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Vaccines, Volume 9, Issue 12 (December 2021) – 137 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): The scarcity of alternative therapeutics against viral infections as efficient as vaccines makes them essential in such areas as animal care. Whole-pathogen inactivated vaccines present substantial biosafety and handling advantages and thus a higher market acceptance in the animal production industry, including in aquaculture. Viral nervous necrosis (VNN) caused by the nervous necrosis virus (NNV) affects a broad range of primarily marine fish species, with mass mortality rates among larvae and juveniles. Its genetic diversification may hinder the effective implementation of vaccines. The present study describes different rapid inactivation procedures for developing an inactivated vaccine against a new NNV isolate confirmed to possess deadly effects upon the European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax), an important farmed fish species. View this paper
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18 pages, 5318 KiB  
Article
A Five Collagen-Related Gene Signature to Estimate the Prognosis and Immune Microenvironment in Clear Cell Renal Cell Cancer
by Xiaokai Shi, Xiao Zhou, Chuang Yue, Shenglin Gao, Zhiqin Sun, Chao Lu and Li Zuo
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1510; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121510 - 20 Dec 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2320
Abstract
Collagen is the main component of the extracellular matrix (ECM) and might play an important role in tumor microenvironments. However, the relationship between collagen and clear cell renal cell cancer (ccRCC) is still not fully clarified. Hence, we aimed to establish a collagen-related [...] Read more.
Collagen is the main component of the extracellular matrix (ECM) and might play an important role in tumor microenvironments. However, the relationship between collagen and clear cell renal cell cancer (ccRCC) is still not fully clarified. Hence, we aimed to establish a collagen-related signature to predict the prognosis and estimate the tumor immune microenvironment in ccRCC patients. Patients with a high risk score were often correlated with unfavorable overall survival (OS) and an immunosuppressive microenvironment. In addition, the collagen-related genetic signature was highly correlated with clinical pathological features and can be considered as an independent prognostic factor in ccRCC patients. Moreover, GSEA results show that patients with a high risk grade tend to be associated with epithelial–mesenchymal junctions (EMT) and immune responses. In this study, we developed a collagen-related gene signature, which might possess the potential to predict the prognosis and immune microenvironment of ccRCC patients and function as an independent prognostic factor in ccRCC. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cancer Immunotherapy and Vaccines Research)
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8 pages, 365 KiB  
Article
Mutagenic Distinction between the Receptor-Binding and Fusion Subunits of the SARS-CoV-2 Spike Glycoprotein and Its Upshot
by Robert Clark Penner
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1509; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121509 - 20 Dec 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2127
Abstract
We observe that a residue R of the spike glycoprotein of SARS-CoV-2 that has mutated in one or more of the current variants of concern or interest, or under monitoring, rarely participates in a backbone hydrogen bond if R lies in the S [...] Read more.
We observe that a residue R of the spike glycoprotein of SARS-CoV-2 that has mutated in one or more of the current variants of concern or interest, or under monitoring, rarely participates in a backbone hydrogen bond if R lies in the S1 subunit and usually participates in one if R lies in the S2 subunit. A partial explanation for this based upon free energy is explored as a potentially general principle in the mutagenesis of viral glycoproteins. This observation could help target future vaccine cargos for the evolving coronavirus as well as more generally. A related study of the Delta and Omicron variants suggests that Delta was an energetically necessary intermediary in the evolution from Wuhan-Hu-1 to Omicron. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Research into Vaccine Technologies)
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11 pages, 1310 KiB  
Article
Assessment of Post-Vaccination Antibody Response Eight Months after the Administration of BNT1622b2 Vaccine to Healthcare Workers with Particular Emphasis on the Impact of Previous COVID-19 Infection
by Blanka Wolszczak-Biedrzycka, Anna Bieńkowska and Justyna Dorf
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1508; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121508 - 20 Dec 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3003
Abstract
At the end of 2020, COVID-19 vaccination programs were initiated in many countries, including Poland. The first vaccine approved in Poland was the BNT162b2 mRNA preparation (Pfizer/BioNTech), and the first vaccinated group were healthcare workers. The aim of the present study was to [...] Read more.
At the end of 2020, COVID-19 vaccination programs were initiated in many countries, including Poland. The first vaccine approved in Poland was the BNT162b2 mRNA preparation (Pfizer/BioNTech), and the first vaccinated group were healthcare workers. The aim of the present study was to evaluate post-vaccine antibody titers 8 months after the second vaccine dose had been administered to a group of employees of the Hospital of the Ministry of the Interior and Administration in Olsztyn (Poland). The employees were divided into two groups: persons who had COVID-19 in the fourth quarter of 2020 and were vaccinated in January–February 2021, and persons without a history of COVID-19 who were vaccinated during the same period. The analyzed material was venous blood serum collected from 100 hospital employees on 23–28 September 2021. The level of anti-SARS-CoV-2 S antibodies was measured with a Roche Cobas e411 analyzer using the electrochemiluminescence (ECLIA) method. The study demonstrated that persons with a history of SARS-CoV-2 infection had significantly higher antibody levels (taking into account gender, age, type of work performed, and severity of post-vaccination symptoms) than employees without a history of COVID-19. The study also revealed that the type of work, age, gender, and the course of SARS-CoV-2 infection can influence the humoral immune response. The presented results may prove helpful in the context of administering additional vaccine doses. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Global Analysis of SARS-CoV-2 Serology)
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16 pages, 568 KiB  
Review
Promising Expectations for Pneumococcal Vaccination during COVID-19
by Hyobin Im, Jinhui Ser, Uk Sim and Hoonsung Cho
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1507; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121507 - 20 Dec 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5185
Abstract
The emergence of new viral infections has increased over the decades. The novel virus is one such pathogen liable for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection, popularly known as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Most fatalities during the past century’s influenza pandemics [...] Read more.
