Toxics

27 pages, 8144 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Occurrence of Potentially Toxic Elements (PTEs) Coupled with Mineralogical and Morphological Characteristics of Residential Indoor Vacuum Dusts from the City of Thessaloniki, Northern Greece

by Christina Kotsakostoudi, Anna Bourliva, Lambrini Papadopoulou and Nikolaos Kantiranis

Toxics 2026, 14(4), 306; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14040306 - 31 Mar 2026

Viewed by 1381

Abstract

This study investigates the occurrence, sources, and health risks of PTEs in residential vacuum dusts from the city of Thessaloniki, Greece. A total of 20 dust samples were collected and analyzed for their chemical, mineralogical, and morphological characteristics using pXRF, XRD, and SEM-EDS [...] Read more.

This study investigates the occurrence, sources, and health risks of PTEs in residential vacuum dusts from the city of Thessaloniki, Greece. A total of 20 dust samples were collected and analyzed for their chemical, mineralogical, and morphological characteristics using pXRF, XRD, and SEM-EDS techniques. The results revealed elevated concentrations of Zn (623 mg kg⁻¹), Mn (392 mg kg⁻¹), Cu (204 mg kg⁻¹), and Cr (185 mg kg⁻¹) exceeding crustal averages and global urban soil baselines. Notably, Cr and Mn levels were among the highest recorded for non-industrial urban settings. Source apportionment identified distinct geogenic and anthropogenic contributors, including construction materials, outdoor soil resuspension, and indoor alloy-related sources such as stainless steel and soldering components. Health risk assessment based on USEPA models showed ingestion as the dominant exposure route, particularly for children. Chromium and As were identified as the main non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic contributors, with children’s hazard index (HI) values exceeding safety thresholds (HI = 1.04) in some cases. The cancer risk (CR) for Cr ranged from 2.49 × 10⁻⁵ to 6.55 × 10^−5, not exceeding the acceptable limit (10⁻⁴). The findings highlight the multifaceted nature of indoor dust contamination in urban environments and underscore the need for continued monitoring and targeted mitigation to protect vulnerable populations. Full article

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24 pages, 2957 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Microplastics in Natural Waters: Occurrence, Risks and Mitigation Strategies

by Shuwen Zheng, Zhenyu Zhai, Zheming Zhang, Jianxiong Xiang, Jingsi Chen, Zhuorong Du and Xiaoyan Qian

Toxics 2026, 14(4), 296; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14040296 - 29 Mar 2026

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Abstract

Microplastics have become a ubiquitous environmental contaminant in natural waters, raising significant concerns regarding aquatic ecosystem health and potential human exposure. A comprehensive synthesis of current knowledge on microplastic pollution in freshwater and marine systems is presented, focusing on sources, distribution patterns, environmental [...] Read more.

Microplastics have become a ubiquitous environmental contaminant in natural waters, raising significant concerns regarding aquatic ecosystem health and potential human exposure. A comprehensive synthesis of current knowledge on microplastic pollution in freshwater and marine systems is presented, focusing on sources, distribution patterns, environmental behavior, and associated risks. In freshwater environments, microplastic inputs are closely linked to human activities and land use, with wastewater treatment plant effluent, urban runoff, and agricultural drainage serving as major pathways. In marine systems, microplastics undergo dynamic transport influenced by particle properties, hydrodynamic conditions, and biological interactions such as biofouling and aggregation, leading to widespread distribution from coastal zones to deep sea sediments. Importantly, the role of the freshwater–estuarine–marine continuum is emphasized, highlighting the coupled processes of transport, retention, and remobilisation that govern the spatiotemporal distribution and ultimate fate of microplastics across interconnected aquatic systems. Toxicological effects on aquatic organisms are further examined, particularly immunotoxicity and neurotoxicity, alongside potential human health risks via ingestion, inhalation, and dermal exposure. Attention is drawn to the discrepancy between experimental exposure conditions and environmentally relevant concentrations, which constrains robust risk assessment. Current mitigation strategies, including source reduction, wastewater treatment upgrades, transport interception, and degradation technologies, are critically evaluated in terms of effectiveness and limitations. A clear distinction is made between apparent removal and actual degradation, with further consideration of the environmental implications associated with sludge retention and degradation byproducts. Finally, key research priorities are identified, including the need for standardized detection methods, improved exposure assessment, development of environmentally benign alternatives, and strengthened policy-driven source control. These insights provide a basis for advancing sustainable management strategies for microplastic pollution in natural waters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Contaminants)

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15 pages, 19871 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceCase Report

Fatal Intoxication of European Yew (Taxus baccata L.) in Two Donkeys in North-Eastern Italy: A Case Report

by Luca Spadotto, Silva Rubini, Laura Cornara, Federica Betuzzi, Mariarosaria Ingegneri, Antonella Smeriglio, Domenico Trombetta, Cinzia Centelleghe and Sandro Mazzariol

Toxics 2026, 14(4), 294; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14040294 - 28 Mar 2026

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Abstract

Poisoning caused by Taxus baccata is a well-known cause of sudden death in domestic animals due to the cardiotoxic effects of taxine alkaloids. This study describes two cases of fatal intoxication in donkeys (Equus africanus asinus) and demonstrates a multidisciplinary diagnostic [...] Read more.

Poisoning caused by Taxus baccata is a well-known cause of sudden death in domestic animals due to the cardiotoxic effects of taxine alkaloids. This study describes two cases of fatal intoxication in donkeys (Equus africanus asinus) and demonstrates a multidisciplinary diagnostic approach combining pathology, botanical identification, and toxicology. Two animals were found dead without prior clinical signs on a farm in north-eastern Italy. Necropsies were performed, and samples were collected for further investigations. Histopathological findings were limited and non-specific, consistent with the hyperacute course typical of yew poisoning. Fragments of plant material resembling yew needles and twigs were identified in the gastric contents. Toxicological analysis using liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization mass spectrometry confirmed the presence of taxane alkaloids, supporting the diagnosis of yew poisoning. These data highlight the importance of integrating necropsy results with botanical examination and targeted toxicological analyses in cases of suspected plant poisoning. This multidisciplinary approach provides a reliable diagnostic framework for confirming yew poisoning in veterinary investigations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Perspectives in Veterinary Toxicology and One Health)

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16 pages, 1289 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Common Carp Kidney as a Multipurpose Biomarker Organ: Insights from Perfluorooctanoic Acid Exposure

by Maurizio Manera, Cosma Manera and Luisa Giari

Toxics 2026, 14(4), 287; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14040287 - 28 Mar 2026

Viewed by 648

Abstract

The common carp (Cyprinus carpio) kidney uniquely integrates excretory nephrons, renal hematopoietic tissue, and hormonally active thyroid follicles, positioning it as a candidate “multipurpose biomarker organ” for pollutants like perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), a prototype long-chain PFAS and persistent organic pollutant exhibiting [...] Read more.

The common carp (Cyprinus carpio) kidney uniquely integrates excretory nephrons, renal hematopoietic tissue, and hormonally active thyroid follicles, positioning it as a candidate “multipurpose biomarker organ” for pollutants like perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), a prototype long-chain PFAS and persistent organic pollutant exhibiting nephrotoxic, immunotoxic, and thyroid-disrupting effects. Building on prior histological, ultrastructural, and morphometric analyses from carp exposed to waterborne PFOA (0, 200 ng L⁻¹, 2 mg L⁻¹ for 56 days), a hierarchical multipurpose index comprising nephrotoxic, immunotoxic, and thyrotoxic subindices was developed from z-scored light-, electron-microscopy, and morphometric features, enabling cross-scale integration; proximal tubule vesiculations and effete rodlet cells (RCs) were newly quantified from archival electron micrographs. The subindices captured PFOA-induced glomerular hyperfiltration with proximal protein reabsorption and collecting duct RCs recruitment (nephrotoxic); hematopoietic tissue RCs recruitment, clustering, and exocytosis (immunotoxic); and increased thyroid follicle abundance/vesiculation, cross-sectional area, and perimeter (thyrotoxic). Quantification of previously only qualitatively assessed features provided statistical validation, while radar plot integration rendered results more intuitively evident—particularly highlighting the non-monotonic thyroid response—condensing organ-level complexity into a coherent framework supporting carp kidney as a translational One Health model for multi-endpoint waterborne pollutant assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances: Ecological Impacts and Human Health Risks)

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16 pages, 3098 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A High-Throughput, High-Content Analysis of Dopaminergic Neurodegeneration in Caenorhabditis elegans Exposed to Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances

by David Benson, Seth Currie, Jia-Sheng Wang and Lili Tang

Toxics 2026, 14(4), 278; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14040278 - 26 Mar 2026

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Abstract

Dopaminergic neurodegeneration is a hallmark of Parkinson’s disease (PD), and environmental contaminants have been implicated in disrupting dopaminergic pathways. However, practical in vivo workflows for rapid, standardized, and accessible assessment of dopaminergic neurotoxicity remain limited. In this study, we built on our laboratory’s [...] Read more.

Dopaminergic neurodegeneration is a hallmark of Parkinson’s disease (PD), and environmental contaminants have been implicated in disrupting dopaminergic pathways. However, practical in vivo workflows for rapid, standardized, and accessible assessment of dopaminergic neurotoxicity remain limited. In this study, we built on our laboratory’s established high-throughput framework and implemented a high-content imaging workflow to quantify DA neurodegeneration in Caenorhabditis elegans following exposure to representative per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). We evaluated the neurotoxic effects of perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorohexanesulfonic acid (PFHxS), perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA), and three PFAS mixtures with environmentally relevant component ratios. Functional relevance was assessed using dopamine-dependent behavioral endpoints, including basal slowing response (BSR) and area-restricted search (ARS). PFOS exhibited the greatest potency, followed by PFHxS, PFHxA, and PFOA, based on morphological degeneration and benchmark concentration modeling. Structural neuronal damage was significantly associated with behavioral impairment. Under mixture conditions, neurotoxicity was more strongly associated with PFOS molar fraction than with total PFAS concentration (ΣPFAS), suggesting a composition-dependent toxicity profile. Collectively, these findings establish a scalable in vivo framework for assessing PFAS-induced dopaminergic neurotoxicity and support the potential use of this platform for screening environmental pollutants with dopaminergic neurotoxic potential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Caenorhabditis elegans as a Test Model in Environmental Toxicology)

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21 pages, 765 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceCase Report

Fatal Outcome Following Polysubstance Use: A Case Report of Rhabdomyolysis, Acute Kidney Injury, and Deep Vein Thrombosis

by Stanila Stoeva-Grigorova, Ivanesa Yarabanova, Ivelina Panayotova, Maya Radeva-Ilieva, Georgi Bonchev, Milan Tsekov, Delyan Ivanov, Mario Milkov, Simeon Marinov, Petko Marinov and Snezha Zlateva

Toxics 2026, 14(4), 273; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14040273 - 25 Mar 2026

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Abstract

Background: Polysubstance use, particularly the combination of opioids and stimulants, represents a growing public health concern due to its high risk of severe multisystem complications and mortality. Here, we present a case illustrating the lethal synergy of opioid–stimulant co-use. Methods: A 37-year-old male [...] Read more.

Background: Polysubstance use, particularly the combination of opioids and stimulants, represents a growing public health concern due to its high risk of severe multisystem complications and mortality. Here, we present a case illustrating the lethal synergy of opioid–stimulant co-use. Methods: A 37-year-old male with chronic Hepatitis C and documented polysubstance use reported recent use of fentanyl, cocaine, methamphetamine, and cannabis. He presented with generalized weakness, left lower limb pain, tense edema, and anuria. Clinical assessment included monitoring of vital signs, physical examination, capillary blood gas analysis, extended laboratory panels (muscle and cardiac enzymes, electrolytes, and coagulation parameters), urinalysis, and Doppler imaging. Management over five days included intravenous hydration, diuretics, urinary alkalinization, electrolyte correction, anticoagulation, metabolic and vitamin therapy, hemodialysis, and comprehensive supportive care. Results: Laboratory evaluation revealed massive rhabdomyolysis (peak CK 161,050 U/L), severe hyperkalemia (K⁺ 8.4 mmol/L), metabolic acidosis, acute kidney injury with oligoanuria, and left-sided deep vein thrombosis. Despite intensive multidisciplinary interventions, the patient’s repeated refusal of ongoing treatment critically contributed to a fatal outcome. Conclusions: This case underscores the high mortality risk associated with opioid–stimulant co-use and the crucial impact of treatment refusal. Clinicians and public health stakeholders should recognize the rapid progression of multisystem dysfunction in polysubstance users and prioritize early, aggressive interventions combined with patient engagement strategies to mitigate fatal outcomes. Full article

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18 pages, 2574 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Inhalation Exposure to 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid Causes Tracheal Damage—A Study in Rats

by Anna Carolina Ferretti Wisenfad, Isabela Vieira Duran, Luciana Shiraichi Barga and Gisele Alborghetti Nai

Toxics 2026, 14(4), 271; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14040271 - 24 Mar 2026

Viewed by 1106

Abstract

Exposure to 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) occurs mainly by inhalation. Studies indicate that respiratory allergic reactions are induced by this pesticide. This study analyzed the effects of chronic inhalation exposure to 2,4-D in the trachea of rats. We exposed the animals during six months [...] Read more.

