Geosciences

18 pages, 22731 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Seismic Surveying in a Historic Underground Metals Mine

by John H. McBride, Lex Lambeck, Kevin A. Rey, Stephen T. Nelson and R. William Keach

Geosciences 2025, 15(6), 221; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15060221 - 12 Jun 2025

Underground mine surveys present unique challenges, including the logistics of deploying an energy source, placing geophones in solid rock, managing reverberation from the adit, and ensuring safety. We present the results of seismic surveying at the historic Deer Trail Mine in south-central Utah [...] Read more.

Underground mine surveys present unique challenges, including the logistics of deploying an energy source, placing geophones in solid rock, managing reverberation from the adit, and ensuring safety. We present the results of seismic surveying at the historic Deer Trail Mine in south-central Utah (USA). The mine is located along the eastern side of the Tushar Range. The surveys utilised a narrow, mostly horizontal adit, 120–510 m below the ground surface. The country rock consists of highly fractured and mineralised Permian to Pennsylvanian quartzites, shales, and limestones. A short test of a 96-channel common midpoint (CMP) P-wave profile was conducted using an accelerated weight-dropper source. We supplemented the P-wave survey with tests of surface-wave dispersion and horizontal-vertical spectral ratio modelling for shallow S-wave structure. These tests confirmed the capability to map shallow, small-scale structure. A conventional CMP 264-channel survey with an explosive source covered 1728 m. A static recording array was used for both surveys with 4.5-Hz vertical geophones. The conventional CMP profile imaged horizontal and dipping reflectors down to about 2000 m, interpreted as lithologic variations in the bedrock. Our study demonstrates the potential for high-resolution seismic exploration in an unconventional and challenging setting to guide the exploitation of deeply buried mineral resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Geophysics)

50 pages, 1201 KiB

Open AccessReview

Geophysical Survey and Monitoring of Transportation Infrastructure Slopes (TISs): A Review

by Zeynab Rosa Maleki, Paul Wilkinson, Jonathan Chambers, Shane Donohue, Jessica Lauren Holmes and Ross Stirling

Geosciences 2025, 15(6), 220; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15060220 - 12 Jun 2025

Abstract

This review examines the application of the geophysical methods for Transportation Infrastructure Slope Monitoring (TISM). In contrast to existing works, which address geophysical methods for natural landslide monitoring, this study focuses on their application to infrastructure assets. It addresses the key aspects regarding [...] Read more.

This review examines the application of the geophysical methods for Transportation Infrastructure Slope Monitoring (TISM). In contrast to existing works, which address geophysical methods for natural landslide monitoring, this study focuses on their application to infrastructure assets. It addresses the key aspects regarding the geophysical methods most employed, the subsurface properties revealed, and the design of monitoring systems, including sensor deployment. It evaluates the benefits and challenges associated with each geophysical approach, explores the potential for integrating geophysical techniques with other methods, and identifies the emerging technologies. Geophysical techniques such as Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT), Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW), and Fiber Optic Cable (FOC) have proven effective in monitoring slope stability and detecting subsurface features, including soil moisture dynamics, slip surfaces, and material heterogeneity. Both temporary and permanent monitoring setups have been used, with increasing interest in real-time monitoring solutions. The integration of advanced technologies like Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS), UAV-mounted sensors, and artificial intelligence (AI) promises to enhance the resolution, accessibility, and predictive capabilities of slope monitoring systems. The review concludes with recommendations for future research, emphasizing the need for integrated monitoring frameworks that combine geophysical data with real-time analysis to improve the safety and efficiency of transportation infrastructure management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Approaches to Landslide Monitoring and Urban-Scale Slope Stability Analysis)

25 pages, 20771 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sedimentary and Early Diagenetic Responses to the Huaiyuan Movement During the Early–Middle Ordovician Transition in the Ordos Basin, North China

by Hao Quan, Zhou Yu, Zhanfeng Qiao, Chenqing Li, Pan Xia, Zhongtang Su, Huaguo Wen, Min Qin and Meng Ning

Geosciences 2025, 15(6), 219; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15060219 - 12 Jun 2025

Abstract

The early Paleozoic Huaiyuan Movement created a major unconformity in the Ordos Basin, significantly influencing sedimentation and early diagenesis in both the overlying and underlying strata near the unconformity. However, the origins of the associated dolomite and silica near this unconformity remain poorly [...] Read more.