The emergence of new viral infections has increased over the decades. The novel virus is one such pathogen liable for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection, popularly known as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Most fatalities during the past century’s influenza pandemics have cooperated with bacterial co/secondary infections. Unfortunately, many reports have claimed that bacterial co-infection is also predominant in COVID-19 patients (COVID-19 associated co/secondary infection prevalence is up to 45.0%). In the COVID-19 pandemic, Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common coinfecting pathogen. Half of the COVID-19 mortality cases showed co-infection, and pneumonia-related COVID-19 mortality in patients >65 years was 23%. The weakening of immune function caused by COVID-19 remains a high-risk factor for pneumococcal disease. Pneumococcal disease and COVID-19 also have similar risk factors. For example, underlying medical conditions on COVID-19 and pneumococcal diseases increase the risk for severe illness at any age; COVID-19 is now considered a primary risk factor for pneumococcal pneumonia and invasive pneumococcal disease. Thus, pneumococcal vaccination during the COVID-19 pandemic has become more critical than ever. This review presents positive studies of pneumococcal vaccination in patients with COVID-19 and other medical conditions and the correlational effects of pneumococcal disease with COVID-19 to prevent morbidity and mortality from co/secondary infections and superinfections. It also reports the importance and role of pneumococcal vaccination during the current COVID-19 pandemic era to strengthen the global health system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Global Analysis of SARS-CoV-2 Serology)
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16 pages, 3482 KiB  
Article
Mycoplasma suis Alpha-Enolase Subunit Vaccine Induces an Immune Response in Experimental Animals
by Shujiang Xue, Kangseok Seo, Miaosen Yang, Chengdu Cui, Meng Yang, Siyu Xiang, Zongbin Yan, Shengjun Wu, Jincheng Han, Xiaoyang Yu, Yunxiao Li and Xin Jin
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1506; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121506 - 20 Dec 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2610
Abstract
Recombinant protein technology has emerged as an excellent option for vaccine development. However, prior to our study, the immune induction ability of recombinant Mycoplasma suis alpha-enolase (rMseno) in animals remained unclear. The purpose of this study was to develop a rMseno protein subunit [...] Read more.
Recombinant protein technology has emerged as an excellent option for vaccine development. However, prior to our study, the immune induction ability of recombinant Mycoplasma suis alpha-enolase (rMseno) in animals remained unclear. The purpose of this study was to develop a rMseno protein subunit vaccine and to determine its ability to elicit an immunological response. To accomplish this, we cloned the gene into pET-15b, expressed it in BL21 cells, and purified it. Following the establishment of immunity, the immunogenicity and potential for protection of rMseno were evaluated in mice and piglets. The results demonstrate that anti-M. suis serum recognized the pure rMseno protein in both mice and piglets as evidenced by high levels of specific anti-rMseno antibodies, significantly increased levels of IFN-γ and IL-4 cytokines, and significantly increased T lymphocyte proliferation index. Piglets also had significantly increased levels of specific IgG1, IgG2a, CD4+, and CD8+ cells. The rMseno findings demonstrated a robust immunological response in mice and piglets, affording partial clinical protective efficacy in piglets. Full article
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17 pages, 393 KiB  
Article
Who Got Vaccinated for COVID-19? Evidence from Japan
by Toshihiro Okubo, Atsushi Inoue and Kozue Sekijima
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1505; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121505 - 20 Dec 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3227
Abstract
Vaccination has been critical to reducing infections and deaths during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. While previous studies have investigated attitudes toward taking a vaccine, studies on the determinants of COVID-19 vaccination behavior are scant. We examine what characteristics, including socioeconomic and [...] Read more.
Vaccination has been critical to reducing infections and deaths during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. While previous studies have investigated attitudes toward taking a vaccine, studies on the determinants of COVID-19 vaccination behavior are scant. We examine what characteristics, including socioeconomic and non-economic factors, are associated with vaccination behavior for COVID-19 in Japan. We use a large nationwide online survey with approximately 10,000 participants. As of September 2021, 85% of the respondents said that they had received or would receive a COVID-19 vaccine. Employing logistic regression analysis on vaccination behavior, we found that vaccination rates are higher among those who are older, married, educated, and/or work in a large company. On the other hand, vaccination rates tend to be lower among the self-employed, younger women, and those with poor mental health. Income did not significantly correlate with vaccination. Medical workers were found to have a relatively high rate of vaccination. Although attitude towards risk and time preference were not crucial factors for vaccination, fear of infection, infection prevention behavior, and agreement with government policies on behavioral restrictions in crisis situations positively correlated with vaccination. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section COVID-19 Vaccines and Vaccination)
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12 pages, 783 KiB  
Review
Innovations in the Insect Cell Expression System for Industrial Recombinant Vaccine Antigen Production
by Manon M. J. Cox
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1504; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121504 - 20 Dec 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5679
Abstract
The insect cell expression system has previously been proposed as the preferred biosecurity strategy for production of any vaccine, particularly for future influenza pandemic vaccines. The development and regulatory risk for new vaccine candidates is shortened as the platform is already in use [...] Read more.
The insect cell expression system has previously been proposed as the preferred biosecurity strategy for production of any vaccine, particularly for future influenza pandemic vaccines. The development and regulatory risk for new vaccine candidates is shortened as the platform is already in use for the manufacturing of the FDA-licensed seasonal recombinant influenza vaccine Flublok®. Large-scale production capacity is in place and could be used to produce other antigens as well. However, as demonstrated by the 2019 SARS-CoV-2 pandemic the insect cell expression system has limitations that need to be addressed to ensure that recombinant antigens will indeed play a role in combating future pandemics. The greatest challenge may be the ability to produce an adequate quantity of purified antigen in an accelerated manner. This review summarizes recent innovations in technology areas important for enhancing recombinant-protein production levels and shortening development timelines. Opportunities for increasing product concentrations through vector development, cell line engineering, or bioprocessing and for shortening timelines through standardization of manufacturing processes will be presented. Full article
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15 pages, 567 KiB  
Review
mRNA COVID-19 Vaccines and Long-Lived Plasma Cells: A Complicated Relationship
by Girolamo Giannotta and Nicola Giannotta
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1503; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121503 - 20 Dec 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 9853
Abstract
mRNA COVID-19 vaccines have hegemonized the world market, and their administration to the population promises to stop the pandemic. However, the waning of the humoral immune response, which does not seem to last so many months after the completion of the vaccination program, [...] Read more.
