Quaternary

For the first time, the numerous scattered data on birds (wild and domestic) have been collected based on their medieval bone remains discovered on the modern territory of the Republic of Bulgaria. The collected information is about a total of 37 medieval settlements from the time of the First and Second Bulgarian Empires. Among the settlements studied are both the two medieval Bulgarian capitals (Pliska and Veliki Preslav), as well as other cities, smaller settlements, military fortresses, monasteries, and inhabited caves. The data refer to a total of 48 species of wild birds and 6 forms of domestic birds of 11 avian orders: Accipitriformes, Anseriformes, Ciconiiformes, Columbiformes, Falconiformes, Galliformes, Gruiformes, Otidiformes, Passeriformes, Pelecaniformes, and Strigiformes. The established composition of wild birds amounts to over one tenth (to 11.5%) of the modern avifauna in the country. Five of the established species (10.4%) have disappeared from the modern nesting avifauna of the country—the bearded vulture, the great bustard, the little bustard, the gray crane, and the saker falcon (the latter two species have reappeared as nesters in the past few years). First Bulgarian Empire (681–1018): Investigated settlements—22. Period covered—five centuries (7th to 11th c.). Found in total: at least 44 species/forms of birds, of which 39 species of wild birds and 5 forms of poultry. Second Bulgarian Empire (1185–1396): Investigated settlements—15. Period covered—3 centuries (12th to 14th c.). Found in total: at least 39 species/forms of birds, of which 33 species of wild birds and 6 forms of poultry. The groups of raptors, water, woodland, openland, synanthropic and domestic birds were analyzed separately. The conclusion was made that during the two periods of the Middle Ages, birds had an important role in the material and spiritual life of the population of the Bulgarian lands. Birds were mainly used for food (domestic birds), although some were objects of hunting. No traces of processing were found on the bones. Birds were subjects of works of applied and monumental art. Their images decorated jewelry, tableware, walls of buildings and other structures. Full article

The longstanding debate over early hominin subsistence strategies, particularly the hunting-versus-scavenging hypothesis, as well as discussions regarding the functionality of Oldowan sites, has been primarily centered on the archeological and paleoanthropological record of Olduvai Gorge. Historically, FLK Zinj has been at the core of these debates, serving as a principal empirical reference due to the prevailing assumption that most other Bed I sites at Olduvai represented non-anthropogenic accumulations However, recent discoveries have significantly reshaped this perspective. Newly identified early sites, including PTK, DS, and AGS, situated within the paleolandscape and thin stratigraphic context of FLK Zinj, provide crucial new anthropogenic datasets. These sites offer additional dimensions to the study of early hominin behavior, facilitating a more nuanced reconstruction of their adaptive strategies in this paleoenvironment. Furthermore, methodological advancements in recent years—including controlled experimental and actualistic studies, sophisticated statistical modeling, and the integration of machine learning algorithms—have greatly enhanced the analytical frameworks available for investigating early hominin behavior. These innovations have refined the ability to formulate and test hypotheses within a rigorous scientific paradigm, significantly improving the resolution of archeological and taphonomic interpretations. This study presents an in-depth taphonomic analysis of the faunal assemblage from level 22A at DS, a Bed I site at Olduvai Gorge dated to approximately 1.84 Ma. The assemblage exhibits exceptional preservation, enabling detailed assessments of skeletal part representation, fragmentation patterns, and surface modifications. By combining traditional taphonomic methodologies with state-of-the-art AI-driven bone surface modification (BSM) analyses, this research contributes novel insights into the interactions between early hominins and carnivores, elucidating the complex ecological dynamics of an Early Pleistocene African paleolandscape. Full article

Debates about prehistoric Amazonian subsistence, social organization, and landscape use have ranged from ethnographically based characterizations of relatively mobile foragers to archaeological evidence that suggests sedentary agriculturalists. Recently, great antiquity of settled agriculture and complex social organization has been asserted for portions of the northern Amazon. However, the role of theory and inferences drawn from habitat diversity have receded in these debates. This paper synthesizes the current literature regarding long-term evolutionary changes in Amazon Basin societies with an archaeological case study from mound-building sites of Guyana and ethnoarchaeological data from Venezuelan forager–gardeners to develop a hypothesis regarding the critical role of habitat, aquatic resources, and seasonality in the transition from intensified foraging to cultivation. Full article