Exposure to 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) occurs mainly by inhalation. Studies indicate that respiratory allergic reactions are induced by this pesticide. This study analyzed the effects of chronic inhalation exposure to 2,4-D in the trachea of rats. We exposed the animals during six months to three different concentrations of 2,4-D used for crop spraying. Animals exposed to low concentrations had an increase in the mast cells count, showing that this herbicide can cause allergic reactions in the airways. The tracheal epithelium thickness, the nuclear area and number of nucleolar organizing regions increased proportionally to the exposure concentration and in correlation with each other. These histological tissue changes correspond to epithelial hypertrophy and increased cell activity and multiplication, and show an adaptation to tissue damage caused by 2,4-D. There was a tendency for inversion in the mucus pattern to acid and a decrease in goblet cells in the groups exposed to 2,4-D, which alters the protective mechanisms of the respiratory tract. The 2,4-D induced adaptations in the tracheal epithelium associated with an increase in herbicide concentrations, which may compromise mucociliary function and predispose the epithelium to additional lesions over time. Therefore, it should be used with appropriate respiratory protection equipment to avoid injury. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agrochemicals and Food Toxicology)

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29 pages, 1203 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Ba–Sr–V as Geogenic and Traffic Tracers in Paediatric Hair from Urban–Industrial Spain, with Co-Located Topsoil Vanadium

by Antonio Peña-Fernández, Roberto Valiente, Manuel Higueras, Rafael Moreno-Gómez-Toledano and M. Carmen Lobo-Bedmar

Toxics 2026, 14(3), 268; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14030268 - 19 Mar 2026

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Abstract

Urban–industrial environments can generate mixed geogenic and traffic-related metal signatures in paediatric scalp hair, yet interpretation is challenged by left-censoring and limited health-based guidance values for hair. We quantified barium (Ba), strontium (Sr) and vanadium (V) in archived scalp hair collected in 2001 [...] Read more.

Urban–industrial environments can generate mixed geogenic and traffic-related metal signatures in paediatric scalp hair, yet interpretation is challenged by left-censoring and limited health-based guidance values for hair. We quantified barium (Ba), strontium (Sr) and vanadium (V) in archived scalp hair collected in 2001 from children (6–9 years, n = 120) and adolescents (13–16 years, n = 97) residing in Alcalá de Henares (central Spain). Samples were washed, digested and quantified by Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP–MS; laboratory processing in 2025); results below the limit of detection (LoD) were treated as left-censored using NADA2 (no substitution). In children, Ba and Sr were frequently quantifiable (medians 0.193 and 0.412 µg/g; 38.3% and 23.3% <LoD), whereas V was heavily censored (74.2% <LoD; median 0.003 µg/g). Adolescents showed higher Ba and Sr and broader upper tails (Ba median 0.287 µg/g, P95 2.061 µg/g; Sr median 1.105 µg/g, P95 4.995 µg/g), while V remained low (median 0.011 µg/g, P95 0.052 µg/g). Ba and Sr displayed strong spatial gradients across four residential zones in adolescents (censored-data Peto–Peto tests p < 1 × 10⁻⁸), but V did not (p = 0.162). Co-located residential topsoils were available only for V and showed limited between-zone contrast; soil–hair correspondence was weak overall but moderate in adolescent girls (Spearman ρ = 0.433). These findings provide a historical baseline and support a cautious tracer-oriented interpretation in which the observed Ba–Sr spatial patterning is consistent with heterogeneous contact with dust- and traffic-influenced surface materials, while V appears less discriminatory in low-contrast community settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occupational Exposure to Heavy Metals in Environmentally Vulnerable Areas)

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20 pages, 3661 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

PCB Exposure in Adult Male Mice Reduces Proliferating Cells in the Prostate but Minimally Alters Voiding

by Kathy Wang, Audrey Spiegelhoff, Tamryn Jordan, Thomas Lavery, Conner L. Kennedy, Monica M. Ridlon and Kimberly P. Keil Stietz

Toxics 2026, 14(3), 265; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14030265 - 18 Mar 2026

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Abstract

Lower urinary tract dysfunction (LUTD) is a multifactorial disease process that encompasses diverse symptoms ranging from issues with storage and sensation to impaired emptying of the bladder. Furthermore, symptoms tend to worsen with age and other comorbidities and in men can also be [...] Read more.

Lower urinary tract dysfunction (LUTD) is a multifactorial disease process that encompasses diverse symptoms ranging from issues with storage and sensation to impaired emptying of the bladder. Furthermore, symptoms tend to worsen with age and other comorbidities and in men can also be influenced by changes to the prostate, making diagnosis and treatment difficult to manage. Environmental factors are thought to contribute to disease risk. In mice, previous work has found that developmental exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) is capable of altering voiding function in offspring. However, the effects of PCB exposure in adulthood instead of development are not well known. Whether changes in voiding are a consequence of early or later life exposures remains an important area of study, as environmental chemicals and exposures can occur across the lifespan and can be mitigated. Here, we test whether PCB exposure in adulthood alters voiding or prostate morphology in male mice. C57Bl/6J adult male mice were exposed to the human-relevant MARBLES PCB mixture (0, 0.1, 1, and 6 mg/kg/d) orally daily for two months. Lower urinary tract function was then assessed through urodynamic testing including void spot assay, uroflowmetry, and anesthetized cystometry. Prostate lobes were collected for histology. The only change to voiding function was a reduction in void duration in the 6 versus 1 mg/kg/d PCB group but not to the vehicle control. Prostate, seminal vesicle, and testes wet weights were unchanged. However, PCB exposure reduced the number of Ki67-positive proliferating cells in the anterior and ventral prostate lobes only at the 1 mg/kg/d dose, with no change to caspase 3-positive cells or smooth muscle thickness. Together, these data indicate that 2-month exposure to PCBs in adult mice has little impact on voiding but is a sufficient exposure to produce changes in cell proliferation in the prostate. The mechanistic impacts of these changes remains to be investigated but could help better understand individual risk for LUTD. Full article

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20 pages, 3020 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Dual Fluorescence–Lipid Endpoints Resolve Species- and Metal-Specific Toxicity Patterns in Marine Diatoms

by Hojun Lee, Taejun Han and Jihae Park

Toxics 2026, 14(3), 267; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14030267 - 18 Mar 2026

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Abstract

Trace metals are persistent stressors in coastal ecosystems, yet most marine algal toxicity assessments still rely on freshwater model species and growth-based endpoints that provide limited mechanistic resolution. Here, we quantified the sensitivity of two ecologically contrasting marine diatoms—the benthic Cylindrotheca closterium and [...] Read more.

Trace metals are persistent stressors in coastal ecosystems, yet most marine algal toxicity assessments still rely on freshwater model species and growth-based endpoints that provide limited mechanistic resolution. Here, we quantified the sensitivity of two ecologically contrasting marine diatoms—the benthic Cylindrotheca closterium and the planktonic Thalassiosira weissflogii—to ten environmentally relevant metals using a dual-endpoint approach that integrates chlorophyll fluorescence (photosystem function) and Nile Red-based lipid-body fluorescence (metabolic reallocation). Fluorescence-based EC₁₀ values revealed distinct species- and metal-specific patterns, with C. closterium consistently responding at lower concentrations and Hg producing the strongest inhibition in both species (EC₁₀ ≈ 0.04–0.06 mg L⁻¹). Lipid-body accumulation detected earlier metabolic disturbance for several metals, particularly Hg, As, Cr(VI), and Cd, and frequently occurred at concentrations where fluorescence remained minimally affected. These sequential thresholds indicate that pigment impairment and metabolic reallocation represent mechanistically distinct stages of the cellular stress response that differ among metals and between diatom guilds. Comparison with published toxicity data shows that the dual-endpoint sensitivities observed here fall within, or slightly above, the upper range of reported microalgal responses, underscoring the pronounced susceptibility of benthic diatoms to redox-active and thiol-reactive metals. The strong agreement between fluorescence-based EC values and traditional growth-derived benchmarks for key metals further supports fluorescence as an operationally efficient endpoint suitable for integration into emerging ISO marine algal bioassays. Overall, this study demonstrates that pairing a rapid functional marker with a mechanistically informative metabolic biomarker enables metal-specific toxicity fingerprinting and provides an ecologically grounded basis for incorporating benthic diatoms into coastal metal risk assessment frameworks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ecotoxicology)

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20 pages, 2148 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Evaluating Toxicity and Anti-Osteogenic Activity of Artemisinin-Inspired Endoperoxides in Zebrafish Larvae

by Yaryna S. Buzan, Gil Martins, Bruno M. S. Ferreira, Inês C. C. Costa, Maria L. S. Cristiano and Paulo J. Gavaia

Toxics 2026, 14(3), 261; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14030261 - 17 Mar 2026

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Abstract

Endoperoxide-containing molecules based on the antimalarial drug artemisinin have demonstrated various biological properties, including modulation of calcium homeostasis. This study evaluated the toxicity and osteogenic activity of five newly developed tetraoxanes (YB1, YB9, YB11, YB17 and T2), alongside three of their non-peroxidic analogues [...] Read more.

Endoperoxide-containing molecules based on the antimalarial drug artemisinin have demonstrated various biological properties, including modulation of calcium homeostasis. This study evaluated the toxicity and osteogenic activity of five newly developed tetraoxanes (YB1, YB9, YB11, YB17 and T2), alongside three of their non-peroxidic analogues (IC22, IC26 and IC33), in zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae. For each compound, LC₅₀ values were first determined. Behavioural responses and morphological alterations were studied as indicators of toxicological impact. The osteogenic activity was assessed through the operculum assay, followed by the analysis of gene expression markers related to calcium homeostasis (atp2a1), oxidative stress (sod1, cat), and osteogenesis (sp7, oc2). All the compounds evaluated induced an inhibition of osteogenic activity. T2, YB11, IC33 and IC26 affected the locomotor function by decreasing swimming activity. IC26 and IC33 induced morphological toxicity, characterized by a curved trunk and alterations in larval body curvature. From all the compounds studied, YB1, YB9, YB17 and IC22 showed selective anti-osteogenic activity, without displaying significant behavioural or morphological toxicity. In conclusion, the presence of a peroxide bond in the molecular structure of the compounds increases the anti-osteogenic activity at lower concentrations. All evaluated compounds exhibited anti-osteogenic activity and can be regarded as anti-osteogenic agents. However, YB17 did not induce transcription alterations in the genes analyzed and may thus represent the most promising compound in conditions where a controlled inhibition of bone formation is desirable. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicological Studies Using Zebrafish Models)

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19 pages, 963 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Impacts of Mislabeled ECIG Liquids on Primary Particulate Matter Emissions

by Sarah E. Fresquez, Vijay Sivaraman, Yogesh Saini, Daniel Walker, Talia Chavis, Eric Soule and Sinan Sousan

Toxics 2026, 14(3), 256; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14030256 - 13 Mar 2026

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Abstract

Electronic cigarette (ECIG) liquids are marketed with labeled nicotine concentrations and propylene glycol (PG) to vegetable glycerin (VG) ratios, yet quality control inconsistencies may alter vaping emissions. We quantified discrepancies between labeled and measured chemical content and evaluated how these differences affect emissions [...] Read more.

Electronic cigarette (ECIG) liquids are marketed with labeled nicotine concentrations and propylene glycol (PG) to vegetable glycerin (VG) ratios, yet quality control inconsistencies may alter vaping emissions. We quantified discrepancies between labeled and measured chemical content and evaluated how these differences affect emissions of particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 µm or smaller (PM_2.5). Flavor-free liquids (n = 20) spanning nicotine labels of 0, 9, 18, and 48 mg/mL and PG content from 0% to 80% were purchased. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy measured nicotine, PG, and VG. Aerosols were generated using a standardized device in a controlled exposure chamber. PM_2.5 was measured using a pDR-1500 and SMPS/APS, with gravimetric correction factors calculated. Labeling inaccuracies were widespread: “nicotine-free” liquids contained 0.1 to 0.4 mg/mL nicotine, and labeled nicotine deviated by up to ±30%. PG/VG ratios were frequently incorrect; 70% of samples contained higher VG than labeled, including “100% VG” products with about 10% PG. Higher VG consistently increased PM_2.5 mass, while nicotine had a minimal effect. The pDR overestimated mass, whereas SMPS/APS underestimated due to volatilization losses. Overall, inaccurate ECIG liquid labeling can alter measured PM_2.5 emissions under controlled conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Air Pollution and Health)

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17 pages, 2959 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Sublethal Clothianidin Exposure Impairs Development, Thyroid Hormones, Locomotion and Predation in Fejervarya cancrivora from Rice Paddy Ecosystems

by Joko Pilianto, Amr Abou El-Ela, Asim Munawar, Xiangfen Zhang, Dun Wang, Abid Ali Soomro, Naved A. Ansari, Wenwu Zhou and Zengrong Zhu

Toxics 2026, 14(3), 243; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14030243 - 11 Mar 2026

Viewed by 633

Abstract

Clothianidin (CLO) is a widely used neonicotinoid insecticide in agricultural systems and may pose risks to non-target aquatic organisms, including amphibians. Here, we evaluated acute and sublethal effects of CLO on Fejervarya cancrivora tadpoles, an important predator of insect pests in rice paddy [...] Read more.

