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Records of Ground Deformation in Northern Kefalonia Inferred from Cosmogenic ³⁶Cl Geochronology
The Influence of Different Inventories on Shallow Landslide Susceptibility Modeling
Review of Carbonate Rock Experiments at Different Pressure and Temperature Conditions in the Context of Geothermal Energy Exploitation
Rock-Bufferedc Conditions in the Dolomites of the Central Apennines, Italy

Journal Description

Geosciences

Geosciences is an international, peer-reviewed open access journal on geoscience, future earth and planetary science published monthly online by MDPI. The European Federation of Geologists (EFG) is affiliated with Geosciences, and its members receive a discount on the article processing charge.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, ESCI (Web of Science), GeoRef, Astrophysics Data System, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Geosciences, Multidisciplinary) / CiteScore - Q1 (General Earth and Planetary Sciences)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 23.5 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.9 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2024).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.

Impact Factor: 2.4 (2023); 5-Year Impact Factor: 2.6 (2023)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2076-3263

Latest Articles

19 pages, 3019 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Composition of Pre-Salt Siliciclastic Units of the Lower Congo Basin and Paleogeographic Implications for the Early Stages of Opening of the South Atlantic

by João Constantino, Pedro A. Dinis, Ricardo Sousa Gomes and Mário Miguel Mendes

Geosciences 2025, 15(5), 189; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15050189 (registering DOI) - 21 May 2025

The Lower Congo Basin (LCB) is a rift-type basin with petroleum systems that developed at the western African margin in association with the opening of the South Atlantic. Two pre-salt siliciclastic units of the LCB, Lucula (uppermost Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous) and Chela [...] Read more.

The Lower Congo Basin (LCB) is a rift-type basin with petroleum systems that developed at the western African margin in association with the opening of the South Atlantic. Two pre-salt siliciclastic units of the LCB, Lucula (uppermost Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous) and Chela (Aptian) formations, were sampled in deep wells and outcrops. Heavy mineral assemblages, XRD mineralogy and geochemistry indicate prevailing source in high rank metamorphic rocks from western regions of the Lower Congo Belt. However, sediment composition reveals some provenance heterogeneity. For the Chela Formation, occasionally abundant amphibole in the heavy mineral fraction, coupled with relatively high Fe and Ti proportions, suggest that it formed when deeper crustal units were exhumed. The Lucula Formation collected in outcrops have composition substantially different from Lucula and Chela samples collected in deep wells, indicating distinct provenance and the incorporation of recycled material. A significant diagenetic overprint compromises the interpretation of compositional features in terms of paleoclimate. The presence of a chemical component with dolomite, halite and diverse sulphates and the stratigraphic position of the Chela Formation at the transition to a thick evaporitic succession are compelling evidence of deposition under warm and dry conditions, which are probably more extreme than those associated with the original stages of rifting recorded by the Lucula Formation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sedimentology, Stratigraphy and Palaeontology)

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16 pages, 2249 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Challenges in Interpreting ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar Age Spectra: Clues from Hydrothermally Altered Alkali Feldspars

by Yinzhi Wang, Liekun Yang, Wenbei Shi, Lin Wu and Fei Wang

Geosciences 2025, 15(5), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15050188 - 21 May 2025

Integrated ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar and U-Pb geochronology, combined with microstructural analysis of Early Cretaceous volcanics from eastern China, challenge conventional interpretations of flat ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar age spectra. K-feldspar sample JD-1K (122.12 ± 0.81 Ma) preserves magmatic sanidine characteristics (homogeneous composition, [...] Read more.

Integrated ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar and U-Pb geochronology, combined with microstructural analysis of Early Cretaceous volcanics from eastern China, challenge conventional interpretations of flat ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar age spectra. K-feldspar sample JD-1K (122.12 ± 0.81 Ma) preserves magmatic sanidine characteristics (homogeneous composition, disordered monoclinic structure), while hydrothermally altered perthite JD-2K yields a flat plateau age of 99.83 ± 0.73 Ma (~20 Ma younger than coeval K-feldspar, biotite, and zircon samples). Microstructural analyses using energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM−EDS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) methods unequivocally demonstrate that the concordant ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar age spectrum of sample JD-2K is a result of isotopic resetting during fluid-mediated recrystallization processes, rather than primary post-crystallization thermal stability. In step-heating experiments, contrasting argon release patterns correlate with microstructural heterogeneities. This study challenges the paradigm that flat ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar spectra uniquely signify post-crystallization thermal histories, demonstrating that hydrothermal alteration can fully reset argon systems to produce misleadingly concordant ages. This study highlights the complexity of interpreting isotopic data in hydrothermally altered rocks, emphasizing the necessity of integrated petrological-geochemical analyses to differentiate primary magmatic signals from secondary overprints. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Geochemistry)

