, we use the larval zebrafish xenograft assay to identify tumor growth activity of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), a known carcinogenic PFAS. Dose–response curves for PFOS exposure were used to identify the Maximum Tolerated Concentration (MTC) and Lethal Concentration causing 50% death (LC50) under xenograft conditions. Zebrafish xenografts were established by injecting fluorescently labeled kidney cancer cells into the embryonic body cavity near the developing kidney, followed by treatment with PFOS at a concentration of 5%, 10%, and 20% of the MTC. When treated with PFOS, zebrafish xenografts using renal cell carcinoma (ACHN) cells and clear renal cell carcinoma (Caki-1) cells show dose-dependent changes in tumor area. This study is the first to directly show cancer-promoting activity of a PFAS, using a rapid in vivo zebrafish xenograft assay, and demonstrates the utility of this model for validation of predicted cancer-promoting properties of environmental contaminants. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Approach Methodologies in Environmental Risk Assessment of Chemical Contaminants)
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16 pages, 266 KB  
Review
Advances in Analytical Determination Methods and Toxicity and Health Risk Assessment of 6PPD and Its Transformation Products in Food
by Bolin Liu, Yu Liu, Ziyue Zhan, Ji’an Xie, Gang Ding and Ziwei Zhao
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1076; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121076 - 14 Dec 2025
Viewed by 559
Abstract
N-(1,3-Dimethylbutyl)-N’-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine (6PPD) is a member of the p-phenylenediamines (PPDs), recognized as a highly effective antioxidant. It has been extensively employed in the automotive tire manufacturing industry, and plays a critical role in enhancing the durability and service [...] Read more.
N-(1,3-Dimethylbutyl)-N’-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine (6PPD) is a member of the p-phenylenediamines (PPDs), recognized as a highly effective antioxidant. It has been extensively employed in the automotive tire manufacturing industry, and plays a critical role in enhancing the durability and service life of rubber materials. In recent years, significant research has demonstrated that 6PPD-quinone (6PPD-Q), the transformation product of 6PPD, is a toxic substance that causes the acute death of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). The toxicity of its aquatic organisms has attracted great attention of scholars, and 6PPD-Q has been regarded as the emerging contaminant. It has been reported that 6PPD diffuses from rubber debris into environmental media such as air, soil, and water after the tires wear. 6PPD and 6PPD-Q have been widespread in the environment, and they migrate into food through the environment and enter the human body through exposure routes such as dietary intake and drinking water, posing potential risks to human health. This paper reviewed the current reports on the toxicity and health risks of 6PPD and 6PPD-Q, and compares the advantages and disadvantages of sample pretreatment methods and detection technologies of 6PPD and 6PPD-Q in different food matrices, and provides a scientific basis for food safety risk assessment. Evidence indicated that 6PPD-Q exhibits not only acute aquatic toxicity but also cytotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and genotoxicity. Epidemiological data suggest a significant association between elevated 6PPD-Q levels and increased risks of colorectal cancer and liver abnormalities. There remains an urgent need to develop comprehensive, standardized, and high-throughput analytical methodologies for the efficient screening of 6PPD and 6PPD-Q in food samples, along with expanded dietary exposure assessments, to fully characterize the impacts of 6PPD and 6PPD-Q on human health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agrochemicals and Food Toxicology)
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17 pages, 2867 KB  
Article
Effects and Mechanisms of Dufulin Toxicity on Zebrafish, Danio rerio
by Shaoqian Jia, Mengxue Li, Guoqiang Yuan, Long Wang and Heng Chi
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1075; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121075 - 13 Dec 2025
Viewed by 421
Abstract
Pesticide pollution has become a major global issue, primarily because of its ability to induce widespread toxicity. This research aimed to explore the toxicological effects of Dufulin on zebrafish, focusing on the underlying molecular mechanisms of these effects from biochemical and transcriptomic perspectives. [...] Read more.
