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Testing Satellite Snow Cover Observations Using Time-Lapse Camera Images in Mountain Ranges in Northern Spain
Revealing Exhumation Through Sediment Provenance Analysis of Middle Jurassic to Cretaceous Strata in Arctic Canada
3D Morphometric Analysis of the Columbretes Grande Channel (Ebro Margin, NW Mediterranean)
A Semi-Supervised Approach to Characterise Microseismic Landslide Events from Big Noisy Data
Integrated Geophysical Techniques to Investigate Water Resources in Self-Sustained Carbon-Farming Agroforestry

Journal Description

Geosciences

Geosciences is an international, peer-reviewed open access journal on geoscience, future earth and planetary science published monthly online by MDPI. The European Federation of Geologists (EFG) is affiliated with Geosciences, and its members receive a discount on the article processing charge.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, ESCI (Web of Science), GeoRef, Astrophysics Data System, and other databases.
Journal Rank: CiteScore - Q1 (General Earth and Planetary Sciences)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 23.4 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 3.9 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Journal Cluster of Geospatial and Earth Sciences: Remote Sensing, Geosciences, Quaternary, Earth, Geographies, Geomatics and Fossil Studies.

Impact Factor: 2.1 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 2.5 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2076-3263

Latest Articles

42 pages, 17206 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sedimentary Architecture Prediction Using Facies Interpretation and Forward Seismic Modeling: Application to a Mediterranean Land–Sea Pliocene Infill (Roussillon Basin, France)

by Teddy Widemann, Eric Lasseur, Johanna Lofi, Serge Berné, Carine Grélaud, Benoît Issautier, Philippe-A. Pezard and Yvan Caballero

Geosciences 2025, 15(10), 383; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15100383 - 3 Oct 2025

This study predicts sedimentary architectures and facies distribution within the Pliocene prograding prism of the Roussillon Basin (Gulf of Lion, France), developed along an onshore–offshore continuum. Boreholes and outcrops provide facies-scale observations onshore, while seismic data capture basin-scale structures offshore. Forward seismic modeling [...] Read more.

This study predicts sedimentary architectures and facies distribution within the Pliocene prograding prism of the Roussillon Basin (Gulf of Lion, France), developed along an onshore–offshore continuum. Boreholes and outcrops provide facies-scale observations onshore, while seismic data capture basin-scale structures offshore. Forward seismic modeling bridges spatial and scale gaps between these datasets, yielding characteristic synthetic seismic signatures for the sedimentary facies associations observed onshore, used as analogs for offshore deposits. These signatures are then identified in offshore seismic data, allowing seismic profiles to be populated with sedimentary facies without a well tie. Predicted offshore architectures are consistent with shoreline trajectories and facies successions observed onshore. The Roussillon prism records passive margin reconstruction in the Mediterranean Basin following the Messinian Salinity Crisis, through the following three successive depositional profiles marking the onset of infilling: (1) Gilbert deltas, (2) wave- and storm-reworked fan deltas, and (3) a wave-dominated delta. Offshore, transitions in clinoform type modify sedimentary architectures, influenced by inherited Messinian paleotopography. This autogenic control generates spatial variability in accommodation, driving changes in depositional style. Overall, this multi-scale and integrative approach provides a robust framework for predicting offshore sedimentary architectures and can be applied to other deltaic settings with limited land–sea data continuity. Full article

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18 pages, 3371 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fusing Geoscience Large Language Models and Lightweight RAG for Enhanced Geological Question Answering

by Bo Zhou and Ke Li

Geosciences 2025, 15(10), 382; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15100382 - 2 Oct 2025

Mineral prospecting from vast geological text corpora is impeded by challenges in domain-specific semantic interpretation and knowledge synthesis. General-purpose Large Language Models (LLMs) struggle to parse the complex lexicon and relational semantics of geological texts, limiting their utility for constructing precise knowledge graphs [...] Read more.

Mineral prospecting from vast geological text corpora is impeded by challenges in domain-specific semantic interpretation and knowledge synthesis. General-purpose Large Language Models (LLMs) struggle to parse the complex lexicon and relational semantics of geological texts, limiting their utility for constructing precise knowledge graphs (KGs). Our novel framework addresses this gap by integrating a domain-specific LLM, GeoGPT, with a lightweight retrieval-augmented generation architecture, LightRAG. Within this framework, GeoGPT automates the construction of a high-quality mineral-prospecting KG by performing ontology definition, entity recognition, and relation extraction. The LightRAG component then leverages this KG to power a specialized geological question-answering (Q&A) system featuring a dual-layer retrieval mechanism for enhanced precision and an incremental update capability for dynamic knowledge incorporation. The results indicate that the proposed method achieves a mean F1-score of 0.835 for entity extraction, representing a 17% to 25% performance improvement over general-purpose large models using generic prompts. Furthermore, the geological Q&A model, built upon the LightRAG framework with GeoGPT as its core, demonstrates a superior win rate against the DeepSeek-V3 and Qwen2.5-72B general-purpose large models by 8–29% in the geochemistry domain and 53–78% in the remote sensing geology domain. This study establishes an effective and scalable methodology for intelligent geological text analysis, enabling lightweight, high-performance Q&A systems that accelerate knowledge discovery in mineral exploration. Full article