mRNA COVID-19 vaccines have hegemonized the world market, and their administration to the population promises to stop the pandemic. However, the waning of the humoral immune response, which does not seem to last so many months after the completion of the vaccination program, has led us to study the molecular immunological mechanisms of waning immunity in the case of mRNA COVID-19 vaccines. We consulted the published scientific literature and from the few articles we found, we were convinced that there is an immunological memory problem after vaccination. Although mRNA vaccines have been demonstrated to induce antigen-specific memory B cells (MBCs) in the human population, there is no evidence that these vaccines induce the production of long-lived plasma cells (LLPCs), in a SARS-CoV-2 virus naïve population. This obstacle, in our point of view, is caused by the presence, in almost all subjects, of a cellular T and B cross-reactive memory produced during past exposures to the common cold coronaviruses. Due to this interference, it is difficult for a vaccination with the Spike protein alone, without adjuvants capable of prolonging the late phase of the generation of the immunological memory, to be able to determine the production of protective LLPCs. This would explain the possibility of previously and completely vaccinated subjects to become infected, already 4–6 months after the completion of the vaccination cycle. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Host Innate Immune Responses against SARS-CoV-2)
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11 pages, 660 KiB  
Case Report
Chronic Inflammatory Demyelinating Polyneuropathy after ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 Vaccination
by Caterina Francesca Bagella, Davide G. Corda, Pietro Zara, Antonio Emanuele Elia, Elisa Ruiu, Elia Sechi and Paolo Solla
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1502; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121502 - 19 Dec 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5803
Abstract
Recently several patients, who developed Guillain–Barré syndrome characterized by prominent bifacial weakness after ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccination, were described from different centers. We recently observed a patient who developed a similar syndrome, later in the follow up he showed worsening of the neuropathy two [...] Read more.
Recently several patients, who developed Guillain–Barré syndrome characterized by prominent bifacial weakness after ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccination, were described from different centers. We recently observed a patient who developed a similar syndrome, later in the follow up he showed worsening of the neuropathy two months after the initial presentation. Repeat EMG showed reduced nerve sensory and motor conduction velocities of both upper and lower limbs, and a diagnosis of chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (typical CIDP) was made according to established criteria. Our report expands on the possible outcomes in patients who develop Guillain–Barrè syndrome after COVID-19 vaccinations and suggest that close monitoring after the acute phase is needed in these patients to exclude a chronic evolution of the disease, which has important implications for long-term treatment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The COVID Vaccine)
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14 pages, 3894 KiB  
Article
A Comparative Study on Delivery of Externally Attached DNA by Papillomavirus VLPs and Pseudoviruses
by Sarah Brendle, Nancy Cladel, Karla Balogh, Samina Alam, Neil Christensen, Craig Meyers and Jiafen Hu
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1501; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121501 - 18 Dec 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2165
Abstract
Human papillomavirus (HPV) 16 capsids have been chosen as a DNA delivery vehicle in many studies. Our preliminary studies suggest that HPV58 capsids could be better vehicles than HPV16 capsids to deliver encapsidated DNA in vitro and in vivo. In the current study, [...] Read more.
Human papillomavirus (HPV) 16 capsids have been chosen as a DNA delivery vehicle in many studies. Our preliminary studies suggest that HPV58 capsids could be better vehicles than HPV16 capsids to deliver encapsidated DNA in vitro and in vivo. In the current study, we compared HPV16, HPV58, and the cottontail rabbit papillomavirus (CRPV) capsids either as L1/L2 VLPs or pseudoviruses (PSVs) to deliver externally attached GFP-expressing DNA. Both rabbit and human cells were used to test whether there was a species-specific effect. DNA delivery efficiency was determined by quantifying either GFP-expressing cell populations or mean fluorescent intensities (MFI) by flow cytometry. Interestingly, CRPV and 58-VLPs and PSVs were significantly more efficient at delivering attached DNA when compared to 16-VLPs and PSVs. A capsid/DNA ratio of 2:1 showed the highest efficiency for delivering external DNA. The PSVs with papillomavirus DNA genomes also showed higher efficiency than those with irrelevant plasmid DNA. HPV16L1/58L2 hybrid VLPs displayed increased efficiency compared to HPV58L1/16L2 VLPs, suggesting that L2 may play a critical role in the delivery of attached DNA. Additionally, we demonstrated that VLPs increased in vivo infectivity of CRPV DNA in rabbits. We conclude that choosing CRPV or 58 capsids to deliver external DNA could improve DNA uptake in in vitro and in vivo models. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development of Vaccines Based on Virus-Like Particles)
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11 pages, 6071 KiB  
Article
Attenuation of Antibody Titers from 3 to 6 Months after the Second Dose of the BNT162b2 Vaccine Depends on Sex, with Age and Smoking Risk Factors for Lower Antibody Titers at 6 Months
by Yushi Nomura, Michiru Sawahata, Yosikazu Nakamura, Ryousuke Koike, Otohiro Katsube, Koichi Hagiwara, Seiji Niho, Norihiro Masuda, Takaaki Tanaka and Kumiya Sugiyama
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1500; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121500 - 18 Dec 2021
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2986
Abstract
Objective: We aimed to determine antibody titers at six months and their percentage change from three to six months after the second dose of the BNT162b2 coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) mRNA vaccine (Pfizer/BioNTech) and to explore clinical variables associated with titers in Japan. [...] Read more.
Objective: We aimed to determine antibody titers at six months and their percentage change from three to six months after the second dose of the BNT162b2 coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) mRNA vaccine (Pfizer/BioNTech) and to explore clinical variables associated with titers in Japan. Methods: We enrolled 365 healthcare workers (250 women, 115 men) whose three-month antibody titers were analyzed in our previous study and whose blood samples were collected 183 ± 15 days after the second dose. Participant characteristics, collected previously, were used. The relationships of these factors with antibody titers at six months and percentage changes in antibody titers from three to six months were analyzed. Results: Median age was 44 years. Median antibody titer at six months was 539 U/mL. Older participants had significantly lower antibody titers (20s, 752 U/mL; 60s–70s, 365 U/mL). In age-adjusted analysis, smoking was the only factor associated with lower antibody titers. Median percentage change in antibody titers from three to six months was −29.4%. The only factor significantly associated with the percentage change in Ab titers was not age or smoking, but sex (women, −31.6%; men, −25.1%). Conclusion: The most important factors associated with lower antibody titers at six months were age and smoking, as at three months, probably reflecting their effect on peak antibody titers. However, the only factor significantly associated with the attenuation in Ab titers from three to six months was sex, which reduced the sex difference seen during the first three months. Antibody titers may be affected by different factors at different time points. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effectiveness, Safety and Immunogenicity of SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines)
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14 pages, 1630 KiB  
Article
Nasal and Salivary Mucosal Humoral Immune Response Elicited by mRNA BNT162b2 COVID-19 Vaccine Compared to SARS-CoV-2 Natural Infection
by Mariapia Guerrieri, Beatrice Francavilla, Denise Fiorelli, Marzia Nuccetelli, Francesco Maria Passali, Luca Coppeta, Giuseppina Somma, Sergio Bernardini, Andrea Magrini and Stefano Di Girolamo
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1499; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121499 - 18 Dec 2021
Cited by 38 | Viewed by 6301 | Correction
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 antibody assays are crucial in managing the COVID-19 pandemic. Approved mRNA COVID-19 vaccines are well known to induce a serum antibody responses against the spike protein and its RBD. Mucosal immunity plays a major role in the fight against COVID-19 directly at [...] Read more.