Pesticide pollution has become a major global issue, primarily because of its ability to induce widespread toxicity. This research aimed to explore the toxicological effects of Dufulin on zebrafish, focusing on the underlying molecular mechanisms of these effects from biochemical and transcriptomic perspectives. Residual Dufulin has been confirmed to occur in ecosystems, with its half-life significantly affected by environmental conditions. Its low water solubility may lead to its accumulation in sediments, thereby posing a potential threat to aquatic ecosystems, which necessitates urgent targeted research. The findings of this study indicate that Dufulin has concentration-dependent effects on zebrafish; 0.01 mg/L Dufulin triggered a non-specific immune response and enhanced the antioxidant defense system in zebrafish, resulting in oxidative stress or apoptosis and influencing the cell cycle, while 0.10 mg/L Dufulin mainly affected normal meiosis of zebrafish cells and 1.00 mg/L Dufulin produced cytotoxicity and affected the normal metabolic process of zebrafish. These findings reveal the multi-level toxic mechanism of Dufulin on aquatic organisms from the biochemical and transcriptome levels and provide an important basis for its ecological and environmental risk assessment. Full article
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27 pages, 932 KB  
Review
Heavy Metal Toxicity in Cereals: Uptake Mechanisms, Physiological Impacts, and Mitigation Strategies
by Kashish Singh, Chandranandani Negi, Ajay Kumar, Navaneet Chaturvedi and Pritesh Vyas
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1074; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121074 - 13 Dec 2025
Viewed by 493
Abstract
Heavy metal (HM) toxicity is one of the growing concerns, posing a significant threat to food security. Its trace presence in the food is one of the major reasons for considering it as a threat, which makes it potentially dangerous and a widespread [...] Read more.
Heavy metal (HM) toxicity is one of the growing concerns, posing a significant threat to food security. Its trace presence in the food is one of the major reasons for considering it as a threat, which makes it potentially dangerous and a widespread concern. Post-Green Revolution, production and, thereafter, nutrition were given attention, but in the present decade, HM toxicity, its uptake, physiological impact, and mitigation are the major research interests. Cereals are potent food materials that hold a huge consumer market. The presence of these HMs in cereals in higher concentrations than the standard makes them toxic to consume and has caused a global crisis. This toxicity is silently impacting the genetic homeostasis of the ecosystem and, most importantly, the human body. Frequent occurrence of carcinoma, genetic disorders, and phenotypic deformities is the major outcome of this contamination. Its presence in the soil threatens the microflora and fauna of the ecosystem, thus interrupting the complete natural process of energy exchange between the system and the surroundings. It is therefore of the utmost importance to understand the uptake and physiological mobilization of these HMs and their mitigation strategies for a sustainable & green ecosystem. The present review comprehensively analyzes the biological and ecological losses due to these HMs and their mitigation in plants with special reference to cereals. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Toxicity of Heavy Metals and Chemical Pollutants in Agricultural Soil and Plants: Ecological Risks and Remediation)
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19 pages, 5149 KB  
Article
Priority Control of Agricultural and Traffic Sources of Soil Heavy Metals: An Integrated Source-Oriented Risk Assessment in the Drawdown Zone of the Danjiangkou Reservoir
by Houkuan Ding, Dahai Zeng, Yunni Gao, Xucong Lyu, Jialin Jin, Huatao Yuan, Jingxiao Zhang, Jing Dong, Xiaofei Gao, Penghui Zhu, Xuejun Li and Michele Burford
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1073; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121073 - 13 Dec 2025
Viewed by 403
Abstract
In recent years, the public environmental protection consciousness has improved regarding the source of drinking water. However, the risk status and sources of heavy metals (HMs) in the soil around drinking water sources remain unclear. The typical Drawdown Zone (DZ) of Danjiangkou Reservoir [...] Read more.
In recent years, the public environmental protection consciousness has improved regarding the source of drinking water. However, the risk status and sources of heavy metals (HMs) in the soil around drinking water sources remain unclear. The typical Drawdown Zone (DZ) of Danjiangkou Reservoir is taken as an example in this study. Pollution levels of HMs and associated ecological and human health risks were evaluated under four land-use types during the low-water-level period. The sources of 10 HMs were determined using the positive matrix factorization (PMF) model and correlation analysis. Quantitative source-oriented risk identification was then conducted by integrating risk characteristics with source apportionment. The results indicate that soils in the study area are generally slightly polluted, with comprehensive potential ecological risks at a medium level. Farmland soils exhibit the highest pollution and ecological risk levels, particularly for Hg and Cd. Our Monte Carlo simulation-based human health risk assessment shows that, compared with non-carcinogenic risks, carcinogenic risks should be given further attention. Farmland poses higher health risks than other land-use types, and children are more vulnerable than adults. Four main sources were identified: transportation sources (29.5%), agricultural activities (32%), natural sources (19.3%), and atmospheric deposition (19.2%). The source-oriented risk assessment indicates that agricultural activities are the priority control source for ecological risks (64.7%), with Hg as the primary control element. Transportation and agricultural sources are the primary contributors to carcinogenic risks in children (57.1%) and adults (57.1%), with Ni as the primary control element. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pollutants in Soil and Groundwater, Effects and Strategies for Comprehensive Risk Assessment)
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19 pages, 2084 KB  
Article
Quantifying Influencing Factors of Dioxin Removal in Fly Ash Pyrolysis Through Meta-Analysis and Structural Equation Modeling
by Tao He, Shihan Tan, Qi Su, Feifei Chen, Chenlei Xie, Yuchi Zhong, Shuai Zhang and Jiafeng Ding
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1072; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121072 - 12 Dec 2025
Viewed by 395
Abstract
The treatment of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) in incineration fly ash presents a significant challenge in solid hazardous waste management. This study systematically analyzed the influence mechanisms of multiple factors on the removal efficiency of PCDD/Fs during fly ash pyrolysis. It [...] Read more.