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22 pages, 12373 KB

Open AccessArticle

Groundwater Quality and Health Risk Assessment in Trenggalek Karst Springs and Underground Rivers as a Drinking Water Source

by Aminuddin, Nendaryono Madiutomo, Zulfahmi, Tedy Agung Cahyadi, Ilham Firmansyah, Rizka Maria, Heri Nurohman and Nopri Dwi Siswanto

Geosciences 2025, 15(10), 381; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15100381 - 2 Oct 2025

The karst landscape of Trenggalek Regency, located in several sub-districts including Dongko, Kampak, and Watulimo, is shaped by the Wonosari Formation and is characterized by springs and underground rivers. Due to water scarcity in the region, local communities heavily depend on these natural [...] Read more.

The karst landscape of Trenggalek Regency, located in several sub-districts including Dongko, Kampak, and Watulimo, is shaped by the Wonosari Formation and is characterized by springs and underground rivers. Due to water scarcity in the region, local communities heavily depend on these natural water sources. This study assesses the groundwater quality of 16 springs and 20 underground rivers to evaluate their suitability for consumption and associated health risks. Using the groundwater quality index (GWQI), human health risk assessment (HHRA), and statistical methods, various physicochemical parameters were analyzed, including pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), electrical conductivity (EC), and concentrations of iron (Fe²⁺), manganese (Mn²⁺), calcium carbonate (CaCO₃), and sulfate (SO₄). Water generally meets the World Health Organization standards for safe drinking. However, correlation analysis reveals notable mineral dissolution and possible anthropogenic influence. TDS strongly correlates with EC (r = 0.97), while Fe²⁺ shows significant relationships with Mn and TDS. Conversely, CaCO₃ shows a negative correlation with EC and TDS, suggesting alternative sources beyond rock weathering. The HHRA indicates higher non-carcinogenic health risks from Fe²⁺ contamination in underground rivers compared to springs. The study’s novelty comes in its integrated assessment of groundwater quality and health hazards in Trenggalek’s karst region, which uses GWQI, HHRA, and statistical analysis to show geochemical interactions and highlight iron-related health issues in underground rivers. Full article

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44 pages, 68239 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Distribution of Geochemical Anomalies in Soils of River Basins of the Northeastern Caucasus

by Ekaterina Kashirina, Roman Gorbunov, Ibragim Kerimov, Tatiana Gorbunova, Polina Drygval, Ekaterina Chuprina, Aleksandra Nikiforova, Nastasia Lineva, Anna Drygval, Andrey Kelip, Cam Nhung Pham and Nikolai Bratanov

Geosciences 2025, 15(10), 380; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15100380 - 1 Oct 2025

The aim of this study is to determine the spatial distribution of geochemical anomalies of selected potential toxic elements in the soils of the river basins in the Northeastern Caucasus—specifically the Ulluchay, Sulak, and Sunzha Rivers. A concentration of 25 chemical elements was [...] Read more.

The aim of this study is to determine the spatial distribution of geochemical anomalies of selected potential toxic elements in the soils of the river basins in the Northeastern Caucasus—specifically the Ulluchay, Sulak, and Sunzha Rivers. A concentration of 25 chemical elements was measured using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Petrogenic elements commonly found in the Earth’s crust (Al, Na, Ca, Fe, Mg) showed high concentrations (Na up to 306,600.70 mg/kg). Conversely, concentrations of Ag, Cd, Sn, Sb, and Te at many sampling sites were extremely low, falling below the detection limits of analytical instruments. The geochemical indicators Cf (contamination factor) and Igeo (geoaccumulation index) indicate that the regional characteristics of the territory, such as lithological conditions, hydrochemical schedules, and the history of geological development of the territory, affect the concentration of elements. Anomalous concentrations were found for seven elements (Ba, Na, Zn, Ag, Li, Sc, As), whereas no anomalies were identified for Be, Mg, Al, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Pb, Te, and Cs. For the most part (8 of 10), the sampling sites with anomalous chemical element content are located in the basin of the Sunzha River. Two sites with anomalous chemical element content have been identified in the Sulak River Basin. Anomalous values in the Sulak River Basin are noted for two chemical elements—Ba and Na. Natural features such as geological structure, parent rock composition, vertical climatic zonation, and landscape diversity play a major role in forming geochemical anomalies. The role of anthropogenic factors increases in localized areas near settlements, industrial facilities, and roads. The spatial distribution of geochemical anomalies must be considered in agricultural management, the use of water sources for drinking supply, the development of tourist routes, and comprehensive spatial planning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Geochemistry)

23 pages, 3989 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sequence Stratigraphy of the Volhynian (Late Middle Miocene) Deposits from the North Sector of Eastern Carpathian Foredeep

by Crina Miclӑuș, Anca Seserman, Sergiu Loghin and Viorel Ionesi

Geosciences 2025, 15(10), 379; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15100379 - 1 Oct 2025

An exposed sedimentary succession, ca 115 m of a total of 1000 m, from the Eastern Carpathian foredeep was, for the first time, analyzed using facies analysis and scale- and time-independent sequence stratigraphy methods to reveal the depositional environment and its cyclic sedimentation. [...] Read more.