The Eemian interglacial (~130–116 ka) is a period characterized by a significantly warmer climate than the pre-industrial era, providing a valuable opportunity to study natural climate variability and its implications for the future. We studied the Eemian climate in Europe by applying an interactive downscaling to our Earth system model (iLOVECLIM) to increase its horizontal atmospheric resolution from 5.56° to 0.25° latitude-longitude. A transient simulation was conducted for both the standard version of the model and with an interactive downscaling applied for the Eemian (127–116 ka). Our simulations suggest that the magnitude of temperature and precipitation varied across different regions of Europe, with some areas experiencing more pronounced warming and precipitation changes than others. The latitudinal pattern in our simulation during the Eemian shows that the warming in Europe was stronger at high latitudes than at mid-latitudes. Relative to the pre-industrial climate, our downscaling scheme simulates at 127 ka higher temperatures between 3–4 °C in the northern part of Europe and higher precipitation values between 150–300 mm/yr. Our results indicate that, in comparison to the standard model, the downscaled simulations offer spatial variability that is more in line with proxy-based reconstructions and other climate models. Full article

Here we provide a brief reply to the comment by Fabrizio Marra on “The Lost MIS 11c Mammalian Fauna from Via dell’Impero (Rome, Italy)”. The comment deals with our omission of the citation of a paper reporting ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar dating that, according to Marra, would have been fundamental for our study. However, while recognizing that the omission of this article was a pity, we herein demonstrate that this did not affect in any way the results of our study, and that Marra’s comment contains contradictory affirmations and relies on a merely speculative hypothesis. Full article

The development of fluvial systems over long time scales is a complex interplay of tectonic, climatic, and lithological factors. The initiation and location of fluvial channels in the landscape is less well understood. Recently exposed surfaces provide opportunities to determine factors controlling fluvial channel initiation. During the Würm Last Glacial Maximum (c. 20 ka), the Ain valley in eastern France transformed into a large proglacial lake. Following deglaciation, new drainage channels initiated on the drained lake floor. Extensive morphological and sedimentological mapping and lithogenetic interpretation of the valley fill enable to determine the forcing factors of fluvial channel initiation. The location of the postglacial channels is determined by the initial topography of the lake floor and lithological variability of the sediments. Tributary channels of the Ain preferentially initiated in depressions of gently sloping former delta bottomsets, which prograded from different directions. In addition, the location of channels is determined by the presence of low-permeability, glacio-lacustrine deposits, that favored overland flow and erosion, compared to the highly permeable terrace deposits on the former lake floor. The differences in erodibility of the fine-grained and coarse-grained deposits resulted in relief inversion. Full article

This paper is a contribution to the ongoing debate on the nature and drivers of the abrupt environmental shift at the onset of the Younger Dryas. The goal of this study is to identify key parameters that characterize the Allerød–Younger Dryas boundary, 12.9–12.8 ka in sedimentary sections, and are representative of broader paleobasin dynamics in the eastern Baltic region. Two new Late Glacial sediment archives, the Kulikovo and Sambian, provide data on this time interval. Geochronological and lithological (grain size and loss on ignition) analyses of the sequences indicate a change in sedimentation during 12.9–12.8 ka, which is manifested by a peak of terrigenous, coarser-grained material and an accompanying peak of organic matter in sediments. A review of the published data shows that this lithological situation is also characteristic of other paleobasins in the eastern Baltic region and beyond for layers dated to the onset of the Younger Dryas. This probably indicates an environmental event that caused a short-term increased input and deposition of organic matter, accompanied by a surge in erosional processes. The environmental shift triggered by the event is also recorded in a remarkable drop in pollen concentration and species diversity in the overlying layer. The sediment horizon in Late Glacial (Allerød–Younger Dryas) sequences corresponding to these parameters can be considered an important and reliable geochronological marker of the 12.9–12.8 ka interval. The organic-rich layer in the Kulikovo section, as well as other similar layers in the Baltic, can be considered a “black mat” phenomenon related to the onset of the Younger Dryas. Full article

