Toxics

16 pages, 2373 KB

Open AccessArticle

Pyrrhotite Facilitates Growth and Cr Accumulation in Leersia hexandra Swartz for Effective Cr(VI) Removal in Constructed Wetlands

by Xinyue Zhang, Xuehong Zhang, Yue Lin, Jiang Lv, Minmin Jiang, Sijia Cheng and Jun Yan

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010107 - 22 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) is a hazardous pollutant frequently found in industrial wastewater. Constructed wetlands (CWs) provide an alternative for Cr(VI) removal, but their effective removal is essentially governed by the extent of Cr accumulation in plants. This study evaluated the effects of pyrrhotite [...] Read more.

Hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) is a hazardous pollutant frequently found in industrial wastewater. Constructed wetlands (CWs) provide an alternative for Cr(VI) removal, but their effective removal is essentially governed by the extent of Cr accumulation in plants. This study evaluated the effects of pyrrhotite addition on a Cr-hyperaccumulator Leersia hexandra Swartz (L. hexandra) in CW microcosms with different substrates (pyrrhotite and gravel) and influent Cr(VI) concentrations (2 and 10 mg·L⁻¹). All microcosms achieved substantial Cr(VI) removal, while pyrrhotite significantly facilitated the removal of NO₃⁻-N, COD, and TP. Pyrrhotite alleviated Cr-induced oxidative stress and thus promoted photosynthesis in L. hexandra, reflected by 27.32–39.09% lower malondialdehyde levels, 1.67–8.37% higher total chlorophyll contents, and 17.36–39.61% higher net photosynthetic rates. Consequently, maximum aboveground Cr standing stock reached 164.50 mg·m⁻² in the P10 group, where L. hexandra contributed 6.63% to the total Cr removal. Microbial analysis showed reduced Cr-stress responses in pyrrhotite groups. Structural equation modeling indicated that pyrrhotite and its dissolution products promote Cr standing stock of L. hexandra through establishing in/ex planta defensive mechanisms. These findings provide new perspectives on phytoremediation coupled with CWs for the treatment of Cr(VI)-containing wastewater. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecological Remediation of Heavy Metal-Polluted Environment)

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19 pages, 26370 KB

Open AccessArticle

Water Quality Criteria and Ecological Risk Assessment of Fluoride for the Protection of Water Organisms in Surface Water

by Jiahao Zhang, Yuting Pu, Jing Ye, Xiaojun Hu and Chenglian Feng

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010106 - 22 Jan 2026

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Abstract

The widespread occurrence of fluoride pollution in water bodies and its toxic effects on aquatic organisms have raised significant environmental concerns; however, studies on water quality criteria for fluoride remain relatively limited. This study aimed to derive such criteria and assess the ecological [...] Read more.

The widespread occurrence of fluoride pollution in water bodies and its toxic effects on aquatic organisms have raised significant environmental concerns; however, studies on water quality criteria for fluoride remain relatively limited. This study aimed to derive such criteria and assess the ecological risks of fluoride in China’s surface waters, for the reference of readers. Acute and chronic toxicity data were collected globally, covering 34 species (14 families, 4 phyla) and 7 species (5 families, 3 phyla), respectively. Using species sensitivity distribution (SSD) methods, the short-term water quality criterion (SWQC) and long-term water quality criterion (LWQC) were derived as 17.47 mg/L and 3.334 mg/L. Ecological risk assessment based on the risk quotient (RQ) identified several high-risk areas among 32 major river and lake basins, with RQ values of 6.326 (Xihe River), 1.953 (Ebinur Lake), 1.368 (Chagan Lake), and 1.158 (Shahe River). At the provincial level, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region showed as no risk (RQ = 0.0001140), while other regions were classified as moderate or low risk. This study achieved its objectives of deriving water quality criteria for fluoride and conducting an ecological risk assessment for surface waters in China. It also highlights current limitations, including insufficient fluoride toxicity data and the frequent oversight of key indicators in existing assessments. Future research could focus on improving water quality criteria derivation and risk assessment methods through integrated predictive modeling and expanded toxicity datasets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence and Environmental Risks of Organic Pollutants in Aquatic Environment—2nd Edition)

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35 pages, 6627 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Cost-Effective Standardized Quantitative Detection Method for Soil Microplastics in Different Substrates

by Xinlei Ling, Yuting Gao, Rongxiang Li, Rongfang Chang, Yanpeng Li and Wen Xiao

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010105 - 22 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Microplastics (MPs) are emerging pollutants with widespread global distribution, continuously accumulating in soils and posing risks of cross-media pollution. Current soil MP detection methods lack unified standards, suffering from high inter-laboratory variability and cost, which become key bottlenecks limiting data comparability and global [...] Read more.

Microplastics (MPs) are emerging pollutants with widespread global distribution, continuously accumulating in soils and posing risks of cross-media pollution. Current soil MP detection methods lack unified standards, suffering from high inter-laboratory variability and cost, which become key bottlenecks limiting data comparability and global microplastics pollution control. Here, we systematically reviewed soil MPs studies (2020–2024) and based on stepwise verification, we established a standardized, reproducible detection method: soil samples were dried at 80 °C for 12 h; density separation was performed in Erlenmeyer flasks with decantation, 10 s glass rod stirring, and 12 h settling, repeated five times; digestion was conducted using a 1:2 volume ratio of H₂O₂ to supernatant at 80 °C for 8 h; and MPs were quantified via stereo-microscopy combined with ImageJ. It should be noted that the use of NaCl limits the recovery of high-density polymers (e.g., PVC, PET), and the minimum detectable particle size is approximately 127 µm. The method was validated in sandy, loam, and clay soils, achieving an average recovery rate of 96.4%, with a processing time of 68 h and a cost of USD 9.77 per sample. In contrast to previous fragmented, non-standardized protocols, this workflow synergistically optimizes high recovery efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and broad applicability, offering a low-cost, efficient, and widely applicable approach for soil MPs monitoring, supporting data comparability across studies and contributing to global pollution assessment and the United Nations 2030 Sustainable Development Goals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Contaminants)

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15 pages, 5530 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanisms Governing the Stability of Fe-As Complexes: Roles of Environmental and Material Intrinsic Factors

by Zhonglan Yang, Tianlai Ouyang, Shiming Su, Yanan Wang, Fengxian Yao, Zhiqiang Ding, Mengmeng Yan and Xibai Zeng

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010104 - 22 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Arsenic (As) contamination threatens ecosystems and human health, and iron (hydr)oxides-mediated formation of Fe-As composites is a key strategy for arsenic immobilization, while the long-term stability of these composites under complex environmental conditions remains a critical concern. This study systematically investigated the interactive [...] Read more.