An exposed sedimentary succession, ca 115 m of a total of 1000 m, from the Eastern Carpathian foredeep was, for the first time, analyzed using facies analysis and scale- and time-independent sequence stratigraphy methods to reveal the depositional environment and its cyclic sedimentation. The outcropping deposits, belonging to the Șomuz Formation, dated on the basis of molluscs, foraminifera, and ostracods, are uppermost Volhynian (upper Serravalian). The three recurrent facies associations we have distinguished indicate a storm-dominated shoreface–offshore transition environment. Five-decametre-thick high-frequency sequences (HFS1–5), at most of 4th order, bounded by maximum regressive surfaces, were defined in the studied interval. The maximum thickness of the Volhynian deposits in the area, known both from well sites and outcrops, allowed us to estimate the sedimentation rate at ca 1.5 m/kyr. The fossil content shows that the entire sedimentary succession was deposited in very shallow to shallow water during the whole Volhynian (12.65 - ca 12.01 Ma). The time interval we studied was estimated at ca 75 kyr, so the average time of one HFS is ca 15 kyr. At this scale, considering that both high subsidence and Eastern Paratethys sea-level rise added to accommodation, the sediment supply must have been the main control of cyclic sedimentation, which, in turn, must have been controlled by precession climatic changes in the source area. The estimated time of an HFS is shorter than a precession cycle, but better dating might support or refute this hypothesis. This paper may awaken the interest of the owners of better data, especially from subsurface (seismic, well logs), to complete the data from natural exposures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sedimentology, Stratigraphy and Palaeontology)

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32 pages, 3829 KB

Open AccessArticle

Summary Results of Radon-222 Activity Monitoring in Karst Caves in Bulgaria

by Petar Stefanov, Karel Turek and Ludmil Tsankov

Geosciences 2025, 15(10), 378; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15100378 - 1 Oct 2025

Cave systems are a kind of natural laboratory for interdisciplinary research on karstogenesis in the context of global changes. In this study, we investigate the concentration of ²²²Rn at 65 points in 37 representative caves of Bulgarian karst through continuous monitoring with [...] Read more.

Cave systems are a kind of natural laboratory for interdisciplinary research on karstogenesis in the context of global changes. In this study, we investigate the concentration of ²²²Rn at 65 points in 37 representative caves of Bulgarian karst through continuous monitoring with passive and active detectors with a duration of 1 to 13 years. The concentration changes strongly both in the long term and seasonally, with values from 0.1 to 13 kBq m⁻³. These variations are analyzed from different perspectives (location and morphological features of the cave system, cave climate, ventilation regime, etc.). The seasonal change in the direction and intensity of ventilation is a leading factor determining the gas composition of the cave atmosphere during the year. Parallel measurements of ²²²Rn and CO₂ concentrations in the cave air show that both gases have a similar seasonal fluctuation. Cases of coincidences of an anomalous increase in the concentration of ²²²Rn with manifestations of seismic activity and micro-displacements along tectonic cracks in the caves have also been registered. The dependencies between the ²²²Rn concentration in the caves and in the soil above them are also discussed, as well as the possible connections between global trends in climate change and trends in ²²²Rn emissions. Special attention is paid to the risks of radiation exposure in show caves. A calculation procedure has been developed to achieve the realistic assessment of the effective dose of cave guides. It is based on information about the annual course of the ²²²Rn concentration in the respective cave and the time schedule of the guides’ stay in it. The calculation showed that the effective dose may exceed the permitted limits, and it is thus necessary to control it. Full article

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15 pages, 14032 KB

Open AccessArticle

Preliminary Study on the Activity of the Rupture Zone in the Eastern Segment of the Ba Co Fault in Ngari Prefecture, Tibet

by Yunsheng Yao, Yanxiu Shao and Bo Zhang

Geosciences 2025, 15(10), 377; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15100377 - 1 Oct 2025

The lack of research on the slip behavior of the NW-trending faults in the central Tibetan Plateau constrains our understanding of the deformation models for this region. The Ba Co Fault, located in the central Tibetan Plateau, is a NW–SE-trending right-lateral strike-slip fault. [...] Read more.