The early Paleozoic Huaiyuan Movement created a major unconformity in the Ordos Basin, significantly influencing sedimentation and early diagenesis in both the overlying and underlying strata near the unconformity. However, the origins of the associated dolomite and silica near this unconformity remain poorly understood. This study aims to reveal how this tectonic event controlled the Early–Middle Ordovician sedimentary environments and early diagenetic processes. The petrological and geochemical results indicate a progressive transition from a dolomitic tidal flat to an intra-platform depression, culminating in a mixed tidal flat during the Early-to-Middle Ordovician, driven by the Huaiyuan Movement. Furthermore, this movement, accompanied by intense weathering and erosion, increased the supply of marine dissolved silica (DSi) and terrestrial nutrients. Consequently, extensive tidal-edge biogenic silica accumulated, which later precipitated as siliceous-cemented dolomite during a shallow-burial stage. We propose a conceptual model of the sedimentary–early diagenetic processes in response to the Huaiyuan Movement, providing novel insights into the regional paleoenvironmental evolution across the Early–Middle Ordovician transition in the Ordos Basin. Full article

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18 pages, 4022 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing the Impact of Past Flood on Rice Production in Batticaloa District, Sri Lanka

by Suthakaran Sundaralingam and Kenichi Matsui

Geosciences 2025, 15(6), 218; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15060218 - 11 Jun 2025

Abstract

Flood risk to rice production has previously been examined in terms of river basins or administrative units, incorporating data about the flood year, inundated area, precipitation, elevation, and impacts. However, there is limited knowledge about this topic, as most flood impact studies have [...] Read more.

Flood risk to rice production has previously been examined in terms of river basins or administrative units, incorporating data about the flood year, inundated area, precipitation, elevation, and impacts. However, there is limited knowledge about this topic, as most flood impact studies have focused on loss and damage to people and the economy. It remains important to identify how flood risk to rice production can be better identified within a long-term, community-based, analytical framework. In addition, flood risk studies in Sri Lanka tend to focus on single-year flood events within an administrative boundary, making it difficult to fully comprehend risks to rice production. This paper aims to fill these gaps by investigating long-term flood risk levels on rice production. With this aim, we collected and analyzed information about rice production, geospatial data, and 15-year precipitation records. Temporal-spatial maps were generated using Google Earth Engine JavaScript coding, Google Earth Pro, and OpenStreetMap. In addition, focus group discussions with farmers and key informant interviews were conducted to verify the accuracy of online information. The collected data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, GIS, and linear regression analysis methods. Regarding rice production impacts, we found that floods in the years 2006–2007, 2010–2011, and 2014–2015 had significant impacts on rice production with 20.5%, 75.8%, and 16.6% reductions, respectively. Flood risk maps identified low-, medium-, and high-risk areas based on 15-year flood events, elevation, proximity to water bodies, and 15-year flood-induced damage to rice fields. High risk areas were further studied through field discussions and interviews, showing the connection between past floods and poor water governance practices in terms of dam management. Our linear regression analysis found a marginal negative correlation between total seasonal rainfall and rice production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Natural Hazards)

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17 pages, 4663 KiB

Open AccessArticle

New Data from Minor Mountainous Lakes as High-Resolution Geological Archives of the Northern Apennines, Italy: Lake Moo

by Yago Nestola and Stefano Segadelli

Geosciences 2025, 15(6), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15060217 - 11 Jun 2025

Abstract

Sedimentary basins developed in mountain belts are natural traps of catchment erosion products and can produce comprehensive palaeoflood records that extend beyond instrumental or historical data. This study investigates the Lake Moo plain (1120 m a.s.l.), located in the Mt. Ragola (1712 m [...] Read more.

Sedimentary basins developed in mountain belts are natural traps of catchment erosion products and can produce comprehensive palaeoflood records that extend beyond instrumental or historical data. This study investigates the Lake Moo plain (1120 m a.s.l.), located in the Mt. Ragola (1712 m a.s.l.) ophiolitic massif in the Northern Apennines (Italy), which serves as an excellent case study for inferring the chronology of past flood events due to its position relative to the dominant atmospheric flow and its favorable geological and geomorphological characteristics. The Northern Apennines is a relatively understudied region regarding the reconstruction of past Holocene flood activity through the analysis of lake sediments and peat bogs, compared with areas like the Alps. The main objective of this research was to analyze sediment cores taken from a lake situated in a catchment area dominated by ultramafic rock lithologies and associated residual weathering cover deposits. This allowed us to detect and characterize past flood events in the Ligurian–Emilian Apennines. A multidisciplinary approach, integrated with reference data on geology, geomorphology, pedology, and petrography, enabled a more detailed description of the changes in the hydrologic cycle. Collectively, these data suggest that periods of increased past flood activity were closely linked to phases of rapid climate change at the scale of the Ligurian–Emilian Apennines. The preliminary results suggest that floods occurring during periods of temperature drops have distinct characteristics compared with those during temperature rises. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Hydrogeology)