The objective of this research is to conduct a spatial analysis of the functional Andean worldview of the Ankasmarka Archaeological Site, located in Calca, Peru. The preservation of cultural heritage in Latin America faces significant challenges that threaten the integrity of key sites such as Ankasmarka. Despite its historical relevance, this site lacks available open access information and data, collected in accessible reports, which hinders the attraction of attention and funding necessary for its conservation. Furthermore, urbanization and uncontrolled tourism negatively impact both cultural traditions and the connection of local communities with their past. The methodology employed is based on a systematic review of primary information, supplemented by excavation reports and official sources. Specialized software such as AutoCAD Architecture and Revit were used to carry out the topographic and architectural survey of the site, enabling the precise and rigorous interpretation of the data. This article focuses on the spatial and functional description of the site, with the aim of paving the way for future research in specific areas such as formal and structural analysis, as well as social and political dynamics. The results reveal a complex organizational structure at Ankasmarka, with enclosures designated for various functions, particularly storage and agricultural activities. The site is divided into three sectors: Sector A, which includes housing, storage areas, and tombs; and Sector B and C, with the highest concentration of housing and agricultural zones with storage areas, respectively. The findings underscore the interrelationship between agriculture, funerary practices, and architecture, highlighting the importance of Ankasmarka in the lives of its ancient inhabitants and the need for continued future research. Full article

For many years, the temporal distribution of pigs in the Pleistocene of Europe drew little attention. This changed when, what became known as, the “suid gap” hypo-thesis was published. Subsequent publications added elements to this hypothesis, while others questioned the hypothesis and even the existence of a “suid gap”. In its most complete form the hypothesis consists of a chain of arguments: (1) pigs are r-selected (a life history trait), (2) therefore fossils of their deciduous teeth are particularly abundant, (3) because being r-selected, pigs are abundant, (4) sites without pig fossils are sure indicators of their absence, (5) at 1.8 Ma, humans dispersed into Europe driving Sus strozzii to extinction in all the continent by competitive displacement, but not in the Middle East, (6) around 1.2 Ma pigs appeared again in Europe, either Sus strozzii, coming from the Middle East, or another species. The proposed link between human and pig ecology increased the interest of this hypothesis. Recently parts of this hypothesis were questioned and a polemic arose. It is the aim of this paper to review the literature and arguments used in favour and against this “suid gap” hypothesis. The hypothesis is rejected, but the life history traits of pigs may prove to be of interest for comparison with humans. Full article

Loess–palaeosol sequences (LPSs) are continuous records of palaeoenvironmental and palaeoclimatic conditions during the Quaternary. This study includes 17 LPS located in the NE of the Iberian Peninsula, irregularly distributed, associated with different river basins: the Ebro Basin, the Mora Basin, and the Ter sub-basin. The soils developed on these loess deposits present a loam–sandy texture, coarser than the typical loess, ochre in colour, with variable thickness (1–12 m), calcareous composition (20–45% CaCO₃ eq.), very low or null organic matter (OM), and basic pH. These deposits have been classified as desert LPS, whose pedogenesis is mainly associated with the redistribution of calcium carbonate and, in some cases, gypsum. Several methodologies have been applied to determine their mineralogical, physical, and chemical characteristics and date them by luminescence techniques. In addition, some relevant pedofeatures (porosity, CaCO₃, gypsum, etc.) have been characterised in detail. The aims of the present study have been to know the pedogenic development of the LPS by defining the main soil-forming factors that have affected them in order to associate these factors with the characteristic palaeoclimatic and palaeoenvironmental conditions reported in this area over time and to improve the understanding of soil evolution. Full article

The architectural artefacts, materials, and techniques used for constructing shelters may share some common properties derived from the architectural culture that has evolved within the human species. This article examines the material features and settlement organisations employed in the nest-building activities of early human species and the shelter forms of indigenous peoples residing in sub-Saharan Africa. It questions whether early modern human notions of architectural heritage, which lack substantiation, might have influenced nest construction, typological differentiation, material utilisation, and the transmission of practices to subsequent generations and habitats. The focus is on home-based spatial organisation and the construction of structures. We recognise the need to clarify some fundamental misunderstandings regarding the nature of cultural and archaeological taxonomies, as well as the misuse of analogical reasoning when comparing contemporary hunter–gatherer populations with certain hominin groups. The paper aims to explore whether the early ‘Homo architecture’ in Africa bears any resemblance to that of modern Africans. The central inquiry of this study is whether indigenous architectural artefacts, materials, and techniques have been passed down throughout the evolution of architectural culture. The discussion suggests that the architectural products found in the settlement remains of early Homo species may exhibit characteristics similar to the huts of the indigenous people, who live as hunter–gatherers in sub-Saharan Africa. Discussing the architectural activities of different human species proves fruitful, as early architectural understanding and principles can be adapted to contemporary placemaking scenarios, urban design approaches, and housing models. We believe that, with further evidence, this foundational idea has the potential to be developed further. Full article