The lack of research on the slip behavior of the NW-trending faults in the central Tibetan Plateau constrains our understanding of the deformation models for this region. The Ba Co Fault, located in the central Tibetan Plateau, is a NW–SE-trending right-lateral strike-slip fault. Its eastern section has been active in the Holocene and plays an important accommodating role in the northward compression and east–west extension of the Tibetan Plateau. This study presents a detailed analysis of the geomorphic features of the eastern section of the Ba Co Fault in the Ngari Prefecture of Tibet, precisely measuring the newly discovered surface rupture zone on its eastern side and preliminarily discussing the activity of the fault based on the optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating results. The results reveal that the eastern segment of the Ba Co Fault displays geomorphic evidence of offset, including displaced Holocene alluvial–fluvial fans at the mountain front and partially offset ridges. A series of pressure ridges, trenches, counter-slope scarps, and shutter ridge ponds have developed along the fault trace. Some gullies exhibit a cumulative dextral displacement of approximately 16–52 m. The newly discovered co-seismic surface rupture zone extends for a total length of ~21 km, with a width ranging from 30 to 102 m. Pressure ridges within the rupture zone reach heights of 0.3–5.5 m, while trenches exhibit depths of 0.6–15 m. Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating constrains the timing of the surface-rupturing earthquake to after 5.73 ± 0.17 ka. The eastern segment of the Ba Co Fault experienced a NW-trending compressional deformation regime during the Holocene, manifesting as a transpressional dextral strike-slip fault. Magnitude estimation indicates that this segment possesses the potential to generate earthquakes of M ≥ 6. The regional tectonic analysis indicates that the activity of the eastern section of the Ba Co Fault is related to the shear model of the conjugate strike-slip fault zone in the central Tibetan Plateau and may play a boundary role between different shear zones. Full article

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26 pages, 5001 KB

Open AccessArticle

CO₂ Dynamics and Transport Mechanisms Across Atmosphere–Soil–Cave Interfaces in Karst Critical Zones

by Yong Xiong, Zhongfa Zhou, Yi Huang, Shengjun Ding, Xiaoduo Wang, Jijuan Wang, Wei Zhang and Huijing Wei

Geosciences 2025, 15(10), 376; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15100376 - 1 Oct 2025

Cave systems serve as key interfaces connecting surface and underground carbon cycles, and research on their carbon dynamics provides a unique perspective for revealing the mechanisms of carbon transport and transformation in karst critical zones. In this study, we established a multi-factor monitoring [...] Read more.

Cave systems serve as key interfaces connecting surface and underground carbon cycles, and research on their carbon dynamics provides a unique perspective for revealing the mechanisms of carbon transport and transformation in karst critical zones. In this study, we established a multi-factor monitoring framework spanning the atmosphere–soil–cave continuum and associated meteorological conditions, continuously recorded cave microclimate parameters (temperature, relative humidity, atmospheric pressure, and cave winds) and CO₂ concentrations across atmospheric–soil–cave interfaces, and employed stable carbon isotope (δ¹³C) tracing in Mahuang Cave, a typical karst cave in southwestern China, from 2019 to 2023. The results show that the seasonal amplitude of atmospheric CO₂ and its δ¹³C is small, while soil–cave CO₂ and δ¹³C fluctuate synchronously, exhibiting “high concentration-light isotope” signatures during the rainy season and the opposite pattern during the dry season. Cave CO₂ concentrations drop by about 29.8% every November. Soil CO₂ production rates are jointly controlled by soil temperature and volumetric water content, showing a threshold effect. The δ¹³C response exhibits nonlinear behavior due to the combined effects of land-use type, vegetation cover, and soil texture. Quantitative analysis establishes atmospheric CO₂ as the dominant source in cave systems (66%), significantly exceeding soil-derived contributions (34%). At diurnal, seasonal, and annual scales, carbon-source composition, temperature and precipitation patterns, ventilation effects, and cave structure interact to control the rhythmic dynamics and spatial gradients of cave microclimate, CO₂ levels, and δ¹³C signals. Our findings enhance the understanding of carbon transfer processes across the karst critical zone. Full article

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24 pages, 57744 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Small Landslide as a Big Lesson: Drones and GIS for Monitoring and Teaching Slope Instability

by Benito Zaragozí, Pablo Giménez-Font, Joan Cano-Aladid and Juan Antonio Marco-Molina

Geosciences 2025, 15(10), 375; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15100375 - 30 Sep 2025

Small landslides, though frequent, are often overlooked despite their significant potential impact on human-affected areas. This study presents an analysis of the Bella Orxeta landslide in Alicante, Spain, a rotational landslide event that occurred in March 2017 following intense and continued rainfall. Utilizing [...] Read more.