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24 pages, 3562 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Building Resilience: Youth Learning Through Earthquake Shaking Simulations

by Gemma Musacchio, Agostino Goretti and Fabrizio Meroni

Geosciences 2025, 15(6), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15060216 - 10 Jun 2025

Abstract

This paper illustrates how youth education can foster resilience and promote risk awareness through interactive learning. It presents Shake It!, an engaging, hands-on educational module designed for middle school students that integrates risk education with experiential activities. The module begins with an [...] Read more.

This paper illustrates how youth education can foster resilience and promote risk awareness through interactive learning. It presents Shake It!, an engaging, hands-on educational module designed for middle school students that integrates risk education with experiential activities. The module begins with an introduction to structural components, construction materials, and seismic behaviour. Students then engage in experiential learning by building and testing models on educational shaking tables. Through this process, they explore key concepts such as building vulnerability, resonance, and earthquake-resistant constructions. The central message is that building response to earthquakes can be understood through hands-on learning, and that effective protection is achievable, making the engagement of younger generations in resilience education a key step toward building safer communities. Shake It! has been successfully tested with several hundred students, both during open days at the National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology and in classroom settings. The activity consistently receives positive feedback for its ability to actively involve students and effectively raise awareness about earthquake risks in an accessible way that enhances retention. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Education in Geosciences)

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24 pages, 3887 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Applying Quantitative Fluorescence Techniques to Investigate the Effectiveness of Deep-Seated Mudstone Caprocks in the Junggar Basin, NW China

by Jiangxiu Qu, Keshun Liu, Hailei Liu, Minghui Zhou, Xiujian Ding and Ming Zha

Geosciences 2025, 15(6), 215; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15060215 - 10 Jun 2025

Abstract

The Central Depression of the Junggar Basin relies heavily on Permian lacustrine mudstone for deep-seated hydrocarbon sealing. This research investigated how the fluorescence parameters of caprock samples responded to the leakage of palaeo-oil zones based on measurements from SEM, Rock-Eval, and X-ray diffraction [...] Read more.

The Central Depression of the Junggar Basin relies heavily on Permian lacustrine mudstone for deep-seated hydrocarbon sealing. This research investigated how the fluorescence parameters of caprock samples responded to the leakage of palaeo-oil zones based on measurements from SEM, Rock-Eval, and X-ray diffraction analysis. First, two sets of control experiments were conducted to establish the proper grain-size range of 100–140 mesh for testing caprock samples in the research area using quantitative fluorescence technology. Subsequently, based on the examination of the rock pyrolysis parameters and the fluorescence parameters against TOC values, the conjecture was formed that the quantitative fluorescence technology test results were mostly unaffected by the primary hydrocarbons. Lastly, four fluorescence parameters were used to assess seal integrity: quantitative grain fluorescence intensity of the extract (QGF E intensity, the meaning of QGF is the same in this study), QGF spectral peaks (QGF λmax), the ratio of QGF intensity to fluorescence intensity at 300 nm on the QGF spectrum (QGF index), and total scanning fluorescence spectral ratio R₁ (TSF R₁). The Permian caprock can effectively seal hydrocarbons as evidenced by the decrease of QGF E intensity and QGF index values with depth. When hydraulic fracturing causes caprock failure, it can lead to complete leakage of hydrocarbons from the palaeo-oil zones. As the depth becomes shallower, the QGF E intensity value increases, the QGF index value decreases. Due to the differences in the migration pathways of hydrocarbons in the caprock, those leaked from the Permian palaeo-oil zone into the well PD1 caprock are mainly condensate and light–normal crude oil, while the hydrocarbons from the Carboniferous palaeo-oil zone into the well MS1 caprock consist predominantly of light–normal crude oil and medium–heavy crude oil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Geochemistry)

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26 pages, 3377 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Which Offers Greater Techno-Economic Potential: Oil or Hydrogen Production from Light Oil Reservoirs?

by Chinedu J. Okere, James J. Sheng and Princewill M. Ikpeka

Geosciences 2025, 15(6), 214; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15060214 - 9 Jun 2025

Abstract

The global emphasis on clean energy has increased interest in producing hydrogen from petroleum reservoirs through in situ combustion-based processes. While field practices have demonstrated the feasibility of co-producing hydrogen and oil, the question of which offers greater economic potential, oil, or hydrogen, [...] Read more.