The treatment of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) in incineration fly ash presents a significant challenge in solid hazardous waste management. This study systematically analyzed the influence mechanisms of multiple factors on the removal efficiency of PCDD/Fs during fly ash pyrolysis. It integrated 4068 datasets conducted between 2010 and 2025 through meta-analysis. Results show that Al2O3, CaO, SiO2, and Cl in fly ash components enhance the removal efficiency by 14.0%, while Fe2O3 (Content greater than 5.7%) exhibits inhibitory effects. Cd and Cr demonstrate a bimodal response pattern: low/high concentrations promote removal, while medium concentrations inhibit it. Process optimization identified the optimal parameter combination as pyrolysis temperatures of 500–900 °C, residence time of 50–90 min, and a gas flow rate greater than or equal to 400 mL/min. A significant negative correlation was observed between the initial dioxin concentration and removal efficiency. This study established a structural equation modeling (SEM) model to describe how metallic and nonmetallic components, fly ash components, and pyrolysis conditions determine removal efficiency. Fly ash composition was confirmed as the most influential factor (total effect = 0.3194), with fixed carbon and ash content being the most reliable indicators. Among pyrolysis conditions, gas conditions (flow rate, gas type) also significantly affected removal efficiency (total effect = 0.2357). Conversely, nonmetallic components and excessively prolonged pyrolysis time (beyond the window) consistently reduced removal efficiency. These findings provide theoretical support for upgrading fly ash pyrolysis processes toward low-carbon and resource-efficient operations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emissions, Environmental Behavior, Pollution Distribution, Modeling, and Risk Assessment of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs))
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20 pages, 1161 KB  
Review
Prenatal Exposure to Tobacco Smoke and Vaping Aerosols: Mechanisms Disrupting White-Matter Formation
by Sebastián Beltran-Castillo, Juan Pablo Espinoza and Michelle Grambs
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1071; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121071 - 12 Dec 2025
Viewed by 486
Abstract
White-matter development during fetal life represents one of the most vulnerable processes to environmental disruption, as it relies on the precisely timed proliferation, migration, and differentiation of oligodendrocyte lineage cells. Among environmental threats, exposure to toxic compounds contained in tobacco smoke and vaping [...] Read more.
White-matter development during fetal life represents one of the most vulnerable processes to environmental disruption, as it relies on the precisely timed proliferation, migration, and differentiation of oligodendrocyte lineage cells. Among environmental threats, exposure to toxic compounds contained in tobacco smoke and vaping aerosols represents a major yet preventable risk during pregnancy. Despite growing awareness, tobacco smoking remains widespread, and a substantial proportion of the population—including pregnant women—continues to perceive electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS) as less harmful, a misconception that contributes to persistent prenatal exposure. These products expose the fetus to numerous substances that readily cross the placenta and reach the developing brain, including compounds with endocrine-disrupting activity, where they interfere with white-matter development. Epidemiological and neuroimaging studies consistently reveal microstructural alterations in white matter that correlate with long-term cognitive and behavioral impairments in offspring exposed in utero. These alterations may arise from both nicotine-specific pathways and the actions of other toxicants in cigarette smoke and ENDS aerosols that cross the placenta and disrupt white-matter emergence and maturation. Preclinical research provides mechanistic insight: nicotine acts directly on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) in oligodendrocyte precursor cells, disrupting calcium signaling and differentiation, while additional constituents of smoke and vaping aerosols also affect astrocyte and microglial function and disturb the extracellular milieu required for proper myelination. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity of Environmental Factors)
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20 pages, 9313 KB  
Article
Microplastic Distribution and Transport Mechanisms in the South Sea and East China Sea of Korea
by Byeongkyu Min, Huiho Jeong, Chon-Rae Cho and Hyeon-Seo Cho
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1070; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121070 - 12 Dec 2025
Viewed by 520
Abstract
Microplastic distribution off the coast of Korea was investigated by collecting and analyzing surface seawater and sediment samples from the South Sea and East China Sea during the summer. Microplastic abundance was found to be highest in the YE area, followed by the [...] Read more.