Small landslides, though frequent, are often overlooked despite their significant potential impact on human-affected areas. This study presents an analysis of the Bella Orxeta landslide in Alicante, Spain, a rotational landslide event that occurred in March 2017 following intense and continued rainfall. Utilizing multitemporal datasets, including LiDAR from 2009 and 2016 and drone-based photogrammetry from 2021 and 2023, we generated high-resolution digital terrain models (DTMs) to assess morphological changes, estimate displaced volumes of approximately 3500 cubic meters, and monitor slope activity. Our analysis revealed substantial mass movement between 2016 and 2021, followed by relatively minor changes between 2021 and 2023, primarily related to fluvial erosion. This study demonstrates the effectiveness of UAV and DTM differencing techniques for landslide detection, volumetric analysis, and long-term monitoring in urbanized settings. Beyond its scientific contributions, the Bella Orxeta case offers pedagogical value across academic disciplines, supporting practical training in geomorphology, geotechnical assessment, GIS, and risk planning. It also highlights policy gaps in existing territorial risk plans, particularly regarding the integration of modern monitoring tools for small-scale but recurrent geohazards. Given climate change projections indicating more frequent high-intensity rainfall events in Mediterranean areas, the paper advocates for the systematic documentation of local landslide cases to improve hazard preparedness, urban resilience, and geoscience education. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing Monitoring of Geomorphological Hazards)

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16 pages, 1135 KB

Open AccessArticle

Geomatics Education in the Mining Industry: Assessing Competency Targets and Implementation Challenges

by Artur Krawczyk

Geosciences 2025, 15(10), 374; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15100374 - 30 Sep 2025

This article discusses the growing role of Geomatics and Geoinformatics in the education of specialists at various universities, with particular emphasis on the mining industry. The study used a qualitative desk research approach that included analysis of institutional curricula, legislative documents, and scientific [...] Read more.

This article discusses the growing role of Geomatics and Geoinformatics in the education of specialists at various universities, with particular emphasis on the mining industry. The study used a qualitative desk research approach that included analysis of institutional curricula, legislative documents, and scientific publications related to spatial data processing, mining education, and the geomatics professional framework. The paper identifies the requirements and educational goals for mining geomaticians who can act as managers of spatial data infrastructure in mining companies, managing the mining modelling processes and its impact on the environment and the local community. The article concludes with recommendations for restructuring educational programs to meet industry expectations for data-centric mining operations. The introduction of the profile of the ’mining geomatician’ can contribute significantly to the development of the industry, making it more modern and adapted to the requirements of a modern knowledge and technology-based economy. Full article

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17 pages, 4360 KB

Open AccessArticle

3D Gaussian Splatting in Geosciences: A Novel High-Fidelity Approach for Digitizing Geoheritage from Minerals to Immersive Virtual Tours

by Andrei Ionuţ Apopei

Geosciences 2025, 15(10), 373; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15100373 - 24 Sep 2025

The digitization of geological heritage is essential for geoconservation, research, and education, yet traditional 3D methods like photogrammetry struggle to accurately capture specimens with complex optical properties. This paper evaluates 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) as a high-fidelity alternative. This study presents a multi-scale [...] Read more.

The digitization of geological heritage is essential for geoconservation, research, and education, yet traditional 3D methods like photogrammetry struggle to accurately capture specimens with complex optical properties. This paper evaluates 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) as a high-fidelity alternative. This study presents a multi-scale comparative study, digitizing landscape-scale outcrops with UAVs, architectural-scale museum interiors with smartphones, and specimen-level minerals with complex lusters and transparency. The results demonstrate that 3DGS provides unprecedented realism, successfully capturing view-dependent phenomena such as the labradorescence of feldspar and the translucency of fluorite, which are poorly represented by photogrammetric textured meshes. Furthermore, the 3DGS workflow is significantly faster and eliminates the need for manual post-processing and texture painting. By enabling the creation of authentic digital twins and immersive virtual tours, 3DGS represents a transformative technology for the field. It offers powerful new avenues for enhancing public engagement and creating accessible, high-fidelity digital archives for geoeducation and geotourism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges and Research Trends of Geoheritage and Geoconservation)

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21 pages, 17819 KB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling Magma Intrusion-Induced Oxidation: Impact on the Paleomagnetic TRM Signal in Titanomagnetite

by Roman Grachev, Valery Maksimochkin, Ruslan Rytov, Aleksey Tselebrovskiy and Aleksey Nekrasov

Geosciences 2025, 15(10), 372; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15100372 - 24 Sep 2025

Low-temperature oxidation of titanomagnetite in oceanic basalts distorts the primary thermoremanent magnetization (TRM) signal essential for reconstructing Earth’s magnetic field history, though the specific impact of magma intrusion-induced oxidation on paleointensity preservation remains poorly constrained. This investigation simulates such oxidation processes using a [...] Read more.

