Journal Description

Vaccines

Vaccines (ISSN 2076-393X; CODEN: VBSABP) is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal published monthly online by MDPI. The American Society for Virology (ASV) is affiliated with Vaccines and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), PubMed, PMC, Embase, CAPlus / SciFinder, and many other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Medicine, Research & Experimental) / CiteScore - Q2 (Pharmacology, medical)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision provided to authors approximately 13.6 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 3.4 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2020).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.

Impact Factor: 4.086 (2019)

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Latest Articles

Open AccessArticle

Bladder Cancer Immunotherapy by BCG Is Associated with a Significantly Reduced Risk of Alzheimer‘s Disease and Parkinson’s Disease

Danielle Klinger

Brian L. Hill

Noam Barda

Eran Halperin

Ofer N. Gofrit

Charles L. Greenblatt

Nadav Rappoport

Michal Linial

and

Hervé Bercovier

Vaccines 2021, 9(5), 491; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9050491 (registering DOI) - 11 May 2021

Abstract

Bacillus Calmette–Guerin (BCG) is a live attenuated form of Mycobacterium bovis that was developed 100 years ago as a vaccine against tuberculosis (TB) and has been used ever since to vaccinate children globally. It has also been used as the first-line treatment in patients with nonmuscle invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC), through repeated intravesical applications. Numerous studies have shown that BCG induces off-target immune effects in various pathologies. Accumulating data argue for the critical role of the immune system in the course of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and Parkinson’s disease (PD). In this study, we tested whether repeated exposure to BCG during the treatment of NMIBC is associated with the risk of developing AD and PD. We presented a multi-center retrospective cohort study with patient data collected between 2000 and 2019 that included 12,185 bladder cancer (BC) patients, of which 2301 BCG-treated patients met all inclusion criteria, with a follow-up of 3.5 to 7 years. We considered the diagnosis date of AD and nonvascular dementia cases for BC patients. The BC patients were partitioned into those who underwent a transurethral resection of the bladder tumor followed by BCG therapy, and a disjoint group that had not received such treatment. By applying Cox proportional hazards (PH) regression and competing for risk analyses, we found that BCG treatment was associated with a significantly reduced risk of developing AD, especially in the population aged 75 years or older. The older population (≥75 years, 1578 BCG treated, and 5147 controls) showed a hazard ratio (HR) of 0.726 (95% CI: 0.529–0.996; p-value = 0.0473). While in a hospital-based cohort, BCG treatment resulted in an HR of 0.416 (95% CI: 0.203–0.853; p-value = 0.017), indicating a 58% lower risk of developing AD. The risk of developing PD showed the same trend with a 28% reduction in BCG-treated patients, while no BCG beneficial effect was observed for other age-related events such as Type 2 diabetes (T2D) and stroke. We attributed BCG’s beneficial effect on neurodegenerative diseases to a possible activation of long-term nonspecific immune effects. We proposed a prospective study in elderly people for testing intradermic BCG inoculation as a potential protective agent against AD and PD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Epidemiology)

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Open AccessArticle

Will COVID-19 Vaccinations End Discrimination against COVID-19 Patients in China? New Evidence on Recovered COVID-19 Patients

Lu Li

Jian Wang

Anli Leng

Stephen Nicholas

Elizabeth Maitland

and

Rugang Liu

Vaccines 2021, 9(5), 490; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9050490 (registering DOI) - 11 May 2021