Microplastic distribution off the coast of Korea was investigated by collecting and analyzing surface seawater and sediment samples from the South Sea and East China Sea during the summer. Microplastic abundance was found to be highest in the YE area, followed by the EC area and the SS area in both seawater and sediment matrices. The dominant microplastic shapes and sizes were fragments and small particles (0.02–0.3 mm), respectively. This distribution pattern is explained by the transport of low-density, small-sized microplastics from other seas via the high salinity Taiwan Warm Current and Tsushima Warm Current flowing northward from the southern waters of the study area. In contrast, microplastics originating from the Korean landmass along the southern coast were less abundant, likely due to their dispersal by the strong currents of the Jeju Warm Current, Taiwan Warm Current, and Tsushima Warm Current, which carry microplastics toward the Korean Strait. This study highlights the critical role of prevailing ocean currents in shaping the spatial distribution of microplastics, providing insight into sources and transport mechanisms relevant for regional marine pollution management in the Korean coastal waters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastics in Atmospheric, Aquatic, and Soil Ecosystems: Occurrence, Impacts, and Innovations in Detection and Mitigation)
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22 pages, 2347 KB  
Review
Advances in Microbial Remediation of Heavy Metal-Contaminated Soils: Mechanisms, Synergistic Technologies, Field Applications and Future Perspectives
by Hongxia Li, Xinglan Cui, Yingchun Sun, Peng Zheng, Lei Wang and Xinyue Shi
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1069; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121069 - 12 Dec 2025
Viewed by 957
Abstract
Heavy-metal contamination poses a significant global threat to soil environments, underscoring the necessity for effective and sustainable remediation technologies. This review methodically summarizes advances in the field of microbial remediation of heavy metal-contaminated soils, organized around four major dimensions: remediation mechanisms, synergistic technologies, [...] Read more.
Heavy-metal contamination poses a significant global threat to soil environments, underscoring the necessity for effective and sustainable remediation technologies. This review methodically summarizes advances in the field of microbial remediation of heavy metal-contaminated soils, organized around four major dimensions: remediation mechanisms, synergistic technologies, field applications, and future prospects. Firstly, the remediation mechanisms are elucidated, encompassing molecular interactions, cellular adaptation, and community-level cooperative responses. Secondly, the integration of microbes with functional materials and bioelectrochemical systems (BESs) is evaluated, with these materials providing support, electron mediation, and micro-environment regulation that markedly improve remediation efficiency and stability. Moreover, illustrative field cases demonstrate pivotal technological pathways and cost-effectiveness when transitioning from laboratory- to field-scale applications. Finally, emerging frontiers such as synthetic biology-engineered microbes, AI-driven microbial design, circular-economy value recovery, and policy-governance innovations are discussed, proposing essential elements for building a “predictable-controllable-sustainable” microbial remediation platform. This review aims to provide a comprehensive knowledge framework for researchers and to offer decision-making guidance for practitioners and policymakers, thereby advancing microbial remediation toward higher efficiency, reliability, and scalability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Study of Waste Management: Life Cycle Assessment)
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11 pages, 2841 KB  
Article
Assessment of Chromium Contamination in Aquatic Environments near Tannery Industries: A Portuguese Case Study
by Liliana J. G. Silva, Maria J. G. Casimiro, Angelina Pena, Maria J. Campos and André M. P. T. Pereira
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1068; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121068 - 11 Dec 2025
Viewed by 422
Abstract
Environmental contamination from industrial activities remains a significant concern, with tanneries being major contributors of chromium (Cr) to aquatic systems. Cr, a heavy metal with multiple oxidation states, varies in toxicity and poses risks to both ecosystems and human health. In Portugal, the [...] Read more.