The global emphasis on clean energy has increased interest in producing hydrogen from petroleum reservoirs through in situ combustion-based processes. While field practices have demonstrated the feasibility of co-producing hydrogen and oil, the question of which offers greater economic potential, oil, or hydrogen, remains central to ongoing discussions, especially as researchers explore ways to produce hydrogen exclusively from petroleum reservoirs. This study presents the first integrated techno-economic model comparing oil and hydrogen production under varying injection strategies, using CMG STARS for reservoir simulations and GoldSim for economic modeling. Key technical factors, including injection compositions, well configurations, reservoir heterogeneity, and formation damage (issues not addressed in previous studies), were analyzed for their impact on hydrogen yield and profitability. The results indicate that CO₂-enriched injection strategies enhance hydrogen production but are economically constrained by the high costs of CO₂ procurement and recycling. In contrast, air injection, although less efficient in hydrogen yield, provides a more cost-effective alternative. Despite the technological promise of hydrogen, oil revenue remains the dominant economic driver, with hydrogen co-production facing significant economic challenges unless supported by policy incentives or advancements in gas lifting, separation, and storage technologies. This study highlights the economic trade-offs and strategic considerations crucial for integrating hydrogen production into conventional petroleum extraction, offering valuable insights for optimizing hydrogen co-production in the context of a sustainable energy transition. Additionally, while the present work focuses on oil reservoirs, future research should extend the approach to natural gas and gas condensate reservoirs, which may offer more favorable conditions for hydrogen generation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Economy in Energy Extraction: Geological Insights and Innovations)

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31 pages, 2587 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment and Validation of a Geoethical Awareness Scale (GAS) for UNESCO Global Geoparks: A Case Study in Greece

by Alexandros Aristotelis Koupatsiaris and Hara Drinia

Geosciences 2025, 15(6), 213; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15060213 - 6 Jun 2025

Abstract

Geoethics, which addresses the ethical, social, and cultural dimensions of geoscientific activities, is essential for fostering responsible human engagement with the Earth, particularly within frameworks such as UNESCO Global Geoparks (UGGps). UGGps play a critical role in safeguarding geological heritage and advancing sustainable [...] Read more.

Geoethics, which addresses the ethical, social, and cultural dimensions of geoscientific activities, is essential for fostering responsible human engagement with the Earth, particularly within frameworks such as UNESCO Global Geoparks (UGGps). UGGps play a critical role in safeguarding geological heritage and advancing sustainable regional development. This study introduces the Geoethical Awareness Scale (GAS), a 32-item instrument developed across 16 thematic axes, designed to assess geoethical awareness. We analyzed responses from n = 798 residents across nine Hellenic UGGps using Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analyses, retaining items with factor loadings of ±0.30 or higher. Six factors emerged: (1) geological heritage conservation and sustainable georesource use, (2) community engagement and collaborative governance, (3) sustainability through geoenvironmental education, (4) environmental challenges and risk adaptation, (5) sustainable geotourism, and (6) climate awareness and ecosystem resilience. Collectively, these factors explained 60.12% of the variance, with Cronbach’s alpha values demonstrating acceptable to excellent reliability. Structural Equation Modeling confirmed the scale’s validity, with fit indices indicating acceptable model adequacy. Incremental indices suggested moderate alignment, while parsimony-adjusted metrics supported a balance between model complexity and fit. Overall, the GAS demonstrated generalizability and sufficient sample robustness. Correlation analyses highlighted the role of geoeducation, organizational involvement, and direct experience in fostering pro-geoconservation attitudes. While perceptions of sustainable development and ecosystem resilience varied geographically across UGGps, community engagement and governance remained consistent, likely reflecting standardized policy frameworks. GAS offers a valuable tool for assessing geoethical awareness and underscores the importance of targeted geoeducation and participatory governance in promoting ethical geoscientific practices within UGGps and similar socioecological systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Geoheritage, Geoparks and Geotourism)

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21 pages, 6334 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Analysis of IMERG Satellite Rainfall and Elevation as Covariates for Regionalizing Average and Extreme Rainfall Patterns in Greece by Means of Bilinear Surface Smoothing

by Nikolaos Malamos, Theano Iliopoulou, Panayiotis Dimitriadis and Demetris Koutsoyiannis

Geosciences 2025, 15(6), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15060212 - 5 Jun 2025

Abstract

Remotely sensed data, including rainfall estimates and digital elevation models (DEMs), are increasingly available at various temporal and spatial scales, offering new opportunities for rainfall regionalization in regions with limited ground-based observations. We evaluate the efficacy of NASA’s Integrated Multi-satellitE Retrievals for GPM [...] Read more.