SARS-CoV-2 antibody assays are crucial in managing the COVID-19 pandemic. Approved mRNA COVID-19 vaccines are well known to induce a serum antibody responses against the spike protein and its RBD. Mucosal immunity plays a major role in the fight against COVID-19 directly at the site of virus entry; however, vaccine abilities to elicit mucosal immune responses have not been reported. We detected anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgA-S1 and IgG-RBD in three study populations (healthy controls, vaccinated subjects, and subjects recovered from COVID-19 infection) on serum, saliva, and nasal secretions using two commercial immunoassays (ELISA for IgA-S1 and chemiluminescent assay for IgG-RBD). Our results show that the mRNA BNT162b2 vaccine Comirnaty (Pfizer/BioNTech, New York, NY, USA) determines the production of nasal and salivary IgA-S1 and IgG-RBD against SARS-CoV-2. This mucosal humoral immune response is stronger after the injection of the second vaccine dose compared to subjects recovered from COVID-19. Since there is a lack of validated assays on saliva and nasal secretions, this study shows that our pre-analytical and analytical procedures are consistent with the data. Our findings indicate that the mRNA COVID-19 vaccine elicits antigen-specific nasal and salivary immune responses, and that mucosal antibody assays could be used as candidates for non-invasive monitoring of vaccine-induced protection against viral infection. Full article
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14 pages, 1368 KiB  
Article
COVID-19 Passport as a Factor Determining the Success of National Vaccination Campaigns: Does It Work? The Case of Lithuania vs. Poland
by Marcin Piotr Walkowiak, Justyna B. Walkowiak and Dariusz Walkowiak
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1498; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121498 - 18 Dec 2021
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 4932
Abstract
As the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic poses a global threat, it is of utmost importance that governments should find effective means of combating vaccine hesitancy and encouraging their citizens to vaccinate. In our article, we compare the vaccination outcomes in the past months in [...] Read more.
As the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic poses a global threat, it is of utmost importance that governments should find effective means of combating vaccine hesitancy and encouraging their citizens to vaccinate. In our article, we compare the vaccination outcomes in the past months in two neighbouring post-communist EU states, Lithuania and Poland. Both introduced COVID-19 certificates, but only the former followed with gradual limitations for those who failed to get vaccinated, beginning with restricted access to restaurants, sports facilities and indoor events, and finally banning residents without a certificate from entering supermarkets or larger shops and using most services. By contrast, in Poland, the certificate remained a tool for international travel only. We show using statistical data that Lithuania’s strict policy, regardless of its social implications, led to markedly higher vaccination outcomes in all age groups than those in Poland at the time. Full article
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25 pages, 1071 KiB  
Review
Bacterial-Based Cancer Therapy (BBCT): Recent Advances, Current Challenges, and Future Prospects for Cancer Immunotherapy
by Kajal H. Gupta, Christina Nowicki, Eileena F. Giurini, Amanda L. Marzo and Andrew Zloza
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1497; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121497 - 18 Dec 2021
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 5818
Abstract
Currently approximately 10 million people die each year due to cancer, and cancer is the cause of every sixth death worldwide. Tremendous efforts and progress have been made towards finding a cure for cancer. However, numerous challenges have been faced due to adverse [...] Read more.
Currently approximately 10 million people die each year due to cancer, and cancer is the cause of every sixth death worldwide. Tremendous efforts and progress have been made towards finding a cure for cancer. However, numerous challenges have been faced due to adverse effects of chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and alternative cancer therapies, including toxicity to non-cancerous cells, the inability of drugs to reach deep tumor tissue, and the persistent problem of increasing drug resistance in tumor cells. These challenges have increased the demand for the development of alternative approaches with greater selectivity and effectiveness against tumor cells. Cancer immunotherapy has made significant advancements towards eliminating cancer. Our understanding of cancer-directed immune responses and the mechanisms through which immune cells invade tumors have extensively helped us in the development of new therapies. Among immunotherapies, the application of bacteria and bacterial-based products has promising potential to be used as treatments that combat cancer. Bacterial targeting of tumors has been developed as a unique therapeutic option that meets the ongoing challenges of cancer treatment. In comparison with other cancer therapeutics, bacterial-based therapies have capabilities for suppressing cancer. Bacteria are known to accumulate and proliferate in the tumor microenvironment and initiate antitumor immune responses. We are currently well-informed regarding various methods by which bacteria can be manipulated by simple genetic engineering or synthetic bioengineering to induce the production of anti-cancer drugs. Further, bacterial-based cancer therapy (BBCT) can be either used as a monotherapy or in combination with other anticancer therapies for better clinical outcomes. Here, we review recent advances, current challenges, and prospects of bacteria and bacterial products in the development of BBCTs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cancer Immunotherapy and Vaccines Research)
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13 pages, 885 KiB  
Article
COVID-19 Vaccinations: Perceptions and Behaviours in People with Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia
by Eva S. L. Pedersen, Maria Christina Mallet, Yin Ting Lam, Sara Bellu, Isabelle Cizeau, Fiona Copeland, Trini Lopez Fernandez, Michele Manion, Amanda L. Harris, Jane S. Lucas, Francesca Santamaria, Myrofora Goutaki, Claudia E. Kuehni and COVID-PCD Patient Advisory Group
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1496; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121496 - 17 Dec 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3016
Abstract
Primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD) is a rare genetic disease that causes recurrent respiratory infections. People with PCD may be at higher risk of severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), and therefore vaccination against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is important. We studied [...] Read more.
Primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD) is a rare genetic disease that causes recurrent respiratory infections. People with PCD may be at higher risk of severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), and therefore vaccination against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is important. We studied vaccination willingness, speed of vaccination uptake, side effects, and changes in social contact behaviour after vaccination in people with PCD. We used data from COVID-PCD, an international participatory cohort study. A COVID-19 vaccination questionnaire was emailed to participants in May 2021 and 423 participants from 31 countries replied (median age: 30 years, range 1–85 years; 261 (62%) female). Vaccination uptake and willingness were high, with 273 of 287 adults (96%) being vaccinated or willing to be in June 2021; only 4% were hesitant. The most common reason for hesitancy was fear of side effects, reported by 88%. Mild side effects were common, but no participant reported severe side effects. Half of the participants changed their social behaviour after vaccination by seeing friends and family more often. The high vaccination willingness in the study population might reflect the extraordinary effort taken by PCD support groups to inform people about COVID-19 vaccination. Clear and specific information and involvement of representatives is important for high vaccine uptake. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Epidemiology)
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12 pages, 302 KiB  
Article
Austria’s Digital Vaccination Registry: Stakeholder Views and Implications for Governance
by Katharina T. Paul, Anna Janny and Katharina Riesinger
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1495; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121495 - 17 Dec 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2280
Abstract
In this study, we explore the recent setup of a digital vaccination record in Austria. Working from a social-scientific perspective, we find that the introduction of the electronic vaccination pass was substantially accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic. Our interviews with key stakeholders ( [...] Read more.
In this study, we explore the recent setup of a digital vaccination record in Austria. Working from a social-scientific perspective, we find that the introduction of the electronic vaccination pass was substantially accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic. Our interviews with key stakeholders (n = 16) indicated that three main factors drove this acceleration. The pandemic (1) sidelined historical conflicts regarding data ownership and invoked a shared sense of the value of data, (2) accentuated the need for enhanced administrative efficiency in an institutionally fragmented system, and (3) helped invoke the national vaccination registry as an indispensable infrastructure for public health governance with the potential to innovate its healthcare system in the long term. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Innovation in Immunisation Programmes and Policies)
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10 pages, 510 KiB  
Article
Serological Response to SARS-CoV-2 Messenger RNA Vaccine: Real-World Evidence from Italian Adult Population
by Rosa Papadopoli, Caterina De Sarro, Caterina Palleria, Luca Gallelli, Claudia Pileggi and Giovambattista De Sarro
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1494; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121494 - 17 Dec 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1923
Abstract
Background: This study aims to investigate the extent of the BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine-induced antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 in a large cohort of Italian subjects belonging to the early vaccinated cohort in Italy. Methods: A prospective study was conducted between December 2020 and May 2021. [...] Read more.
Background: This study aims to investigate the extent of the BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine-induced antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 in a large cohort of Italian subjects belonging to the early vaccinated cohort in Italy. Methods: A prospective study was conducted between December 2020 and May 2021. Three blood samples were collected for each participant: one at the time of the first vaccine dose (T0), one at the time of the second vaccine dose, (T1) and the third 30 days after this last dose (T2). Results: We enrolled 2591 fully vaccinated subjects; 16.5% were frail subjects, and 9.8% were over 80 years old. Overall, 98.1% of subjects were seropositive when tested at T2, and 76.3% developed an anti-S IgG titer ≥4160 AU/mL, which is adequate to develop viral neutralizing antibodies. Seronegative subjects at T1 were more likely to remain seronegative at T2 or to develop a low–intermediate anti-S IgG titer (51–4159 AU/mL). Conclusions: In summary, vaccination leads to detectable anti-S IgG titer in nearly all vaccine recipients. Stratification of the seroconversion level could be useful to promptly identify high-risk groups who may not develop a viral neutralizing response, even in the presence of seroconversion, and therefore may remain at higher risk of infection, despite vaccination. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section COVID-19 Vaccines and Vaccination)
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21 pages, 5181 KiB  
Protocol
Detection and Quantification of SARS-CoV-2 Receptor Binding Domain Neutralization by a Sensitive Competitive ELISA Assay
by Ahmed O. Shalash, Armira Azuar, Harrison Y. R. Madge, Naphak Modhiran, Alberto A. Amarilla, Benjamin Liang, Alexander A. Khromykh, Daniel Watterson, Paul R. Young, Istvan Toth and Mariusz Skwarczynski
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1493; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121493 - 16 Dec 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3642
Abstract
This protocol describes an ELISA-based procedure for accurate measurement of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein-receptor binding domain (RBD) neutralization efficacy by murine immune serum. The procedure requires a small amount of S-protein/RBD and angiotensin converting enzyme-2 (ACE2). A high-throughput, simple ELISA technique is employed. Plate-coated-RBDs [...] Read more.
This protocol describes an ELISA-based procedure for accurate measurement of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein-receptor binding domain (RBD) neutralization efficacy by murine immune serum. The procedure requires a small amount of S-protein/RBD and angiotensin converting enzyme-2 (ACE2). A high-throughput, simple ELISA technique is employed. Plate-coated-RBDs are allowed to interact with the serum, then soluble ACE2 is added, followed by secondary antibodies and substrate. The key steps in this procedure include (1) serum heat treatment to prevent non-specific interactions, (2) proper use of blank controls to detect side reactions and eliminate secondary antibody cross-reactivity, (3) the addition of an optimal amount of saturating ACE2 to maximize sensitivity and prevent non-competitive co-occurrence of RBD-ACE2 binding and neutralization, and (4) mechanistically derived neutralization calculation using a calibration curve. Even manually, the protocol can be completed in 16 h for >30 serum samples; this includes the 7.5 h of incubation time. This automatable, high-throughput, competitive ELISA assay can screen a large number of sera, and does not require sterile conditions or special containment measures, as live viruses are not employed. In comparison to the ‘gold standard’ assays (virus neutralization titers (VNT) or plaque reduction neutralization titers (PRNT)), which are laborious and time consuming and require special containment measures due to their use of live viruses. This simple, alternative neutralization efficacy assay can be a great asset for initial vaccine development stages. The assay successfully passed conventional validation parameters (sensitivity, specificity, precision, and accuracy) and results with moderately neutralizing murine sera correlated with VNT assay results (R2 = 0.975, n = 25), demonstrating high sensitivity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The COVID Vaccine)
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25 pages, 23962 KiB  
Article
A Yellow Fever 17D Virus Replicon-Based Vaccine Platform for Emerging Coronaviruses
by Nadia Oreshkova, Sebenzile K. Myeni, Niraj Mishra, Irina C. Albulescu, Tim J. Dalebout, Eric J. Snijder, Peter J. Bredenbeek, Kai Dallmeier and Marjolein Kikkert
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1492; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121492 - 16 Dec 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3029
Abstract
The tremendous global impact of the current SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, as well as other current and recent outbreaks of (re)emerging viruses, emphasize the need for fast-track development of effective vaccines. Yellow fever virus 17D (YF17D) is a live-attenuated virus vaccine with an impressive efficacy [...] Read more.