Environmental contamination from industrial activities remains a significant concern, with tanneries being major contributors of chromium (Cr) to aquatic systems. Cr, a heavy metal with multiple oxidation states, varies in toxicity and poses risks to both ecosystems and human health. In Portugal, the Alcanena region is particularly affected, hosting around 60 tanning industries. This study assessed total Cr levels in water from the Alviela River and Carvalho Stream, with particular focus on the impact of a local wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) that processes tannery effluents. Water samples were collected upstream and downstream of the WWTP discharge point. Analytical techniques included graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy, with a detection limit of 0.33 µg L−1. The highest Cr concentration (560 µg L−1) was found in the Carvalho Stream, downstream of the WWTP, confirming its contribution to local contamination. In the Alviela River, Cr concentrations ranged from 8 to 50 µg L−1 downstream of the WWTP, exceeding the predicted no-effect concentration for aquatic organisms and the safety limit for human consumption (25 µg L−1). These findings highlight, for the first time, the ongoing environmental impact of tannery effluents in this region and emphasize the urgent need for improved monitoring and pollution control measures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metals and Emerging Contaminants in Aquatic and Soil Environments: Migration, Transformation, Ecological Risks, and Remediation)
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16 pages, 1967 KB  
Article
Impact of Air Pollution Control Devices on VOC Profiles and Emissions from Municipal Waste Incineration Plant
by Jun Liu, Duanhe Zhao, Fei Wu, Huanhuan Luo, Daxiang Hou and Yue Peng
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1067; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121067 - 11 Dec 2025
Viewed by 476
Abstract
With the rapid development of urbanization, municipal waste incineration (MWI) has become the primary method of waste disposal in urban areas, leading to growing concerns about volatile organic compounds (VOC) emissions. This study conducted full-process VOC field sampling at a representative MWI plant [...] Read more.
With the rapid development of urbanization, municipal waste incineration (MWI) has become the primary method of waste disposal in urban areas, leading to growing concerns about volatile organic compounds (VOC) emissions. This study conducted full-process VOC field sampling at a representative MWI plant in China to investigate the emission characteristics and removal efficiencies of air pollution control devices (APCDs). A total of 59 VOC species were identified in the flue gas, including 5 alkanes/alkenes, 14 aromatics, 8 oxygenated-VOCs, and 32 halogenated hydrocarbons. The activated carbon injection combined with fabric filters and wet desulfurization tower demonstrated varying removal efficiencies across VOC groups, with synergistic removal efficiencies being ranked as follows: alkanes/alkenes (90.9%) > aromatics (87.0%) > halogenated hydrocarbons (61.3%) > O-VOCs (42.2%). The total VOC removal efficiency reached 77.5%. The VOCs emission factor of the MWI plant was calculated as (1.9 ± 0.6) × 103 ng/g-waste, which would rise to (8.4 ± 2.1) × 103 ng/g-waste in the absence of APCDs. This indicates that the current APCD system reduces VOC emissions by approximately 6.52 × 104 g annually from this MWI plant, highlighting the crucial role of multistage APCDs in mitigating VOC pollution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Air Pollution and Health)
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20 pages, 4974 KB  
Article
Metabolomic Impact of Maternal Barium Exposure on Miscarriage Risk: Identification of Metabolic Biomarkers and Construction of a Risk Prediction Model
by Xiaoyu Zhao, Ziwei Guo, Shuangshuang Zhao, Danyang Wan, Jie Xu, Yifan Xu, Yujie Liu, Haoyi Xu, Ziyang Wang and Qing Xu
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1066; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121066 - 10 Dec 2025
Viewed by 546
Abstract
This study investigated the relationship between maternal barium (Ba) exposure and the risk of miscarriage using metabolomics and machine learning. Analyses were performed on samples from 183 pregnant women from Nanjing: the concentration of Ba in whole blood was measured using inductively coupled [...] Read more.
This study investigated the relationship between maternal barium (Ba) exposure and the risk of miscarriage using metabolomics and machine learning. Analyses were performed on samples from 183 pregnant women from Nanjing: the concentration of Ba in whole blood was measured using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), and untargeted metabolomics was performed on decidual tissue using high-resolution accurate mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QExactive HF-X). A metabolome-wide association study (MWAS) and mediation interaction effect analysis (MITM) identified metabolites and pathways linked to Ba exposure and miscarriage risk. Among 523 detected metabolites, 19 metabolites and 5 pathways were significantly associated with both Ba exposure and miscarriage, particularly glycerophospholipid metabolism. The effect of Ba exposure on miscarriage risk was mediated by five metabolites, with cuminaldehyde showing the highest share of the total mediating effect (54.74%). These metabolites, including N-acetyl-L-methionine, 4-hydroxynonenal, DG(18:0/18:3(9Z,12Z,15Z)/0:0), 10-formyldihydrofolate, and eicosadienoic acid, were used as biomarkers in a predictive model. The XGBoost model achieved an optimal AUC of 0.90 (95%CI: 0.83–0.96). This study suggests that maternal Ba exposure increases miscarriage risk, potentially through disruptions in amino acid metabolism, oxidative stress, and lipid peroxidation, and highlights the potential of metabolite biomarkers for predicting adverse birth outcomes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Environmental Chemical Exposomics and Metabolomics—2nd Edition)
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20 pages, 1684 KB  
Article
Co-Culture of Primary Human Bronchial Epithelial Cells at the Air–Liquid Interface and THP-1 Macrophages to Investigate the Toxicity of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
by Kyle S. Burns, Audrey G. Biggerstaff, Jamie M. Pennington and Susan C. Tilton
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1065; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121065 - 9 Dec 2025
Viewed by 936
Abstract
The development of new approach methodologies that include human cells differentiated into organotypic formats is of high interest due to their structural and functional similarities to tissues in vivo, enabling mechanistic understanding and translation to adverse health outcomes in humans. However, these systems [...] Read more.