Low-temperature oxidation of titanomagnetite in oceanic basalts distorts the primary thermoremanent magnetization (TRM) signal essential for reconstructing Earth’s magnetic field history, though the specific impact of magma intrusion-induced oxidation on paleointensity preservation remains poorly constrained. This investigation simulates such oxidation processes using a novel experimental design involving isothermal annealing (260

°

C; 50 µT field; durations 12.5–1300 h) of Red Sea rift basalts (P72/4), employing the Thellier-Coe method to quantify how chemical remanent magnetization (CRM) overprinting affects TRM fidelity under controlled field orientations aligned either parallel or perpendicular to the initial TRM. Results demonstrate two-sloped Arai-Nagata diagrams with reliable TRM preservation below 360

°

C but significant alteration artifacts above this threshold. Crucially, field orientation during oxidation critically influences accuracy: parallel configurations maintain fidelity (±3% deviation at

Z = 0.48

), while perpendicular fields introduce systematic biases (38% overestimation at

Z = 0.15

; 20% underestimation at

Z > 0.48

), which is attributable to magnetostatic interactions in core-shell grain structures. These findings establish that paleointensity reliability in basalt prone to low-temperature oxidation depends fundamentally on the alignment between oxidation-era magnetic fields and primary TRM direction, necessitating stringent sample selection and directional constraints in marine paleomagnetic research to mitigate CRM-TRM interference. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Geophysics)

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23 pages, 4535 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effective Elastic Moduli at Reservoir Scale: A Case Study of the Soultz-sous-Forêts Fractured Reservoir

by Dariush Javani, Jean Schmittbuhl and François H. Cornet

Geosciences 2025, 15(10), 371; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15100371 - 24 Sep 2025

The presence of discontinuities in fractured reservoirs, their mechanical and physical characteristics, and fluid flow through them are important factors influencing their effective large-scale properties. In this paper, the variation of elastic moduli in a block measuring 100 × 100 × 100 m [...] Read more.

The presence of discontinuities in fractured reservoirs, their mechanical and physical characteristics, and fluid flow through them are important factors influencing their effective large-scale properties. In this paper, the variation of elastic moduli in a block measuring 100 × 100 × 100 m³ that hosts a discrete fracture network (DFN) is evaluated using the discrete element method (DEM). Fractures are characterised by (1) constant, (2) interlocked, and (3) mismatched stiffness properties. First, three uniaxial verification tests were performed on a block (1 × 1 × 2 m³) containing a circular finite fracture (diameter = 0.5 m) to validate the developed numerical algorithm that implements the three fracture stiffnesses mentioned above. The validated algorithms were generalised to fractures in a DFN embedded in a 100 × 100 × 100 m³ rock block that reproduces in situ conditions at various depths (4.7 km, 2.3 km, and 0.5 km) of the Soultz-sous-Forêts geothermal site. The effective elastic moduli of this large-scale rock mass were then numerically evaluated through a triaxial loading scenario by comparing to the numerically evaluated stress field using the DFN, with the stress field computed using an effective homogeneous elastic block. Based on the results obtained, we evaluate the influence of fracture interaction and stress perturbation around fractures on the effective elastic moduli and subsequently on the large-scale P-wave velocity. The numerical results differ from the elastic moduli of the rock matrix at higher fracture densities, unlike the other methods. Additionally, the effect of nonlinear fracture stiffness is reduced by increasing the depth or stress level in both the numerical and semi-analytical methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Geomechanics)

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25 pages, 13426 KB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrothermal Modeling of Groundwater–Surface Water Interactions Under an Evolving Climate

by Milad Fakhari, Jasmin Raymond and Richard Martel

Geosciences 2025, 15(9), 370; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15090370 - 22 Sep 2025

Groundwater–surface water interactions play a critical role in regulating river temperature and flow, particularly in northern regions affected by climate change. This study evaluates the influence of climate warming on groundwater discharge for two rivers in Quebec: the Sainte-Marguerite River, located in a [...] Read more.

Groundwater–surface water interactions play a critical role in regulating river temperature and flow, particularly in northern regions affected by climate change. This study evaluates the influence of climate warming on groundwater discharge for two rivers in Quebec: the Sainte-Marguerite River, located in a humid continental zone without permafrost, and the Berard River, situated in a subpolar continental zone with discontinuous permafrost. Using two-dimensional hydrothermal modeling supported by field data, the analysis reveals that climate warming will increase groundwater seepage into both river systems. The effect is notably more pronounced in permafrost regions, where thawing accelerates subsurface flow. Model projections indicate that permafrost near the Berard River may vanish by 2040 under high-emission scenarios or by 2070 under low-emission scenarios. This transition is expected to result in more than a thirtyfold increase in groundwater discharge by the end of the century. These findings highlight the growing influence of groundwater in shaping river hydrology under changing climatic conditions and underscore the need to incorporate subsurface flow dynamics into future water resource management and habitat conservation strategies in northern environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Linking Climate Change to Hydrological Dynamics and Water Resource Management)

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27 pages, 7936 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analytical Method for Tunnel Support Parameter Design Based on Surrounding Rock Failure Mode Identification

by Lantian Wang, Peng He, Zhenghu Ma, Ning Liu, Chuanxin Yang and Yaohui Gao

Geosciences 2025, 15(9), 369; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15090369 - 22 Sep 2025

Accurately identifying surrounding rock failure modes and designing matching support systems are critical to the safety of deep-earth and underground space engineering. We develop a graded classification scheme based on the rock strength-to-stress ratio and the Stress Reduction Factor (SRF) to quantify failure [...] Read more.