Abstract

(1) Background: By April 2021, over 160 million Chinese have been vaccinated against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). This study analyzed the impact of vaccination on discrimination against recovered COVID-19 patients and the determinants of discrimination among intended vaccinated people. (2) Methods: A self-designed questionnaire was used to collect data on COVID-19 associated discrimination from nine provinces in China. Pearson chi-square tests and a multivariate ordered logistic regression analyzed the determinants of COVID-19-related discrimination. (3) Results: People who intended to be COVID-19 vaccinated displayed a high level of discrimination against recovered COVID-19 patients, with only 37.74% of the intended vaccinated without any prejudice and 34.11% displaying severe discrimination. However, vaccinations reduced COVID-19-related discrimination against recovered COVID-19 patients from 79.76% to 62.26%. Sex, age, education level, occupation, geographical region, respondents’ awareness of vaccine effectiveness and infection risk, and COVID-19 knowledge score had a significant influence on the COVID-19 related discrimination (p < 0.05). (4) Conclusions: Vaccination significantly reduced COVID-19 associated discrimination, but discrimination rates remained high. Among the intended vaccinated respondents, females, the older aged, people with high school and above education level, retirees, migrant workers, and residents in central China were identified as key targets for information campaigns to reduce COVID-19 related discrimination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section COVID-19 Vaccines and Vaccination)

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Open AccessReview

Targeting COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy in Minority Populations in the US: Implications for Herd Immunity

James E. K. Hildreth

and

Donald J. Alcendor

Vaccines 2021, 9(5), 489; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9050489 (registering DOI) - 11 May 2021

Abstract

There has been a continuous underrepresentation of minorities in healthcare research and vaccine trials, along with long-standing systemic racism and discrimination that have been fueling the distrust of the healthcare system among these communities for decades. The history and legacy of racial injustices and negative experiences within a culturally insensitive healthcare system have greatly contributed to vaccine hesitancy among ethnic minorities. COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy will impact vaccine uptake in the US, subsequently hindering the establishment of herd immunity (75–85% of the population vaccinated) to mitigate SARS-CoV-2 infection and transmission. Information targeting underserved racial/ethnic minorities in the US in a culturally competent manner has been lacking. This information is crucial for educating these communities about COVID-19 vaccines and their distribution as well as dispelling misinformation regarding vaccine trials, safety, and efficacy. This lack of education has greatly contributed to COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy and will increase disparities in vaccine uptake. Moreover, timely vaccinations are also essential to curtailing virus transmission and the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants that may evade the immune response produced by the three existing COVID-19 vaccines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) Vaccination and Compliance/Hesitancy)

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Open AccessCommunication

Immune Response to COVID-19 mRNA Vaccine—A Pilot Study

Andrzej Lange

Agata Borowik

Jolanta Bocheńska

Joanna Rossowska

and

Emilia Jaskuła

Vaccines 2021, 9(5), 488; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9050488 - 11 May 2021

Abstract

Twenty individuals (17 females, 3 males, aged 31–65 years (range), median: 46) who received both doses of the BioNTech Pfizer mRNA vaccine were examined (11 to 31 days, median: 25) after the second dose for the presence of antibodies against peptides of SARS-COV-2 and some of MERS-CoV, SARS-CoV1, HCov229E, and HCoVNL63. Clinical evaluation revealed that six people had COVID-19 in the past. We found that: (i) Six people claimed the presence of unwanted effects of vaccination, which were more frequent in those with a history of COVID-19 (4 out of 6 vs. 2 out of 14, p = 0.037); (ii) All individuals independent of the past history of COVID-19 responded equally well in IgG but those who experienced the disease tended to do better in IgA class (729.04 vs. 529.78 U/mL, p = 0.079); (iii) All those who had experienced the disease had IgG antibodies against nucleocapsid antigens but also 5 out of 14 who had not had the disease (6/6 vs. 5/14, p = 0.014); (iv) Anti S2 antibodies were present in the patients having COVID-19 in the past but also were found in those who had not had the disease (6/6 vs. 8/14, p = 0.144); (v) All vaccinated people were highly positive in the IGRA and the level of released IFN gamma was correlated with the numbers of HLADR positive lymphocytes in the blood (R = 0.5766, p = 0.008). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue SARS-CoV-2 Serological Studies around the Globe)

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Open AccessReview

Vaccines in Children with Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Brief Review

Susanna Esposito

Giulia Antoniol

Marialuisa Labate

Lucrezia Passadore

Patrizia Alvisi

Valeria Daccò

Chiara Ghizzi

Carla Colombo

and

Nicola Principi

Vaccines 2021, 9(5), 487; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9050487 - 11 May 2021