The development of new approach methodologies that include human cells differentiated into organotypic formats is of high interest due to their structural and functional similarities to tissues in vivo, enabling mechanistic understanding and translation to adverse health outcomes in humans. However, these systems often fail to capture complex intercellular signaling required for processes such as pulmonary inflammation induced by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). To investigate airway epithelial–macrophage interactions in response to benzo[a]pyrene and a PAH mixture (Tox Mix), co-culture models utilizing primary human bronchial epithelial cells (HBECs) differentiated at the air–liquid interface were cultured with THP-1 macrophages either directly or indirectly, alongside HBECs alone. After 24 h of exposure, cytokine expression (IL1B, IL6, CXCL8, TNF) as well as PAH biomarkers previously identified for chemical metabolism (CYP1A1, CYP1B1), oxidative stress (ALDH3A1, HMOX1, NQO1), and barrier integrity (TJP2) were evaluated. Cytotoxicity and barrier integrity were also assessed. HBECs alone and direct co-cultures exhibited similar responses after PAH treatment, while indirect co-cultures showed lower sensitivity to induction of inflammatory cytokines and CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 biomarker expression following exposure to PAHs. The expression of other biomarkers, including ALDH3A1, HMOX1, and NQO1, remained largely consistent across all models after treatment. Overall, these findings suggest that direct co-culture systems may provide a more physiologically relevant platform for studies of PAH-induced toxicity and demonstrate that the configuration of co-culture systems can influence cellular responses to chemical exposure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Pollutants in the Air and Health Risks)
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32 pages, 1703 KB  
Article
Sentinel Equines in Anthropogenic Landscapes: Bioaccumulation of Heavy Metals and Hematological Biomarkers as Indicators of Environmental Contamination
by Maria Popescu, Mirela Alexandra Tripon, Alexandru Florin Lupșan, Denisa Bungărdean, Cristian Mihăiță Crecan, Mihai Musteata, Paula Maria Pașca, Sorin Marian Mârza, Rober Cristian Purdoiu, Ionel Papuc, Radu Lăcătuș, Caroline Maria Lăcătuș, Luciana Cătălina Panait, Teodora Sonia Patrichi, Ileana-Rodica Matei, Cristian-Radu Sisea, Claudiu Ioan Bunea, Anamaria Călugăr, Ioan Valentin Petrescu-Mag, Zsofia Daradics and Florin-Dumitru Boraadd Show full author list remove Hide full author list
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1064; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121064 - 9 Dec 2025
Viewed by 554
Abstract
Environmental contamination with heavy metals, resulting from industrialization, urbanization, and agricultural intensification, poses serious ecological and health risks. Horses, due to their grazing behavior and close association with human environments, serve as reliable sentinel species for assessing environmental pollution. This study aimed to [...] Read more.
Environmental contamination with heavy metals, resulting from industrialization, urbanization, and agricultural intensification, poses serious ecological and health risks. Horses, due to their grazing behavior and close association with human environments, serve as reliable sentinel species for assessing environmental pollution. This study aimed to evaluate the bioaccumulation of heavy metals and trace elements in different biological matrices of horses—blood, hair, hooves, and synovial fluid—and to investigate their relationship with hematological biomarkers as indicators of physiological stress. Samples were collected from horses raised in anthropogenically influenced areas and analyzed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP–MS). Hematological parameters were determined with an automated analyzer to assess systemic effects. The results revealed significant variations in metal concentrations among matrices, with keratinized tissues reflecting long-term exposure, while blood and synovial fluid indicated recent contamination. Correlations between elevated metal levels and altered hematological values suggested oxidative stress and adaptive physiological responses. These findings demonstrate the value of multi-matrix biomonitoring in evaluating both environmental quality and animal health. Horses effectively reflect the cumulative impact of heavy metal exposure, supporting their role as bioindicators within a One Health framework that links environmental, animal, and human well-being. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Exposome Analysis and Risk Assessment)
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18 pages, 3995 KB  
Article
Omega-3 Fatty Acid Intake and Oxylipin Production in Response to Short-Term Ambient Air Pollution Exposure in Healthy Adults
by Hao Chen, Siqi Zhang, Xiannen Pan, Alexandra Schneider, David Diaz-Sanchez, James Samet and Haiyan Tong
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1063; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121063 - 9 Dec 2025
Viewed by 533
Abstract
Oxylipins are specialized lipid mediators that can have dual functions, either promoting inflammation or supporting resolution. Exposure to air pollution is associated with systemic inflammation that may be modified by oxylipins derived from polyunsaturated fatty acids (FA). In this study, we examined whether [...] Read more.