The tremendous global impact of the current SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, as well as other current and recent outbreaks of (re)emerging viruses, emphasize the need for fast-track development of effective vaccines. Yellow fever virus 17D (YF17D) is a live-attenuated virus vaccine with an impressive efficacy record in humans, and therefore, it is a very attractive platform for the development of novel chimeric vaccines against various pathogens. In the present study, we generated a YF17D-based replicon vaccine platform by replacing the prM and E surface proteins of YF17D with antigenic subdomains from the spike (S) proteins of three different betacoronaviruses: MERS-CoV, SARS-CoV and MHV. The prM and E proteins were provided in trans for the packaging of these RNA replicons into single-round infectious particles capable of expressing coronavirus antigens in infected cells. YF17D replicon particles expressing the S1 regions of the MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV spike proteins were immunogenic in mice and elicited (neutralizing) antibody responses against both the YF17D vector and the coronavirus inserts. Thus, YF17D replicon-based vaccines, and their potential DNA- or mRNA-based derivatives, may constitute a promising and particularly safe vaccine platform for current and future emerging coronaviruses. Full article
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16 pages, 1788 KiB  
Communication
Immunogenicity of a DNA-Based Sindbis Replicon Expressing Crimean–Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Virus Nucleoprotein
by Thomas Tipih, Mark Heise and Felicity Jane Burt
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1491; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121491 - 16 Dec 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2669
Abstract
Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV) infrequently causes hemorrhagic fever in humans with a case fatality rate of 30%. Currently, there is neither an internationally approved antiviral drug nor a vaccine against the virus. A replicon based on the Sindbis virus vector encoding the [...] Read more.
Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV) infrequently causes hemorrhagic fever in humans with a case fatality rate of 30%. Currently, there is neither an internationally approved antiviral drug nor a vaccine against the virus. A replicon based on the Sindbis virus vector encoding the complete open reading frame of a CCHFV nucleoprotein from a South African isolate was prepared and investigated as a possible candidate vaccine. The transcription of CCHFV RNA and recombinant protein production by the replicon were characterized in transfected baby hamster kidney cells. A replicon encoding CCHFV nucleoprotein inserted in plasmid DNA, pSinCCHF-52S, directed transcription of CCHFV RNA in the transfected cells. NIH-III heterozygous mice immunized with pSinCCHF-52S generated CCHFV IgG specific antibodies with notably higher levels of IgG2a compared to IgG1. Splenocytes from mice immunized with pSinCCHF-52S secreted IFN-γ and IL-2, low levels of IL-6 or IL-10, and no IL-4. No specific cytokine production was registered in splenocytes of mock-immunized mice (p < 0.05). Thus, our study demonstrated the expression of CCHFV nucleoprotein by a Sindbis virus vector and its immunogenicity in mice. The spectrum of cytokine production and antibody profile indicated predominantly Th1-type of an anti-CCHFV immune response. Further studies in CCHFV-susceptible animals are necessary to determine whether the induced immune response is protective. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Perspective Technologies of Vaccination and Immunotherapy)
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31 pages, 6383 KiB  
Review
Vaccine Technologies and Platforms for Infectious Diseases: Current Progress, Challenges, and Opportunities
by Majed Ghattas, Garima Dwivedi, Marc Lavertu and Mohamad-Gabriel Alameh
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1490; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121490 - 16 Dec 2021
Cited by 48 | Viewed by 12117
Abstract
Vaccination is a key component of public health policy with demonstrated cost-effective benefits in protecting both human and animal populations. Vaccines can be manufactured under multiple forms including, inactivated (killed), toxoid, live attenuated, Virus-like Particles, synthetic peptide, polysaccharide, polysaccharide conjugate (glycoconjugate), viral vectored [...] Read more.
Vaccination is a key component of public health policy with demonstrated cost-effective benefits in protecting both human and animal populations. Vaccines can be manufactured under multiple forms including, inactivated (killed), toxoid, live attenuated, Virus-like Particles, synthetic peptide, polysaccharide, polysaccharide conjugate (glycoconjugate), viral vectored (vector-based), nucleic acids (DNA and mRNA) and bacterial vector/synthetic antigen presenting cells. Several processes are used in the manufacturing of vaccines and recent developments in medical/biomedical engineering, biology, immunology, and vaccinology have led to the emergence of innovative nucleic acid vaccines, a novel category added to conventional and subunit vaccines. In this review, we have summarized recent advances in vaccine technologies and platforms focusing on their mechanisms of action, advantages, and possible drawbacks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Vaccines against Infectious Diseases)
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21 pages, 9856 KiB  
Systematic Review
Effectiveness of the WHO-Authorized COVID-19 Vaccines: A Rapid Review of Global Reports till 30 June 2021
by Chang-Jie Cheng, Chun-Yi Lu, Ya-Hui Chang, Yu Sun, Hai-Jui Chu, Chun-Yu Lee, Chang-Hsiu Liu, Cheng-Huai Lin, Chien-Jung Lu and Chung-Yi Li
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1489; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121489 - 16 Dec 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3486
Abstract
Large clinical trials have proven the efficacy of the COVID-19 vaccine, and the number of studies about the effectiveness rapidly grew in the first half of the year after mass vaccination was administrated globally. This rapid review aims to provide evidence syntheses as [...] Read more.
Large clinical trials have proven the efficacy of the COVID-19 vaccine, and the number of studies about the effectiveness rapidly grew in the first half of the year after mass vaccination was administrated globally. This rapid review aims to provide evidence syntheses as a means to complement the current evidence on the vaccine effectiveness (VE) against various outcomes in real-world settings. Databases (PubMed, EMBASE, and MedRxiv) were searched up to 30 June 2021, (PROSPERO ID: 266866). A total of 39 studies were included, covering over 15 million participants from 11 nations. Among the general population being fully vaccinated, the VE against symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection was estimated at 89–97%, 92% (95% CI, 78–97%), and 94% (95% CI, 86–97%) for BNT162b2, ChAdOx1, and mRNA-1273, respectively. As for the protective effects against B.1.617.2-related symptomatic infection, the VE was 88% (95% CI, 85.3–90.1%) by BNT162b2 and 67.0% (95% CI, 61.3–71.8%) by ChAdOx1 after full vaccination. This review revealed a consistently high effectiveness of certain vaccines among the general population in real-world settings. However, scarce data on the major variants of SARS-CoV-2 and the shortness of the study time may limit the conclusions to the mRNA vaccines and ChAdOx1. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The COVID Vaccine)
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13 pages, 2021 KiB  
Review
Neutrophil and Natural Killer Cell Interactions in Cancers: Dangerous Liaisons Instructing Immunosuppression and Angiogenesis
by Maria Teresa Palano, Matteo Gallazzi, Martina Cucchiara, Andrea De Lerma Barbaro, Daniela Gallo, Barbara Bassani, Antonino Bruno and Lorenzo Mortara
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1488; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121488 - 16 Dec 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3504
Abstract
The tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) has largely been reported to cooperate on tumor onset and progression, as a consequence of the phenotype/functional plasticity and adaptation capabilities of tumor-infiltrating and tumor-associated immune cells. Immune cells within the tumor micro (tissue-local) and macro (peripheral blood) [...] Read more.
The tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) has largely been reported to cooperate on tumor onset and progression, as a consequence of the phenotype/functional plasticity and adaptation capabilities of tumor-infiltrating and tumor-associated immune cells. Immune cells within the tumor micro (tissue-local) and macro (peripheral blood) environment closely interact by cell-to-cell contact and/or via soluble factors, also generating a tumor-permissive soil. These dangerous liaisons have been investigated for pillars of tumor immunology, such as tumor associated macrophages and T cell subsets. Here, we reviewed and discussed the contribution of selected innate immunity effector cells, namely neutrophils and natural killer cells, as “soloists” or by their “dangerous liaisons”, in favoring tumor progression by dissecting the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tumor Immunotherapy)
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25 pages, 5098 KiB  
Article
Effects of Pope Francis’ Religious Authority and Media Coverage on Twitter User’s Attitudes toward COVID-19 Vaccination
by Arkadiusz Gaweł, Marzena Mańdziuk, Marek Żmudziński, Małgorzata Gosek, Marlena Krawczyk-Suszek, Mariusz Pisarski, Andrzej Adamski and Weronika Cyganik
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1487; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121487 - 16 Dec 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3453
Abstract
This paper is interdisciplinary and combines the research perspective of medical studies with that of media and social communication studies and theological studies. The main goal of this article is to determine [from arguments on all sides of the issue] whether, and to [...] Read more.
This paper is interdisciplinary and combines the research perspective of medical studies with that of media and social communication studies and theological studies. The main goal of this article is to determine [from arguments on all sides of the issue] whether, and to what extent, statements issued by a religious authority can be used as an argument in the COVID-19 vaccination campaign. The authors also want to find answers to the questions of how the pope’s comments affect public opinion when they concern the sphere of secular and everyday life, including issues related to health care. The main method used in this study is desktop research and the analysis of the Roman Catholic Church’s teaching on vaccination and on the types and significance of the pope’s statements on various topics. The auxiliary methods are sentiment analysis and network analysis made in the open source software Gephi. The authors are strongly interested in the communication and media aspect of the analyzed situation. Pope Francis’ voice on the COVID-19 vaccination has certainly been noticed and registered worldwide, but the effectiveness of his message and direct impact on Catholics’ decisions to accept or refuse the COVID-19 vaccination is quite questionable and would require further precise research. Comparing this to the regularities known from political marketing, one would think that the pope’s statement would not convince the firm opponents of vaccination. Full article
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6 pages, 645 KiB  
Case Report
Immune Thrombocytopenia Induced by the Chimpanzee Adenovirus-Vectored Vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 Infection
by Po-Wei Liao, Chieh-Lin Jerry Teng and Cheng-Wei Chou
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1486; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121486 - 16 Dec 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2111
Abstract
We present a case of immune thrombocytopenia (ITP) induced by the chimpanzee adenovirus-vectored vaccine, without evidence of thrombosis, eight days after vaccine administration. The thrombocytopenia condition improved after administering steroid treatment. This adenovirus vaccine had been reported to induce rare side effects, such [...] Read more.
We present a case of immune thrombocytopenia (ITP) induced by the chimpanzee adenovirus-vectored vaccine, without evidence of thrombosis, eight days after vaccine administration. The thrombocytopenia condition improved after administering steroid treatment. This adenovirus vaccine had been reported to induce rare side effects, such as immune thrombotic thrombocytopenia. This case report showed that it could also induce immune thrombocytopenia without the presence of thrombosis. Therefore, we should be cautious of this rare side effect as global vaccine administrations against coronavirus disease increase. Full article
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14 pages, 1322 KiB  
Article
Has Clinical and Epidemiological Varicella Burden Changed over Time in Children? Overview on Hospitalizations, Comorbidities and Costs from 2010 to 2017 in Italy
by Maria Francesca Piazza, Daniela Amicizia, Chiara Paganino, Francesca Marchini, Matteo Astengo, Federico Grammatico, Cecilia Trucchi, Paolo Romairone, Simona Simonetti, Camilla Sticchi and Filippo Ansaldi
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1485; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121485 - 15 Dec 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2603
Abstract
According to WHO estimates, varicella disease is responsible of a worldwide significant burden in terms of hospitalizations, complications, and deaths, with more than 90% of cases under 12 years old. This study aims at evaluating the clinical, epidemiological, and economic burden of varicella [...] Read more.
According to WHO estimates, varicella disease is responsible of a worldwide significant burden in terms of hospitalizations, complications, and deaths, with more than 90% of cases under 12 years old. This study aims at evaluating the clinical, epidemiological, and economic burden of varicella in Ligurian children, about comorbidities, organizational variables, and vaccination coverages from 2010 to 2017, in terms of Emergency Department accesses and hospitalizations. The overall hospitalization rate was 179.76 (per 100,000 inhab.), with a gradual but significant decline since 2015, when universal varicella vaccination was introduced in Liguria (p < 0.0001). The risk of being hospitalized for complicated varicella in subjects with at least one comorbidity was significantly higher than in subjects without comorbidities (p = 0.0016). The economic analysis showed higher costs in subjects with complicated varicella who were 0–3 years old. This age group showed higher costs also considering extra-hospital costs for both outpatient procedures and pharmaceutical costs (p < 0.0001). The results confirm the relevant burden of varicella, especially in the 0–3 age group and in children with comorbidities. Thus, vaccination with the achievement of adequate vaccination coverages is confirmed to be a necessary control strategy to reduce hospitalizations and associated complications with important economic benefits. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Vaccines against Infectious Diseases)
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9 pages, 1058 KiB  
Review
Undetectable Anti-HBs Antibodies: Need of a Booster Dose for HIV-1-Infected Individuals
by Yonas Bekele, Jay A. Berzofsky and Francesca Chiodi
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1484; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121484 - 15 Dec 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4209
Abstract
HBV vaccination effectively prevents HBV transmission and the development of liver cancer. Disease progression and liver-related complications are more common in HIV-1/HBV co-infected than HBV mono-infected individuals. A considerable body of literature, which will be reviewed here, indicates that response to HBV vaccine [...] Read more.