Arsenic (As) contamination threatens ecosystems and human health, and iron (hydr)oxides-mediated formation of Fe-As composites is a key strategy for arsenic immobilization, while the long-term stability of these composites under complex environmental conditions remains a critical concern. This study systematically investigated the interactive effects of environmental factors (temperature: 5–35 °C, pH: 4–8, competing ions: phosphate and citrate) and material intrinsic properties (ferrihydrite aging: 0–60 days, Fe/As molar ratio: 1.875 and 5.66, adsorption time) on Fe-As composite stability using multiscale characterization techniques and theoretical modeling. Results showed that temperature was the dominant controlling factor, with arsenic release increasing by 4.25% per 1 °C rise (178% higher at 35 °C vs. 20 °C) and an exponential relationship model established (R² = 0.96). Ferrihydrite aging enhanced stability, as 60-day aged composites (Fh_60d-As) exhibited minimal arsenic release (18.83%) at pH 4/20 °C, attributed to increase As(V)-O-Fe binding energy (1.2 eV) and -OH group enhancement (12.5%). Phosphate induced 2.4-fold higher arsenic release than citrate, and lower pH (4–6) reduced release via enhanced protonation. A stability prediction model was developed (R² = 0.91), and practical remediation strategies were proposed: maintaining temperatures below 25 °C in arsenic-containing waste repositories and using pre-aged iron-based materials. This work provides quantitative benchmarks and mechanistic insights for contaminated site rehabilitation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecological Remediation of Heavy Metal-Polluted Environment)

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13 pages, 862 KB

Open AccessArticle

Prevalence of Psychoactive Substance Use and Violent Death: Toxicological and Geospatial Evidence from a Four-Metropolitan-Area Cross-Sectional Study in Brazil

by Henrique Silva Bombana, Vanderlei Carneiro da Silva, Ivan Dieb Miziara, Heráclito Barbosa Carvalho, Mauricio Yonamine and Vilma Leyton

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010103 - 22 Jan 2026

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Abstract

External causes account for over four million deaths globally each year, with psychoactive substance use being a major risk factor. However, the true impact and regional patterns of psychoactive substance use in these deaths remains undefined in Brazil. To address this critical knowledge [...] Read more.

External causes account for over four million deaths globally each year, with psychoactive substance use being a major risk factor. However, the true impact and regional patterns of psychoactive substance use in these deaths remains undefined in Brazil. To address this critical knowledge gap, this pioneering four-city study sought to elucidate the prevalence of alcohol and drug use by external cause victims. We collected postmortem blood from 3577 victims of violent death across four distinct Brazilian cities (Belém, Recife, Vitória, and Curitiba), representing the North, Northeast, Southeast, and South regions, respectively, using a standardized protocol to identify alcohol, illicit drugs, and psychoactive medicines. Analysis revealed a predominantly male cohort (89.7%; 56.0% aged 30 years or more), with homicide as the primary manner of death (67.3%). Over half of the victims (53.0%) tested positive for at least one psychoactive substance prior to death; cocaine (29.6%) and alcohol (27.7%) were most common. Substance use was highest among homicide victims (55.7%), especially cocaine (36.0%), and among self-harm cases (54.6%), which showed elevated benzodiazepine prevalence (20.0%). Substance use patterns varied regionally: alcohol-related deaths were more common in Recife (Northeast), drug-only deaths concentrated in Vitória (Southeast) and Belém (North), and Curitiba (South) showed a higher prevalence of alcohol use versus drug use. This widespread, regionally heterogeneous prevalence underscores the urgent need for targeted, region-specific interventions. By critically linking psychoactive substance use to various modes of violent death, these data provide crucial forensic and public health insights to inform tailored preventive strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forensic and Post-Mortem Toxicology)

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20 pages, 3223 KB

Open AccessArticle

Inhibition of the T2R/α-Defensin Pathway Mediates Nauclea officinalis-Induced Intestinal Barrier Dysfunction and Microbiota Alterations

by Xiaoman Li, Yao Yi, Tegele Si, Lianqian Wang, Zhiyong Hu, Jiayue Xiong, Xuemei Bao, Jun Jun, Sachurula Bao, Xiaoping Ji and Minghai Fu

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010099 - 21 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Clinical reports have shown that administration of Nauclea officinalis (Danmu in Chinese, DM) preparations may cause significant gastrointestinal discomfort. This study aimed to systematically evaluate the adverse effects of DM and its primary active constituent, strictosamide, on gastrointestinal motility, intestinal barrier integrity, and [...] Read more.

Clinical reports have shown that administration of Nauclea officinalis (Danmu in Chinese, DM) preparations may cause significant gastrointestinal discomfort. This study aimed to systematically evaluate the adverse effects of DM and its primary active constituent, strictosamide, on gastrointestinal motility, intestinal barrier integrity, and gut microbiota homeostasis. Furthermore, we sought to investigate the potential role of the bitter taste receptor (T2R) signaling pathway in mediating these effects. In vitro cell cultures and ex vivo intestinal tissues were employed to assess cell viability and molecular alterations. In vivo studies involved short-term (2 weeks) gavage of DM (0.54 and 1.08 g/kg) and long-term (16 weeks) intervention (0.4, 0.8, and 1.2 g/kg) in rodents. Evaluations included histopathological examination, serum levels of cytokines and oxidative stress markers (ELISA), expression of tight junction proteins (Western blot and qPCR), and 16S rDNA sequencing of cecal microbiota. Mechanistic analyses focused on α-defensin secretion and T2R-associated gene and protein expression. Administration of DM resulted in significant gastrointestinal dysfunction, characterized by delayed intestinal propulsion and increased gastric retention. Dose-dependent histopathological damage, disruption of the intestinal barrier (reduced occludin and claudin-1 expression), and elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-1β), oxidative stress markers (MDA, SOD, and GSH-Px), and immune mediators (IFN-γ) were observed. Gut microbiota analysis revealed dysbiosis, marked by a decline in beneficial genera (e.g., Mucispirillum, Butyricicoccus, Roseburia) and an increase in potentially pathogenic bacteria (e.g., Citrobacter, Helicobacter). Mechanistically, DM suppressed α-defensin secretion and downregulated the expression of TAS2R108, TAS2R138, and Gα-gustducin both in vitro and in vivo. DM and strictosamide disrupt gut microbiota composition and compromise intestinal barrier function, likely through inhibition of the T2R/α-defensin pathway. These findings provide important mechanistic insights into drug-induced gastrointestinal toxicity and underscore the potential risks associated with prolonged use of DM-containing preparations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanisms of Toxicity of Chemical Compounds and Natural Compounds)

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26 pages, 1252 KB

Open AccessReview

Study on the Influencing Factors of the Migration and Transformation Behavior of Hexavalent Chromium in a Soil–Groundwater System: A Review

by Xiangyi Zhao, Mengqiuyue Hao, Tuantuan Fan, Ang Liu and Chenglian Feng

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010098 - 21 Jan 2026

Viewed by 471

Abstract

The migration and transformation of Cr(VI) are primarily regulated by soil minerals, soil flora and fauna, hydrological conditions, and microbial communities, with these mechanisms being influenced by pH, temperature, and oxygen levels. In terms of single environmental media, relatively extensive research has been [...] Read more.

The migration and transformation of Cr(VI) are primarily regulated by soil minerals, soil flora and fauna, hydrological conditions, and microbial communities, with these mechanisms being influenced by pH, temperature, and oxygen levels. In terms of single environmental media, relatively extensive research has been conducted on the behaviors of Cr(VI). However, studies on the migration and transformation of Cr(VI) from the perspective of the soil–groundwater multimedia system are rarely published. Therefore, this study comprehensively analyzes the migration and transformation behaviors of Cr(VI) from the perspective of the entire soil–groundwater system. By synthesizing the effects of individual factors, such as pH and organic matter, on Cr(VI) in both soil and groundwater, as well as interactions among these factors, we systematically clarify the patterns governing Cr(VI) migration and transformation under multi-factor coupling. Through the analysis of multiple factors in the complex system, the redox fluctuation zone at the soil–groundwater interface is a hot spot for Cr(VI) transformation, and the synergistic effect among climatic conditions, microbial community structure, and the aquifer interface significantly affects the transport efficiency of Cr(VI). The results of the present study could provide a theoretical framework for future research on the environmental behavioral effects of Cr(VI) at the soil–groundwater interface. Moreover, this study could provide important theoretical bases for the prevention and control of heavy metal pollution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Remediation of Environmental Pollutants in Soil-Water System)

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21 pages, 10932 KB

Open AccessArticle

Perinatal BPAF Exposure Reprograms Offspring’s Immune–Metabolic Axis: A Multi-Omics Investigation of Intergenerational Hepatotoxicity

by Shengjun Bai, Xiaorong Wu, Wei Mao, Mengan Guo, Yufeng Qin and Guizhen Du

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010097 - 21 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Bisphenol AF (BPAF), a prevalent bisphenol A (BPA) substitute, raises concerns due to its environmental persistence and endocrine-disrupting potency. While metabolic effects of direct exposure are documented, its intergenerational consequences remain unclear. Here, we demonstrated that perinatal BPAF exposure induced persistent metabolic syndrome [...] Read more.