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18 pages, 5654 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

The Influence of Pre-Existing Tension Cracks on the Stability of Unsupported Temporary Excavations in Stratified Hard Clays: Case Study of Corfu Island, Northwestern Greece

by Panagiotis Pelekis, Anastasios Batilas, Spyridon Lainas and Nikolaos Depountis

Geosciences 2025, 15(5), 187; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15050187 - 21 May 2025

Slope failures in overconsolidated hard clays present significant geotechnical challenges, particularly in stratified formations prone to pre-existing discontinuities. Despite extensive research on residual shear strength and fissuring in stiff clays, the role of undetected tension cracks and their interaction with hydrogeological conditions in [...] Read more.

Slope failures in overconsolidated hard clays present significant geotechnical challenges, particularly in stratified formations prone to pre-existing discontinuities. Despite extensive research on residual shear strength and fissuring in stiff clays, the role of undetected tension cracks and their interaction with hydrogeological conditions in temporary excavations remains underexplored. This study addresses this research gap through a detailed case study of a slope failure during an unsupported residential excavation on Corfu Island, Greece. The investigation aimed to identify the failure mechanism, assess the influence of geological discontinuities and groundwater conditions, and evaluate the contribution of residual shear strength to slope stability. The methodology combined field observations, laboratory testing (including unconfined compression and ring shear tests), and numerical modelling using both finite element (FEM) and limit equilibrium (LEM) approaches. The results revealed that a nearly vertical, pre-existing fissure—acting as a tension crack—and water infiltration along the clay–sandstone interface significantly reduced the factor of safety, triggering a planar slide. Both FEM and LEM analyses indicated that critical conditions for failure were reached with a residual friction angle of 19°, inclined sandstone layers at 15–17°, and hydrostatic pressure from groundwater accumulation. This study demonstrates the compounded destabilizing effects of undetected discontinuities and water pressures in stratified hard clays and underscores the necessity of comprehensive geotechnical assessments for temporary excavations, even in seemingly stable formations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Database, Mechanism and Risk Assessment of Slope Geologic Hazards)

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20 pages, 6304 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Projected Meteorological Drought in Mexico Under CMIP6 Scenarios: Insights into Future Trends and Severity

by Juan Alberto Velázquez-Zapata and Rodrigo Dávila-Ortiz

Geosciences 2025, 15(5), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15050186 - 21 May 2025

Meteorological droughts are a complex and recurring phenomenon in Mexico, posing significant challenges for water availability, ecosystems, and socio-economic activities. Furthermore, several worldwide studies highlight that the impacts of droughts may intensify due to the potential effects of climate change. Using projections from [...] Read more.

Meteorological droughts are a complex and recurring phenomenon in Mexico, posing significant challenges for water availability, ecosystems, and socio-economic activities. Furthermore, several worldwide studies highlight that the impacts of droughts may intensify due to the potential effects of climate change. Using projections from global climate models in the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6), this study evaluates future trends in drought frequency and severity across the Mexican hydrological regions. We applied the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) to assess meteorological drought indicators under two Shared Socio-economic Pathway (SSP) scenarios (SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5) for the periods 2040–2069 and 2070–2099. Climate models show high variability in projected precipitation changes between the reference and future periods. The SSP5-8.5 scenario indicates the greatest decrease, with reductions of at least 5 to 10%, and even larger declines projected for hydrological regions along the Pacific and Gulf of Mexico coasts, as well as the Yucatán Peninsula. Changes in drought indicators vary depending on the time horizon and scenario considered. For instance, projections for the period 2070–2099 under the high-emission scenario SSP5-8.5 suggest more frequent (three to four events) and prolonged (15 to 18 months) droughts in central and southern hydrological regions. These insights highlight the urgency of strengthening water management policies and adaptive strategies to mitigate the anticipated impacts of climate change on Mexico’s water resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Climate and Environment)

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13 pages, 2059 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Co-Extrusive Magma Transport and Volcanic Dome Formation: Implications for Triggering Explosive Volcanic Eruptions

by Charles R. Carrigan and John C. Eichelberger

Geosciences 2025, 15(5), 185; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15050185 - 21 May 2025

Polymer co-extrusion experiments are described simulating the dynamics of two different magmas (e.g., silicic and mafic having different viscosities) flowing simultaneously in a vertical volcanic pipe or conduit which results in the effusion of composite lava domes on the surface. These experiments, involving [...] Read more.