Remotely sensed data, including rainfall estimates and digital elevation models (DEMs), are increasingly available at various temporal and spatial scales, offering new opportunities for rainfall regionalization in regions with limited ground-based observations. We evaluate the efficacy of NASA’s Integrated Multi-satellitE Retrievals for GPM (IMERG) rainfall estimates and SRTM-derived elevation data as alternative spatial covariates for regionalizing average and extreme rainfall patterns across Greece. Using the Bilinear Surface Smoothing (BSS) framework, we assess and compare the regionalization of average daily rainfall and average annual maximum rainfall across multiple timescales (0.5 h to 48 h) by leveraging both IMERG-derived estimates and the elevation data as covariates. Additionally, the BSS framework is herein extended to provide Bayesian credible intervals for the final estimates, using the posterior variance estimate and the equivalent degrees of freedom determined through the Generalized Cross Validation error minimization procedure. Elevation-based models outperformed IMERG, particularly for indices of extreme rainfall, capturing the differential effects of orography. The exploration of the orographic effect based on the BSS framework revealed that the average annual rainfall maxima at small timescales exhibit a negative relation to elevation, which becomes positive and more significant with increasing timescale. However, IMERG proved valuable for regionalizing average daily rainfall, demonstrating its utility as a complementary tool. The results also underscore the role of temporal scale in regionalization efficiency of extreme rainfall, with higher accuracy observed at longer timescales (24 h and 48 h) and greater uncertainty at finer scales. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Climate and Environment)

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37 pages, 6559 KiB

Open AccessReview

Advancements in Remote Sensing for Monitoring and Risk Assessment of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods

by Serik Nurakynov, Nurmakhambet Sydyk, Zhaksybek Baygurin and Larissa Balakay

Geosciences 2025, 15(6), 211; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15060211 - 5 Jun 2025

Abstract

Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) have emerged as a critical threat to high-mountain communities and ecosystems, driven by accelerated glacier retreat and lake expansion under climate change. This review synthesizes advancements in remote sensing technologies and methodologies for GLOF monitoring, risk assessment, and [...] Read more.

Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) have emerged as a critical threat to high-mountain communities and ecosystems, driven by accelerated glacier retreat and lake expansion under climate change. This review synthesizes advancements in remote sensing technologies and methodologies for GLOF monitoring, risk assessment, and mitigation. Through a Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA)-guided systematic literature review and bibliometric analysis of studies from 2010 to 2025, we evaluate the transformative role of remote sensing in overcoming traditional field-based limitations. Central to this review is the exploration of multi-sensor data fusion for high-resolution lake dynamics mapping, machine learning algorithms for predictive risk modelling, and hydrodynamic simulations for flood propagation analysis. This review underscores the importance of these technologies in improving GLOF risk assessments and supporting early warning systems, which are crucial for safeguarding vulnerable high-mountain communities. It addresses existing challenges, such as data integration and model calibration, and advocates for collaborative efforts between scientists, policymakers, and local stakeholders to translate technological advancements into effective mitigation strategies, ensuring the sustainability of these at-risk regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrological Processes and Climate Change in Eurasia)

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23 pages, 5814 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Milankovitch- and Millennial-Scale Sequences in the Late Piacenzian to Early Gelasian Shelf Succession of the Crotone Basin, Southern Italy

by Massimo Zecchin, Mauro Caffau and Octavian Catuneanu

Geosciences 2025, 15(6), 210; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15060210 - 4 Jun 2025

Abstract

Integrated facies and micropaleontological analyses of the late Piacenzian to early Gelasian, middle shelf to lower shoreface succession of the Strongoli area, southern Italy, reveal a hierarchy of transgressive–regressive sequences. In particular, higher rank sequences up to ca. 40 m thick, composed of [...] Read more.