Fossilized body parts of two cold-adapted ground beetle species, Elaphrus lapponicus and Diacheila polita, were identified from a deposit dated to the Late Glacial period in Hokkaido, Japan. The paleoenvironmental reconstruction presented here has been based on modern temperature ranges and environmental conditions, along with paleobotanical evidence from the site. Late Glacial temperatures were at least 6 degrees °C lower than modern temperatures in summer, and the area around the site was mostly covered with forest tundra, which exists only in areas further north than Hokkaido. Full article

Preserved macro-botanical and charcoal remains collected from the Zhumucun site have revealed the paleodiet and agricultural production of a small settlement during the Liangzhu period. Further, they have also helped to reconstruct the landscape and social organization that occurred therein. The plant remains assemblage shows that rice was the main crop at this site; however, the appearance of the millets may also indicate the spread and communication between southern and northern China. An analysis of the discarded spikelets confirmed that rice was locally produced and processed. A study of charcoal helped restore the vegetation landscape in the settlement and provided valuable insights for reconstructing the functional zoning and agricultural production at the site. Following an analysis of the plant distribution and utilization patterns at the site, it became clear that the Zhumucun site functioned as a small agricultural settlement. Compared to other settlements from the Liangzhu period, the Zhumucun site likely supported a smaller population. The site could be divided into smaller groups, including facilities in residential areas, processing areas, tomb areas, and farming areas. Agricultural production at the Zhumucun site appears to have been highly coordinated, with activities carried out in a unified manner and primarily by local households. This efficient system of resource management likely reflects a well-organized labor structure, where food surpluses may have been redistributed to support other higher-level settlements. Full article

Anemone altaica Fisch. ex C. A. Mey., a component of the tertiary boreo-nemoral vegetation complex, exhibits a disjunct distribution from European Russia to Central China. The Khamar-Daban Ridge, extending along Lake Baikal’s southern coast, has served as a refugium preserving mesophilic forest remnants in South Siberia since the Pleistocene. This study aimed to elucidate the phylogenetic relationships and historical biogeography of A. altaica within the Khamar-Daban refugium using plastid DNA markers (trnL + trnL-trnF). Phylogenetic and mismatch distribution analysis revealed polyphyly (more specifically diphyly) among A. altaica lineages, suggesting past hybridization events with related species followed by backcrossing. Estimation of isolation by distance effect, spatial autocorrelation analysis, PCoA, and AMOVA indicated a clear spatial genetic structure for A. altaica on the Khamar-Daban Ridge. The most reliable geographical model suggests that during periods of Pleistocene cooling, A. altaica persisted in at least six microrefugia within the ridge. Populations associated with these microrefugia formed western, central, and eastern genetic supergroups with limited gene flow among them. Gene flow likely occurred more easily during glaciations or early interglacials when the subalpine zone shifted closer to Lake Baikal due to the depression of the snow boundary, allowing adjacent populations to intermingle along the glacial edges and terminal moraines in mountain forest belt. Full article

Dental wear analyses of extinct animals offer key insights into their dietary preferences and in turn contribute substantially to palaeoenvironmental reconstructions, leading to more accurate interpretations about past ecosystems. This study employs dental mesowear analysis on Pliocene and Pleistocene elephants and mammoths from several localities in Northern Greece (Ptolemais Basin, Mygdonia Basin, Drama Basin, and the Neapolis-Grevena Basin), aiming to classify them into three main dietary categories (browsers, mixed-feeders, grazers) and investigate potential niche partitioning. The method relies on documenting the wear pattern of molar surfaces through angle measurements on the enamel ridges, which reflect the average annual diet of the examined taxon and in turn the annual ecological conditions of the studied area. Prior to the palaeodietary study and in order to ensure the taxonomic attribution of the examined specimens, a taxonomic review was conducted which confirmed the presence of the mammoths Mammuthus rumanus, Mammuthus meridionalis (southern mammoth), and Mammuthus trogontherii (steppe mammoth), and the European straight-tusked elephant Palaeoloxodon antiquus. Dental mesowear results indicate a grazing diet for M. (cf.) rumanus, a mainly browsing diet for M. meridionalis but mixed-feeding to grazing for the subspecies Mammuthus meridionalis vestinus, a grazing one for M. trogontherii, and a wide diet spectrum for P. antiquus, including browsing, mixed-feeding and grazing, depending on the locality. This study expands our knowledge on the palaeoecology of Greek proboscideans and further highlights the importance of mesowear analysis on proboscidean teeth for palaeodietary and palaeoenviromental inferences. Full article