Polymer co-extrusion experiments are described simulating the dynamics of two different magmas (e.g., silicic and mafic having different viscosities) flowing simultaneously in a vertical volcanic pipe or conduit which results in the effusion of composite lava domes on the surface. These experiments, involving geologically realistic conduit length-to-diameter aspect ratios of 130:1 or 380:1, demonstrate that co-extrusion of magmas having different viscosities can explain not only the observed normal zoning observed in planar dikes and the pipelike conduits that evolve from dikes but also the compositional layering of effused lava domes. The new results support earlier predictions, based on observations of induced core-annular flow (CAF), that dike and conduit zoning along with dome layering are found to depend on the viscosity contrast of the non-Newtonian (shear-thinning) magmas. Any magma properties creating viscosity differences, such as crystal content, bubble content, water content and temperature may also give rise to the CAF regime. Additionally, codependent flow behavior involving the silicic and mafic magmas may play a significant role in modifying the nature of volcanic eruptions. For example, lubrication of the flow by an annulus of a more mafic, lower-viscosity component allows a more viscous but more volatile-charged magma to be injected rapidly to greater vertical distances along a dike into a lower pressure regime that initiates exsolving of a gas phase, further assisting ascent to the surface. The rapid ascent of magmas exsolving volatiles in a dike or conduit is associated with explosive silicic eruptions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Analysis in Volcanic Areas: Towards a Multidisciplinary Approach and Small- to Large-Scale Observations)

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39 pages, 14246 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of PlanetScope and Sentinel-2 Spectral Channels and Their Alignment via Linear Regression for Enhanced Index Derivation

by Christian Massimiliano Baldin and Vittorio Marco Casella

Geosciences 2025, 15(5), 184; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15050184 - 20 May 2025

Prior research has shown that for specific periods, vegetation indices from PlanetScope and Sentinel-2 (used as a reference) must be aligned to benefit from the experience of Sentinel-2 and utilize techniques such as data fusion. Even during the worst-case scenario, it is possible [...] Read more.

Prior research has shown that for specific periods, vegetation indices from PlanetScope and Sentinel-2 (used as a reference) must be aligned to benefit from the experience of Sentinel-2 and utilize techniques such as data fusion. Even during the worst-case scenario, it is possible through histogram matching to calibrate PlanetScope indices to achieve the same values as Sentinel-2 (useful also for proxy). Based on these findings, the authors examined the effectiveness of linear regression in aligning individual bands prior to computing indices to determine if the bands are shifted differently. The research was conducted on five important bands: Red, Green, Blue, NIR, and RedEdge. These bands allow for the computation of well-known vegetation indices like NDVI and NDRE, and soil indices like Iron Oxide Ratio and Coloration Index. Previous research showed that linear regression is not sufficient by itself to align indices in the worst-case scenario. However, this paper demonstrates its efficiency in achieving accurate band alignment. This finding highlights the importance of considering specific scaling requirements for bands obtained from different satellite sensors, such as PlanetScope and Sentinel-2. Contemporary images acquired by the two sensors during May and July demonstrated different behaviors in their bands; however, linear regression can align the datasets even during the problematic month of May. Full article

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20 pages, 14821 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Seismic Facies Classification of Salt Structures and Sediments in the Northern Gulf of Mexico Using Self-Organizing Maps

by Silas Adeoluwa Samuel, Camelia C. Knapp and James H. Knapp

Geosciences 2025, 15(5), 183; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15050183 - 19 May 2025

Proper geologic reservoir characterization is crucial for energy generation and climate change mitigation efforts. While conventional techniques like core analysis and well logs provide limited spatial reservoir information, seismic data can offer valuable 3D insights into fluid and rock properties away from the [...] Read more.

Proper geologic reservoir characterization is crucial for energy generation and climate change mitigation efforts. While conventional techniques like core analysis and well logs provide limited spatial reservoir information, seismic data can offer valuable 3D insights into fluid and rock properties away from the well. This research focuses on identifying important structural and stratigraphic variations at the Mississippi Canyon Block 118 (MC-118) field, located on the northern slope of the Gulf of Mexico, which is significantly influenced by complex salt tectonics and slope failure. Due to a lack of direct subsurface data like well logs and cores, this area poses challenges in delineating potential reservoirs for carbon storage. The study leveraged seismic multi-attribute analysis and machine learning on 3-D seismic data and well logs to improve reservoir characterization, which could inform field development strategies for hydrogen or carbon storage. Different combinations of geometric, instantaneous, amplitude-based, spectral frequency, and textural attributes were tested using Self-Organizing Maps (SOM) to identify distinct seismic facies. SOM Models 1 and 2, which combined geometric, spectral, and amplitude-based attributes, were shown to delineate potential storage reservoirs, gas hydrates, salt structures, associated radial faults, and areas with poor data quality due to the presence of the salt structures more than SOM Models 3 and 4. The SOM results presented evidence of potential carbon storage reservoirs and were validated by matching reservoir sands in well log information with identified seismic facies using SOM. By automating data integration and property prediction, the proposed workflow leads to a cost-effective and faster understanding of the subsurface than traditional interpretation methods. Additionally, this approach may apply to other locations with sparse direct subsurface information to identify potential reservoirs of interest. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members’ Collection Series: “New Horizons in Geophysics: From Theory to Applications”)