Oxylipins are specialized lipid mediators that can have dual functions, either promoting inflammation or supporting resolution. Exposure to air pollution is associated with systemic inflammation that may be modified by oxylipins derived from polyunsaturated fatty acids (FA). In this study, we examined whether short-term air pollution exposure is associated with changes in circulating oxylipins in healthy adults, who were on high- or low-dietary omega-3 fatty acid (n-3 FA) intakes. We measured 56 oxylipin species from participants’ plasma samples and employed mixed-effects models to assess the associations, stratified by n-3 FA groups. Plasma concentrations of oxylipins derived from n-3 FA [e.g., 14-hydroxydocosahexaenoic acid (14-HDHA) & 11-hydroxydocosahexaenoic acid (11-HDoHE), and 12-hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acid (12-HEPE)] were significantly higher in the high n-3 FA group compared to the low group. Conversely, selected oxylipins derived from n-6 FA [e.g., 15-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (15-HETE) and 14,15-Dihydroxyeicosatrienoic acid (14,15-DiHETrE)] were significantly lower in the high n-3 group. Exposure to PM2.5, O3, and NO2 was associated with reductions in pro-inflammatory oxylipins produced by lipoxygenase in the high n-3 FA group, but not in the low group; for example, 12-HETE. Furthermore, participants in the high n-3 group exposed to PM2.5, O3, and NO2 had elevated levels of n-3 FA-derived pro-resolving oxylipins compared to those in the low n-3 group; for instance, 12-HEPE and 14-HDHA & 11-HDoHE. In conclusion, short-term air pollution exposure was associated with lower pro-inflammatory and higher pro-resolving oxylipin levels in the high n-3 FA group. These findings suggest n-3-derived lipid metabolites may promote inflammation resolution induced by air pollution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Air Pollution and Health)
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19 pages, 4104 KB  
Article
Valorization of Silicon-Rich Solid Waste into Highly Active Silicate Adsorbents for Heavy Metal Removal
by Shaojun Jiang, Xurong Huang, Huayi Chen, Jiahe Miao, Xinsheng Xiao, Yueying Zhuo, Xiang Li and Yong Chen
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1062; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121062 - 9 Dec 2025
Viewed by 448
Abstract
Waste stone powder is a major solid waste byproduct of stone operations. This study developed a novel “alkali activation-calcination” process that efficiently converts waste stone powder into high-value-added silicon-based materials (SSM). This study elucidated the morphological evolution of silicon during the conversion process [...] Read more.
Waste stone powder is a major solid waste byproduct of stone operations. This study developed a novel “alkali activation-calcination” process that efficiently converts waste stone powder into high-value-added silicon-based materials (SSM). This study elucidated the morphological evolution of silicon during the conversion process and revealed the formation mechanism of active silicon. Through further integration of batch adsorption experiments and multi-technique characterization analysis, the immobilization efficacy of this material for heavy metals cadmium/lead was elucidated, revealing both direct and indirect interfacial reaction mechanisms. The results demonstrate that in-creasing the calcination temperature, alkali activator concentration, and calcination duration enhances the reactive silica content in SSM. NaOH as activator, the calcination process significantly reduces both the thermal decomposition temperature of raw materials and the initial temperature required for silicon conversion. Under optimized conditions (WG:MD:activator = 1:0.8:0.32, temperature = 800 °C, time = 1 h), the reactive silica content reached 24.30%. The generation rate of reactive silica is governed by the combined effects of interfacial chemical reactions and solid-phase product layer diffusion. Under idealized laboratory conditions, the maximum adsorption capacities (Qm) of SSM were determined to be 57.40 mg/g for cadmium and 496 mg/g for lead, which are significantly higher than those of many other adsorbents. Continuous desorption experiments and characterization analyses confirm that Cd and Pb adsorption by SSM is primarily driven by electro-static interactions, complexation, precipitation, and coordination, while ion ex-change plays a secondary role. Highly reactive silica facilitates interactions between Cd/Pb and oxygen-containing functional groups (e.g., -OH, ≡Si-OH, Si-O-Si), promoting precipitate formation for effective heavy metal removal. This work offers theoretical guidance for valorizing silica-rich waste rock powder. It is important to note, however, that while the adsorption capacity of SSM is encouraging, its practical implementation requires resolving key issues identified during the lab-to-application transition. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Toxicity Reduction and Environmental Remediation)
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16 pages, 377 KB  
Article
Pulmonary Function and Influencing Factor Investigation for Rural Homemakers in the Fenwei Plain, China
by Rong Feng, Kaiyuan Wang, Hongmei Xu, Yunxuan Gu, Liu Yang, Jian Sun and Zhenxing Shen
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1061; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121061 - 7 Dec 2025
Viewed by 391
Abstract
To understand the pulmonary function and main influencing factors of homemakers in rural Xi’an, a representative city in Northwest China, 72 housewives (61 ± 9 years old) were randomly selected from the rural area of Lantian, Xi’an. The questionnaire survey and pulmonary function [...] Read more.