Abstract

Incidence of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs), including Crohn’s disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), is increasing worldwide. Children with IBDs have a dysfunctional immune system and they are frequently treated with immunomodulating drugs and biological therapy, which significantly impair immune system functions and lead to an increased risk of infections. Vaccines are essential to prevent at least part of these infections and this explains why strict compliance to the immunization guidelines specifically prepared for IBD patients is strongly recommended. However, several factors might lead to insufficient immunization. In this paper, present knowledge on the use of vaccines in children with IBDs is discussed. Literature review showed that despite a lack of detailed quantification of the risk of infections in children with IBDs, these children might have infections more frequently than age-matched healthy subjects, and at least in some cases, these infections might be even more severe. Fortunately, most of these infections could be prevented when recommended schedules of immunization are carefully followed. Vaccines given to children with IBDs generally have adequate immunogenicity and safety. Attention must be paid to live attenuated vaccines that can be administered only to children without or with mild immune system function impairment. Vaccination of their caregivers is also recommended. Unfortunately, compliance to these recommendations is generally low and multidisciplinary educational programs to improve vaccination coverage must be planned, in order to protect children with IBD from vaccine-preventable diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vaccines for Infectious and Chronic Diseases)

Open AccessEditorial

mRNA Innovates the Vaccine Field

Norbert Pardi

Vaccines 2021, 9(5), 486; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9050486 - 11 May 2021

Abstract

Development of new vaccine modalities is a critical need to address many of the shortcomings of traditional platforms such as the lack of sufficient efficacy against certain pathogens or cancer; difficulties with production; or, in some cases, safety issues [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Past, Present, and Future of mRNA Vaccines)

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring of Influenza Vaccination Coverage among Pregnant Women in Germany Based on Nationwide Outpatient Claims Data: Findings for Seasons 2014/15 to 2019/20

Annika Steffen

Thorsten Rieck

and

Anette Siedler

Vaccines 2021, 9(5), 485; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9050485 - 11 May 2021

Abstract

Pregnant women and their infants are at increased risk for severe influenza-related complications. A decade has passed since influenza vaccination was first recommended for pregnant women in Germany in 2010; however, monitoring of vaccination coverage (VC) has not yet been implemented for this target group. Using nationwide outpatient claims data, we here provide results on influenza VC among pregnant women in Germany for seasons 2014/15 to 2019/20. For any given season, pregnant women were defined as women who had undergone prenatal health care in at least two consecutive quarters within a season. VC increased from 9.0% in season 2014/15 to 16.6% in 2019/20 (+84%), while most of the increase occurred from season 2016/17 (VC: 9.9%) onwards (+68%). Consistently across seasons, women in east Germany were 40 to 60% more likely to be vaccinated compared to women residing in west Germany. According to age, the highest VC was observed among women aged 35 to <40 years (2019/20: 18.2%). Despite noticeable increases in influenza VC during recent years, overall coverage remains low among pregnant women. Starting with this analysis, VC among pregnant women in Germany will be monitored on a yearly basis in order to detect trends and identify immunization gaps. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Global Vaccination Coverage)

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Open AccessArticle

Local Sustained GM-CSF Delivery by Genetically Engineered Encapsulated Cells Enhanced Both Cellular and Humoral SARS-CoV-2 Spike-Specific Immune Response in an Experimental Murine Spike DNA Vaccination Model

Rémi Vernet

Emily Charrier

Erika Cosset

Sabine Fièvre

Ugo Tomasello

Julien Grogg

and

Nicolas Mach

Vaccines 2021, 9(5), 484; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9050484 - 10 May 2021