Clothianidin (CLO) is a widely used neonicotinoid insecticide in agricultural systems and may pose risks to non-target aquatic organisms, including amphibians. Here, we evaluated acute and sublethal effects of CLO on Fejervarya cancrivora tadpoles, an important predator of insect pests in rice paddy ecosystems. Acute toxicity tests (96 h) yielded an LC₅₀ of 50.41 mg a.i./L (with LC₁₀, LC₂₅ and LC₃₀ values of 15.35, 31.96 and 36.07 mg a.i./L, respectively). Sublethal exposure at these concentrations significantly reduced body weight, whole-body length, and hindlimb length during metamorphosis. CLO also altered thyroid hormone regulation, with T4 showing a dose-dependent increase, while T3 was elevated relative to controls but showed comparatively limited additional sensitivity to concentration and exposure duration. Locomotor activity was impaired under sublethal CLO exposure, reflected by reduced swimming distance and speed. In addition, frogs that developed from CLO-exposed tadpoles exhibited decreased feeding efficiency on brown planthoppers (Nilaparvata lugens) across developmental stages 46–48. Together, these findings demonstrate that CLO can affect amphibian development, endocrine regulation, and behavior at sublethal levels, highlighting the need to incorporate sublethal endpoints into ecological risk assessment and to promote pest management strategies that reduce impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Bridging Ecosystem Contamination and One Health: Integrating Environmental, Animal, and Human Risk Assessment)

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25 pages, 2354 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Machine Learning Prediction of Transthyretin Binding for Thyroid Hormone Transport Disruption for Chemical Risk Assessment

by Shuaikang Hou, Chao Ji, Christopher M. Reh and Patricia Ruiz

Toxics 2026, 14(3), 240; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14030240 - 10 Mar 2026

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Abstract

Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) disrupt thyroid hormone (TH) synthesis, transport, metabolism, and action, thereby perturbing systemic endocrine homeostasis. Transthyretin (TTR) is a key TH transport protein that regulates circulating hormone distribution and tissue availability, particularly during critical developmental windows. Chemical interference with TTR-binding may [...] Read more.

Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) disrupt thyroid hormone (TH) synthesis, transport, metabolism, and action, thereby perturbing systemic endocrine homeostasis. Transthyretin (TTR) is a key TH transport protein that regulates circulating hormone distribution and tissue availability, particularly during critical developmental windows. Chemical interference with TTR-binding may alter TH bioavailability and represent a transport-mediated molecular initiating event within thyroid-axis perturbation. Despite widespread exposure, many thyroidal EDCs remain unidentified, and their health effects are difficult to assess due to multiple simultaneous exposures. To support endocrine hazard identification and chemical prioritization within risk assessment frameworks, we developed machine learning-based QSAR models during the Tox24 challenge, using a dataset of 1512 chemicals to predict TTR-binding affinity. Of these, 67% were used for training, 13% for testing, and 20% for validation. Molecular descriptors were selected by first removing highly correlated features and then ranking the remaining descriptors using mutual information regression. The leverage approach was applied to define the models’ applicability domain (AD). Five machine learning algorithms, including gradient boosting regressor (GBR), Random Forest, Lasso Regression, Support Vector Machine (SVM), and regularized SVM models, were developed. The GBR model demonstrated the best overall performance. This model achieved an R² of 0.89 on the training set, 0.58 on the test set, and 0.55 on the validation set. The molecular descriptor analysis highlights hydrophobicity, steric effects, branching, connectivity, and ionization/electronic effects as the mechanistic basis for TTR disruption and stabilization, providing structural insight into features associated with thyroid hormone displacement. The AD analysis indicated that 97.5% of the test set and 96.0% of the validation set fell within the reliable descriptor space. Importantly, these predictions extend beyond model benchmarking by informing weight-of-evidence evaluations of thyroid-axis perturbation and supporting the prioritization of chemicals for targeted testing within non-animal new approach methodologies. Overall, this work highlights the application of in silico approaches for screening EDCs, supporting the prioritization and identification of potentially harmful chemicals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Novel Methods in Toxicology Research)

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19 pages, 1974 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Dermal Exposure to Heavy Metals in Urban Green Space Soils: A Review of Bioavailability, Toxic Mechanisms, and Precision Risk Assessment

by Yiping Cheng, Daolei Cui, Zhaolai Guo, Wei Hong, Yue Li, Chin Wei Lai and Ping Xiang

Toxics 2026, 14(3), 236; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14030236 - 10 Mar 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 964

Abstract

Urban green spaces (UGSs) provide essential ecological services but also accumulate heavy metals (HMs) in their soils, posing a paradoxical health risk through dermal exposure. Traditional risk assessments, based solely on total HM concentrations, often overestimate threats by ignoring bioavailability (the fraction actually [...] Read more.

Urban green spaces (UGSs) provide essential ecological services but also accumulate heavy metals (HMs) in their soils, posing a paradoxical health risk through dermal exposure. Traditional risk assessments, based solely on total HM concentrations, often overestimate threats by ignoring bioavailability (the fraction actually absorbed by organisms) and dynamic skin microenvironment factors. This review synthesizes recent advances to propose a precision assessment framework that integrates bioavailability. The framework advocates for the incorporation of bioaccessibility (the fraction of pollutants dissolved in body fluids)-driven exposure metrics (e.g., physiologically based extraction tests), mechanistic dermal permeation models (e.g., Franz diffusion cells, 3D skin constructs), and population-specific susceptibility factors (e.g., children, individuals with compromised skin). We elucidate how soil properties (pH, organic matter) and metal speciation (e.g., Cr(III)/Cr(VI)) modulate cutaneous uptake, and detail toxicological mechanisms including oxidative stress, ferroptosis/cuproptosis, immunotoxicity, and pigmentation disorders. Case studies reveal heterogeneous HM hotspots in high-traffic and densely populated areas, while in vitro–in vivo extrapolation highlights the potential for misestimation in traditional models. Consequently, we discuss the limitations and future directions of this framework, aiming to shift UGS risk management from over-conservative assessment to bioavailability-based precision governance, thereby supporting the health security of sustainable urban habitats. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Heavy Metal Pollution and Human Health)

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27 pages, 2381 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Breast Adipose Tissue’s Xenobiotics and Fatty Acid Profile—A Preliminary Study in Portuguese Women with Breast Cancer

by Sara Sousa, Paula Paíga, Bárbara Araújo, Francisca Coelho, Inês Castela, Miguel Vasques, Clara Sampaio, Marta Duarte, Ana Correia, Diana Teixeira, Diogo Pestana, Ana Faria, Cristina Delerue-Matos, Maria João Ramalhosa, Conceição Calhau and Valentina Fernandes Domingues

Toxics 2026, 14(3), 224; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14030224 - 6 Mar 2026

Viewed by 1074

Abstract

Countless environmental pollutants and xenobiotics, are widespread and linked to hazardous effects, including breast cancer. Due to their lipophilic properties, these accumulate in fat tissue, such as breast adipose tissue. However, little is still known about their combined effects and distribution within the [...] Read more.

Countless environmental pollutants and xenobiotics, are widespread and linked to hazardous effects, including breast cancer. Due to their lipophilic properties, these accumulate in fat tissue, such as breast adipose tissue. However, little is still known about their combined effects and distribution within the breast microenvironment. Alterations in fatty acid metabolism can be a biomarker for cancer progression and a potential bioindicator of pollutant exposure. In this study, the fatty acid profile and levels of organochlorine and organophosphate pesticides (OCPs and OPPs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), brominated flame retardants (BFRs), organophosphate esters (OPEs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and synthetic musks (SMs) were measured in 48 breast adipose tissue samples from breast cancer and healthy patients (controls). Twelve xenobiotics were detected at high frequency rates, and the distribution profile of these pollutants differed between cohorts. In total, 163 correlations were identified between specific fatty acids and breast cancer patients’ data, with distinct correlation patterns between cohorts. Fatty acids show the potential to be biomarkers of the presence of lipophilic xenobiotics in the breast microenvironment; however, more studies are needed. This preliminary study is the first to analyze OPPs, OPEs, and PAHs in breast adipose tissue and report associations between xenobiotics and specific fatty acids. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Exposure, Toxicity and Health Impact of Emerging Environmental Contaminants)

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19 pages, 1899 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Occurrence of Pharmaceuticals in the Seawater Samples of the Port of Cartagena (Murcia, Spain): A Pilot Study

by Elena Badillo, María Teresa Yuste, Fernando Vallejo, Elisa Escudero, Amnart Poapolathep, Saranya Poapolathep and Pedro Marín

Toxics 2026, 14(3), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14030217 - 3 Mar 2026

Viewed by 998

Abstract

The growing occurrence of emerging contaminants, particularly pharmaceutical residues, in aquatic environments represents a major environmental concern worldwide. While pharmaceutical contamination has been increasingly studied in marine systems, port environments remain largely understudied despite their complex anthropogenic pressures. This study investigates the occurrence, [...] Read more.

The growing occurrence of emerging contaminants, particularly pharmaceutical residues, in aquatic environments represents a major environmental concern worldwide. While pharmaceutical contamination has been increasingly studied in marine systems, port environments remain largely understudied despite their complex anthropogenic pressures. This study investigates the occurrence, spatial distribution, and potential environmental risk of pharmaceutical residues in surface waters of the port of Cartagena, a multifunctional port on the Spanish Mediterranean coast. Fifteen pharmaceuticals were analysed across nine sampling sites, of which six were not detected. Diclofenac and several antibiotics (erythromycin, azithromycin, clindamycin, and trimethoprim) were the most frequently detected compounds, reaching maximum concentrations of up to 12,294.1 ng/L. Elevated concentrations were observed at sites associated with intense human activity, while the detection of multiple pharmaceuticals at a designated Special Area of Conservation suggests additional diffuse pollution sources, likely linked to insufficient wastewater management in nearby informal settlements. Most detected concentrations exceeded established environmental-quality or risk-threshold values, indicating a potential threat to marine ecosystems. These findings highlight the vulnerability of port environments to pharmaceutical pollution and underscore the need for continuous monitoring programs to support effective environmental management and biodiversity protection in coastal port areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecotoxicology of Emerging Contaminants in the Water Environment)

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18 pages, 5795 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Synergistic Effects of Fine Particulate Matter and High Humidity on Allergic Asthma: An Association with TRPV4/MAPK Pathway Activation

by Ziyu Shu, Xu Yang, Baizhan Li, Ping Ma, Yang Wu, Yan Li, Miao Guo, Chenqiu Du, Fangxin Fang and Runming Yao

Toxics 2026, 14(3), 219; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14030219 - 3 Mar 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 746

Abstract

Identifying environmental factors contributing to allergic asthma is critical for effective prevention. PM_2.5, a major environmental pollutant, and high relative humidity frequently coexist in urban and industrialized regions, particularly when ventilation is poor. However, the combined effects of PM_2.5 and [...] Read more.

Identifying environmental factors contributing to allergic asthma is critical for effective prevention. PM_2.5, a major environmental pollutant, and high relative humidity frequently coexist in urban and industrialized regions, particularly when ventilation is poor. However, the combined effects of PM_2.5 and humidity remain unclear. This study used a murine asthma model, exposing male Balb/c mice sensitized with ovalbumin (OVA) to PM_2.5 (75 μg/m³ and 35 μg/m³), based on China’s Ambient Air Quality Standards (GB3095-2012), and/or varying relative humidity levels in a controlled chamber. Allergic asthma severity was evaluated through histopathological changes, pulmonary function, Th1/Th2 balance, mucus hypersecretion, and inflammatory factor levels, alongside the activation of TRPV4 and MAPK signaling pathways (ERK, p38MAPK, and JNK). The results showed that high humidity (90%) or PM_2.5 exposure alone had minimal impact, but combined exposure to 75 μg/m³ PM_2.5 and 90% humidity markedly aggravated airway hyperresponsiveness, inflammation, and mucus hypersecretion. These changes coincided with enhanced TRPV4 activation and MAPK signaling, particularly p38MAPK and JNK, while ERK1/2 remained unaffected. A lower PM_2.5 concentration (35 μg/m³) combined with 90% humidity had a weaker impact. Blocking TRPV4 with HC-067047 effectively mitigated asthma exacerbation caused by combined exposure. These findings demonstrate that co-exposure to PM_2.5 and high humidity dose-dependently exacerbates allergic asthma, an effect likely mediated by TRPV4-MAPK pathway activation. Targeting TRPV4 may offer a potential therapeutic strategy to mitigate asthma exacerbation in environments with high humidity and PM_2.5. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Airway Exposure to Pollution from Ambient Particulate Matter (PM) and Health Effects)

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24 pages, 2531 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Deciphering Pesticide Stress Responses in Rice Through Integrated Multi-Omic Assessment

by Azam Safarnejad, Joaquim Jaumot and Stefan Platikanov

Toxics 2026, 14(3), 210; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14030210 - 28 Feb 2026

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Abstract

Pesticides are widely used in rice cultivation for pest control to guarantee crop productivity. Intensive use of these chemicals causes harmful effects on rice plants, such as physiological and biochemical stress responses. Such stress is often expressed as oxidative damage, disruption of metabolic [...] Read more.