Bisphenol AF (BPAF), a prevalent bisphenol A (BPA) substitute, raises concerns due to its environmental persistence and endocrine-disrupting potency. While metabolic effects of direct exposure are documented, its intergenerational consequences remain unclear. Here, we demonstrated that perinatal BPAF exposure induced persistent metabolic syndrome in offspring, including glucose intolerance, hepatic steatosis, and adipose hypotrophy. Integrating multi-omics data, we observed that BPAF exposure shaped offspring’s hepatic epigenome, as demonstrated by genome-wide alterations in H3K27ac-marked regulatory elements. This epigenetic rewiring indicated a dual regulatory effect on transcriptomes that suppressed interferon-γ responses while activating sterol biosynthesis, ultimately perturbating hepatic metabolome, including depleted pantothenate levels and accumulation of pro-inflammatory eicosanoids. Our findings suggest that BPAF may act as a developmental toxicant capable of persistently disrupting the immune–metabolic axis through epigenomic mechanisms, highlighting the need for careful re-evaluation of its use as a BPA substitute in consumer products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Environmental Chemical Exposomics and Metabolomics—2nd Edition)

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14 pages, 490 KB

Open AccessArticle

Prostate Cancer in the MENA Region: Attributable Burden of Behavioral and Environmental Exposures

by Magie Tamraz, Razan Al Tartir, Sara El Meski and Sally Temraz

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010096 - 21 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Background: Prostate cancer in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region is shaped by a complex interplay of behavioral and environmental risk factors, yet comprehensive estimates of preventable cases remain scarce. To address this gap, we estimated population-attributable fractions (PAFs) for a [...] Read more.

Background: Prostate cancer in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region is shaped by a complex interplay of behavioral and environmental risk factors, yet comprehensive estimates of preventable cases remain scarce. To address this gap, we estimated population-attributable fractions (PAFs) for a range of modifiable exposures among men aged 50 years and older and assessed potential reductions in incidence under feasible intervention scenarios. Methods: Regional prevalence data were combined with relative risks from meta-analyses to compute closed-form PAFs for tobacco smoking, obesity, physical inactivity, high dairy and calcium intake, heavy alcohol use, drinking water nitrates, trihalomethanes, arsenic, lead, selenium status, ambient PM_2.5 and NO₂, and occupational diesel exhaust, covering an estimated 47 million men. Estimates were validated using a synthetic cohort simulation of 100,000 individuals, with uncertainty quantified through Monte Carlo sampling. Results: Results showed that drinking water nitrate exposure accounted for the largest single fraction (17.4%), followed by tobacco smoking (9.5%), physical inactivity (6.7%), and trihalomethane exposure (5.0%), while other exposures contributed smaller but meaningful shares. Joint elimination of all exposures projected a 45.5% reduction in incidence, and simultaneous feasible reductions in four targeted exposures yielded a combined potential impact fraction of 12.1%. Conclusions: These findings suggest that integrated water quality management, tobacco control, lifestyle interventions, and targeted environmental surveillance should be prioritized to reduce prostate cancer burden in the MENA region. However, estimates of drinking-water nitrate exposure rely on limited evidence from a single case–control study with a relatively small sample size, and should therefore be considered exploratory and primarily hypothesis-generating. Full article

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13 pages, 1349 KB

Open AccessArticle

Novel Non-Invasive Biomonitoring Using Avian Faecal Sacs Reveals Dependence of Pesticide Exposure on Field Distance

by Moritz Meinken, Johannes Amshoff, Sascha Buchholz, Kathrin Fisch, Sebastian Fischer and Alexandra Esther

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 95; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010095 - 21 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Pesticides remain among the most significant threats to biodiversity and natural ecosystems. Non-invasive methods, such as the analysis of bird faeces, have shown great potential for detecting pesticide exposure. In this study with a new approach, we analysed faecal sacs from nestlings of [...] Read more.

Pesticides remain among the most significant threats to biodiversity and natural ecosystems. Non-invasive methods, such as the analysis of bird faeces, have shown great potential for detecting pesticide exposure. In this study with a new approach, we analysed faecal sacs from nestlings of Blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus) and Great tits (Parus major) to gain deeper insights into pesticide contamination during the breeding period. Samples were collected from three distinct sites near Münster, Germany. In total, we detected 65 substances from 57 different pesticides, as well as caffeine, with pesticides present in 16.07% of the 168 samples. Concentrations varied between species and sites and were higher for fungicides and insecticides in nests located closer to agricultural fields. While no direct effects on reproductive success were found, our results underscore the potential of faecal sac analysis as a valuable tool for spatially resolved pesticide monitoring. The novel, non-invasive approach to pesticide monitoring offers crucial exposure data on juvenile birds during their sensitive breeding period. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ecotoxicology)

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22 pages, 1972 KB

Open AccessArticle

Vegetation Restoration in Karst Southwest China: Effects of Plant Community Diversity and Soil Physicochemical Properties on Soil Cadmium

by Yun Xing, Lin Zhang, Zhuoyi Mei, Xiuwen Wang, Chao Li, Zuran Li and Yuan Li

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010102 - 21 Jan 2026

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Abstract

In southwest China, vegetation restoration is widely used in karst rocky desertification control projects. However, mechanistic evidence explaining how plant community composition and species diversity regulate cadmium (Cd) bioavailability remains limited. Here, the plant community’s species diversity, soil properties, Cd, and available Cd [...] Read more.

In southwest China, vegetation restoration is widely used in karst rocky desertification control projects. However, mechanistic evidence explaining how plant community composition and species diversity regulate cadmium (Cd) bioavailability remains limited. Here, the plant community’s species diversity, soil properties, Cd, and available Cd contents were evaluated. Four plant community types, NR (natural recovery), PMC (Pistacia weinmannifolia + Medicago sativa + Chrysopogon zizanioides), and PME (Pistacia weinmannifolia + Medicago sativa + Eragrostis curvula), were selected as the research objects. The species composition was recorded, and dominant plant species and soil samples were collected to analyze Cd accumulation characteristics. Relative to NR, composite restorations increased plant diversity and soil nutrient availability and reduced soil compaction, with PMC showing the strongest remediation, decreasing total Cd by 49.4% and available Cd by 59.5%. Model-averaged regression and hierarchical partitioning analyses further identified nitrogen availability and community structure as the dominant drivers. Specifically, available nitrogen (AN), vegetation coverage, Margalef species richness (DMG), ammonium nitrogen (NH₄⁺–N), and total N (TN) were the main factors of soil total Cd, and BD, TN, nitrate nitrogen (NO₃⁻–N), mean crown diameter (MCD), and Shannon–Wiener index (H′) were the main factors of soil available Cd. The results indicate that PMC provides a plant community structure configuration decisions of a scalable, site-adaptable strategy for durable Cd stabilization and soil conservation in thin, carbonate-rich karst soils. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Responses to Heavy Metal)

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18 pages, 1242 KB

Open AccessArticle

Pollution Characteristics, Sources, and Health Risks of Organochlorine Pesticides and Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Oviductus Ranae from Northern China

by Shizhan Tang, Haonan Zhang, Peng Wang, Dongli Qin, Zhongxiang Chen and Guo Hu

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010101 - 21 Jan 2026

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Abstract

This study systematically analyzed the pollution levels, distribution characteristics, and associated health risks of 17 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and 9 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in Oviductus Ranae (Rana dybowskii) from major production areas in Heilongjiang Province, China. OCPs and PCBs were detected [...] Read more.