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20 pages, 2173 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Advancing the Prediction and Evaluation of Blast-Induced Ground Vibration Using Deep Ensemble Learning with Uncertainty Assessment

by Sinem Bozkurt Keser, Mahmut Yavuz and Gamze Erdogan Erten

Geosciences 2025, 15(5), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15050182 - 19 May 2025

Ground vibration is one of the most dangerous environmental problems associated with blasting operations in mining. Therefore, accurate prediction and controlling the blast-induced ground vibration are imperative for environmental protection and sustainable development. The empirical approaches give inaccurate results, as evident in the [...] Read more.

Ground vibration is one of the most dangerous environmental problems associated with blasting operations in mining. Therefore, accurate prediction and controlling the blast-induced ground vibration are imperative for environmental protection and sustainable development. The empirical approaches give inaccurate results, as evident in the literature. Hence, numerous researchers have started to use fast-growing soft computing approaches that are satisfying in prediction performance. However, achieving high-prediction performance and detecting prediction uncertainty is crucial, especially in blasting operations. This study aims to propose a deep ensemble model to predict the blast-induced ground vibration and quantify the prediction uncertainty, which is usually not addressed. This study used 200 published data from ten granite quarry sites in Ibadan and Abeokuta areas, Nigeria. The empirical equation (United States Bureau of Mines-based approach) was applied for comparison. The comparison of the models demonstrated that the proposed deep ensemble model achieved superior performance, offering more accurate predictions and more reliable uncertainty quantification. Specifically, it exhibited the lowest root mean square error (22.674), negative log-likelihood (4.44), and mean prediction interval width (1.769), alongside the highest

R^{2}

value (0.77) and prediction interval coverage probability (0.95). The deep ensemble model reached the desired coverage of 95%, demonstrating that uncertainty was not underestimated or overestimated. Full article

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19 pages, 8986 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stability Assessment of the Tepehan Landslide: Before and After the 2023 Kahramanmaras Earthquakes

by Katherine Nieto, Noha I. Medhat, Aimaiti Yusupujiang, Vasit Sagan and Tugce Baser

Geosciences 2025, 15(5), 181; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15050181 - 17 May 2025

This study focuses on the investigation of the Tepehan landslide triggered by the 6 February 2023, Kahramanmaraş earthquake in Türkiye. The overall goal of this study is to understand the slope condition and simulate the failure considering pre- and post-event geometry. Topographic variations [...] Read more.

This study focuses on the investigation of the Tepehan landslide triggered by the 6 February 2023, Kahramanmaraş earthquake in Türkiye. The overall goal of this study is to understand the slope condition and simulate the failure considering pre- and post-event geometry. Topographic variations in the landslide area were analyzed using digital elevation models (DEMs) derived from the Sentinel-1 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) satellite data and geospatial analysis. Slope stability analyses were conducted over a representative alignment, including assessments of soil structure, geological history, and field features. A limit equilibrium back-analysis was performed under both static and pseudo-static conditions, where an earthquake load coefficient was considered in the analyses. A total of five scenarios were evaluated to determine factors of safety (FoS) based on fully softened and residual strength parameters. The resulting critical slip surfaces from the simulations were compared with the geomorphometric analysis, necessitating the adjustment of the subsurface hard clay layer for residual conditions. The analyses revealed that the slope behaves as a delayed first-time landslide, with bedding planes acting as localized weak layers, reducing mobilized shear strength. This integrated remote sensing–geotechnical approach advances landslide hazard evaluation by enhancing the precision of slip surface identification and post-seismic slope behavior modeling, offering a valuable framework for similar post-disaster geohazard assessments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Geomechanics)

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14 pages, 3042 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of LiDAR Differentiation and a Modified Savage–Hutter Model to Analyze Co-Seismic Landslides: A Case Study of the 2024 Noto Earthquake, Japan

by Christopher Gomez and Danang Sri Hadmoko

Geosciences 2025, 15(5), 180; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15050180 - 15 May 2025

This study investigates co-seismic landslides triggered by the 1 January 2024 Mw 7.6 Noto Peninsula earthquake in Japan using LiDAR differentiation and a modified Savage–Hutter model. By analyzing pre- and post-earthquake high-resolution topographic data from 13 landslides in a geologically homogeneous area of [...] Read more.