Pesticides are widely used in rice cultivation for pest control to guarantee crop productivity. Intensive use of these chemicals causes harmful effects on rice plants, such as physiological and biochemical stress responses. Such stress is often expressed as oxidative damage, disruption of metabolic balance, and a reduction in plant resilience to environmental challenges. In recent years, omic technologies (such as transcriptomics, epigenomics, proteomics, and metabolomics) have contributed to identifying molecular pathways affected by pesticide exposure. However, no comprehensive synthesis of rice-specific omic evidence currently exists, limiting translational applications. These omic studies revealed activation of detoxification-related enzymes and transporters, alongside changes in antioxidant defenses, hormone-mediated signaling, and membrane remodeling. This review presents current omic-based approaches used to investigate pesticide-induced stress in rice. It focuses on molecular responses including changes in gene expression, enzymatic detoxification, metabolic reprogramming, and stress signaling pathways. The review also highlights how multi-omic integration can contribute to a more holistic understanding of these stress responses, combining cross-layer evidence that connects gene regulation, protein activity, and metabolic remodeling. Despite these advancements, there are still challenges, particularly in the interpretation of complex datasets, the integration of multiple omic layers and the translation of results to real agricultural conditions. Finally, the review also discusses biotechnological approaches that may improve rice tolerance to pesticide exposure. In summary, the role of omic approaches to elucidate pesticide toxicity in rice and to contribute to more resilient crop production systems is critically reviewed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agrochemicals and Food Toxicology)

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20 pages, 1615 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Sex and APOE ε4 Allele Shape Behavioral and Epigenetic Susceptibility to Prenatal Chlorpyrifos Exposure in Mice

by Judit Biosca-Brull, Laia Guardia-Escote, Jordi Blanco, Maria Cabré, Pia Basaure, Fernando Sánchez-Santed, José L. Domingo and Maria Teresa Colomina

Toxics 2026, 14(3), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14030212 - 28 Feb 2026

Viewed by 897

Abstract

Pesticides are essential for modern agriculture but raise concerns about potential neurodevelopmental consequences, leading to bans in some countries. This study aimed to investigate the long-term effects of prenatal exposure to chlorpyrifos (CPF) on behavior and DNA methylation, considering genetic susceptibility via the [...] Read more.

Pesticides are essential for modern agriculture but raise concerns about potential neurodevelopmental consequences, leading to bans in some countries. This study aimed to investigate the long-term effects of prenatal exposure to chlorpyrifos (CPF) on behavior and DNA methylation, considering genetic susceptibility via the apolipoprotein E (APOE) genotype. Pregnant mice—C57BL/6J and those carrying human APOE ε3 or ε4 alleles—were orally exposed to 0 or 1 mg/kg/day of CPF from gestational day 12 to 18. Adult offspring underwent light and dark and Morris water maze tests to assess anxiety-like behavior and spatial learning and memory. Then, hippocampal samples were collected to assess DNA methylation. Results indicated that body weight was lower in females and CPF-treated mice. C57BL/6J males spent less time in the light compartment, worsened by CPF. In contrast, within APOE genotype ε4 carriers spent more time in the light compartment, with CPF increasing male activity. Moreover, long-term retention was impaired in both male and female apoE4 mice prenatally exposed to CPF. DNA methylation analysis revealed sex-dependent differences, with hypomethylation in the CPF-treated male hippocampus. These findings highlight how pesticides and genetic factors interact, affecting neurobehavioral development, and explore the potential impact of CPF on DNA methylation. Full article

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18 pages, 5317 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Novel Graphitic Biochar Derived from Banana Peels for Efficient PFAS Removal: Mechanistic Insight from Integrated Experiments and DFT Calculations

by Liu-Yi Wei, Ru-Meng Wu, Zhen-Zhu Liu, Feng-Jiao Peng, Jun-Jie Hu and Chang-Gui Pan

Toxics 2026, 14(3), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14030204 - 27 Feb 2026

Viewed by 717

Abstract

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) have raised considerable concern due to their ubiquity, persistence, bioaccumulation, and toxicity. However, cost-effective, high-performance adsorbents for PFAS removal from aquatic environments remain limited. Here, we synthesized a porous graphitic biochar adsorbent (Zn-BBC) from banana peel waste via [...] Read more.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) have raised considerable concern due to their ubiquity, persistence, bioaccumulation, and toxicity. However, cost-effective, high-performance adsorbents for PFAS removal from aquatic environments remain limited. Here, we synthesized a porous graphitic biochar adsorbent (Zn-BBC) from banana peel waste via zinc chloride (ZnCl₂) activation and applied it to removing ten legacy and alternative PFASs from water. Zn-BBC achieved removal efficiencies > 95% for all target PFASs. The adsorption of PFASs onto Zn-BBC followed pseudo-second-order (PSO) kinetics, suggesting chemisorption. Additionally, the adsorption isotherms were well described by the Sips model, indicating surface heterogeneity. Zn-BBC exhibited robust performance over a broad pH range (3–9). Coexisting ions (CO₃²⁻, SO₄²⁻, Zn²⁺, Ca²⁺, and Mg²⁺), tested individually at 10 mM each, had negligible effects on the adsorption of the PFASs examined, except for perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA). In contrast, humic acid (10 mM) significantly reduced the removal rates of PFBA, perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA), and hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (GenX). Nevertheless, in river and lake waters, Zn-BBC achieved >85.0% removal of all PFASs except PFBA. In regeneration experiments, Zn-BBC exhibited excellent reusability. Experimental characterization and density functional theory (DFT) calculations jointly revealed that PFAS adsorption involves electrostatic interactions, hydrophobic interactions, π-CF interactions, surface complexation, and hydrogen bonding. These results suggest that Zn-BBC is a promising sorbent for PFAS removal in water. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue PFAS, Plastic Mulch Film, and Heavy Metal: Environmental Fate, Biological Toxicity and Innovative Remediation Technologies)

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20 pages, 1203 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Phosphorus-Associated Viral Indicators Override pH as Predictors of Heavy Metal Mobility in Urban Storm Drain Sediments

by Rui Zhou, Rongguo Gao, Xuanyi Gao, Bangxiao Zheng and Bin Yan

Toxics 2026, 14(3), 197; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14030197 - 26 Feb 2026

Viewed by 625

Abstract

Urban storm drain sediments (SDSs) accumulate heavy metals from building façades and road surfaces, yet the biogeochemical controls governing metal mobility remain poorly understood. This study investigated biotic and abiotic controls on metal mobility along the urban dust transport chain (Xiamen-Quanzhou-Zhangzhou, China), using [...] Read more.

Urban storm drain sediments (SDSs) accumulate heavy metals from building façades and road surfaces, yet the biogeochemical controls governing metal mobility remain poorly understood. This study investigated biotic and abiotic controls on metal mobility along the urban dust transport chain (Xiamen-Quanzhou-Zhangzhou, China), using four sample types—façade dust (FD), road-deposited sediment (RDS), SDS, and runoff suspended solids (RSS)—from nine sites across three functional zones. Metal concentrations (Pb, Cu, Zn, Cr, Cd), phosphorus fractions, and microbial functional genes were quantified to test the hypothesis that viral abundance indicators, rather than pH, are more strongly associated with metal mobility in near-neutral urban sediments. Results showed that SDS served as metal accumulation hotspots with enrichment factors of 2.0–2.3× relative to FD, while total phosphorus declined by 34% along the transport chain. Contrary to conventional expectations, pH exhibited weak correlation with Pb mobility (r = −0.21; 95% CI: −0.62 to 0.27), whereas the T4-type bacteriophage gene g23 showed strong positive correlation (r = 0.85, p < 0.01; 95% CI: 0.52–0.96). Partial least squares path modeling revealed that viral abundance (g23 gene copies) showed the strongest statistical association with metal mobility among biotic variables (β = +0.48, p < 0.001), mediated through phosphorus-supported microbial activity. The model explained 76% of variance in metal mobility, with phosphorus cycling positively influencing viral abundance (β = +0.28). These findings challenge the pH-centric paradigm of metal geochemistry and reveal a novel phosphorus-virus-metal coupling mechanism in urban environments. The textile industrial site QZ-2 exceeded chromium screening values by 45%, demonstrating the framework’s utility for pollution hotspot identification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fate and Transport of Heavy Metals in Polluted Soils)

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16 pages, 811 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

SARS-CoV-2 Anti-Spike IgG Subclass Titres in a Population with Prior Exposure to Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA)

by Mihai Zamfir, Doris Gerstner, Heidi Lahne, Volker Fingerle, Johannes Redwitz, Wolfgang Schober, Bettina Aschenbrenner, Matthias Graw, Dennis Nowak, Caroline Quartucci, Caroline Herr and Stefanie Heinze

Toxics 2026, 14(3), 192; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14030192 - 25 Feb 2026

Viewed by 707

Abstract

The role of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) on antibody titres following vaccination in adults is not heterogeneous. High levels of anti-spike IgG have been reported following mRNA-based vaccinations. This study aimed to explore the association between PFOA exposure and exposure to SARS-CoV-2 antigen on [...] Read more.

The role of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) on antibody titres following vaccination in adults is not heterogeneous. High levels of anti-spike IgG have been reported following mRNA-based vaccinations. This study aimed to explore the association between PFOA exposure and exposure to SARS-CoV-2 antigen on SARS-CoV-2 anti-spike antibodies, particularly on the IgG subclasses in adult residents with increased internal PFOA exposure due to past PFOA drinking water contamination. A self-administered questionnaire was completed, and vaccination data was checked against the vaccination passport. PFOA concentration and IgG subclass titres were analysed in serum. Most study participants had three vaccinations (518; 78.6%). IgG was dominated by IgG4, a subclass that is largely unable to activate effector responses, for 8.3% of the participants, and only in the group of participants with three vaccinations. A generalised linear model was used to assess the relationship between PFOA serum concentration and IgG subclasses. After adjusting for age, a significant positive association was found between the number of vaccinations, self-reported infections and higher IgG subclasses concentrations. Age and PFOA concentration did not show a significant association with the concentration of any IgG subclass. Thus, the internal PFOA exposure was not associated with impaired immune response with regard to anti-spike SARS-CoV-2 IgG. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging PFAS: Environmental Fate, Health Risks, and Innovative Remediation Approaches)

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31 pages, 1523 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Thorium Valorization at the Interface of Technology, Risk, and Sustainability

by Geani Teodor Man, Andreea Maria Iordache, Diana Ionela Popescu (Stegarus), Ionela Ramona Zgavarogea and Nicoleta Anca Șuțan

Toxics 2026, 14(3), 193; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14030193 - 25 Feb 2026

Viewed by 1182

Abstract

Thorium (Th), a naturally occurring actinide, is gaining renewed attention due to its dual role as a strategic nuclear resource and a potential environmental contaminant. This review critically reassesses thorium valorization pathways by integrating extraction technologies, environmental behavior, toxicological risks, and regulatory constraints. [...] Read more.

Thorium (Th), a naturally occurring actinide, is gaining renewed attention due to its dual role as a strategic nuclear resource and a potential environmental contaminant. This review critically reassesses thorium valorization pathways by integrating extraction technologies, environmental behavior, toxicological risks, and regulatory constraints. While thorium is primarily recovered as a by-product of rare earth element (REE) processing, conventional hydrometallurgical methods—though mature—generate significant secondary waste and pose environmental challenges. Emerging technologies, such as functionalized adsorbents, membrane systems, and biohydrometallurgy, show promise but remain largely confined to laboratory-scale studies due to scalability and stability issues. A key finding is that thorium’s environmental mobility and toxicological impact are directly influenced by the extraction processes used, creating species with distinct bioavailability and risk profiles. This work highlights the disconnect between high laboratory efficiencies and real-world applicability, emphasizing the need for integrated approaches that consider lifecycle impacts, waste minimization, and occupational safety. We propose a circular economy framework for sustainable thorium management, connecting green primary processing, secondary recovery from industrial residues, smart environmental stewardship, and supportive policy. The review concludes that successful thorium valorization depends not on incremental efficiency gains but on holistic designs that reconcile technological performance with environmental and health safeguards. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Disease Risks from Environmental Radiological Exposure)

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19 pages, 4796 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Enhanced Toxicity Induced by Combined Exposure to Neonicotinoid Insecticides and Fluoroquinolone Antibiotics in Human Neuroblastoma SK-N-SH Cells

by Gulijiazi Yeerkenbieke, Tao Wang, Yun Yang, Shuai Shi and Xiaoxia Lu

Toxics 2026, 14(3), 195; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14030195 - 25 Feb 2026

Viewed by 849

Abstract

Neonicotinoid insecticides and fluoroquinolone antibiotics frequently co-occur in aquatic and terrestrial environments, posing a threat to human health, yet their combined neurotoxic potential remains poorly characterized. This study aimed to assess the cytotoxicity of typical neonicotinoids and fluoroquinolones as well as their mixtures [...] Read more.