Abstract

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has caused a worldwide pandemic with recurrences. Therefore, finding a vaccine for this virus became a priority for the scientific community. The SARS-CoV-2 spike protein has been described as the keystone for viral entry into cells and effective immune protection against SARS-CoV-2 is elicited by this protein. Consequently, many commercialized vaccines focus on the spike protein and require the use of an optimal adjuvant during vaccination. Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) has demonstrated a powerful enhancement of acquired immunity against many pathogens when delivered in a sustained and local manner. In this context, we developed an encapsulated cell-based technology consisting of a biocompatible, semipermeable capsule for secretion of GM-CSF. In this study, we investigated whether murine GM-CSF (muGM-CSF) represents a suitable adjuvant for SARS-CoV-2 immunization, and which delivery strategy for muGM-CSF could be most beneficial. To test this, different groups of mice were immunized with intra-dermal (i.d.) electroporated spike DNA in the absence or presence of recombinant or secreted muGM-CSF. Results demonstrated that adjuvanting a spike DNA vaccine with secreted muGM-CSF resulted in enhancement of specific cellular and humoral immune responses against SARS-CoV-2. Our data also highlighted the importance of delivery strategies to the induction of cellular and humoral-mediated responses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection COVID-19 Vaccines and Vaccination)

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Open AccessArticle

Assessing the Protective Dose of a Candidate DIVA Vaccine against Classical Swine Fever

Tinka Jelsma

Jacob Post

Erwin van den Born

Ruud Segers

and

Jeroen Kortekaas

Vaccines 2021, 9(5), 483; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9050483 - 10 May 2021

Abstract

Classical swine fever is a highly contagious and deadly disease in swine. The disease can be controlled effectively by vaccination with an attenuated virus known as the “Chinese” (C)-strain. A single vaccination with the C-strain provides complete protection against highly virulent isolates within days after vaccination, making it one of the most efficacious veterinary vaccines ever developed. A disadvantage of the C-strain is that vaccinated animals cannot be serologically differentiated from animals that are infected with wild-type Classical swine fever virus. Previously, a C-strain-based vaccine with a stable deletion in the E2 structural glycoprotein was developed, which allows for differentiation between infected and vaccinated animals (DIVA). The resulting vaccine, which we named C-DIVA, is compatible with a commercial E2 ELISA, modified to render it suitable as a DIVA test. In the present work, three groups of eight piglets were vaccinated with escalating doses of the C-DIVA vaccine and challenged two weeks after vaccination. One group of four unvaccinated piglets served as controls. Piglets were monitored for clinical signs until three weeks after challenge and blood samples were collected to monitor viremia, leukocyte and thrombocyte levels, and antibody responses. The presence of challenge virus RNA in oropharyngeal swabs was investigated to first gain insight into the potential of C-DIVA to prevent shedding. The results demonstrate that a single vaccination with 70 infectious virus particles of C-DIVA protects pigs from the highly virulent Brescia strain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Application of New Vaccine against Classical Swine Fever Virus)

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Open AccessArticle

Poly (I:C)-Potentiated Vaccination Enhances T Cell Response in Olive Flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) Providing Protection against Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia Virus (VHSV)

Jin Hong Chun

Jae Wook Jung

Young Rim Kim

Jassy Mary S. Lazarte

Si Won Kim

Jaesung Kim

Kim D. Thompson

Hyoung Jun Kim

and

Tae Sung Jung

Vaccines 2021, 9(5), 482; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9050482 - 10 May 2021

Abstract

Viral hemorrhagic septicemia (VHS), caused by viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV), is a viral disease affecting teleosts, and is the major cause of virus-related deaths in olive flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus). Research has focused on ways to control VHS, and recently, the use of polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid poly (I:C)-potentiated vaccination has been investigated, whereby fish are injected with poly (I:C) and then with live pathogenic virus, resulting in a significant decrease in VHSV-related mortality. T cell responses were investigated in the present study after vaccinating olive flounder with poly (I:C)-potentiated vaccination to understand the ability of poly (I:C) to induce T cell immunity. Stimulation of T cell responses with the poly (I:C)-potentiated vaccination was confirmed by examining levels of CD3⁺ T cells, CD4-1⁺ T cells and CD4-2⁺ T cells. Higher levels of CD4-2⁺ T cells were found in vaccinated fish than CD4-1⁺ T cells, believed to result from a synergistic effect between poly (I:C) administration and pathogenic VHSV immunization. More importantly, the role of CD4-2⁺ T cells in the antiviral response was clearly evident. The results of this study suggest that the outstanding protection obtained with the poly (I:C)-potentiated vaccination is due to the robust immune response initiated by the CD4-2⁺ T cells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vaccines for Aquaculture)