This study systematically analyzed the pollution levels, distribution characteristics, and associated health risks of 17 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and 9 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in Oviductus Ranae (Rana dybowskii) from major production areas in Heilongjiang Province, China. OCPs and PCBs were detected in all samples. The total concentration of OCPs ranged from 11.7 to 67.9 ng/g (dry weight), while that of total PCBs ranged from 4.43 to 8.06 ng/g. Endosulfans constituted the predominant OCP group, accounting for 54.5% of ∑OCPs, with an α/β-endosulfan ratio (~2:1) indicative of recent agricultural input. Among DDTs, the dominance of p,p′-DDE and the absence of parent DDT suggested aerobic degradation of historical residues. For HCHs, the isomer profile (β-HCH predominance, α/γ-HCH = 0.27) pointed to weathered lindane sources. The PCB profile was uniquely dominated by lower-chlorinated congeners (PCB1 and PCB29), implying influences from atmospheric transport and/or in situ microbial dechlorination of legacy PCBs. The persistent organic pollutants (POPs) contamination profile in Oviductus Ranae reflects a combined influence of recent pesticide application, weathered historical residues, and long-range transport. Although the concentrations are below current regulatory limits, the cumulative and persistent nature of these POPs, coupled with the product’s medicinal use, justifies a precautionary stance regarding long-term consumption. The distinct congener patterns underscore the necessity for future research to prioritize the environmental behavior and toxicology of dominant transformation products within such specific agro-ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agrochemicals and Food Toxicology)

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17 pages, 767 KB

Open AccessReview

Toxic Effects of Sulfur Dioxide: A Review

by Connor B. Stauffer and John Tat

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 100; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010100 - 21 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) is a colorless, pungent gas that is a significant contributor to air pollution, with well-documented environmental and health impacts. It is emitted both naturally (e.g., in volcanic activities) and anthropogenically (e.g., fossil fuel combustion, sulfuric acid production, papermaking, [...] Read more.

Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) is a colorless, pungent gas that is a significant contributor to air pollution, with well-documented environmental and health impacts. It is emitted both naturally (e.g., in volcanic activities) and anthropogenically (e.g., fossil fuel combustion, sulfuric acid production, papermaking, and wine preservation). Inhalation represents the primary route of human exposure, particularly in urban and industrial settings. Acute SO₂ exposure can lead to airway irritation, laryngospasm, bronchoconstriction, pulmonary edema, and death in severe cases. Chronic exposure, even at low concentrations, can contribute to the development of pulmonary and extrapulmonary diseases. Despite its classification as a hazardous air pollutant, a comprehensive understanding of dose-response relationships, exposure thresholds, and mechanisms of toxicity for SO₂ remains limited. This review synthesizes current knowledge on environmental sources, exposure routes, mechanisms of toxicity, and health impacts of SO₂, highlighting findings from epidemiological, toxicological, and mechanistic studies. We also discuss gaps in knowledge regarding SO₂, approaches to monitor and assess SO₂ exposure in ambient environments, the emerging role of SO₂ as a gasotransmitter, and areas where further research is needed to better understand health risks and support evidence-based public health decision-making. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Unraveling the Health Impacts of Air Pollution: Assessments and Mechanisms)

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25 pages, 3255 KB

Open AccessReview

From Kitchen to Cell: A Critical Review of Microplastic Release from Consumer Products and Its Health Implications

by Zia Ur Rehman, Jing Song, Paolo Pastorino, Chunhui Wang, Syed Shabi Ul Hassan Kazmi, Chenzhe Fan, Zulqarnain Haider Khan, Muhammad Azeem, Khadija Shahid, Dong-Xing Guan and Gang Li

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010094 - 20 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Microplastics (MPs) are pervasive environmental pollutants, widely distributed from aquatic ecosystems to the terrestrial food chain, and represent a potential route of human exposure. Although several reviews have addressed MP contamination, a critical synthesis focusing on pathways through which consumer goods directly enter [...] Read more.

Microplastics (MPs) are pervasive environmental pollutants, widely distributed from aquatic ecosystems to the terrestrial food chain, and represent a potential route of human exposure. Although several reviews have addressed MP contamination, a critical synthesis focusing on pathways through which consumer goods directly enter food and beverages, along with corresponding industry and regulatory responses, is lacking. This review fills this gap by proposing the direct release of MPs from common sources such as food packaging, kitchen utensils, and household appliances, linking the release mechanisms to human health risks. The release mechanisms of MPs under thermal stress, mechanical abrasion, chemical leaching, and environmental factors, as well as a risk-driven framework for MP release, are summarized. Human exposure through ingestion is the predominant route, while inhalation and dermal contact are additional pathways. In vitro and animal studies have associated MP exposure to inflammatory responses and oxidative stress, neurotoxicity, and genomic instability as endpoints, though direct causal evidence in humans remains lacking, and extrapolation from model systems necessitates caution. This review revealed that dietary intake from kitchen sources is the primary pathway for MP exposure, higher than the inhalation pathway. Most importantly, this review critically sheds light on the initiatives that should be taken by industries with respect to global strategies and new policies to alleviate these challenges. However, while there has been an upsurge in research commenced in this area, there are still research gaps that need to be addressed to explore food matrices such as dairy products, meat, and wine in the context of the supply chain. In conclusion, we pointed out the challenges that limit this research with the aim of improving standardization; research approaches and a risk assessment framework to protect health; and the key differences between MP and nanoplastic (NP) detection, toxicity, and regulatory strategies, underscoring the need for size-resolved risk assessments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational and Experimental Insights into Transformation of Environmental Pollutants)

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18 pages, 5382 KB

Open AccessArticle

Insight into the Formation of Winter Black Carbon and Brown Carbon over Xi’an in Northwestern China

by Dan Li, Qian Zhang, Ziqi Meng, Hongmei Xu, Peng Wei, Yu Wang and Zhenxing Shen

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 93; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010093 - 20 Jan 2026

Viewed by 527

Abstract

This study evaluates the effectiveness of air pollution control measures in Xi’an, China, by investigating long-term changes in the concentrations, optical properties, and sources of black carbon (BC) and brown carbon (BrC). Wintertime observations of PM_2.5 carbonaceous aerosols were conducted over multiple [...] Read more.