Neonicotinoid insecticides and fluoroquinolone antibiotics frequently co-occur in aquatic and terrestrial environments, posing a threat to human health, yet their combined neurotoxic potential remains poorly characterized. This study aimed to assess the cytotoxicity of typical neonicotinoids and fluoroquinolones as well as their mixtures in human neuroblastoma SK-N-SH cells and identify affected pathways. SK-N-SH cells were exposed to clothianidin (CLO), imidacloprid (IMI), enrofloxacin (ENR), and ofloxacin (OFX) individually and in fixed-ratio mixtures (50% of each compound’s IC₅₀) for 24 h and 48 h, and cell viability was quantified using the alamarBlue^® method. Single-compound dose–response testing showed time-dependent cytotoxicity, with higher potency for fluoroquinolones (24 h IC₅₀: ENR 1.446 mM, OFX 2.742 mM; 48 h IC₅₀: ENR 0.826 mM, OFX 2.005 mM) than neonicotinoids (24 h IC₅₀: IMI 4.754 mM, CLO 5.356 mM; 48 h IC₅₀: IMI 3.631 mM, CLO 4.029 mM). Concentration-addition analysis indicated that most mixtures produced synergistic interaction in reduction in cell viability, with ENR+OFX showing the strongest effect at 48 h (Observed viability 7.138% vs. Predicated viability 82.368%). RNA-seq (24 h) revealed that binary mixtures generally induced more differentially expressed genes than single exposures, and ENR-containing mixtures showed the largest transcriptomic shifts, enriching pathways related to cellular stress and injury as well as neuronal signaling and connectivity. RT-qPCR validated the changes in expressions of five key neurobiology-relevant genes (LMO3, NOS1, ADCY8, FGF7 and TNFRSF12A). These findings highlight the importance of assessing insecticide–antibiotic mixtures when evaluating their hazards in environment. Full article

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17 pages, 1971 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Impact of Plasticizers on the Microbial Degradation of Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB)

by Yan Zhao, Yugo Matsumura, Peng-Cheng Zhao, Isha, Dubok Choi and Young-Cheol Chang

Toxics 2026, 14(3), 194; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14030194 - 25 Feb 2026

Viewed by 824

Abstract

Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) is a biodegradable polyester considered a sustainable alternative to petroleum-based plastics. However, its biodegradation in the presence of plasticizers remains poorly defined. This study investigated the impact of phthalate ester- and glycol-based plasticizers on PHB degradation by Ralstonia sp. C1. Real [...] Read more.

Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) is a biodegradable polyester considered a sustainable alternative to petroleum-based plastics. However, its biodegradation in the presence of plasticizers remains poorly defined. This study investigated the impact of phthalate ester- and glycol-based plasticizers on PHB degradation by Ralstonia sp. C1. Real Time -Polymerase Chain Reaction(RT-PCR) analysis showed that expression of the PHB depolymerase gene phaZa1 remained unchanged in all additive-treated cultures, indicating no transcriptional interference. Liquid-medium degradation assays quantified by HPLC revealed rapid PHB utilization, with more than 50% degraded within 24 h and over 98% degraded within 48 h, with no significant differences relative to the control. Growth-inhibition assays further demonstrated that none of the plasticizers impaired bacterial viability, as OD₆₀₀ profiles were comparable to untreated cultures. Soil degradation experiments confirmed that PHB films containing additives decomposed at rates similar to additive-free films, reaching approximately 80% degradation within 10 weeks. Overall, the tested plasticizers did not affect enzyme expression, microbial activity, or PHB biodegradation, highlighting the suitability of plasticized PHB materials for environmentally sustainable applications and supporting their scalable use as biodegradable alternatives to conventional plastics. Full article

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30 pages, 2502 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Phthalate Esters in Aquatic Ecosystems: A Multiscale Threat from Molecular Disruption to Ecological Risks

by Zhicheng Sun, Marriya Sultan, Jian Han, Chunsheng Liu and Yanbo Ma

Toxics 2026, 14(2), 185; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14020185 - 23 Feb 2026

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Abstract

Phthalate esters (PAEs), ubiquitous plastic additives, have emerged as persistent contaminants in aquatic ecosystems, yet their propagation from molecular initiating events to ecosystem-level collapse remains poorly integrated. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the source-to-sink dynamics of PAEs, revealing a critical paradox in [...] Read more.

Phthalate esters (PAEs), ubiquitous plastic additives, have emerged as persistent contaminants in aquatic ecosystems, yet their propagation from molecular initiating events to ecosystem-level collapse remains poorly integrated. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the source-to-sink dynamics of PAEs, revealing a critical paradox in their bioaccumulation patterns: unlike classical persistent organic pollutants, high molecular weight PAEs exhibit distinct trophic dilution rather than biomagnification along food webs, driven by metabolic biotransformation in higher trophic organisms. Despite this dilution, PAEs trigger a bottom-up toxicity cascade. Driven by molecular initiating events, PAEs induce a range of adverse effects at the individual level, including immunotoxicity, neurotoxicity, endocrine disruption, metabolic dysfunction, and trans-trophic oxidative stress. Crucially, prolonged exposure drives epigenetic reprogramming, which reduces reproductive output, thereby threatening long-term population recruitment. These individual and population deficits could escalate into higher ecological consequences, specifically by diminishing benthic biological control over phytoplankton, dampening energy transfer efficiency, and simplifying community structure, thereby posing a potential threat to primary productivity and aquatic ecosystem sustainability. Despite recent advances, critical knowledge gaps remain, particularly regarding their cascading impacts on ecosystem services, as well as synergistic interactions between PAEs and other contaminants. In order to validate laboratory results with actual ecological risk assessments, future research should incorporate multi-scale models and quantitative adverse outcome Pathways as well as their synergistic interactions between PAEs and other contaminants, and advanced in vitro systems such as organoids. Resolving these issues is essential to reducing the risks that PAEs pose to aquatic environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aquatic Toxicity of Emerging Contaminants)

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18 pages, 3476 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Critical Comparison of Exposure Estimators for Airborne Particulate Matter in Urban Cyclists

by Elie Al Marj, Ilann Mahou, Roy M. Harrison, Francis D. Pope, Alexandra Fort and Aurelie Charron

Toxics 2026, 14(2), 179; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14020179 - 17 Feb 2026

Viewed by 860

Abstract

Urban cyclists experience elevated traffic-related air pollutant (TRAP) exposures due to proximity to emissions and increased breathing rates during exercise. Conventional assessments rely on concentration summaries, which may misrepresent actual inhaled doses and misclassify individuals in health studies. Street-level concentrations exhibit high temporal [...] Read more.

Urban cyclists experience elevated traffic-related air pollutant (TRAP) exposures due to proximity to emissions and increased breathing rates during exercise. Conventional assessments rely on concentration summaries, which may misrepresent actual inhaled doses and misclassify individuals in health studies. Street-level concentrations exhibit high temporal variability, producing non-normal distributions that challenge conventional averaging approaches. This study compares concentration- and dose-based methods to characterize cyclist exposure during urban commuting. Fifty-seven healthy adults completed cycling trips on two 9-km routes (high- and low-traffic) using conventional or electrically assisted bicycles. Real-time monitoring measured black carbon, ultrafine particles, PM_2.5, and PM₁₀. Heart rate-derived breathing rates enabled individualized inhaled dose calculations using three temporal integration methods. Mean concentrations correlated strongly with time-integrated concentrations (r = 0.988–0.998). Simplified dose calculations closely approximated full temporal integration (r > 0.999), with median dose ratios of 0.99–1.01. However, correlations between mean concentrations and inhaled doses were weaker (r = 0.72–0.78). Between 29% and 50% of participants changed exposure quartiles when comparing concentration- and dose-based classifications, with the highest reclassification for ultrafine particles (46–50%). These findings demonstrate that physiological variability substantially influences exposure classification during active commuting, supporting the integration of inhaled dose metrics in cyclist exposure assessment and epidemiological studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Air Pollutants on Cardiorespiratory Health)

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20 pages, 982 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Dynamics of Endocrine Disruptor Exposure in Early Life: A Mother–Infant Hair Biomonitoring Study

by Aikaterini Kalligiannaki, Stella Baliou, Elena Vakonaki, Eleftherios Panteris, Eleftheria Hatzidaki and Manolis N. Tzatzarakis

Toxics 2026, 14(2), 175; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14020175 - 16 Feb 2026

Viewed by 744

Abstract

Background: Fetal and postnatal development appears to be influenced in multiple ways by exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). We used hair biomonitoring to assess the burden of selected EDCs—bisphenol S (BPS), parabens (PBs), triclosan (TCS), and organochlorine pollutants—in pregnant women and their children [...] Read more.

Background: Fetal and postnatal development appears to be influenced in multiple ways by exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). We used hair biomonitoring to assess the burden of selected EDCs—bisphenol S (BPS), parabens (PBs), triclosan (TCS), and organochlorine pollutants—in pregnant women and their children at birth and at ten months of follow-up. Methods: Hair samples were collected from pregnant women in Crete at delivery and from their infants shortly after birth and during follow-up. The assessment of EDCs’ burden was performed using liquid and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS, GC-MS). Results: Pregnant mothers had higher BPS levels than their infants at birth, whereas at 10 months’ follow-up, infants exhibited markedly higher BPS concentrations than both their birth levels and the maternal levels, indicating increasing postnatal exposure. Infants at birth had higher TCS levels than their mothers; these levels then declined at follow-up. In contrast, mothers contained higher levels of MeP, EthP, BenP, and ButP levels than those of infants, either at birth or at ten months’ follow-up. Organochlorine compounds were present at low but measurable levels. Significant pairwise comparisons were observed for some of the EDC analytes, mostly between mothers and their infants and between mothers and infants at follow-up. Conclusions: These findings demonstrate constant, compound-specific, and time-dependent EDC burdens, highlighting the importance of prenatal EDC exposure in infants at birth and at ten months’ follow-up compared to that of mothers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomonitoring and Exposure Assessment in Vulnerable Populations: From Source to Health Outcome)

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20 pages, 8329 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Size-Dependent Disruption of Lipid Metabolism by Polystyrene Micro- and Nanoplastics in Caenorhabditis elegans Revealed Through Multi-Omics and Functional Genetic Validation

by Zhi Qu, Xihua Feng, Yalu Wang, Rui Wang and Nan Liu

Toxics 2026, 14(2), 170; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14020170 - 13 Feb 2026

Viewed by 1703

Abstract

Microplastics (MPs) are pervasive contaminants that enter the food chain and cause health issues. However, the size-dependent effects of MPs on lipid metabolism remain inadequately characterized. Using Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans), we investigated the size-dependent toxicity of polystyrene (PS)-MPs as model [...] Read more.

Microplastics (MPs) are pervasive contaminants that enter the food chain and cause health issues. However, the size-dependent effects of MPs on lipid metabolism remain inadequately characterized. Using Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans), we investigated the size-dependent toxicity of polystyrene (PS)-MPs as model contaminants with sizes of 100 nm and 1 μm, respectively. We evaluated multiple phenotypic endpoints, including lifespan, growth (body length and width), locomotion (head thrashes and body bends), reproduction, and intestinal lipofuscin. The expression of representative lipid metabolism-related transcripts was validated by quantitative PCR. Untargeted metabolomics profiling detected 831 differential metabolites (451down-regulated and 380 up-regulated) across both PS particle exposure groups, with over-representation of lipid metabolic pathways. Integration of multi-omics (transcriptomics and metabolomics) highlighted acdh-1, ech-6, hach-1, and sur-5 as core lipid-metabolism genes; RNA interference confirmed that knockdown of these target genes abolished the size-dependent differences in fat accumulation induced by MPs. Notably, it revealed elevated linoleic acid and taurocholic acid, signature metabolites indicative of disrupted lipid turnover by our metabolomic profiling. Collectively, our findings demonstrate that exposure to PS-MPs disrupts lipid homeostasis in C. elegans by perturbing mitochondrial function and key metabolic pathways, which in turn impairs growth, development, feeding, and reproductive capacity. Critically, these disruptive effects exhibit a strong size dependency, with 100 nm PS particles inducing more severe perturbations than the 1 μm particles, and provide novel mechanistic insight into MP-induced metabolic abnormalities, underscoring the importance of considering particle size in assessing the environmental and health risks of MP contamination. Full article

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20 pages, 1819 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Concentrations and Probabilistic Health Risks of Seven Metals in Face and Eye Cosmetics Across Seven Asian Countries

by Sohyeon Choi, Jae-Hyun Kim, Aram Lee, Yong-Jun Jeon, Won Kim, Inja Choi and Jeongim Park

Toxics 2026, 14(2), 167; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14020167 - 11 Feb 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1056

Abstract

Despite global restrictions like the Minamata Convention, heavy metal contamination in cosmetics remains a critical public health concern, with limited cross-country comparative data on heavy metal concentrations in cosmetics across Asian markets. We measured Hg, Pb, As, Cd, Sb, Cr, and Ni contents [...] Read more.