This study investigates co-seismic landslides triggered by the 1 January 2024 Mw 7.6 Noto Peninsula earthquake in Japan using LiDAR differentiation and a modified Savage–Hutter model. By analyzing pre- and post-earthquake high-resolution topographic data from 13 landslides in a geologically homogeneous area of the peninsula, we characterized distinct landslide morphologies and dynamic behaviours. Our approach combined static morphological analysis from LiDAR data with simulations of granular flow mechanics to evaluate landslide mobility. Results revealed two distinct landslide types: those with clear erosion-deposition zonation and complex landslides with discontinuous topographic changes. Landslide dimensions followed power-law relationships (H = 7.51L^0.50, R² = 0.765), while simulations demonstrated that internal deformation capability (represented by the μ parameter) significantly influenced runout distances for landslides terminating on low-angle surfaces but had minimal impact on slope-confined movements. These findings highlight the importance of integrating both static topographic parameters and dynamic flow mechanics when assessing co-seismic landslide hazards, particularly for predicting potential runout distances on gentle slopes where human settlements are often located. Our methodology provides a framework for improved landslide susceptibility assessment and disaster risk reduction in seismically active regions. Full article

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19 pages, 7639 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Triple Filtering of Terrain Conductivity Data for Precise Tracing of Underground Utilities

by Mohamed Rashed, Abdulaziz Alqarawy, Nassir Al-Amri, Riyadh Halawani, Milad Masoud and Maged El Osta

Geosciences 2025, 15(5), 179; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15050179 - 15 May 2025

Terrain conductivity meters (TCMs) are efficient devices for different sorts of subsurface investigations, including detecting and tracing buried utilities, such as metallic pipes and cables. However, data collected using TCMs are usually ambiguous and hard to interpret. This ambiguity originates from the complex [...] Read more.

Terrain conductivity meters (TCMs) are efficient devices for different sorts of subsurface investigations, including detecting and tracing buried utilities, such as metallic pipes and cables. However, data collected using TCMs are usually ambiguous and hard to interpret. This ambiguity originates from the complex shape of apparent conductivity anomalies, the influence of irrelevant conductive bodies, and the interference of random noise with the collected data. To overcome this ambiguity and produce more interpretable apparent conductivity maps, a three-step filtering routine is proposed and tested using different real datasets. The filtering routine begins with applying a Savitzky–Golay (SG) filter to reduce the effect of random noise. This is followed by a modified rolling ball (MRB) filter to convert the complex M-shape of the anomaly into a single trough pointing to the underground utility. Finally, a virtual resolution enhancement (VRE) filter is applied to enhance the pinpointing apex of the trough. The application of the proposed filtering routine to apparent conductivity data collected using different terrain conductivity meters over different utilities in different urban environments shows a significant improvement of the data and an effective ability to reveal masked underground utilities. The proposed triple filtering routine can be a starting point for a new generation of TCMs with a built-in operation mode for instantaneous delineation and characterization of underground utilities in real time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Geophysics)

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21 pages, 6759 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Changes in Land Use and Land Cover Patterns in Two Desert Basins Using Remote Sensing Data

by Abdullah F. Alqurashi and Omar A. Alharbi

Geosciences 2025, 15(5), 178; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15050178 - 15 May 2025

Land use and land cover (LULC) changes can potentially impact natural ecosystems and are considered key components of global environmental change. The majority of LULC changes are related to human activities. Anthropogenic modifications have resulted in significant changes in the structure and fragmentation [...] Read more.

Land use and land cover (LULC) changes can potentially impact natural ecosystems and are considered key components of global environmental change. The majority of LULC changes are related to human activities. Anthropogenic modifications have resulted in significant changes in the structure and fragmentation of landscapes. This research aimed to analyze LULC changes using satellite images in the following two main basins in the Makkah region: the Wadi Fatimah and Wadi Uranah fluvial systems. First, image classification was conducted using remote sensing data from different satellite platforms, namely the Multispectral Scanner, the Landsat Thematic Mapper, the Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus, and the Operational Land Imager. Images from these platforms were acquired for the years 1972, 1985, 1990, 2000, 2014, and 2022. A combination of object-based image analysis and a support vector machine classifier was used to produce LULC thematic maps. The obtained results were then used to calculate landscape metrics to quantify landscape patterns and fragmentation. The results showed that the landscape has undergone remarkable changes over the past 46 years. Built-up areas exhibited the most significant increase, while vegetation cover was the most dynamic land cover type. This was attributed mainly to the dry climatic conditions in the study area. These results suggest that LULC changes have influenced the natural environment in the studied area and are likely to contribute to further environmental impacts in the future. Measuring the spatial LULC distribution will help planners and ecologists to develop sustainable management strategies to mitigate future environmental consequences. Full article