This study evaluates the effectiveness of air pollution control measures in Xi’an, China, by investigating long-term changes in the concentrations, optical properties, and sources of black carbon (BC) and brown carbon (BrC). Wintertime observations of PM_2.5 carbonaceous aerosols were conducted over multiple years using a continuous Aethalometer. The data were analyzed using advanced aethalometer models, potential source contribution function (PSCF) analysis, and generalized additive models (GAMs) to deconstruct emission sources and formation pathways. Our results revealed a significant decrease in the mass concentration and light absorption coefficient of BC (b_abs-BC) between the earlier and later study periods, indicating successful emission reductions. In contrast, the light absorption from BrC (b_abs-BrC) remained relatively stable, suggesting persistent and distinct emission sources. Source apportionment analysis demonstrated a temporal shift in dominant regional influences, from biomass burning in the initial years to coal combustion in later years. In addition, GAMs showed that the primary driver for liquid fuel-derived BC transitioned from gasoline to diesel vehicle emissions. For solid fuels, residential coal combustion consistently contributed over 50% of BC, highlighting that improvements in coal combustion technology were effective in reducing BC emissions. Furthermore, a substantial fraction of BrC was increased, with nocturnal peaks associated with high relative humidity, emphasizing the aqueous-phase formation influences. Collectively, these findings demonstrated that although certain control strategies successfully mitigated BC, the persistent challenge of BrC pollution necessitates targeted measures addressing secondary formation and primary fossil fuel sources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Emissions Characteristics and Its Impact on Human Health—2nd Edition)

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30 pages, 1651 KB

Open AccessReview

Extractables and Leachables in Pharmaceutical Products: Potential Adverse Effects and Toxicological Risk Assessment

by Samo Kuzmič, Tjaša Zlobec, Marija Sollner Dolenc, Robert Roškar and Tina Trdan Lušin

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010092 - 20 Jan 2026

Viewed by 641

Abstract

During production, storage, and administration, drug products (and their intermediates) are in contact with many different types of materials, which include manufacturing components, container closure systems, and administration materials; therefore, there is a potential for their interactions and the introduction of leachables. The [...] Read more.

During production, storage, and administration, drug products (and their intermediates) are in contact with many different types of materials, which include manufacturing components, container closure systems, and administration materials; therefore, there is a potential for their interactions and the introduction of leachables. The presence of leachables may impact key quality attributes of drug products in many ways. These include potential alterations in drug product stability, resulting in a reduced shelf-life, compromised drug product efficacy due to degradation or inactivation of active pharmaceutical ingredients, and impaired drug product physical acceptability due to precipitation, discolouration and/or change in odour or flavour. Moreover, some leachables may be inherently toxic (mutagenic, carcinogenic, immunogenic, etc.) posing direct risks to patient safety. Comprehensive toxicological evaluation of extractables and leachables is therefore essential. Documented cases demonstrate that presence of leachables can lead to serious and clinically significant adverse effects, underscoring the importance of their identification, quantification, and toxicological assessment during pharmaceutical development. This paper provides an overview of the toxicological limits used in the analyses of extractables and leachables and illustrates how they are translated into analytical limits. It also outlines the workflow for toxicological risk assessment of extractables and/or leachables, including evaluations of mutagenicity and other relevant toxicological endpoints. Special attention is given to the interpretation of the draft ICH Q3E guideline, which represents a pivotal development in harmonizing global expectations for extractables and leachables safety assessments. Understanding and correctly applying ICH Q3E is crucial, as it will shape regulatory strategies, analytical approaches, and risk management practices across the pharmaceutical industry. The paper concludes by highlighting emerging challenges that demand sustained advancements in both scientific methodologies and regulatory frameworks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Exposome Analysis and Risk Assessment)

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19 pages, 17512 KB

Open AccessArticle

Association Between PFAS Contamination and Zooplankton Community Structure in the Weihe River, China

by Jingnan Tan, Haichao Sha, Jinxi Song, Chao Han, Pingping Tian, Le Zhang, Xi Li and Qi Li

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 91; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010091 - 19 Jan 2026

Viewed by 336

Abstract

Understanding the structure of zooplankton communities in water contaminated with per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) is essential to the conservation of aquatic biodiversity. This study focused on the Weihe River and systematically characterized the PFAS pollution. By employing environmental DNA metabarcoding, multivariate statistics, [...] Read more.

Understanding the structure of zooplankton communities in water contaminated with per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) is essential to the conservation of aquatic biodiversity. This study focused on the Weihe River and systematically characterized the PFAS pollution. By employing environmental DNA metabarcoding, multivariate statistics, and Partial Least Squares Path Modeling (PLS-PM), we systematically analyzed the associations between PFAS and zooplankton within the context of water parameters. The results showed that short-chain PFAS were the dominant PFAS compounds in the Weihe River (accounting for 70.89% of ΣPFAS), and that both PFAS and the zooplankton community exhibited similar spatial patterns. PLS-PM identified a key pathway: water chemistry promoted PFAS accumulation, which in turn exerted taxon-specific effects. Short-chain PFAS were primarily associated with Cercozoa, and path analysis indicated negative relationships, whereas long-chain PFAS were correlated with Ciliophora and Rotifera. Specific taxon within Ciliophora showed potential as bioindicators. Additionally, higher community relative abundance was associated with reduced diversity loss under anthropogenic stress, indicating a potential buffering response. Overall, short-chain PFAS, in combination with water parameters, were associated with higher ecological risk to zooplankton communities. This study highlights the importance of including indirect pathways and taxon-specific responses into risk assessments of emerging contaminants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence and Environmental Risks of Organic Pollutants in Aquatic Environment—2nd Edition)

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44 pages, 1655 KB

Open AccessReview

Bio-Based Fertilizers from Waste: Nutrient Recovery, Soil Health, and Circular Economy Impacts

by Moses Akintayo Aborisade, Huazhan Long, Hongwei Rong, Akash Kumar, Baihui Cui, Olaide Ayodele Oladeji, Oluwaseun Princess Okimiji, Belay Tafa Oba and Dabin Guo

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010090 - 19 Jan 2026

Viewed by 378

Abstract

Bio-based fertilisers (BBFs) derived from waste streams represent a transformative approach to sustainable agriculture, addressing the dual challenges of waste management and food security. This comprehensive review examines recent advances in BBF production technologies, nutrient recovery mechanisms, soil health impacts, and the benefits [...] Read more.

Bio-based fertilisers (BBFs) derived from waste streams represent a transformative approach to sustainable agriculture, addressing the dual challenges of waste management and food security. This comprehensive review examines recent advances in BBF production technologies, nutrient recovery mechanisms, soil health impacts, and the benefits of a circular economy. This review, based on an analysis of peer-reviewed studies, demonstrates that BBFs consistently improve the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil while reducing environmental impacts by 15–45% compared to synthetic alternatives. Advanced biological treatment technologies, including anaerobic digestion, vermicomposting, and biochar production, achieve nutrient recovery efficiencies of 60–95% in diverse waste streams. Market analysis reveals a rapidly expanding sector projected to grow from $2.53 billion (2024) to $6.3 billion by 2032, driven by regulatory support and circular economy policies. Critical research gaps remain in standardisation, long-term performance evaluation, and integration with precision agriculture systems. Future developments should focus on AI-driven optimisation, climate-adaptive formulations, and nanobioconjugate technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study on Biological Treatment Technology for Waste Management)

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20 pages, 319 KB

Open AccessArticle

Detecting Heavy Metal Pollution in an Organized Industrial Zone: Soil–Plant Accumulation Patterns in a Medicinal Plant (Calamintha nepeta subsp. glandulosa) and Associated Health and Environmental Risk Implications

by Ibrahim Ilker Ozyigit, Belma Gjergjizi Nallbani, Ibrahim Ertugrul Yalcin, Goksel Demir, Gulten Kasoglu and Bertug Sakin

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010089 - 19 Jan 2026

Viewed by 373

Abstract

Dilovasi district of Kocaeli is one of the largest industrial regions, and due to its high production capacity and industrial waste, the soil heavy metal levels in this region are exceptionally high. Consequently, this study focuses on essential elements (B, Ca, Cr, Cu, [...] Read more.