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Open AccessArticle

What Arguments against COVID-19 Vaccines Run on Facebook in Poland: Content Analysis of Comments

Dominik Wawrzuta

Mariusz Jaworski

Joanna Gotlib

and

Mariusz Panczyk

Vaccines 2021, 9(5), 481; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9050481 - 10 May 2021

Abstract

Social media allow anti-vaxxers to quickly spread misinformation and false statements. This situation may lead to an increase in vaccine hesitancy. We wanted to characterize what arguments against COVID-19 vaccines run on Facebook in Poland. We analyzed Facebook comments related to the five events of the introduction of COVID-19 vaccines—announcements of the efficacy of the Pfizer-BioNTech (09.11.2020), Moderna (16.11.2020), and AstraZeneca (23.11.2020) vaccines, registration of the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine by the European Medicines Agency (21.12.2020), and the first vaccination in Poland (27.12.2020). We collected the comments from fanpages of the biggest Polish media and then established their main anti-vaccine themes. We found that the negative arguments about COVID-19 vaccines can be divided into 12 categories. Seven of them are universal and also apply to other vaccines but five are new and COVID-19’ specific. The frequency of arguments from a given category varied over time. We also noticed that, while the comments were mostly negative, the reactions were positive. Created codebook of anti-vaccine COVID-19 arguments can be used to monitor the attitude of society towards COVID-19 vaccines. Real-time monitoring of social media is important because the popularity of certain arguments on Facebook changes rapidly over time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vaccines: Uptake and Equity in Times of the COVID-19 Pandemic)

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Open AccessReview

Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus: Immune Escape and Application of Reverse Genetics in Attenuated Live Vaccine Development

Honglei Wang

Yangyang Xu

and

Wenhai Feng

Vaccines 2021, 9(5), 480; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9050480 - 10 May 2021

Abstract

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), an RNA virus widely prevalent in pigs, results in significant economic losses worldwide. PRRSV can escape from the host immune response in several processes. Vaccines, including modified live vaccines and inactivated vaccines, are the best available countermeasures against PRRSV infection. However, challenges still exist as the vaccines are not able to induce broad protection. The reason lies in several facts, mainly the variability of PRRSV and the complexity of the interaction between PRRSV and host immune responses, and overcoming these obstacles will require more exploration. Many novel strategies have been proposed to construct more effective vaccines against this evolving and smart virus. In this review, we will describe the mechanisms of how PRRSV induces weak and delayed immune responses, the current vaccines of PRRSV, and the strategies to develop modified live vaccines using reverse genetics systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue PRRSV Vaccinology and Immunology)

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Open AccessArticle

Willingness to Vaccinate against COVID-19 Declines in Australia, Except in Lockdown Areas

Quyen G. To

Robert Stanton

Saman Khalesi

Susan L. Williams

Stephanie J. Alley

Tanya L. Thwaite

Andrew S. Fenning

and

Corneel Vandelanotte

Vaccines 2021, 9(5), 479; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9050479 - 10 May 2021