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27 pages, 49480 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analyzing Recent Tectonic Activity Along the Karak Wadi Al Fayha Fault System Using Seismic, Earthquake, and Remote Sensing Data

by Mu’ayyad Al Hseinat, Malek AlZidaneen and Ghassan Sweidan

Geosciences 2025, 15(5), 177; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15050177 - 14 May 2025

The Karak Wadi Al Fayha Fault (KWF) is a major NW-trending intraplate wrench fault system extending over 325 km from Western Karak in Jordan to Wadi Al Fayha in Saudi Arabia. Structurally linked to the Precambrian Najd Fault System, the KWF has been [...] Read more.

The Karak Wadi Al Fayha Fault (KWF) is a major NW-trending intraplate wrench fault system extending over 325 km from Western Karak in Jordan to Wadi Al Fayha in Saudi Arabia. Structurally linked to the Precambrian Najd Fault System, the KWF has been previously mapped using field observations, gravity, magnetic, and reflection seismic methods. However, these approaches lacked the vertical resolution necessary to characterize its shallow structure, leaving its influence on recent deposits and surface topography poorly understood. This study employs reflection seismic sections integrated with a Digital Elevation Model to refine terrain analysis and enhance fault mechanism solutions for determining the regional stress field pattern. Our results provide compelling evidence of the KWF’s upward propagation into the surface, as demonstrated by deformation of the uppermost Cretaceous and Cenozoic successions, distinct geomorphic features in the Digital Elevation Model, alignment of earthquake epicenters along the fault, and active landslides associated with its movement. We suggest that the reactivation of the KWF has been influenced by changing stress fields from the Late Cretaceous (Turonian) to the present. The Northwestern Arabian plate has undergone multiple tectonic stress transitions, including WNW–ESE compression associated with the Syrian Arc Fold-Belt system (Turonian–Plio-Pleistocene) and subsequent NNE–SSW extension linked to Red Sea rifting (Neogene–present). The analysis of fault mechanism solutions suggests that the latest fault movements result from the continued activity of the Irbid Rift event (Eocene) and the Dead Sea Transform Fault since the Miocene. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applied Geophysics for Geohazards Investigations)

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15 pages, 3559 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of the Shear Modulus Degradation by a Modified Hyperbolic Function for Unconventional Geomaterials

by Hernán Patiño, Fausto Molina-Gómez and Rubén Ángel Galindo-Aires

Geosciences 2025, 15(5), 176; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15050176 - 14 May 2025

The characterisation of shear modulus degradation is essential for understanding the dynamic response of geomaterials. This article presents a modified hyperbolic model that evaluates the shear modulus for various angular strains and effective confining stresses. The model has been calibrated and validated using [...] Read more.

The characterisation of shear modulus degradation is essential for understanding the dynamic response of geomaterials. This article presents a modified hyperbolic model that evaluates the shear modulus for various angular strains and effective confining stresses. The model has been calibrated and validated using data from 108 resonant-column tests conducted on three different types of tailings from the Riotinto mines in Huelva, Spain. These tests were conducted on saturated samples that were consolidated at effective stresses of 50, 100, 150, 200, 250, and 300 kPa, accompanied by various combinations of torsional excitations to induce distinct angular strains. The results show that the hyperbolic model effectively predicts the shear modulus degradation in unconventional geomaterials, characterising the shear modulus under the testing conditions for the three types of Riotinto tailings. Additionally, the model can identify and confirm both the initial (or maximum) shear modulus and the reference angular strain as functions of the effective confining stress. The findings and model presented in this article contribute to enhancing the stability and resilience of geotechnical structures, including tailings storage facilities, that are subjected to dynamic loading, leading to safer designs and improved infrastructure performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Geomechanics)

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17 pages, 10398 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Machine Learning Methods for Gravity Anomaly Prediction

by Katima Zhanakulova, Bakhberde Adebiyet, Elmira Orynbassarova, Ainur Yerzhankyzy, Khaini-Kamal Kassymkanova, Roza Abdykalykova and Maksat Zakariya

Geosciences 2025, 15(5), 175; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15050175 - 14 May 2025

Gravity anomalies play critical roles in geological analysis, geodynamic monitoring, and precise geoid modeling. Obtaining accurate gravity data is challenging, particularly in inaccessible or sparsely covered regions. This study evaluates machine learning (ML) methods—Support Vector Regression (SVR), Gaussian Process Regression (GPR), and Ensemble [...] Read more.