HBV vaccination effectively prevents HBV transmission and the development of liver cancer. Disease progression and liver-related complications are more common in HIV-1/HBV co-infected than HBV mono-infected individuals. A considerable body of literature, which will be reviewed here, indicates that response to HBV vaccine is suboptimal in HIV-1-infected individuals and that the poor maintenance of protective immunity to HBV vaccines in these individuals is an important medical issue. Several factors affect HBV vaccine response during HIV-1 infection including CD4+ T cell counts, B cell response, vaccine formulation, schedules, and timing of antiretroviral therapy (ART). The initial response to HBV vaccination also plays a critical role in the sustainability of antibody responses in both HIV-1-infected and uninfected vaccinees. Thus, regular follow-up for antibody titer and a booster dose is warranted to prevent HBV transmission in HIV-1 infected people. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hepatitis and Vaccines)
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17 pages, 50888 KiB  
Article
Single-Dose Vaccination of Recombinant Chimeric Newcastle Disease Virus (NDV) LaSota Vaccine Strain Expressing Infectious Bursal Disease Virus (IBDV) VP2 Gene Provides Full Protection against Genotype VII NDV and IBDV Challenge
by Qilong Qiao, Mingzhen Song, Congcong Song, Yihang Zhang, Xiangdong Wang, Qing Huang, Baiyu Wang, Panpan Yang, Shiyi Zhao, Yongtao Li, Zeng Wang and Jun Zhao
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1483; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121483 - 15 Dec 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2868
Abstract
Newcastle disease virus (NDV) and infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) are the two most important and widespread viruses causing huge economic losses in the global poultry industry. Outbreaks of genotype VII NDV and IBDV variants in vaccinated poultry flocks call for genetically matched [...] Read more.
Newcastle disease virus (NDV) and infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) are the two most important and widespread viruses causing huge economic losses in the global poultry industry. Outbreaks of genotype VII NDV and IBDV variants in vaccinated poultry flocks call for genetically matched vaccines. In the present study, a genetic matched chimeric NDV LaSota vaccine strain expressing VP2 gene of IBDV variant, rLaS-VIIF/HN-VP2 was generated for the first time, in which both the F and HN genes of LaSota were replaced with those of the genotype VII NDV strain FJSW. The cleavage site of the FJSW strain F protein in the rLaS-VIIF/HN-VP2 genome was mutated to the avirulent motif found in LaSota. Expression of IBDV VP2 protein was confirmed by western blot. The rLaS-VIIF/HN-VP2 maintained the efficient replication ability in embryonated eggs, low pathogenicity and genetic stability comparable to that of parental LaSota virus. One dose oculonasal vaccination of one-week-old SPF chickens with rLaS-VIIF/HN-VP2 induced full protection against genotype VII NDV and IBDV lethal challenge. These results indicate that the rLaS-VIIF/HN-VP2 is a promising bivalent vaccine to prevent infections of IBDV and genotype VII NDV. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Veterinary Vaccines)
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18 pages, 318 KiB  
Review
Oral Cholera Vaccine Efficacy and Effectiveness
by Katerina Rok Song, Jacqueline Kyungah Lim, Se Eun Park, Tarun Saluja, Sung-Il Cho, Tram Anh Wartel and Julia Lynch
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1482; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121482 - 15 Dec 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4830
Abstract
Although measuring vaccine efficacy through the conventional phase III study design, randomized, double-blinded controlled trial serves as the “gold standard”, effectiveness studies, conducted in the context of a public health program, seek to broaden the understanding of the impact of a vaccine in [...] Read more.
Although measuring vaccine efficacy through the conventional phase III study design, randomized, double-blinded controlled trial serves as the “gold standard”, effectiveness studies, conducted in the context of a public health program, seek to broaden the understanding of the impact of a vaccine in a real world setting including both individual and population level impacts. Cholera is an acute diarrheal infection caused by the ingestion of food or water contaminated with the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. Since the 1980s, either killed or live oral cholera vaccines (OCVs) have been developed and efficacy and effectiveness studies have been conducted on OCV. Although the results of OCV effectiveness studies sometimes showed outliers, the tendency seen is for effectiveness of the vaccine used in public health settings to be somewhat higher than estimated in randomized controlled trials due to the influence of indirect herd protection. Efficacy and Effectiveness studies both generate important information about the vaccine performance characteristics and its impact when used in real world populations at risk for the disease. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vaccine Efficacy and Vaccine Effectiveness)
10 pages, 405 KiB  
Review
Optimising COVID-19 Vaccination Policy to Mitigate SARS-CoV-2 Transmission within Schools in Zimbabwe
by Grant Murewanhema, Solomon Mukwenha, Tafadzwa Dzinamarira, Zindoga Mukandavire, Diego Cuadros, Roda Madziva, Innocent Chingombe, Munyaradzi Mapingure, Helena Herrera and Godfrey Musuka
Vaccines 2021, 9(12), 1481; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121481 - 15 Dec 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3539
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted the learning of millions of children across the world. Since March 2020 when the first cases of COVID-19 were reported in Zimbabwe, the country, like many others, has gone through periods of closing and re-opening of schools as [...] Read more.
The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted the learning of millions of children across the world. Since March 2020 when the first cases of COVID-19 were reported in Zimbabwe, the country, like many others, has gone through periods of closing and re-opening of schools as part of the national COVID-19 control and mitigation measures. Schools promote the social, mental, physical, and moral development of children. With this viewpoint, the authors argue that schools should not be closed to provide a measured and efficient response to the threats posed by the COVID-19 epidemic. Rather, infection prevention and control strategies, including vaccination of learners and teachers, and surveillance in schools should be heightened. The use of multiple prevention strategies discussed in this viewpoint has shown that when outbreaks in school settings are adequately managed, the transmission usually is low. The information presented here suggests that schools should remain open due to the preponderance of evidence indicating the overriding positive impacts of this policy on the health, development, and wellbeing of children. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vaccination of Adolescents)
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