Integrated facies and micropaleontological analyses of the late Piacenzian to early Gelasian, middle shelf to lower shoreface succession of the Strongoli area, southern Italy, reveal a hierarchy of transgressive–regressive sequences. In particular, higher rank sequences up to ca. 40 m thick, composed of transgressive systems tract, highstand systems tracts and falling stage plus lowstand systems tracts, are composed of 10–11 lower rank sequences 2.5–4 m thick. Some micropaleontological parameters were defined: distal/proximal (D/P; ratio between distal and proximal benthic foraminifera); fragmentation (Fr; percentage of fragmentation of benthic foraminifera); P/B (ratio between planktonic and benthic foraminifera); abundance (total count of individuals); diversity (sum of the recognized species). Among these parameters, the D/P and Fr are suitable, if used in conjunction, to recognize uncertainty intervals containing the maximum flooding surface (between the D/P maxima and Fr minima) and the maximum regressive surface (between D/P minima and Fr maxima). Moreover, combining these parameters with the sedimentological evidence, it is possible to recognize transgressive and regressive trends of different hierarchical ranks. The present results are an example illustrating how an integration of different types of data allows the recognition of high-frequency sequences in shelf settings associated with minor shoreline shifts, which would otherwise have been unrecognized on the basis of only one kind of data. The present integrated approach, therefore, provides a way to improve the resolution of sequence stratigraphic analyses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sedimentology, Stratigraphy and Palaeontology)

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19 pages, 8176 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interference of Shallow Landslides in Overconsolidated Clays on the Functionality of an Important Internal Road Infrastructure

by Maurizio Ziccarelli

Geosciences 2025, 15(6), 209; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15060209 - 3 Jun 2025

Abstract

The paper presents a case study on the impact of a shallow landslide in overconsolidated clays, which was triggered during the winter of 2004–2005 due to exceptionally high pore pressures, on the operativity and serviceability of a key road artery in Sicily. During [...] Read more.

The paper presents a case study on the impact of a shallow landslide in overconsolidated clays, which was triggered during the winter of 2004–2005 due to exceptionally high pore pressures, on the operativity and serviceability of a key road artery in Sicily. During the period from 2004 to 2021, the landslide experienced several reactivations, particularly during the winter months when increased rainfall led to rising pore water pressures. These recurrent events resulted in temporary road closures and continuous restoration efforts, causing significant inconvenience for local communities and substantial economic losses for commercial, tourism, and agricultural activities in the area. In 2018, a comprehensive study was launched to reconstruct the detailed geotechnical model of the landslide, analysing its mechanical and kinematic characteristics, pore pressure regime, the depth and geometry of the sliding surface, and the causes of the landslide. The study indicates that the primary causes of both the initial landslide and its subsequent reactivations were the poor mechanical properties of the involved soils and seasonal fluctuations in pore water pressures. To ensure long-term stabilisation, the most suitable interventions were identified as the permanent reduction of pore pressures through the installation of drainage trenches and the construction of a road embankment using gabions, which also serve as drainage structures. These measures are highly effective, relatively cost-efficient, easy to implement, and environmentally sustainable. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Geomechanics)

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19 pages, 4662 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Morphological Parameters of Gullies Formed on Sandy Soils and Effects of Check Dams in Central Spain

by Jorge Mongil-Manso, Joaquín Navarro-Hevia, Javier Velázquez, Virginia Díaz-Gutiérrez and Ana-Carolina Toledo-Rocha

Geosciences 2025, 15(6), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15060208 - 3 Jun 2025

Abstract

Gully erosion constitutes a significant global problem, as gullies are a substantial source of sediment that harms rivers, affecting aquatic fauna and water quality, altering flow regimes, and degrading soil, among other impacts. Gullies have been extensively studied in clayey soils, where they [...] Read more.

Gully erosion constitutes a significant global problem, as gullies are a substantial source of sediment that harms rivers, affecting aquatic fauna and water quality, altering flow regimes, and degrading soil, among other impacts. Gullies have been extensively studied in clayey soils, where they occur more frequently, but less so in soils or materials with a sandy texture. Therefore, utilizing field measurements and aerial orthophotography, this study characterizes the morphology of a set of gullies located in the Central System mountains (central Spain), formed on sandy soils derived from granite weathering, under a Mediterranean-continental climate. Furthermore, the influence of check dams on the gully slope is also studied. The selected gullies for this study are permanent, linear, parallel, continuous, V-shaped, and semi-active. They are longer, narrower, and shallower than other gullies in significantly different soils with which they have been compared, although the width/depth ratio is similar. Additionally, check dams have considerably reduced the slope (11% on average and a 23% maximum reduction), which may result in a reduction in the flow velocity and erosive capacity. Consequently, it can be affirmed that the presence of numerous check dams significantly affects gully morphology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Geomechanics)

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17 pages, 7452 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determination of the Dynamic Angle of Repose of Lunar Regolith Simulants

by Mateusz Pawłowski, Damian Pietrusiak, Jakub Wróbel and Janusz Kozubal

Geosciences 2025, 15(6), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15060207 - 2 Jun 2025

Abstract

The determination of the dynamic angle of repose (DAR) of lunar regolith simulants is essential for modeling material behavior during in situ resource utilization (ISRU) processes and lunar surface operations. This study presents a methodology and dedicated test rig employing digital image processing [...] Read more.