Despite global restrictions like the Minamata Convention, heavy metal contamination in cosmetics remains a critical public health concern, with limited cross-country comparative data on heavy metal concentrations in cosmetics across Asian markets. We measured Hg, Pb, As, Cd, Sb, Cr, and Ni contents in 189 cosmetic products purchased in 2022 in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Korea, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Vietnam. Samples were screened by handheld X-ray fluorescence; Hg was quantified by a direct mercury analyzer and As, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Sb were quantified by ICP-OES. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to characterize metal co-occurrence patterns, and Monte Carlo simulation was applied to estimate dermal systemic exposure dose, hazard quotients (HQ), and lifetime cancer risk (LCR). Mercury in face creams exhibited extreme heterogeneity (range: ND-67,000 mg/kg), while eye cosmetics contained elevated Arsenic levels (median 4.13 mg/kg). PCA distinctively separated Hg (PC2) from geogenic metals (As/Cr/Ni on PC1), suggesting intentional adulteration. Probabilistic risk estimates indicated upper-tail non-cancer risk for Hg in facial creams (95th percentile HQ 6.32; P[HQ>1] = 24.4%). As produced the highest LCR estimates (facial cream 95th percentile 2.60 × 10⁻⁴). These findings indicate product-type-specific metal patterns and highlight a subset of facial products with extreme Hg levels that can drive substantial upper-percentile risk, supporting the need for targeted market surveillance and enforcement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Metals and Radioactive Substances)

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14 pages, 546 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Maternal and Newborn Factors Associated with Meconium Metal Concentrations: A Cross-Sectional Study

by Bianka Mimica, Ajka Pribisalic, Zlatka Knezovic, Nina Knezovic and Davorka Sutlovic

Toxics 2026, 14(2), 163; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14020163 - 10 Feb 2026

Viewed by 689

Abstract

Prenatal exposure to essential and toxic metals may influence fetal development and birth outcomes. Meconium represents a valuable biomarker of cumulative intrauterine exposure; however, data linking maternal lifestyle and diet to meconium metal concentrations remain limited. This study included 152 mother–newborn pairs at [...] Read more.

Prenatal exposure to essential and toxic metals may influence fetal development and birth outcomes. Meconium represents a valuable biomarker of cumulative intrauterine exposure; however, data linking maternal lifestyle and diet to meconium metal concentrations remain limited. This study included 152 mother–newborn pairs at the University Hospital Center Split. Meconium samples were analyzed for essential metals (Mn, Zn, Fe, Cu) and toxic metals (Hg, Pb, Cd, Ni, Cr) using atomic absorption spectrometry. Maternal and newborn characteristics were collected via questionnaires and medical records. Associations between maternal factors and metal concentrations were assessed using multivariable regression, and inter-metal correlations were evaluated with Spearman’s rank correlation. The correlation matrix indicates positive correlations among essential metals, particularly between Fe and Cu (r_s = 0.523), whereas toxic metals show mixed correlation patterns. Maternal factors were associated with several metal concentrations: zinc was positively associated with the newborn ponderal index; greater gestational weight gain and longer gestation were associated with lower iron concentrations; frequent fruit or grain consumption was associated with lower copper concentrations; frequent milk/dairy intake was associated with lower mercury; and fish consumption was associated with higher mercury and manganese. Rural residence and lower smoking intensity were associated with lower lead concentrations, while higher pre-pregnancy body mass index and frequent maternal smoking were associated with increased cadmium. No significant associations were observed for nickel or chromium. These findings highlight the influence of maternal diet, lifestyle, and environmental factors on fetal metal exposure, underscoring the need for monitoring, food safety control, and targeted education during pregnancy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity and Safety Assessment of Exposure to Heavy Metals)

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25 pages, 1115 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Advances and Challenges in Understanding Atmospheric Oxidizing Capacity in China: Insights from Chemical Mechanisms and Model Applications

by Peixuan Li, Yanqin Ren, Fang Bi, Fangyun Long, Junling Li, Haijie Zhang, Zhenhai Wu and Hong Li

Toxics 2026, 14(2), 159; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14020159 - 8 Feb 2026

Viewed by 927

Abstract

The ability of the atmosphere to convert primary pollutants into secondary pollutants through atmospheric oxidants is referred to as the atmospheric oxidizing capacity (AOC). This study systematically reviews the generation mechanisms, influencing factors, and quantitative characterization methods of major oxidants, along with advances [...] Read more.

The ability of the atmosphere to convert primary pollutants into secondary pollutants through atmospheric oxidants is referred to as the atmospheric oxidizing capacity (AOC). This study systematically reviews the generation mechanisms, influencing factors, and quantitative characterization methods of major oxidants, along with advances in chemical mechanisms and modeling. We provide a comparative analysis of AOCs across diverse environments, including urban, suburban, and rural regions, highlighting the distinct impacts of anthropogenic and biogenic emissions on oxidation regimes. Despite advancements in chemical transport models and machine learning, limitations such as sparse observations, imperfect parameterizations, and unresolved chemical mechanisms lead to significant underestimations of the AOC. Future research must prioritize multi-scale observational networks and the elucidation of key chemical processes to refine model accuracy and improve the effectiveness of pollution control strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sources, Characteristics, and Environmental Pollution Control of Organic Pollutants in the Atmosphere)

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13 pages, 10215 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Chromium(VI) Modulates Macrophage Polarization and Metabolic Reprogramming to Impair Immune Function

by Cheng Li, Ruihang Zhang, Yuhan Zhang, Hongxi Yu, Yu Zheng, Yifei Du, Shiyi Hong, Lihua Hu, Chaoyang Wang, Guang Jia and Guiping Hu

Toxics 2026, 14(2), 160; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14020160 - 8 Feb 2026

Viewed by 671

Abstract

Hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) is a recognized environmental and occupational hazard with significant implications for immune function. However, the cell-intrinsic mechanisms by which Cr(VI) coordinately reshapes macrophage polarization together with immunometabolic and mitochondrial alterations remain incompletely characterized. This study investigated how Cr(VI) exposure influences [...] Read more.

Hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) is a recognized environmental and occupational hazard with significant implications for immune function. However, the cell-intrinsic mechanisms by which Cr(VI) coordinately reshapes macrophage polarization together with immunometabolic and mitochondrial alterations remain incompletely characterized. This study investigated how Cr(VI) exposure influences macrophage morphology, polarization, energy metabolism, and mitochondrial integrity using an in vitro model. Macrophages exposed to Cr(VI) exhibited morphological changes, including pseudopod growth and fusiform shapes, alongside a shift toward M1-type polarization. Key M1 associated biomarkers, including TNF-α, CD36, and CD80, increased 24 h after Cr(VI) exposure, whereas the M2 associated VEGFb decreased. Cr(VI) exposure also impaired energy metabolism, reducing ATP production and shifting metabolism towards glycolysis, despite increased glucose uptake. Mitochondrial damage, membrane potential collapse, and elevated oxidative stress further highlighted the immunotoxic effects of Cr(VI). Cr(VI) exposure may drive a metabolic shift in macrophages toward less efficient energy production pathways, such as glycolysis. These findings provide critical insights into Cr(VI)-induced macrophage dysfunction and emphasize the environmental risks associated with Cr(VI) pollution, underscoring the need for further mechanistic research and mitigation strategies to safeguard public health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health Effects of Exposure to Environmental Pollutants—2nd Edition)

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16 pages, 9692 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Stabilizing Active Aluminum (Al³⁺) in Acidic Soils via Biochar-Induced Microbial Niches: Focusing on Denitrifier-Mediated Mechanisms, Efficiency, and Environmental Outcomes

by Chao He, Tuo Zhang, Shiming Su, Yang Zhang, Xibai Zeng, Yao Qiu, Yaxiong Wen and Shiyong Tan

Toxics 2026, 14(2), 157; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14020157 - 6 Feb 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1026

Abstract

The pervasive toxicity of active aluminum (Al³⁺) in acidic red soils threatens agroecosystem sustainability, with conventional chemical stabilizers facing cost and secondary pollution constraints. This study evaluated rice husk/sawdust and their pyrolysis-derived biochar as stabilizers, focusing on microbial synergy. Results showed [...] Read more.

The pervasive toxicity of active aluminum (Al³⁺) in acidic red soils threatens agroecosystem sustainability, with conventional chemical stabilizers facing cost and secondary pollution constraints. This study evaluated rice husk/sawdust and their pyrolysis-derived biochar as stabilizers, focusing on microbial synergy. Results showed 3% rice husk biochar (RB) achieved 22.1 ± 1.1% stabilization efficiency within 180 days, outperforming sawdust biochar (12.1 ± 0.8%) and raw biomass. Biochar’s alkalinity and porosity created neutral niches, enriching denitrifiers (Thiobacillus, Arthrobacter, Thermomonas) that elevated pH, promoted Al(OH)₃ precipitation, and enhanced oxygen-containing functional groups. This work valorizes agricultural waste for long-term Al³⁺ toxicity mitigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fate and Transport of Heavy Metals in Polluted Soils)

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26 pages, 11821 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Atmospheric Carbonyl Compounds at Shangdianzi, Beijing: Autumn-to-Winter Variation, Ozone Formation Potential, and Source Apportionment

by Yufei Song, Xiaoshuai Gao, Junling Li, Shudan Wei, Yushi Gong, Haijie Zhang, Yanqin Ren, Yucong Guo, Weigang Wang, Hong Li and Maofa Ge

Toxics 2026, 14(2), 156; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14020156 - 4 Feb 2026

Viewed by 783

Abstract

Based on continuous field observations conducted at the Shangdianzi Regional Atmospheric Background Station from 21 October to 20 November 2024 and from 1 December 2024, to 2 January 2025, this study systematically analyzed the concentration levels, seasonal variations, diurnal patterns, and ozone formation [...] Read more.

Based on continuous field observations conducted at the Shangdianzi Regional Atmospheric Background Station from 21 October to 20 November 2024 and from 1 December 2024, to 2 January 2025, this study systematically analyzed the concentration levels, seasonal variations, diurnal patterns, and ozone formation potential (OFP) of 24 carbonyl compounds (OVOCs) in the atmosphere during autumn and winter. Source apportionment was further investigated using characteristic ratios, correlation analysis, and multiple linear regression. The results indicate that the average concentration of Σ24OVOCs during the observation period was 2.70 ± 1.55 ppb. Formaldehyde, acetone, and acetaldehyde were the dominant species, accounting for 94.5% of the total concentration in this background area. A significant seasonal difference in carbonyl concentrations was observed, with the average concentration in autumn (3.68 ± 1.66 ppb) being approximately 2.1 times higher than that in winter (1.78 ± 0.58 ppb). The diurnal variation in most carbonyls exhibited a pattern of nighttime accumulation and daytime depletion, which was consistent with the trend of NO₂. The OFP results show that the average OFP of Σ24OVOCs was 30 ± 16 μg/m³, with formaldehyde contributing 86.9%, identifying it as a key precursor for ozone formation in the background region. Source analysis revealed that carbonyl compounds in autumn were influenced by combined natural, vehicular, and industrial sources, with significant secondary formation (27–36%) observed for C2 (acetaldehyde) and C3 (mainly acetone and propanal) species. In winter, anthropogenic contributions to carbonyls increased, with C2 and C3 species primarily originating from combustion sources, vehicle emissions, and industrial releases. This study provides the first insights into the pollution characteristics and source profiles of carbonyl compounds during autumn and winter at the Shangdianzi background site, offering a scientific basis for understanding regional atmospheric oxidative capacity and formulating integrated air pollution control strategies. Full article

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28 pages, 3740 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Estimation of Prenatal Alcohol Exposure: Comparison of Retrospective Survey and Measurement of Fatty Acid Ethyl Esters, Ethyl Sulfate, and Ethyl Glucuronide Concentrations in Neonatal Meconium

by Marek Wiergowski, Iwona Jańczewska, Jolanta Wierzba, Monika Cichoń-Kotek, Mateusz Kacper Woźniak, Agata Kot-Wasik, Marek Biziuk, Jacek Sein Anand, Daria Barbara Schetz, Małgorzata Glińska and Katarzyna Hinca

Toxics 2026, 14(2), 155; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14020155 - 4 Feb 2026

Viewed by 779

Abstract

Determining the concentration of fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEEs), ethyl sulfate (EtS), and ethyl glucuronide (EtG) is crucial for establishing the true scale of prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) and enabling early diagnosis of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. This study primarily aimed to compare [...] Read more.

Determining the concentration of fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEEs), ethyl sulfate (EtS), and ethyl glucuronide (EtG) is crucial for establishing the true scale of prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) and enabling early diagnosis of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. This study primarily aimed to compare two detection methods: retrospective maternal alcohol consumption surveys and chromatographic analysis of newborn meconium. Among 478 mothers, parallel survey data and meconium samples were collected. Nine FAEEs were measured by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, and EtG and EtS by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. The study also aimed to establish marker cut-offs and evaluate their clinical utility. While only 4% (approximately) of mothers reported alcohol consumption during pregnancy, the biomarker analysis suggested a significant underestimation of the actual PAE scale, highlighting the limitations of self-reported data. Analysis using the cumulative biomarker index for two biomarkers with a threshold of ≥5 indicated that alcohol consumption affected approximately 3% of the studied population, further demonstrating the low reliability of maternal self-reports. Ultimately, this study confirms that the combined EtG and EtS measurements provide the most reliable diagnostic information for PAE and underscores the necessity of objective meconium screening in clinical practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Drugs Toxicity)

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18 pages, 1321 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Optimising Hydrocarbon Extraction from Soil Using Mixed-Surfactant Systems

by Emilio Ritoré, Carmen Arnaiz, José Morillo, Agata Egea-Corbacho and José Usero

Toxics 2026, 14(2), 153; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14020153 - 3 Feb 2026

Viewed by 714

Abstract

In industrial settings, one of the key environmental challenges is the remediation of soil contaminated by hydrocarbons. Washing the soil with surfactants mobilises and extracts these compounds, making them easier to treat. As it enables the recovery and reuse of soil within sustainable [...] Read more.