Dilovasi district of Kocaeli is one of the largest industrial regions, and due to its high production capacity and industrial waste, the soil heavy metal levels in this region are exceptionally high. Consequently, this study focuses on essential elements (B, Ca, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, Zn) and non-essential elements that are considered toxic to humans (Al, Cd, Pb), covering a total of thirteen elements. Accordingly, this study aims to highlight the degree of pollution in a Turkish Organized Industrial Zone located in the Dilovasi district of Kocaeli by quantifying the concentrations of the aforementioned elements in Calamintha nepeta subsp. glandulosa plants and soil samples, and by assessing their potential implications for human health. Significant accumulation of heavy metals in both soils and plant parts suggests that metal contamination, especially that of Fe (up to 1009.2 mg kg⁻¹), is a matter of great concern in the Dilovasi district. The results revealed that the concentrations (mg kg⁻¹) of Cr (23.0 ± 0.1), Fe (1292.5 ± 5.6), Pb (36.9 ± 0.1), Zn (151.2 ± 0.8), and Cd (3.6 ± 0.1) were considerably higher. However, the concentrations of Cu, Mn, and Ni were found to be within the permissible limits in accordance with the American Herbal Products Association and the World Health Organization referenced guideline values. Furthermore, heavy metal concentrations in C. nepeta subsp. glandulosa were generally higher in areas characterized by elevated soil metal levels, indicating a clear correspondence between soil contamination and plant metal content. Based on these findings, C. nepeta subsp. glandulosa, a plant with culinary and medicinal value, can be considered a useful bioindicator for assessing local heavy metal contamination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ecotoxicology)

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16 pages, 4458 KB

Open AccessArticle

Variation in Atmospheric ¹³⁷Cs and the Carriers in Aerosol Samples Obtained from a Heavily Contaminated Area of Fukushima Prefecture

by Huihui Li, Peng Tang and Kazuyuki Kita

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010088 - 19 Jan 2026

Viewed by 182

Abstract

Even a decade after the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant (FDNPP) accident on 11 March 2011, fluctuations in atmospheric ¹³⁷Cs were still observed, and explanations for the fluctuations and their carriers remained elusive. In this study, small fluctuations within 0.0002 Bq∙m⁻³ [...] Read more.

Even a decade after the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant (FDNPP) accident on 11 March 2011, fluctuations in atmospheric ¹³⁷Cs were still observed, and explanations for the fluctuations and their carriers remained elusive. In this study, small fluctuations within 0.0002 Bq∙m⁻³ were still detected in aerosol samples obtained from January to April, and slightly higher levels of atmospheric ¹³⁷Cs were observed from May to September in a heavily contaminated area of Fukushima prefecture. Specifically, it is demonstrated that the ¹³⁷Cs carriers in the aerosol samples were a combination of carbon-containing particles and aluminum-containing particles (Al particles dominated, with the percentage being 68%) in early May, whereas the main ¹³⁷Cs carriers were carbonaceous particles, with the average percentage being 88% in September and at the end of May, using fluorescent upright microscope and scanning electron microscope equipped with an energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer quantitatively. Additionally, small particles (less than 2 μm) and medium particles (2–8 μm) of carbonaceous particles had a higher level in the aerosol samples of May and September. Specifically, bacteria (1–1.8 μm) and spores (1.8–10 μm) had a linear relationship with the distribution of atmospheric ¹³⁷Cs in the aerosol samples of September. In addition, temperature and precipitation were the main impact factors affecting the distribution of ¹³⁷Cs and their carriers. This observation further suggests that there is still a need for long-term monitoring of atmospheric ¹³⁷Cs. Full article

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17 pages, 4749 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Protective Effect and Molecular Mechanism of Tetrandrine on Male Reproductive Damage Caused by Silicon Dioxide

by Hong-Mei Li, Xiao-Qi Zeng, Qing Chang, Yu-Xin Sheng, Ya-Jia Pu, Yi Wang, Bin Cheng, Hong-Hui Li, Jie Xuan, Ling Zhang and Hai-Ming Xu

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010087 - 18 Jan 2026

Viewed by 263

Abstract

The long-term inhalation of free silica dust causes silicosis—a prevalent occupational hazard—yet its systemic effect on male reproductive toxicity remains underexplored. Tetrandrine (Tet) is the only plant-derived anti-silicosis drug approved in China. This study investigates silica (SiO₂) -induced male reproductive damage [...] Read more.

The long-term inhalation of free silica dust causes silicosis—a prevalent occupational hazard—yet its systemic effect on male reproductive toxicity remains underexplored. Tetrandrine (Tet) is the only plant-derived anti-silicosis drug approved in China. This study investigates silica (SiO₂) -induced male reproductive damage and evaluates Tet’s protective effects. Sixty male C57BL/6 mice (6–8 weeks) were divided into control, SiO₂ exposure, and SiO₂ + Tet groups. SiO₂ was administered via intranasal infusion and Tet via gavage. Mice were sacrificed at day 7 (male reproductive injury model corresponding to the pulmonary inflammation stage) and day 42 (male reproductive injury model corresponding to the pulmonary fibrosis stage). Analyses included sperm morphology, testicular transcriptome sequencing, RT-qPCR, and immunofluorescence. At day 7, SiO₂ exposure upregulated testicular inflammatory markers, which were partially mitigated by Tet. At day 42, SiO₂ increased sperm deformity and testicular fibrosis markers (fibronectin and vimentin); Tet intervention reduced these abnormalities. Transcriptome analysis revealed distinct gene expression patterns at day 7 versus day 42, indicating time-dependent injury mechanisms. Tetrandrine alleviates silica-induced reproductive damage in male mice, suggesting potential therapeutic applications for occupational silica exposure and expanding the understanding of silica toxicity beyond the respiratory system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity)

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18 pages, 328 KB

Open AccessReview

Recent Progress in the Detection and Monitoring of Toxin-Producing Cyanoprokaryotes and Their Toxins

by Milena Pasheva, Milka Nashar and Diana Ivanova

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010086 - 18 Jan 2026

Viewed by 391

Abstract

Eutrophication of water bodies and the bloom of toxin-producing cyanoprokaryotes raise health concerns. Various cyanoprokaryotes species, including Microcystis, Raphidiopsis, Nodularia, and Chrysosporum, release toxins into the aquatic environment, which can reach concentrations toxic to humans and animals. Rising temperatures [...] Read more.

Eutrophication of water bodies and the bloom of toxin-producing cyanoprokaryotes raise health concerns. Various cyanoprokaryotes species, including Microcystis, Raphidiopsis, Nodularia, and Chrysosporum, release toxins into the aquatic environment, which can reach concentrations toxic to humans and animals. Rising temperatures and human activities are primary drivers behind the increasing frequency of toxic cyanobacterial blooms. The Word Health Organization (WHO) has established provisional guideline values for cyanotoxins in drinking water and water used for other purposes in daily human activities, and has published guidance for identifying hazards and managing risks posed by cyanobacteria and their toxins. There are currently no acceptable limit values for cyanotoxins. To address monitoring needs, contemporary strategies now incorporate molecular genetics, immunoassays, biochemical profiling, and emerging machine-learning frameworks. This paper reviews current early detection methods for harmful cyanobacterial blooms, highlighting their practical advantages and drawbacks. Full article

21 pages, 6470 KB

Open AccessArticle

Highly Efficient Adsorption of Pb(II) by Magnesium-Modified Zeolite: Performance and Mechanisms

by Yuting Yang, Xiong Wang, Sumra Siddique Abbasi, Bin Zhou, Qing Huang, Shujuan Zhang, Xinsheng Xiao, Hao Li, Huayi Chen and Yueming Hu

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 85; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010085 - 17 Jan 2026

Viewed by 311

Abstract

In this study, magnesium-modified clinoptilolite (MZ) was successfully synthesized via precipitation and calcination to efficiently remove Pb(II) from aqueous solutions. The material was systematically characterized using BET, XRD, SEM-EDX, FT-IR, and XPS. Adsorption kinetics followed a pseudo-second-order model (R² = 0.9956), with [...] Read more.