Abstract

This study investigates changes in willingness to vaccinate against COVID-19 and the effect of the extended restrictions in metropolitan Victoria on this change. Longitudinal and repeated cross-sectional data were collected from online surveys distributed in April, between July and August, and December 2020. Australian adults who were ≥18 years old were recruited through email lists, social media networks, and paid Facebook advertisement. Willingness to vaccinate against COVID-19 was self-reported. The results showed that participants were more willing to vaccinate if the vaccine was safe at survey 1 (longitudinal: adjusted OR (aOR) = 1.88, 95%CI = 1.38, 2.56; cross-sectional: aOR = 3.73, 95%CI = 2.55, 5.45) and survey 2 (longitudinal: aOR = 1.54, 95%CI = 1.19, 2.00; cross-sectional: aOR = 2.48, 1.67, 3.67), compared to survey 3. The change in willingness to vaccinate if the vaccine was safe and effective was not significant for those in Metropolitan Victoria; but was for those living in other Australian locations at survey 1 (OR = 2.13, 95%CI = 1.64, 2.76) and survey 2 (OR = 1.62, 95%CI = 1.30, 2.01), compared to survey 3. Willingness to vaccinate even if a vaccine had not been proven safe decreased at survey 3 (OR = 2.02, 95%CI = 1.14, 3.57) for those living in Metropolitan Victoria. In conclusion willingness to vaccinate against COVID-19 decreased over time among Australians, except for those living in metropolitan Victoria, where an additional strict and prolonged lockdown was implemented around the time of survey 2. Either the experience of the lockdown, or the presence of the COVID-19 virus itself had a positive influence on participants’ willingness to vaccinate, even if such a vaccine was not yet proven to be safe and effective. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Vaccines and Society)

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Inflammatory Immune Dysfunction in Psoriasis Patients at Risk for COVID-19

Tatiana Mina Yendo

Maria Notomi Sato

Anna Cláudia Calvielli Castelo Branco

Anna Julia Pietrobon

Franciane Mouradian Emidio Teixeira

Yasmim Álefe Leuzzi Ramos

Ricardo Wesley Alberca

Cesar Giudice Valêncio

Vivian Nunes Arruda

Ricardo Romiti

Marcelo Arnone

André Luis da Silva Hirayama

Alberto Jose da Silva Duarte

Valeria Aoki

and

Raquel Leao Orfali

Vaccines 2021, 9(5), 478; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9050478 - 10 May 2021

Abstract

Psoriasis is an immune-mediated dermatosis usually associated with comorbidities. Treatment varies from topicals to systemic drugs and data on susceptibility to viral infections in psoriatic patients are scarce. The objectives of this study were to analyze psoriatic patients on different therapies who were at risk for COVID-19 for seroprevalence of SARS-COV-2, pro-inflammatory cytokine profile, comorbidities and outcomes in order to unveil the immunological mechanisms involved in the anti-viral response in patients with psoriasis. Seventy-five patients with psoriasis were divided according to treatment: immunobiologics, methotrexate, topicals and acitretin. Twenty healthy controls were included. Plasma samples were collected for: IgG SARS-COV-2 (ELISA); IL-27, IL-29 and IL-18 (ELISA); and IL-1β, IL-17A, IL-6 and TNF (cytometric array). Seropositivity for SARS-COV-2 was detected in 24 out of 75 psoriasis patients and did not relate to COVID-19 symptoms and/or hospitalization, despite associated comorbidities. Psoriasis patients who were asymptomatic for SARS-COV-2 exhibited immune imbalance with high levels of IL-18, IL-17A and IL-6, and low levels of IL-27 compared to healthy controls. Psoriasis groups showed significant increased cytokine levels only in the group with immunobiologics. Despite immune deviations and lower IL-27, which has a potential antiviral impact, psoriatic patients did not exhibit complications related to COVID-19. An understanding of this kind of proinflammatory profile of psoriatic patients and of the lack of severe outcomes for COVID-19 is essential to establish novel therapeutic approaches and preventive measures, including with regard to the concomitance of viral infections. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innate Immunity to Virus Infection)

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Open AccessReview

Peptide-Based Vaccines: Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus, a Paradigm in Animal Health

Miguel Rodríguez-Pulido

and

Vaccines 2021, 9(5), 477; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9050477 - 08 May 2021

Abstract

Vaccines are considered one of the greatest global health achievements, improving the welfare of society by saving lives and substantially reducing the burden of infectious diseases. However, few vaccines are fully effective, for reasons ranging from intrinsic limitations to more contingent shortcomings related, e.g., to cold chain transport, handling and storage. In this context, subunit vaccines where the essential antigenic traits (but not the entire pathogen) are presented in rationally designed fashion have emerged as an attractive alternative to conventional ones. In particular, this includes the option of fully synthetic peptide vaccines able to mimic well-defined B- and T-cell epitopes from the infectious agent and to induce protection against it. Although, in general, linear peptides have been associated to low immunogenicity and partial protection, there are several strategies to address such issues. In this review, we report the progress towards the development of peptide-based vaccines against foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) a highly transmissible, economically devastating animal disease. Starting from preliminary experiments using single linear B-cell epitopes, recent research has led to more complex and successful second-generation vaccines featuring peptide dendrimers containing multiple copies of B- and T-cell epitopes against FMD virus or classical swine fever virus (CSFV). The usefulness of this strategy to prevent other animal and human diseases is discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development of Epitope-Based Peptide Vaccine)