In industrial settings, one of the key environmental challenges is the remediation of soil contaminated by hydrocarbons. Washing the soil with surfactants mobilises and extracts these compounds, making them easier to treat. As it enables the recovery and reuse of soil within sustainable production processes, this technique is part of the circular economy. Soil-washing experiments using surfactants were carried out to determine whether a mixture of anionic and non-ionic surfactants could improve the remediation of soil contaminated by gasoline and diesel fuel compared to the use of a single surfactant. Four surfactants were used (non-ionic: polyoxyethylene lauryl ether and polyoxyethylene (80) sorbitan monooleate; anionic: sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate and sodium dodecyl sulfate). The aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbon fractions (C6–C8, C8–C10, C10–C12, C12–C16, C16–C21 and C21–C35) of gasoline and diesel fuel were analysed. Sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate was selected for the purpose of preparing mixtures with the other two non-ionic surfactants, polyoxyethylene lauryl ether and polyoxyethylene (80) sorbitan monooleate. These surfactant mixtures demonstrated significantly higher removal rates than sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate alone. Mixtures of sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate and polyoxyethylene lauryl ether achieved hydrocarbon extraction of between 61% and 68%, while sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate-polyoxyethylene (80) sorbitan monooleate mixtures obtained extraction of between 58% and 66%. Analysis of the gasoline and diesel hydrocarbon fractions indicated that smaller molecules desorb more easily than larger ones and that aromatics desorb more easily than aliphatics. Furthermore, the mixtures increased the extraction of both aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, particularly the lighter compounds. The variation on removal rates within the hydrocarbon ranges may be related to the octanol–water partition coefficient (K_ow). These improvements with mixtures of anionic and non-ionic surfactants could be exploited to enhance the effectiveness of surfactant-flushing treatments and optimise the design of soil surfactant treatments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metals and Emerging Contaminants in Aquatic and Soil Environments: Migration, Transformation, Ecological Risks, and Remediation)

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26 pages, 12470 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Read-Across Structural Analysis of PFAS Acute Oral Toxicity in Rats Powered by the Isalos Analytics Platform’s Automated Machine Learning

by Aikaterini Theodori, Konstantinos D. Papavasileiou, Andreas Tsoumanis, Georgia Melagraki and Antreas Afantitis

Toxics 2026, 14(2), 152; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14020152 - 3 Feb 2026

Viewed by 1256

Abstract

The ubiquity and environmental persistence of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) have raised significant concerns about their detrimental effects on human health. Collective scientific efforts are increasingly focused on elucidating PFAS toxicity mechanisms and identifying potential low-impact PFAS structures that retain the exceptional [...] Read more.

The ubiquity and environmental persistence of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) have raised significant concerns about their detrimental effects on human health. Collective scientific efforts are increasingly focused on elucidating PFAS toxicity mechanisms and identifying potential low-impact PFAS structures that retain the exceptional properties of this chemical class. To advance the use of in silico methods in PFAS toxicity assessment, we developed a robust modelling framework for predicting PFAS acute oral toxicity class (high or low) in rats, leveraging the enhanced capabilities of the in-house Isalos Analytics Platform. The automated machine learning (autoML) functionality was employed to optimise four ML models—k-nearest neighbours (kNN), Random Forest (RF), eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost), and fully connected neural network (NN)—using Mold2 molecular descriptors, and to identify the top-performing model through five-fold cross-validation. The selected kNN model (k = 3) was used for predictions on the held-out testing set, achieving an accuracy of 81.5%, while a Shapley values analysis provided valuable insights into the factors influencing toxicity predictions. Furthermore, the nearest-neighbour-based methodology enabled a read-across structural analysis of PFAS similarity groups consisting of each testing set instance and its three closest neighbours in the training set. This analysis revealed a consistent association between polyaromatic and heterocyclic structural features and high acute oral toxicity. The developed, thoroughly validated read-across model is freely accessible through the INSIGHT RatTox web application as well as the INSIGHT Cheminformatics Platform in Enalos Cloud, supporting high-throughput screening of PFAS compounds and investigation of structural similarities with their nearest neighbours for enriched structural interpretation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Predictive Toxicology)

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19 pages, 3631 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Study on the Simultaneous Immobilization of Soluble Phosphorus and Fluorine in Phosphogypsum Using Activated Red Mud: Mechanism and Process Optimization

by Yi Wang, Yanhong Wang, Guohua Gu and Xuewen Wang

Toxics 2026, 14(2), 149; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14020149 - 2 Feb 2026

Viewed by 770

Abstract

Phosphogypsum (PG) is a byproduct of wet-process phosphoric acid production and contains soluble phosphorus (P), fluorine (F), and other harmful impurities in addition to calcium sulfate. Its acidic leachate enriched with P and F poses long-term risks to soil and surrounding water bodies. [...] Read more.

Phosphogypsum (PG) is a byproduct of wet-process phosphoric acid production and contains soluble phosphorus (P), fluorine (F), and other harmful impurities in addition to calcium sulfate. Its acidic leachate enriched with P and F poses long-term risks to soil and surrounding water bodies. Owing to the incorporation of soluble P and F within calcium sulfate crystal interlayers, these contaminants are gradually released during storage, making it difficult to achieve an economically efficient and environmentally benign treatment of PG at an industrial scale. In this study, a low-cost and sustainable process for the effective and long-term immobilization of soluble P and F in PG was developed using sulfuric acid-activated red mud (RM), an industrial waste rich in Fe and Al. After pulping PG with water, activated RM was added, followed by pH adjustment with Ca(OH)₂, leading to the in situ formation of amorphous calcium aluminate and calcium ferrite polymers with strong adsorption affinity toward soluble P and F. The immobilization mechanism and phase evolution were systematically investigated using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES, PS-6PLASMA SPECTROVAC, BAIRD, USA), on a Rigaku Miniflex diffractometer (Rigaku Corporation, Tokyo, Japan), scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), and zeta potential analysis. The leachate of PG treated with activated RM and Ca(OH)₂ contained P < 0.5 mg/L and F < 10 mg/L at pH 8.5–9.0, meeting environmental requirements (pH = 6–9, P ≤ 0.5 mg/L, F ≤ 10 mg/L). Moreover, the immobilized P and F exhibited enhanced stability during long-term stacking, indicating the formation of durable immobilization products. This study demonstrates an effective “treating waste with waste” strategy for the large-scale, environmentally safe utilization of phosphogypsum. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multi-Media Environmental Pollution and Health Risks: Tracing, Effects, and Collaborative Governance)

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19 pages, 1142 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Risk Assessment of Dibutyl Phthalate (DBP) and Bis(2-Ethylhexyl) Phthalate (DEHP) in Hot Pot Bases with a Hybrid Modeling Approach

by Xiangyu Bian, Siyu Huang, Dongya Chen, Depeng Jiang, Daoyuan Yang, Yingzi Zhao, Zhujun Liu, Shiqi Chen, Yan Song, Haixia Sui and Jinfang Sun

Toxics 2026, 14(2), 150; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14020150 - 2 Feb 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 953

Abstract

(1) Background: Hot pot bases are susceptible to phthalate (PAE) contamination due to their high lipid content. Standard risk models often fail to capture extreme values, leading to biased exposure estimates. This study characterized dibutyl phthalate (DBP) and bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) contamination using [...] Read more.

(1) Background: Hot pot bases are susceptible to phthalate (PAE) contamination due to their high lipid content. Standard risk models often fail to capture extreme values, leading to biased exposure estimates. This study characterized dibutyl phthalate (DBP) and bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) contamination using a hybrid modeling framework to ensure precise risk profiling. (2) Methods: A total of 91 samples were analyzed via GC-MS. Concentration data were fitted using traditional parametric, extreme value mixture (EVMM), and finite mixture models. Probabilistic dietary risks were assessed for Chinese demographic groups using 10,000-iteration Monte Carlo simulations. (3) Results: DEHP (detection rate: 55%) and DBP (32%) were best modeled by a two-component Gamma mixture and a Lognormal–Generalized Pareto distribution, respectively. These advanced models significantly outperformed conventional distributions in capturing upper-tail extremes. Crucially, all hazard quotients (HQs) remained below the safety threshold of 1, indicating acceptable risk, although children aged 7–13 exhibited the highest calculated risk (Max DEHP HQ = 0.68). (4) Conclusions: Although current exposure levels are within safe limits, the heavy-tailed distributions identify potential sporadic high-exposure events that traditional models overlook, specifically highlighting the relative vulnerability of children aged 7–13. This study validates that hybrid statistical approaches offer superior precision for analyzing skewed contamination data. Consequently, these findings provide a critical scientific basis for refining regulatory monitoring and implementing targeted source-tracking measures to mitigate long-tail food safety risks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Dietary Exposure to Hazardous Chemicals and Health Risks)

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22 pages, 3529 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Optimization of the Quantification of Antibiotic Resistance Genes in Media from the Yangtze River Estuary

by Jiadai Wu, Xinran Liu, Min Liu, Yawen Song, Qian Li, Jian Wang and Ye Huang

Toxics 2026, 14(2), 151; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14020151 - 2 Feb 2026

Viewed by 959

Abstract

Antibiotic resistance gene (ARG) monitoring in environmental systems increasingly relies on DNA-based molecular approaches; however, the extent to which DNA extraction strategies bias downstream resistome interpretation remains insufficiently understood. This study systematically evaluated the effects of single versus successive DNA extraction on DNA [...] Read more.

Antibiotic resistance gene (ARG) monitoring in environmental systems increasingly relies on DNA-based molecular approaches; however, the extent to which DNA extraction strategies bias downstream resistome interpretation remains insufficiently understood. This study systematically evaluated the effects of single versus successive DNA extraction on DNA recovery, microbial community composition, and the abundance and diversity of 385 genes related to antibiotic resistance including ARGs and mobile genetic elements (MGEs) across three contrasting matrices: water, sediment, and fish intestinal tissue. Successive extraction markedly increased DNA yield and detection of functional genes in water and sediment, particularly for low-abundance and particle-associated taxa. Enhanced recovery resulted in higher richness and abundance of ARGs and MGEs and strengthened correlations between intI1, ARGs, and bacterial taxa, indicating that single-cycle extraction may underestimate resistome magnitude and potential host associations in complex matrices. Conversely, fish intestinal tissue, used here as a representative biological matrix, showed limited benefit or even reduced gene abundance with repeated extraction, likely due to rapid depletion of extractable nucleic acids and DNA degradation. While successive extraction improves recovery efficiency, the potential inclusion of extracellular or relic DNA suggests caution in interpreting inflated ARG abundance. Overall, our findings demonstrate that DNA extraction is a matrix-dependent methodological driver that can reshape both quantitative outcomes and ecological inference. Matrix-specific optimization and careful protocol selection are therefore essential for improving data comparability and minimizing methodological underestimation in environmental resistome assessments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antibiotics and Resistance Genes in Environment)

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20 pages, 5520 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Assessment of Per- and Poly-Fluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) and Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) in Surface Waters Used for Urban Water Supply in Brazil

by Juliana de Souza-Araujo, Isadhora Camargo dos Santos, Hansel David Burgos Melo, Leila Soledade Lemos, Natalia Quinete and André Henrique Rosa

Toxics 2026, 14(2), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14020148 - 2 Feb 2026

Viewed by 1135

Abstract

This study assesses the presence and distribution of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in the surface waters of the Itupararanga Reservoir and the Sorocaba River, Brazil. Samples collected during the dry and rainy seasons were analyzed to determine [...] Read more.

This study assesses the presence and distribution of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in the surface waters of the Itupararanga Reservoir and the Sorocaba River, Brazil. Samples collected during the dry and rainy seasons were analyzed to determine their composition, spatial distribution, and seasonal variability. Results indicate the ubiquitous presence of PFAS, with significantly higher concentrations in the dry season, suggesting point sources of contamination, such as industrial and domestic discharges. Perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA), Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), and Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) were the predominant compounds, while 6:2 Fluorotelomer sulfonate (6-2FTS) stood out for its abundance in areas with industrial activity. For PBDEs, marked seasonal variability was observed, with higher concentrations during the rainy season, suggesting the mobilization of these compounds by surface runoff. BDE-209 was the most abundant congener, representing over 58% of the total concentration of PBDEs detected. Concentrations of PFAS and PBDEs in the study area are comparable to those reported globally, although there are differences associated with industrial practices and local environmental dynamics. The increased presence of short-chain PFAS and Deca-BDEs highlights the need for ongoing monitoring and the implementation of regulatory measures to mitigate contamination in water sources used for human consumption. Full article

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15 pages, 1892 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Nanoceria’s Silent Threat: Investigating Acute and Sub-Chronic Effects of CeO₂ Nanopowder (≤50 nm) on the Human Intestinal Epithelial Cells

by Antonio Laganà, Angela Di Pietro, Caterina Saija, Maria Paola Bertuccio, Alessio Facciolà and Giuseppa Visalli

Toxics 2026, 14(2), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14020145 - 1 Feb 2026

Viewed by 1856

Abstract

The increased mobilization of Rare Earth Elements (REEs), due to emerging technologies, could impact human health. The study assessed the effects of CeO₂ nanopowder (100 μg/mL) in human intestinal cells (HT-29) following both acute (24 h) and, a novelty for in vitro [...] Read more.