In this study, magnesium-modified clinoptilolite (MZ) was successfully synthesized via precipitation and calcination to efficiently remove Pb(II) from aqueous solutions. The material was systematically characterized using BET, XRD, SEM-EDX, FT-IR, and XPS. Adsorption kinetics followed a pseudo-second-order model (R² = 0.9956), with MZ removing over 70% of Pb(II) within the first 3 h. Isotherm data were best described by the Langmuir model (R² = 0.9686), confirming monolayer chemical adsorption, with a maximum adsorption capacity (q_m) of 1656 mg/g. Notably, MZ maintained high adsorption capacity across a pH range of 3.0~5.5, and its performance was largely unaffected by the presence of high concentrations of competing ions (0.1~1.0 M NaNO₃). Mechanistic analysis revealed that the loaded MgO facilitates the chemical conversion of Pb(II) to hydroxycarbonate (Pb₃(CO₃)₂(OH)₂) via surface complexation, which constitutes the primary removal mechanism. These findings demonstrate that magnesium modification can transform natural zeolites into high-capacity, stable adsorbents, offering promising potential for the treatment of Pb(II)-contaminated water. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green and Advanced Technologies for the Removal of Emerging Contaminants from Aquatic Environments)

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30 pages, 8469 KB

Open AccessArticle

Near Real-Time Biomass Burning PM2.5 Emission Estimation to Support Environmental Health Risk Management in Northern Thailand Using FINNv2.5

by Chakrit Chotamonsak, Punnathorn Thanadolmethaphorn, Duangnapha Lapyai and Soottida Chimla

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010084 - 17 Jan 2026

Viewed by 345

Abstract

Northern Thailand experiences recurrent seasonal haze driven by biomass burning (BB), which results in hazardous PM2.5 exposure and elevated environmental health risks. To address the need for timely and spatially resolved emission information, this study developed and evaluated an operational near-real-time (NRT) biomass-burning [...] Read more.

Northern Thailand experiences recurrent seasonal haze driven by biomass burning (BB), which results in hazardous PM2.5 exposure and elevated environmental health risks. To address the need for timely and spatially resolved emission information, this study developed and evaluated an operational near-real-time (NRT) biomass-burning PM2.5 emission estimation system using the Fire INventory from NCAR version 2.5 (FINNv2.5). The objectives of this study are threefold: (1) to construct a high-resolution (≤1 km) NRT biomass-burning PM2.5 emission inventory for Northern Thailand; (2) to assess its temporal and spatial consistency with ground-based PM2.5 measurements and satellite fire observations; and (3) to examine its potential utility for informing environmental health risk management. The developed system captured short-lived, high-intensity burning episodes that defined the haze crisis, revealing a distinct peak period from late February to early April. Cumulative emissions from January to April 2024 exceeded 250,000 tons, dominated by Chiang Mai (25.8%) and Mae Hong Son (25.5%), which together contributed 51.3% of regional emissions. Strong correspondence with MODIS/VIIRS FRP (r = 0.79) confirmed the reliability of the NRT emission signal, while regression against observed PM2.5 concentrations indicated a substantial background burden (intercept = 40.41 μg m⁻³) and moderate explanatory power (R² = 0.448), reflecting additional meteorological and transboundary influences. Translating these relationships into operational metrics, an Emission Control Threshold of 1518 tons day⁻¹ was derived to guide targeted burn permitting and reduce population exposure during peak-risk periods. This NRT biomass-burning PM2.5 emission estimation framework offers timely emissions information that may support decision makers in environmental health risk management, including the development of early warnings, adaptive burn-permit strategies, and more coordinated responses across Northern Thailand. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Air Pollution and Health)

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12 pages, 1467 KB

Open AccessArticle

Ground-Level Ozone as Community-Acquired Pneumonia Risk Factor in Different Population Groups in Summer: The Case of Moscow

by Nina Dudorova, Boris Belan and Sergey Kotel’nikov

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010083 - 16 Jan 2026

Viewed by 335

Abstract

A correlation between the near-surface ozone concentration in the urban atmosphere and hospitalizations of community-acquired pneumonia patients has been analyzed based on a long-term (five years) series of observations in the warm season in Moscow, Russia. The study included hospitalization records for patients [...] Read more.

A correlation between the near-surface ozone concentration in the urban atmosphere and hospitalizations of community-acquired pneumonia patients has been analyzed based on a long-term (five years) series of observations in the warm season in Moscow, Russia. The study included hospitalization records for patients over 15 years old. One of the main goals was to reveal vulnerable groups of the urban population that react most strongly to increased ozone concentrations. It has been shown that increased near-surface ozone concentrations lead to increased hospitalizations. Older people (over 60 years old) are most sensitive to the negative impact of air pollution. Women in this age group are more sensitive to the effects of ozone air pollution than men. In the middle-aged group (31–60 years), the highest correlation between the number of community-acquired pneumonia cases and the ozone level in the atmospheric surface layer, conversely, was in men, but it was still lower than the rate in older people. The young people (15–30 years old) group turned out to be insensitive to the near-surface air pollution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Drivers of Chronic Disease: From Population Landscapes to Molecular Mechanisms)

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22 pages, 5824 KB

Open AccessArticle

In Silico Hazard Assessment of Ototoxicants Through Machine Learning and Computational Systems Biology

by Shu Luan, Chao Ji, Gregory M. Zarus, Christopher M. Reh and Patricia Ruiz

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010082 - 16 Jan 2026

Viewed by 455

Abstract

Individuals across their lifespan may experience hearing loss from medications or chemicals, prompting concern about ototoxic environmental exposures. This study applies computational modeling as a screening-level hazard identification and chemical prioritization approach and is not intended to constitute a human health risk assessment [...] Read more.

Individuals across their lifespan may experience hearing loss from medications or chemicals, prompting concern about ototoxic environmental exposures. This study applies computational modeling as a screening-level hazard identification and chemical prioritization approach and is not intended to constitute a human health risk assessment or to estimate exposure- or dose-dependent ototoxic risk. We evaluated in silico drug-induced ototoxicity models on 80 environmental chemicals, excluding 4 with known ototoxicity, and analyzed 76 chemicals using fingerprinting, similarity assessment, and machine learning classification. We compared predicted environmental ototoxicants with ototoxic drugs, paired select polychlorinated biphenyls with the antineoplastic drug mitotane, and used PCB 177 as a case study to construct an ototoxicity pathway. A systems biology framework predicted and compared molecular targets of mitotane and PCB 177 to generate a network-level mechanism. The consensus model (accuracy 0.95 test; 0.90 validation) identified 18 of 76 chemicals as potential ototoxicants within acceptable confidence ranges. Mitotane and PCB 177 were both predicted to disrupt thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor signaling, suggesting thyroid-mediated pathways may contribute to auditory harm; additional targets included AhR, transthyretin, and PXR. Findings indicate overlapping mechanisms involving metabolic, cellular, and inflammatory processes. This work shows that integrated computational modeling can support virtual screening and prioritization for chemical and drug ototoxicity risk assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Novel Methods in Toxicology Research)

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14 pages, 254 KB

Open AccessArticle

Detection of Agricultural Pesticides in Human Urine in Latvia: Links with Surrounding Land Use

by Lāsma Akūlova, Ieva Strēle, Juris Breidaks, Anna Raita, Monta Matisāne and Linda Matisāne

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010081 - 15 Jan 2026

Viewed by 369

Abstract

Environmental pesticide exposure has been linked to adverse health effects, and residential proximity to agricultural land is commonly used as a proxy for exposure; however, the contribution of non-agricultural biomes remains insufficiently explored. This study examined whether the proximity and area of different [...] Read more.