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Open AccessArticle

Health System Barriers and Facilitators to Delivering Additional Vaccines through the National Immunisation Programme in China: A Qualitative Study of Provider and Service-User Perspectives

and

Vaccines 2021, 9(5), 476; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9050476 - 08 May 2021

Abstract

In China, there are two categories of vaccines available from the Chinese Center for Disease Control and associated public health agencies. Extended Program of Immunization (EPI) vaccines are government-funded and non-EPI vaccines are voluntary and paid for out-of-pocket. The government plans to transition some non-EPI vaccines to EPI in the coming years, which may burden public health system capacity, particularly in terms of budget, workforce, supply chains, and information systems. Our study explored vaccinator and caregiver perspectives on introducing non-EPI vaccines into routine immunization and perceived facilitators and barriers affecting this transition. We conducted a qualitative study from a realist perspective, analysing semi-structured interviews with 26 vaccination providers and 160 caregivers in three provinces, selected to represent regional socioeconomic disparities across Eastern, Central, and Western China. Data were analysed thematically, using deductive and inductive coding. Most participants were positive about adding vaccines to the national schedule. Candidate EPI vaccines most frequently recommended by participants were varicella, mumps vaccine, and hand–foot–mouth disease. Providers generally considered existing workspaces, cold-chain equipment, and funding sufficient, but described frontline staffing and vaccine information systems as requiring improvement. This is the first qualitative study to explore interest, barriers, and facilitators related to adding vaccines to China’s national schedule from provider and caregiver perspectives. Findings can inform government efforts to introduce additional vaccines, by including efforts to retain and recruit vaccine programme staff and implement whole-process data management and health information systems that allow unified nationwide data collection and sharing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Vaccines and Society)

Open AccessArticle

A Comparison of the Level of Acceptance and Hesitancy towards the Influenza Vaccine and the Forthcoming COVID-19 Vaccine in the Medical Community

and

Vaccines 2021, 9(5), 475; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9050475 - 08 May 2021

Abstract

Despite research conducted worldwide, there is no treatment specifically targeting SARS-CoV-2 infection with efficacy proven by randomized controlled trials. A chance for a breakthrough is vaccinating most of the global population. Public opinion surveys on vaccine hesitancy prompted our team to investigate Polish healthcare workers’ (HCWs) attitudes towards the SARS-CoV-2 and influenza vaccinations. In-person and online surveys of HCWs: doctors, nurses, medical students, and other allied health professionals (n = 419) were conducted between 14 September 2020 and 5 November 2020. In our study, 68.7% of respondents would like to be vaccinated against COVID-19. The safety and efficacy of COVID-19 vaccinations would persuade 86.3% of hesitant and those who would refuse to be vaccinated. 3.1% of all respondents claimed that no argument would convince them to get vaccinated. 61.6% of respondents declared a willingness to receive an influenza vaccination, of which 83.3% were also inclined to receive COVID-19 vaccinations. Although most respondents—62.5% (262/419) indicated they trusted in the influenza vaccine more, more respondents intended to get vaccinated against COVID-19 in the 2020/2021 season. The study is limited by its nonrandom sample of HCWs but provides a preliminary description of attitudes towards SARS-CoV-2 vaccination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) Vaccination and Compliance/Hesitancy)

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Open AccessArticle

Pneumococcal and Influenza Vaccination Rates and Pneumococcal Invasive Disease Rates Set Geographical and Ethnic Population Susceptibility to Serious COVID-19 Cases and Deaths