The increased mobilization of Rare Earth Elements (REEs), due to emerging technologies, could impact human health. The study assessed the effects of CeO₂ nanopowder (100 μg/mL) in human intestinal cells (HT-29) following both acute (24 h) and, a novelty for in vitro study, sub-chronic exposure, treating subcultures of exposed cells to CeO₂ NP up to 35 days. Recovery was also examined in exposed cells’ progeny. CeO₂ NP internalization and acute cytotoxicity were dose and time dependent. A significant pro-oxidant effect was observed for up to 14 days. The highest mitochondrial impairment was detected after 7 days, but in post-exposure experiments the recovery was observed. Conversely, genotoxicity highlighted the saturation of the DNA repair mechanisms. The irreversible cell damage of sub-chronic exposure was highlighted by the percentage of death cells (p = 0.011) and by the weekly cell replication index (5.68 vs. 7.41). The homeostatic mitophagy pathway was able to counteract ROS-induced mitochondrial dysfunction, as shown by overexpression of ATG5, LC3, and BECN1 genes throughout the examined times. Instead, the overexpression of the pro-apoptotic gene Bax was very brief, highlighting that prolonged exposure might cause more widespread adverse effects, also involving cells that are not directly exposed to nanoceria. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evaluation and Biomonitoring of Potentially Toxic and Rare Earth Elements)

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15 pages, 2068 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Source Profile Analysis of Atmospheric Volatile Organic Compounds in Chongqing

by Anqi Zhang, Xin Qi, Yuchun Jiang, Hanfei Zuo, Yang Chen and Xiaoqian Li

Toxics 2026, 14(2), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14020143 - 1 Feb 2026

Viewed by 573

Abstract

This study presents the first systematic investigation of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) source profiles from key industrial sectors in Chongqing, China. Source-specific emission data were collected from fifteen representative facilities encompassing furniture manufacturing, automobile production, and chemical industries through a combination of on-site [...] Read more.

This study presents the first systematic investigation of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) source profiles from key industrial sectors in Chongqing, China. Source-specific emission data were collected from fifteen representative facilities encompassing furniture manufacturing, automobile production, and chemical industries through a combination of on-site sampling and comprehensive literature review. Our results reveal distinct chemical signatures and regional variations among different source categories: furniture manufacturing emissions are dominated by alkanes (65%), chemical industries exhibit 51% alkane contribution, while automobile manufacturing demonstrates a remarkably high aromatic hydrocarbon content (64%), significantly exceeding other investigated sectors. Notably, aromatic hydrocarbons—particularly benzene derivatives—emitted from automotive manufacturing facilities pose potential carcinogenic and chronic health risks to both occupational workers and surrounding populations, necessitating prioritized regulatory intervention. These locally derived emission profiles fill a critical knowledge gap in regional VOC source characterization for Chongqing, providing essential scientific evidence for accurate source apportionment and formulation of sector-specific emission reduction strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Analysis of Environmental Distribution, Mechanisms of Effects, and Risk of Pollutants Driven by New Technologies)

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14 pages, 1171 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Environmental Stress Shaping Oxidative Responses in the Invasive Crayfish Procambarus clarkii from Lake Trasimeno

by Barbara Caldaroni, Gianandrea La Porta, Ambrosius Josef Martin Dörr, Rebecca Gentile, Sara Futia, Alessandro Ludovisi, Matteo Pallottini, Roberta Selvaggi, Federica Bruschi and Antonia Concetta Elia

Toxics 2026, 14(2), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14020137 - 30 Jan 2026

Viewed by 897

Abstract

Procambarus clarkii (red swamp crayfish) exhibits physiological plasticity that enables adaptation to variable freshwater conditions, such as those in Lake Trasimeno. This study examined whether fluctuations in hydrometric level and associated physicochemical parameters affect oxidative stress responses in the hepatopancreas and abdominal muscle [...] Read more.

Procambarus clarkii (red swamp crayfish) exhibits physiological plasticity that enables adaptation to variable freshwater conditions, such as those in Lake Trasimeno. This study examined whether fluctuations in hydrometric level and associated physicochemical parameters affect oxidative stress responses in the hepatopancreas and abdominal muscle of male and female individuals. Superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and metallothionein reveal tissue, sex, and season-specific differences that indicate adaptive physiological adjustments. Temporal trends were evaluated, and multivariate analyses summarised environmental and metal gradients. Generalised Additive Models (GAMs) were used to explore relationships between oxidative responses and these gradients, with sex as a categorical factor. Associations were identified with hydrometric level, temperature, conductivity, transparency, pH, dissolved oxygen, and metals of biological relevance. These results highlight the remarkable physiological plasticity of P. clarkii, which underpins its success as an invasive species in fluctuating freshwater ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ecotoxicology)

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34 pages, 837 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Cement Industry Pollution Mitigation: A Comprehensive Review on Reducing Environmental and Health Impacts

by Kamal Hosen and Alina Bărbulescu

Toxics 2026, 14(2), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14020138 - 30 Jan 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1961

Abstract

Cement production exerts a significant negative impact on the environment through the emission of greenhouse gases, particulate matter (PM), heavy metals, and other toxic substances into the atmosphere, soil, and bodies of water, degrading the environment and affecting the population’s health. This study [...] Read more.

Cement production exerts a significant negative impact on the environment through the emission of greenhouse gases, particulate matter (PM), heavy metals, and other toxic substances into the atmosphere, soil, and bodies of water, degrading the environment and affecting the population’s health. This study reviews different solutions to reduce pollution and mitigate its effects. Particular attention is given to Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) technologies and their ability to significantly reduce CO₂. Biomass and waste-derived fuels were identified as viable substitutes for fossil fuels, although challenges related to supply chain reliability and secondary environmental impacts remain. The study further examined mitigation strategies for non-gaseous pollutants, including noise pollution control measures such as sound barriers and vibration isolation systems, soil remediation techniques such as phytoremediation and the recycling of cement kiln dust (CKD), and water pollution control technologies, including filtration, chemical precipitation, biological treatment, and Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) systems. Key research gaps were identified, particularly concerning the long-term durability, scalability, and cost-effectiveness of these mitigation approaches. Overall, the review emphasizes the need for integrated pollution control strategies to support the transition toward a more sustainable cement industry and recommends future research focused on developing mitigation technologies that are efficient, economically viable, and adaptable to large-scale industrial applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Water, Air and Soil Pollution Monitoring, Modeling and Restoration, 2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 2226 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Histidine Metabolic Pathway Modifies the Relationships Between 6:2 Cl-PFESA Exposure and Preterm Birth

by Jianping Cong, Chu Chu, Zhitao Zhang, Gaoyuan Sun, Yan Zhang, Aaron M. Qian, Michael G. Vaughn, Sarah Dee Geiger, Kun Zhao, Yunting Zhang, Yang Zhou, Zhihua Yin and Guanghui Dong

Toxics 2026, 14(2), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14020142 - 30 Jan 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 715

Abstract

Background: Evidence linking chlorinated polyfluoroalkyl ether sulfonic acids (Cl-PFESAs) to preterm birth (PTB) is limited, and their relationships with the metabolome remain unexplored. Aims: Our study aimed to explore the role of the metabolome in the associations between Cl-PFESAs exposure and PTB. [...] Read more.

Background: Evidence linking chlorinated polyfluoroalkyl ether sulfonic acids (Cl-PFESAs) to preterm birth (PTB) is limited, and their relationships with the metabolome remain unexplored. Aims: Our study aimed to explore the role of the metabolome in the associations between Cl-PFESAs exposure and PTB. Methods: We conducted a nested case–control study in the Shenyang birth cohort, which included 206 spontaneous preterm birth cases and 206 full-term controls, matched for maternal age and pre-pregnancy BMI. We used conditional logistic regression models to analyze the associations between Cl-PFESAs exposure in umbilical cord blood and PTB. Moreover, the metabolomics of maternal blood (44 cases) between the preterm and control groups was analyzed using the interaction analysis. Results: We observed that a higher natural log-transformed 6:2 Cl-PFESA level was associated with greater odds of PTB in conditional multivariable-adjusted logistic regression models (OR = 1.738, 95% CI: 1.320, 2.287). The results of metabolomics pathway analysis showed that histidine metabolism pathways may modify the above risk. When stratified by histidine levels, the association between cord blood 6:2 Cl-PFESA and PTB was different. Conclusions: Intrauterine exposure to 6:2 Cl-PFESA was associated with increased PTB. Also, for the first time, our study illustrates that maternal plasma metabolite profiles may modify the associations of 6:2 Cl-PFESA with PTB. More research is needed to elucidate the mechanism underlying the reproductive toxicity of 6:2 Cl-PFESA in pregnant women following exposure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multi-Media Exposure to Emerging Contaminants and Health Effects Across Physiological Systems: Exposure Pathways, Risk Assessment and Public Health Implications)

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23 pages, 1863 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in the Rusizi River System, Burundi: A Multi-Compartment Assessment from Tributaries to Lake Tanganyika

by Thimo Groffen, Giulia Lodi, Joël Ndayishimiye, Simon Buhungu, Léopold Nduwimana, Lambert Niyoyitungiye and Jonas Schoelynck

Toxics 2026, 14(2), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14020123 - 28 Jan 2026

Viewed by 723

Abstract

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are global pollutants, yet data from tropical freshwater ecosystems remain scarce. This study provides the first assessment of PFAS occurrence in the Rusizi delta (Burundi), from tributaries to Lake Tanganyika, by analyzing water, sediment, macrophytes, and fish, and [...] Read more.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are global pollutants, yet data from tropical freshwater ecosystems remain scarce. This study provides the first assessment of PFAS occurrence in the Rusizi delta (Burundi), from tributaries to Lake Tanganyika, by analyzing water, sediment, macrophytes, and fish, and by evaluating human health risks from fish consumption. In water, only PFOA (<0.60–7.80 ng/L) was detected and showed a uniform spatial distribution. Sediment concentrations were largely below quantification limits, likely reflecting unfavorable sorption conditions. Macrophytes were dominated by short-chain PFAS, particularly PFBS, without consistent species- or site-specific patterns, supporting their potential as biomonitors of cumulative PFAS exposure. Fish exhibited the highest PFAS diversity, with more diverse profiles in liver than muscle, although tissue-specific patterns were often absent. PFBS was dominant across fish species, and emerging PFAS (e.g., PFBS and NaDONA) were frequently detected. Human health risks from fish consumption were, except for children, mostly below EFSA tolerable weekly intake values for regulated PFAS, but potential concern for adolescents and adults emerged when PFAS were expressed as PFOA equivalents. This study provides essential baseline data for tropical freshwater systems and highlights the need for expanded PFAS monitoring and risk assessment in data-poor regions. Full article

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24 pages, 5779 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Characteristics, Sources of Atmospheric VOCs and Their Impacts on O₃ and Secondary Organic Aerosol Formation in Ganzhou, Southern China

by Xinjie Liu, Yong Luo, Zongzhong Ren, Lichen Deng, Rui Chen, Xiaozhen Fang, Wei Guo and Cheng Liu

Toxics 2026, 14(2), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14020125 - 28 Jan 2026

Viewed by 880

Abstract

Driven by factors such as meteorology, topography, and industrial structure, the concentrations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) exhibit significant spatial heterogeneity. Investigating the characteristics and sources of VOCs in different regions is therefore crucial for formulating targeted strategies to mitigate their contributions to [...] Read more.

Driven by factors such as meteorology, topography, and industrial structure, the concentrations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) exhibit significant spatial heterogeneity. Investigating the characteristics and sources of VOCs in different regions is therefore crucial for formulating targeted strategies to mitigate their contributions to fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) and ozone (O₃) pollution. This study comprehensively investigated—for the first time—the concentration characteristics, sources, and contributions to secondary organic aerosol (SOA) and O₃ formation of VOCs at an urban background site in Ganzhou, a southern Chinese city, based on hourly observations of VOCs during 2023. Analyses included ozone formation potential (OFP), secondary organic aerosol formation potential (SOAFP), and positive matrix factorization (PMF) source apportionment. The influence of photochemical loss was assessed using a photochemical age parameterization method. The results showed an annual average total VOC concentration of 22.6 ± 13.17 ppbv, with higher levels in winter and lower in summer. Alkanes were the dominant species (45.76%). After correcting for photochemical loss, the initial concentration of VOCs (IC-VOCs) was approximately 60% higher than the observed concentration of VOCs (OC-VOCs), with alkenes becoming the dominant group in IC-VOCs (≈72%). OFP analysis indicated that the OFP calculated using initial VOC concentrations (IC-OFP) was substantially higher (by 320 μg/m³) than the values calculated using observed VOC concentrations (OC-OFP), primarily due to the increased contribution of alkenes. SOAFP was higher in spring and winter, and lower in summer and autumn, with aromatic hydrocarbons being the dominant contributors (>85%). PMF results based on month-case studies identified combustion and industrial process sources as the major contributors (>20%) in August, while combustion and vehicle exhaust dominated in January. Photochemical loss significantly influenced source apportionment, particularly leading to an underestimation of biogenic emissions during a warm month (August). These findings underscore the necessity of accounting for photochemical aging and offer a scientific basis for refining targeted VOC control measures in Ganzhou and similar regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Air Pollution and Health)

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