Accurately identifying surrounding rock failure modes and designing matching support systems are critical to the safety of deep-earth and underground space engineering. We develop a graded classification scheme based on the rock strength-to-stress ratio and the Stress Reduction Factor (SRF) to quantify failure types and guide support design. Within the convergence–confinement method (CCM) framework, we establish analytical models for shotcrete, rock bolts, steel arches, and composite support systems, enabling parameterized calculations of stiffness, load-bearing capacity, and equilibrium conditions. We conduct single-factor sensitivity analyses to reveal how the Geological Strength Index (GSI), burial depth (H), and equivalent tunnel radius (R₀) govern the evolution of surrounding rock pressure and deformation. We propose targeted reinforcement strategies that address large-deformation and high-stress instabilities in practice by linking observed or predicted failure modes to specific support schemes. A large-deformation case study verifies that the proposed parameterized design method accurately predicts the equilibrium support pressure and radial deformation, and the designed support scheme markedly reduces convergence. Accordingly, this study provides a practical tool for tunnel support parameter design and an analytical platform for safe, reliable, and efficient decision making for initial support. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Deep Earth and Deep Sea Engineering: Challenges, Theory and Advance Technologies)

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15 pages, 22039 KB

Open AccessArticle

CO₂ Dynamics in a Mofette: Measurement and Modeling

by Attila Gergely, Alexandru Szakács, Ágnes Gál and Zoltán Néda

Geosciences 2025, 15(9), 368; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15090368 - 17 Sep 2025

We investigated the CO₂ emissions in a mofette gas pool located in Covasna, Romania. Using a custom-built remote multi-sensor device, we monitored the gas concentrations, temperature, and pressure for seven months. The measurements showed both diurnal cycles and short-term bursts of CO [...] Read more.

We investigated the CO₂ emissions in a mofette gas pool located in Covasna, Romania. Using a custom-built remote multi-sensor device, we monitored the gas concentrations, temperature, and pressure for seven months. The measurements showed both diurnal cycles and short-term bursts of CO₂ emissions along with instances of erratic yield anomalies. We employed the convection–diffusion equation to estimate gas flow rates without altering the natural state of the mofette. Additionally, we developed a model that uses the measured pressure and temperature to predict the CO₂ outflow yield. The model’s overall predictions approximate well the observed CO₂ flux. However, the subtle mismatches between these two suggest that subsurface geological processes, which require further investigation, may also influence the gas flow. This research provides insights into the dynamics of focused CO₂ emissions, with potential applications in environmental monitoring and therapeutic practices. Full article

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43 pages, 29796 KB

Open AccessArticle

Co- and Post-Seismic Hydrogeological Anomalies in Greece from Ancient Times to the Present: Spatiotemporal and Statistical Analysis Revealing Categories, Patterns, and Insights

by Spyridon Mavroulis, Andromachi Sarantopoulou and Efthymios Lekkas

Geosciences 2025, 15(9), 367; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15090367 - 17 Sep 2025

Co- and post-seismic earthquake-induced hydrogeological anomalies (EQHAs) in Greece are mainly associated with moderate to strong earthquakes (M_w = 6.0–7.0), particularly when seismic intensities reach IX or above. The highest frequencies are observed in the Peloponnese and Ionian Islands, followed by Central [...] Read more.

Co- and post-seismic earthquake-induced hydrogeological anomalies (EQHAs) in Greece are mainly associated with moderate to strong earthquakes (M_w = 6.0–7.0), particularly when seismic intensities reach IX or above. The highest frequencies are observed in the Peloponnese and Ionian Islands, followed by Central Greece and the North Aegean, characterized by dense faulting and frequent strong earthquakes. EQHAs are classified into six main types, with hydraulic variations being the most common. About 77% of earthquakes produced only one or two types of EQHA, suggesting localized hydrogeological effects, while only a few induced multiple types. Strong events (M_w = 6.0–7.0), often historic, generated the broadest variety, highlighting the influence of local geological, hydrological, and tectonic conditions on magnitude alone. Springs and wells, representing 81% of the cases, dominate the affected systems, while lakes and rivers respond less often but significantly. Most EQHAs occur in Greece’s second seismic hazard zone (74%) due to its larger geographic area. EQHAs primarily develop in karstic and porous formations but also appear in impermeable rocks due to fracturing or karst. Larger earthquakes trigger anomalies at greater distances (>100 km). Though rarely fatal, EQHAs can damage water infrastructure, contaminate supplies, and cause shortages, underscoring the need for systematic monitoring and post-earthquake water resource management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Hydrogeology)

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21 pages, 6444 KB

Open AccessArticle

Record of Mid-Eocene Warming Events in the Istrian Paleogene Basin, Neotethys (Outer Dinarides, Croatia)

by Ines Galović, Đurđica Pezelj, Renata Lukić, Katja Mužek, Krešimir Petrinjak, Marija Horvat and Vlasta Ćosović

Geosciences 2025, 15(9), 366; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15090366 - 16 Sep 2025

Several short sections from Istria (northern Adriatic Sea) were studied to determine the impact of short-term climate variability on pelagic assemblages from the northern mid-latitudes during a critical period of evolution in the mid-Eocene greenhouse climate. Two important warming events were documented in [...] Read more.