To understand the pulmonary function and main influencing factors of homemakers in rural Xi’an, a representative city in Northwest China, 72 housewives (61 ± 9 years old) were randomly selected from the rural area of Lantian, Xi’an. The questionnaire survey and pulmonary function test were performed on the subjects in winter and summer, respectively. The general linear model and variance analysis were used to analyze the influencing factors of pulmonary function. Key lung function indices included Vital Capacity (VC: 2.06 ± 0.48 L), Forced Expiratory Volume in First Second (FEV1: 1.91 ± 0.52 L), Forced Vital Capacity (FVC: 2.23 ± 0.59 L), and the FEV1/FVC ratio (0.86 ± 0.07). Several factors were found to cause impairment of pulmonary function. Age has the greatest effect on various indicators of lung function (Eta: 22.3%); the effect of indoor ventilation, season, and second-hand smoke (SHS) exposure on pulmonary function was comparable (3.2–5.9%). There were significant differences on most pulmonary function indices between four age groups (p = 0.000–0.005), and the age of <57 years old displayed the highest lung function index values. The lung function of the ventilation group was better than that of the non-ventilation group. And the lung function of the non-SHS exposure group was better than that of the SHS exposure group. No clear seasonal pattern of pulmonary function was found in this study. Aging, SHS exposure, and poor ventilation showed negative effects on most pulmonary function indices. It is recommended to actively publicize the harm of smoking and strengthen house ventilation to improve lung function in local homemakers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Air Pollution and Health)
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18 pages, 3262 KB  
Article
Toxic Effects of Neonicotinoid Insecticide Imidacloprid and Polystyrene Microplastics on Rat Neuroblastoma B104 Cells
by Tao Wang, Gulijiazi Yeerkenbieke, Yun Yang, Shuai Shi and Xiaoxia Lu
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1060; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121060 - 7 Dec 2025
Viewed by 457
Abstract
Imidacloprid (IMI) and polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) are common environmental pollutants, posing potential risks to ecosystems and human health. However, there is limited research on their toxic effects on nerve cells, particularly under combined exposure conditions. This study aimed to evaluate the toxic effects [...] Read more.
Imidacloprid (IMI) and polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) are common environmental pollutants, posing potential risks to ecosystems and human health. However, there is limited research on their toxic effects on nerve cells, particularly under combined exposure conditions. This study aimed to evaluate the toxic effects of IMI and PS-MPs alone and in combination on rat neuroblastoma B104 cells. Based on a cell viability assay (48 h), the No Observed Adverse Effect Levels of IMI and PS-MPs were 260 mg/L and <150 mg/L, respectively. To study their effects on the cholinergic system and oxidative stress, similar concentrations of IMI (2.6, 26, 260 mg/L) and PS-MPs (3, 30, 300 mg/L), alone and in combination, were exposed to B104 cells for 48 h. The results showed that IMI alone decreased acetylcholine (ACh) and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) contents, PS-MPs alone increased ACh and AChE contents, and under the combined condition, the effect of PS-MPs predominated over IMI. Both IMI and PS-MPs alone decreased the ratio of reduced glutathione (GSH) to oxidized glutathione (GSSG), indicating oxidative stress, and under the combined condition, the ratio of GSH/GSSG decreased more, but were less than the sum of the decreases that were observed under treatment by both compounds alone. The combined exposure exhibited antagonistic effects on all endpoints. Results of this study provides a scientific basis for the environmental risk assessment of microplastics and neonicotinoid pesticides. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Transport, Transformation and Effect of Pollutants)
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