Robert Root-Bernstein

Vaccines 2021, 9(5), 474; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9050474 - 08 May 2021

Abstract

This study examines the relationship of pneumococcal vaccination rates, influenza, measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccinations (DTP), polio, Haemophilus influenzae type B (Hib), and Bacillus Calmette–Guerin (tuberculosis) vaccination rates to COVID-19 case and death rates for 51 nations that have high rates of COVID-19 testing and for which nearly complete childhood, at-risk adult and elderly pneumococcal vaccination data were available. The study is unique in a large number of nations examined, the range of vaccine controls, in testing effects of combinations of vaccinations, and in examining the relationship of COVID-19 and vaccination rates to invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD). Analysis of Italian regions and the states of the United States were also performed. Significant positive correlations were found between IPD (but not lower respiratory infections) and COVID-19 rates, while significant negative correlations were found between pneumococcal vaccination and COVID-19 rates. Influenza and MMR vaccination rates were negatively correlated with lower respiratory infection (LRI) rates and may synergize with pneumococcal vaccination rates to protect against COVID-19. Pneumococcal and influenza vaccination rates were independent of other vaccination rates. These results suggest that endemic rates of bacterial pneumonias, for which pneumococci are a sentinel, may set regional and national susceptibility to severe COVID-19 disease and death. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Role of Host Pathogen Interactions and/or Epigenetics in Vaccine Development)

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Open AccessArticle

Comparative Evaluation of Lumpy Skin Disease Virus-Based Live Attenuated Vaccines

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Vaccines 2021, 9(5), 473; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9050473 - 08 May 2021

Abstract

Vaccines form the cornerstone of any control, eradication and preventative strategy and this is no different for lumpy skin disease. However, the usefulness of a vaccine is determined by a multiplicity of factors which include stability, efficiency, safety and ease of use, to name a few. Although the vaccination campaign in the Balkans against lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) was successful and has been implemented with success in the past in other countries, data of vaccine failure have also been reported. It was therefore the purpose of this study to compare five homologous live attenuated LSDV vaccines (LSDV LAV) in a standardized setting. All five LSDV LAVs studied were able to protect against a challenge with virulent LSDV. Aside from small differences in serological responses, important differences were seen in side effects such as a local reaction and a Neethling response upon vaccination between the analyzed vaccines. These observations can have important implications in the applicability in the field for some of these LSDV LAVs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Controlled Clinical Evaluation of Veterinary Vaccines)

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Open AccessArticle

Sensitivity to COVID-19 Vaccine Effectiveness and Safety in Shanghai, China

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Vaccines 2021, 9(5), 472; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9050472 - 07 May 2021

Abstract

Several COVID-19 vaccines have been on the market since early 2021 and may vary in their effectiveness and safety. This study characterizes hesitancy about accepting COVID-19 vaccines among parents in Shanghai, China, and identifies how sensitive they are to changes in vaccine safety and effectiveness profiles. Schools in each township of Minhang District, Shanghai, were sampled, and parents in the WeChat group of each school were asked to participate in this cross-sectional Internet-based survey. Parents responded to questions about hesitancy and were given information about five different COVID-19 vaccine candidates, the effectiveness of which varied between 50 and 95% and which had a risk of fever as a side effect between 5 and 20%. Overall, 3673 parents responded to the survey. Almost 90% would accept a vaccine for themselves (89.7%), for their child (87.5%) or for an elderly parent (88.5%) with the most ideal attributes (95% effectiveness with 5% risk of fever). But with the least ideal attributes (50% effectiveness and a 20% risk of fever) these numbers dropped to 33.5%, 31.3%, and 31.8%, respectively. Vaccine hesitancy, age at first child’s birth, and relative income were all significantly related to sensitivity to vaccine safety and effectiveness. Parents showed a substantial shift in attitudes towards a vaccine based on its safety and effectiveness profile. These findings indicate that COVID-19 vaccine acceptance may be heavily influenced by how effective the vaccine actually is and could be impeded or enhanced based on vaccines already on the market. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection COVID-19 Vaccines and Vaccination)

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