The determination of the dynamic angle of repose (DAR) of lunar regolith simulants is essential for modeling material behavior during in situ resource utilization (ISRU) processes and lunar surface operations. This study presents a methodology and dedicated test rig employing digital image processing to measure DAR for seven lunar regolith simulants, representing both Mare and Highland regions. Experiments were conducted under terrestrial gravity at rotational drum speeds of 2, 5, and 10 RPM, with standardized material fill and image capture procedures. For each simulant, lower, higher, and total DAR values were recorded, indicating complex dependencies on particle size distribution, mineralogy, and rotational speed. These measurements provide a critical dataset for numerical model calibration and the simulation of regolith handling systems under lunar conditions. The findings emphasize the necessity of selecting appropriate DAR parameters based on regolith type and operational scale to ensure accurate predictions of granular flow behavior in extraterrestrial environments. Full article

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25 pages, 9716 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Neural Network, Ordinary Kriging, and Inverse Distance Weighting Algorithms for Seismic and Well-Derived Depth Data: A Case Study in the Bjelovar Subdepression, Croatia

by Ana Brcković, Tomislav Malvić, Jasna Orešković and Josipa Kapuralić

Geosciences 2025, 15(6), 206; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15060206 - 2 Jun 2025

Abstract

In subsurface geological mapping, it is more than advisable to compare different solutions obtained with neural and other algorithms. Here, for such comparison, we used the previously published and well-prepared dataset of subsurface data collected from the Bjelovar Subdepression, a 2900 km² [...] Read more.

In subsurface geological mapping, it is more than advisable to compare different solutions obtained with neural and other algorithms. Here, for such comparison, we used the previously published and well-prepared dataset of subsurface data collected from the Bjelovar Subdepression, a 2900 km² large regional macrounit in the Croatian part of the Pannonian Basin System. Data on depth were obtained for the youngest (the shallowest) Lonja Formation (Pliocene, Quaternary) and mapped using neural network (NN), inverse distance weighting (IDW), and ordinary kriging (OK) algorithms. The obtained maps were compared based on square error (using k-fold cross-validation) and the visual interpretation of isopaches. Two other algorithms were also tested, namely, random forest (RF) and extreme gradient boosting (XGB) algorithms, but they were rejected as inappropriate for this purpose solely based on the visuals of the obtained maps, which did not follow any interpretable geological structures. The results showed that NN is a highly adjustable method for interpolation, with adjustment for numerous hyperparameters. IDW showed its strength as one of the classical interpolators, and its results are always located close to the top if several methods are compared. OK is the relative winner, showing the flexibility of variogram analysis regarding the number of data points and possible clustering. The presented variogram model, even with a relatively high sill and occasional nugget effect, can be well fitted into OK, giving better results than other methods when applied to the presented area and datasets. This was not surprising because kriging is a well-established method used exclusively for interpolation. In contrast, NN and machine learning algorithms are used in many fields, and these algorithms, particularly the fitting of hyperparameters in NN, simply cannot be the best solution for all. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Geophysics)

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17 pages, 9711 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring the Melting of Snow Stored in Snow Dumps (Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, Russia)

by Valentina Lobkina and Aleksandra Muzychenko

Geosciences 2025, 15(6), 205; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15060205 - 1 Jun 2025

Abstract

This study reviews the melting rate of anthropogenic snow patches formed as a result of cleaning the territory of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk city from snow and collecting it in designated areas known as snow dumps. Snow patches persisted at absolute altitudes of less than 50 [...] Read more.

This study reviews the melting rate of anthropogenic snow patches formed as a result of cleaning the territory of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk city from snow and collecting it in designated areas known as snow dumps. Snow patches persisted at absolute altitudes of less than 50 m in the summers during the period of 2010–2022, except in 2017. The positive factor was the ratio of the relatively small area occupied by the anthropogenic snow patch and its significant height at the beginning of the melting period. The detailed observations of anthropogenic snow patch growth and melting were conducted by the authors starting in the winter season of 2017–2018. The snow volume collected in snow dumps during the winter season in Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk can reach 3000 m³. That is why it is necessary to determine how the anthropogenic snow patch will loosen the water through the warm season. Special models of anthropogenic snow patch melting do not exist. So, the authors review the ability of four glacier and snow cover melting model applications for such objects. The contribution of various parameters affecting the snow path melting rate was also determined. The collected factual data allowed for the development of empirical snow patch melting models. The largest errors resulting in the usage of reviewed models are related to the beginning (April) and ending (September–October) of the melting periods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Cryosphere)