Gravity anomalies play critical roles in geological analysis, geodynamic monitoring, and precise geoid modeling. Obtaining accurate gravity data is challenging, particularly in inaccessible or sparsely covered regions. This study evaluates machine learning (ML) methods—Support Vector Regression (SVR), Gaussian Process Regression (GPR), and Ensemble of Trees—for predicting gravity anomalies in southeastern Kazakhstan and compares their effectiveness with traditional Kriging interpolation. A dataset, consisting of the simple Bouguer anomaly values, latitude, longitude, elevation, normal gravity, and terrain corrections derived from historical maps at a scale of 1:200,000, was utilized. Models were trained and validated using cross-validation techniques, with performance assessed by statistical metrics (RMSE, MAE, R²) and spatial error analysis. Results indicated that the Exponential GPR model demonstrated the highest predictive accuracy, outperforming other ML methods, with 72.9% of predictions having errors below 1 mGal. Kriging showed comparable accuracy and superior robustness against extreme errors. Most prediction errors from all methods were spatially associated with mountainous regions featuring significant elevation changes. While this study demonstrated the effectiveness of machine learning methods for gravity anomaly prediction, their accuracy decreases in complex terrain, indicating the need for further research to improve model performance in such environments. Full article

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23 pages, 13284 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reconstruction of a 3D Bedrock Model in an Urban Area Using Well Stratigraphy and Geophysical Data: A Case Study of the City of Palermo

by Alessandro Canzoneri, Raffaele Martorana, Mauro Agate, Maurizio Gasparo Morticelli, Patrizia Capizzi, Alessandra Carollo and Attilio Sulli

Geosciences 2025, 15(5), 174; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15050174 - 14 May 2025

A multidisciplinary approach was employed to construct a three-dimensional model of the bedrock top surface within the Palermo Plain, Sicily, Italy. This urban area is characterized by a dense and extensive built environment that largely obscures its geological features, thereby emphasizing the value [...] Read more.

A multidisciplinary approach was employed to construct a three-dimensional model of the bedrock top surface within the Palermo Plain, Sicily, Italy. This urban area is characterized by a dense and extensive built environment that largely obscures its geological features, thereby emphasizing the value of geophysical methods for enhancing subsurface understanding. In this sector, Numidian Flysch deposits constitute the geological bedrock of the plain. The morphology of the top surface of this unit was reconstructed by integrating borehole stratigraphic data with both passive and active seismic surveys. Ambient noise recordings were analyzed using the Horizontal-to-Vertical Spectral Ratio (HVSR) method to obtain spectral curves. These were then inverted into seismostratigraphic models using shear wave velocity profiles derived by Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) and lithostratigraphic information from borehole logs. Finally, the depth of the top of the Numidian Flysch, determined from both the borehole data and the inverted seismic models, was interpolated to generate a comprehensive 3D model of the bedrock top surface. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Geophysics)

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27 pages, 5497 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Studies to Evaluate the Effects of Different Unloading Stress Paths on Strength Properties of Unconsolidated Sands

by Sabyasachi Prakash, Michael Myers, George Wong, Lori Hathon and Duane Mikulencak

Geosciences 2025, 15(5), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15050173 - 13 May 2025

The mechanical behavior of rocks under loading conditions depends on stress path and magnitude. With increasing load, rocks have an elasto-plastic behavior. Within the loading yield surface, constitutive models assume that rocks behave elastically and are independent of the stress path and magnitude [...] Read more.

The mechanical behavior of rocks under loading conditions depends on stress path and magnitude. With increasing load, rocks have an elasto-plastic behavior. Within the loading yield surface, constitutive models assume that rocks behave elastically and are independent of the stress path and magnitude (e.g., Mohr–Coulomb models). We performed tests on unconsolidated sands (no cementation), and under both loading and unloading conditions. We mapped the loading yield surface using a multi-stage triaxial test with the yield criterion as the point of positive dilatancy. We studied the yield behavior of the two different unloading stress paths: a constant axial stress unloading test (reducing mean effective stress and increasing shear stress) and a constant shear stress unloading test (reducing mean effective stress and keeping shear stress constant). The results show that unloading-based tests reach yield point at a lower shear stress than expected from the loading-based yield surface. The unloading-based yield surface is also dependent on the stress path. The application of this research includes a prediction of the geomechanical behavior of unconsolidated sands under injection conditions. Often, a constitutive model derived from loading stress paths is used for injection with the ad hoc assumption that the loading and unloading models are identical. These constitutive models provide results for injector design parameters, injection performance prediction, and safe injection envelopes. Therefore, it is essential to have accurate constitutive models that are representative of unloading stress paths. In calibrating these models, we demonstrated that the yield criterion (point of positive dilatancy) is reached before the loading-based yield surface during injection (decrease in mean effective stress) is reached. We also developed a minimum yield surface model. With a calibration using three tests, this model can predict the yield point for any stress path and at any initial stress state (within the bounds of the experiments). Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Geomechanics)