Environmental pesticide exposure has been linked to adverse health effects, and residential proximity to agricultural land is commonly used as a proxy for exposure; however, the contribution of non-agricultural biomes remains insufficiently explored. This study examined whether the proximity and area of different biomes are associated with the detection of selected pesticides in human urine in Latvia. Urine samples were collected from 202 participants (101 adults and 101 children) within the Human Biomonitoring for Europe (HBM4EU) study during the winter and summer seasons of 2020. A suspect screening approach using liquid chromatography–high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) was applied and 23 pesticides were detected (8 insecticides, 12 fungicides, 2 herbicides and triclosan, an antimicrobial ingredient used in cleaning agents). Geospatial data were analysed in Quantum Geographic Information System (QGIS) to derive biome proximity and area within a 1000 m residential buffer; associations were assessed using generalized linear mixed-effects models. Agricultural land was present within 1000 m of 93.1% of residences, yet neither its distance nor area was consistently associated with pesticide detection. Boscalid was detected in 18.4% of samples and was positively associated with wetland area across seasons (p < 0.001), while fludioxonil (14.7%) showed weak and heterogeneous spatial associations and pirimiphos-methyl (10.2%) showed no significant patterns. Overall, pesticide exposure was substance-specific and influenced by landscape characteristics beyond agricultural proximity, highlighting the need to integrate non-agricultural biomes into human biomonitoring in low-intensity pesticide-use settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxic Agent Analysis and Removal for Healthy Living and Safe Environment)

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16 pages, 1299 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated 13C-DNA Stable Isotope Probing and Metagenomics Approaches to Identify Bisphenol A Assimilating Microorganisms and Metabolic Pathways in Biofilms

by Di Wang, Jiayue Sun, Yunian Zhang, Lingjue Yuan, Xia Xu, Yingang Xue and Haohao Sun

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010080 - 15 Jan 2026

Viewed by 311

Abstract

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a persistent environmental contaminant requiring effective removal strategies. Biofilms offer advantages over conventional activated sludge for refractory compound degradation, yet the specific microorganisms and mechanisms driving BPA removal in biofilms remain poorly understood. This study employed an integrated approach, [...] Read more.

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a persistent environmental contaminant requiring effective removal strategies. Biofilms offer advantages over conventional activated sludge for refractory compound degradation, yet the specific microorganisms and mechanisms driving BPA removal in biofilms remain poorly understood. This study employed an integrated approach, combining ¹³C-DNA stable isotope probing (SIP) and metagenomics to identify BPA-assimilating microorganisms and elucidate their metabolic pathways in biofilms. Two moving bed biofilm reactors (MBBRs) were operated at contrasting BPA concentrations (500 μg/L and 10 mg/L) to enrich distinct microbial communities. Using DNA-SIP, we revealed differences in assimilating bacteria across diverse concentrations of BPA-enriched biofilms. Simultaneously, we reconstructed the genomes of these assimilating bacteria, dissecting the functional genes essential to the degradation process and identifying significant gene variations among different assimilating bacteria. By integrating these gene functions, we constructed the BPA metabolic pathway, which surprisingly comprised genes from various assimilating bacteria. This research significantly advances our understanding of BPA-assimilating bacteria within biofilms and provides valuable insights for refining biofilm technologies aimed at BPA removal from wastewater. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Toxicity Reduction and Environmental Remediation)

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19 pages, 3316 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Profiling of DEHP-Induced Hippocampal Neurotoxicity in Adult Female Rats Based on Transcriptomic and Neurobiological Analyses

by Jing Bai, Jiayu Li, Lei Tang, Wuxiang Sun, Fujia Gao, Xin Zhang, Rui Bian and Ruimin Wang

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010079 - 14 Jan 2026

Viewed by 375

Abstract

Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) is a widely used plasticizer with recognized sex-dependent neurotoxicity. However, research on adult neurotoxicity is scarce, especially in females. In this study, adult female rats were exposed to a high-dose experimental model of DEHP (500 mg/kg/day) for 28 days to [...] Read more.

Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) is a widely used plasticizer with recognized sex-dependent neurotoxicity. However, research on adult neurotoxicity is scarce, especially in females. In this study, adult female rats were exposed to a high-dose experimental model of DEHP (500 mg/kg/day) for 28 days to systematically evaluate hippocampal neurotoxicity. We found that DEHP exposure significantly impaired spatial learning and memory. Transcriptomics revealed enrichment in oxidative stress, complement activation, and neurodegenerative pathways. Specifically, cellular and molecular analyses showed that DEHP induced mitochondrial structural defects and elevated markers of oxidative damage (8-OHdG and 3-NT). While the upregulation of mitochondrial and antioxidant proteins (COX4I1, SOD2, and NQO1) indicated an attempted compensatory response, it remained inadequate to restore redox homeostasis. Under this neurotoxic microenvironment, DEHP triggered early neurogenesis, marked by the upregulation of SOX2 and DCX; however, NeuN levels remained unchanged, suggesting that this compensatory effort failed to expand the mature neuronal population. Ultimately, these pathological processes culminated in neurodegeneration, as evidenced by reduced synaptic proteins, suppressed Olig1/2 expression, and increased tau phosphorylation. Collectively, this study provides a comprehensive neurotoxic profile of DEHP in adult female rats, filling a research gap in this field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurotoxicity from Exposure to Environmental Pollutants)

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22 pages, 1935 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Targeted and Suspect Screening Workflow for Identifying PFAS of Concern in Urban-Impacted Serbian Rivers

by Igor Antić, Maja Buljovčić, Richard E. Cochran, Jelena Živančev, Marta Llorca, Marinella Farré, Dušan Rakić, Ralf Tautenhahn and Nataša Đurišić-Mladenović

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010078 - 14 Jan 2026

Viewed by 382

Abstract

This study presents the first comprehensive assessment of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in surface waters of northern Serbia (Middle Danube region), combining targeted analysis of 25 PFAS with high-resolution mass spectrometry suspect screening (SSA) at 12 settlement-adjacent sites on major rivers and [...] Read more.

This study presents the first comprehensive assessment of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in surface waters of northern Serbia (Middle Danube region), combining targeted analysis of 25 PFAS with high-resolution mass spectrometry suspect screening (SSA) at 12 settlement-adjacent sites on major rivers and part of the Danube–Tisa–Danube (DTD) canal network. The sum of 10 quantified PFAS showed pronounced spatial variability: the Great Bačka Canal (GBC) exhibited the highest mean and maximum values (18.4 ng/L and 52.6 ng/L, respectively); the Danube averaged 9.05 ng/L (2.92–22.2 ng/L); the Tisa averaged 10.5 ng/L (4.53–16.5 ng/L); and the Sava and Tamiš exhibited the lowest means (~5.4 ng/L each). In total, 19 of 24 sites exceeded the proposed EU group Environmental Quality Standard (EQS) of 4.4 ng/L, expressed as PFOA-equivalents, with exceedances of 5.4–20.2 ng/L; PFOS exceeded the 0.65 ng/L inland surface water annual average (AA) EQS in 17 samples. SSA expanded coverage beyond targets, revealing ultra-/short-chain PFAS and replacements, with TFA as the most abundant (337–1165 ng/L; mean 513 ng/L) and notable maxima for PFPrA (51.3 ng/L), ADONA (24.9 ng/L), and TFMS (11.2 ng/L). Compared with European freshwaters, the maximum obtained here lies in the lower-mid part of the reported range, consistent with short-chain perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCA) dominance and diffuse-source influences. Full article

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Toxics, Volume 14, Issue 1 (January 2026) – 107 articles

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