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36 pages, 10376 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genetic K-Means Clustering of Soil Gas Anomalies for High-Enthalpy Geothermal Prospecting: A Multivariate Approach from Southern Tenerife, Canary Islands

by Ángel Morales González-Moro, Luca D’Auria and Nemesio M. Pérez Rodríguez

Geosciences 2025, 15(6), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15060204 - 1 Jun 2025

Abstract

High-enthalpy geothermal resources in volcanic settings often lack clear surface manifestations, requiring integrated, data-driven approaches to identify hidden reservoirs. In this study, we apply a multivariate clustering technique—genetic K-Means clustering (GKMC)—to a comprehensive soil gas dataset collected from 1050 sampling sites across the [...] Read more.

High-enthalpy geothermal resources in volcanic settings often lack clear surface manifestations, requiring integrated, data-driven approaches to identify hidden reservoirs. In this study, we apply a multivariate clustering technique—genetic K-Means clustering (GKMC)—to a comprehensive soil gas dataset collected from 1050 sampling sites across the ~100 km² Garehagua mining license, located in the southern rift zone of Tenerife (Canary Islands). The survey included diffuse CO₂ flux measurements and concentrations of key soil gases (He, H₂, CH₄, O₂, N₂, Ar isotopes, and ²²²Rn, among others). Statistical-graphical analysis using the Sinclair method allowed for an objective classification of geochemical anomalies relative to background populations. The GKMC algorithm segmented the dataset into geochemically coherent clusters. One cluster, defined by elevated CO₂, helium, and ²²²Rn levels, showed a clear spatial correlation with inferred tectonic lineaments in the southern rift zone. These anomalies are interpreted as structurally controlled conduits for the ascent of deep magmatic-hydrothermal fluids. The findings support the presence of a concealed geothermal system structurally constrained in the southern region of Tenerife. This study demonstrates that integrating GKMC clustering with soil gas geochemistry offers a robust methodology for detecting hidden geothermal anomalies. By enhancing anomaly detection in areas with subtle or absent surface expression, this approach contributes to reducing exploration risk and provides a valuable decision-support tool for targeting future drilling operations in volcanic terrains. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Geochemistry)

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17 pages, 2086 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Seismogenic Effects in Variation of the ULF/VLF Emission in a Complex Study of the Lithosphere–Ionosphere Coupling Before an M6.1 Earthquake in the Region of Northern Tien Shan

by Nazyf Salikhov, Alexander Shepetov, Galina Pak, Serik Nurakynov, Vladimir Ryabov and Valery Zhukov

Geosciences 2025, 15(6), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15060203 - 1 Jun 2025

Abstract

A complex study was performed of the disturbances in geophysics parameters that were observed during a short-term period of earthquake preparation. On 4 March 2024, an

M 6.1

earthquake (N 42.93, E 76.966) occurred with the epicenter 12.2 km apart from the complex [...] Read more.

A complex study was performed of the disturbances in geophysics parameters that were observed during a short-term period of earthquake preparation. On 4 March 2024, an

M 6.1

earthquake (N 42.93, E 76.966) occurred with the epicenter 12.2 km apart from the complex of geophysical monitoring. Preparation of the earthquake we detected in real time, 8 days prior to the main shock, when a characteristic cove-like decrease appeared in the gamma-ray flux measured 100 m below the surface of the ground, which observation indicated an approaching earthquake with high probability. Besides the gamma-ray flux, anomalies connected with the earthquake preparation were studied in the variation of the Earth’s natural pulsed electromagnetic field (ENPEMF) at very low frequencies (VLF)

f = 7.5

kHz and

f = 10.0

kHz and at ultra-low frequency (ULF) in the range of 0.001–20 Hz, as well as in the shift of Doppler frequency (DFS) of the ionospheric signal. A drop detected in DFS agrees well with the decrease in gamma radiation background. A sequence of disturbance appearance was revealed, first in the variations of ENPEMF in the VLF band and of the subsurface gamma-ray flux, both of which reflect the activation dynamic of tectonic processes in the lithosphere, and next in the variation of DFS. Two types of earthquake-connected effects may be responsible for the transmission of the perturbation from the lithosphere into the ionosphere: the ionizing gamma-ray flux and the ULF/VLF emission, as direct radiation from the nearby earthquake source. In the article, we emphasize the role of medium ionization in the propagation of seismogenic effects as a channel for realizing the lithosphere–ionosphere coupling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Precursory Phenomena Prior to Earthquakes (2nd Edition))

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