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21 pages, 10338 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparative Analysis of Avalanche Risk Assessment for Local Mountain Roads

by Matteo Dalmasso, Barbara Frigo and Bernardino Chiaia

Geosciences 2025, 15(5), 172; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15050172 - 13 May 2025

For avalanche risk management, local authorities need streamlined and quantitative approaches to define the risk of exposed elements. In this paper, two quantitative avalanche risk assessment approaches are compared: (1) Wilhelm’s method, referring exclusively to transport routes, defines numerically the risk, and (2) [...] Read more.

For avalanche risk management, local authorities need streamlined and quantitative approaches to define the risk of exposed elements. In this paper, two quantitative avalanche risk assessment approaches are compared: (1) Wilhelm’s method, referring exclusively to transport routes, defines numerically the risk, and (2) the multi-criteria risk assessment (McRA) (Italian avalanche risk guidelines), which defines the risk through categorical results. It provides a degree of avalanche risk to which the element is exposed, according to the definition of a risk class (RC). This method allows a simplified avalanche risk analysis for different types of buildings or infrastructures. The paper presents a comparison of the two methods for studying avalanche risk on a stretch of road that reaches the village of Planpincieux in Val Ferret (Aosta Valley, IT), highlighting their advantages and drawbacks. Additionally, to demonstrate the flexibility of the multi-criteria risk assessment, a risk analysis was performed on the hotel in Planpincieux hamlet. The key findings illustrate that Wilhelm’s method shines in defining the risk posed by diverse avalanche paths, but is hampered by imprecise parameter definition. McRA, by means of the RC, allows hierarchical and direct assessment of the risk severity at the territory scale but requires hazard intensity maps. Full article

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20 pages, 3615 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Long-Term and Interannual Changes in the Land Area of a Barrier Using Multiple Satellite Images

by Hsien-Kuo Chang, Wei-Wei Chen and Jin-Cheng Liou

Geosciences 2025, 15(5), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15050171 - 12 May 2025

The Waisanding Barrier (WSDB) in Taiwan faces problems with regard to beach erosion and land area (LA) reduction. Due to the small amount of data generated and insufficient time periods used, the results of previous studies are only local rather than long term [...] Read more.

The Waisanding Barrier (WSDB) in Taiwan faces problems with regard to beach erosion and land area (LA) reduction. Due to the small amount of data generated and insufficient time periods used, the results of previous studies are only local rather than long term in nature. This study used 207 satellite images over 20 years to explore long-term and interannual changes in the LA of the WSDB. We developed both a surface fitting method (SFM) and a two-step interpolation method (TSIM) to reliably determine the LA of each image. When the tidal level of WSDB at the image acquisition is within ±0.25 m of the zero-meter shoreline, the LA obtained via the TSIM is similar to that of the SFM, while the other ones are quite different. The long-term decaying rate of the WSDB’s LA determined via both methods is about −0.40 × 10⁶ m²/year. The consistent differences in LA obtained from LiDAR and image data and the interannual variation in excess area (EA) are discussed, and the causes of these differences are land subsidence (LS) in the WSDB and excess wave energy (AEWE). Full article

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19 pages, 5233 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Two-Stage Systematic Forecasting of Earthquakes

by Valery Gitis and Alexander Derendyaev

Geosciences 2025, 15(5), 170; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15050170 - 11 May 2025

Earthquakes cause enormous social and economic damage. Consequently, the seismic process requires regular monitoring and systematic forecasting of strong earthquakes. This study introduces an enhanced iteration of the method of the minimum area of alarm (MMAA), refined to advance earthquake forecasting technology closer [...] Read more.

Earthquakes cause enormous social and economic damage. Consequently, the seismic process requires regular monitoring and systematic forecasting of strong earthquakes. This study introduces an enhanced iteration of the method of the minimum area of alarm (MMAA), refined to advance earthquake forecasting technology closer to its practical application. In the new version, a forecast is considered successful when all target earthquake epicenters within a specified time interval are contained within predefined alarm zones. Our updated algorithm optimizes the probability of successfully detecting earthquakes across forecast cycles and the probability for subsequent periods. A case study from the Kamchatka region demonstrates the practical application of this systematic forecasting approach. We propose that this computational technology can serve as an operational tool for generating early warnings of potential seismic hazards, and a research platform for conducting detailed investigations of precursor phenomena. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Precursory Phenomena Prior to Earthquakes (2nd Edition))

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