Several short sections from Istria (northern Adriatic Sea) were studied to determine the impact of short-term climate variability on pelagic assemblages from the northern mid-latitudes during a critical period of evolution in the mid-Eocene greenhouse climate. Two important warming events were documented in this interval—the Late Lutetian Thermal Maximum (LLTM) and the Middle Eocene Climate Optimum (MECO). The warmings were characterised by the highest calcareous nannofossil species richness and an eutrophic environment. Our records of calcareous nannofossil index species allowed the standard Zones NP16–NP17 (Mediterranean Subzones MNP16A–MNP17A) to be applied. Common occurrences of the planktonic foraminiferal genera Subbotina and Turborotalia indicate eutrophic-to- mesotrophic conditions between the mixed layer and the shallow thermocline waters in the basin. Episodes of eutrophication from periodic upwelling under an accelerated warming event (in MNP16A) are indicated by the subdominant Coccolithus pelagicus. According to the isotope data, the maximum negative δ¹³C occurred at 45° N in Alano, with a prominent second peak at 39.66 Ma, which is in agreement with our possible second peak, suggesting higher insolation in the North during the warming event. The warm water Reticulofenestra producta dominated in Subzone MNP17A, suggesting a relatively shallow mesotrophic environment with decreased species richness characteristic of the post-MECO phase. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mesozoic-Palaeogene Hyperthermal Events)

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24 pages, 4497 KB

Open AccessArticle

Geomagnetic Signatures of Moderate Earthquakes from Kumaun Himalaya, India

by Rahul Prajapati and Kusumita Arora

Geosciences 2025, 15(9), 365; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15090365 - 16 Sep 2025

In this study, a statistical analysis of ground geomagnetic data has been attempted to extract the seismo-electromagnetic (SEM) signatures associated with moderate earthquakes in the region of the seismic gap in the Kumaun Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India. We applied the discrete wavelet transform (DWT) [...] Read more.

In this study, a statistical analysis of ground geomagnetic data has been attempted to extract the seismo-electromagnetic (SEM) signatures associated with moderate earthquakes in the region of the seismic gap in the Kumaun Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India. We applied the discrete wavelet transform (DWT) method to the geomagnetic data to identify the ULF energy of the signal. The ULF energy obtained in the central frequency range of 0.01 Hz was further filtered to extract the anomalous ULF energy, which is associated with pre-earthquake processes. We also applied multifractal analysis to the geomagnetic data to classify the complexities in the signal, which are indicative of the seismotectonic environment. We observed enhancements in the ULF energy anomalies associated with large-magnitude earthquakes occurring in the western part of Nepal, even over large epicentral distances (~120 km). The multifractal analysis shows the overlap of anomalies in the Hwp and Hwn signatures in most cases, which suggests that multiple mechanisms generate low- and high-frequency components in the anomalous data. This reflects the complex nature of seismicity in this region of the Main Central Thrust (MCT). Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Geophysics)

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29 pages, 31574 KB

Open AccessArticle

Simulation-Based Tsunami Evacuation Training Framework Aimed at Avoiding the Negative Consequences of Using Cars

by Toshiya Arakawa, Fumiaki Obayashi, Kazunobu Kobayashi, Tomoki Itamiya, Shintaro Uno, Shigeyuki Yamabe, Takahiro Suzuki and Jun Tajima

Geosciences 2025, 15(9), 364; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15090364 - 15 Sep 2025

A framework utilizing Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in tsunami evacuation training is proposed to counteract the adverse effects of evacuation by car despite the evacuation on foot principle during tsunamis. This approach involves tsunami evacuation simulation technology and Kiken Yochi (hazard prediction) [...] Read more.

A framework utilizing Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in tsunami evacuation training is proposed to counteract the adverse effects of evacuation by car despite the evacuation on foot principle during tsunamis. This approach involves tsunami evacuation simulation technology and Kiken Yochi (hazard prediction) training (KYT). The simulator was validated based on the insights acquired from Ishinomaki City residents who lived through the Great East Japan earthquake. Data were collected on safe evacuations in chaotic traffic situations, to create a quiz-like training application for traffic safety education. Training effectiveness was assessed using the simulator and KYT-based application, focusing on Nishio City, which is a projected tsunami target following a potential Nankai Trough earthquake. Most participants experiencing the simulator understood the drawbacks of using cars and were willing to evacuate on foot if a nearby safe place was accessible. However, some participants still opted for car evacuation despite acknowledging the risks. A comprehensive approach is required to achieve a significant reduction in car usage during evacuations. Application-oriented experiments indicated heightened situational awareness and hazard prediction among participants although no statistically significant differences in gaze duration were found. Further research is required to objectively and quantitatively evaluate the application’s impact on traffic safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Tsunamis: From the Scientific Challenges to the Social Impact)

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