Buildings

45 pages, 5215 KB

Open AccessReview

State-of-the-Art Review of Biomineralization-Based Self-Healing Concrete: Chronological Development from Bacteria to Fungi and Algae

by Kumar Shakti Srivastava, Visalakshi Talakokula, Sri Kalyana Rama Jyosyula, Mrittika Sengupta and Mohamed A. Shahin

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3137; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153137 - 6 Aug 2026

Viewed by 534

Abstract

Cracks pose a significant threat to the structural integrity, durability, and service life of concrete; therefore, sustainable, autonomous repair solutions are paramount. In the last 25 years, bio-based self-healing, particularly microbially induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP), has become an attractive technology. Self-healing by [...] Read more.

Cracks pose a significant threat to the structural integrity, durability, and service life of concrete; therefore, sustainable, autonomous repair solutions are paramount. In the last 25 years, bio-based self-healing, particularly microbially induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP), has become an attractive technology. Self-healing by bacteria has been studied extensively, but the use of other biomineralization agents, such as fungi and algae, has unique benefits, namely, hyphal crack-bridging and photosynthetic mineralization. In this paper, a thorough state-of-the-art review is presented that compares bacteria, fungi, and algae as biomineralization agents. The comparative methodology involves a structured review of the peer-reviewed literature on these agents (2000–2025), and compares them on a set of common performance criteria: (i) biochemical precipitation mechanisms (ureolytic, non-ureolytic, photosynthetic and hyphal bridging); (ii) quantitative crack-healing efficiency (maximum width of crack closed); (iii) mechanical performance recovery (restoration of compressive and tensile strength); (iv) long-term durability enhancement. Moreover, it critically evaluates implementation challenges, including biological viability in extreme cementitious media, encapsulation methods, and the levels of technological maturity for practical engineering applications. The findings of this synthesis outline key research gaps and offer a roadmap for creating hybrid, consortium-based self-healing systems to help engineers and researchers select the best bio-based concrete for a given structure and environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

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25 pages, 9858 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Study on Lightweight Geopolymer Composites Synergistically Modified with Biomass and Recycled EPS

by Teng Wang, Shuang Wang, Ziwei Tong, Kunhang Li, Chenghan Cai, He Huang and Hongqiang Li

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3136; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153136 - 6 Aug 2026

Viewed by 385

Abstract

The growing demand for low-carbon building materials and the challenges of handling agroforestry waste and discarded EPS particles have spurred research toward developing novel building composites that utilize solid waste. Therefore, this study aims to develop a lightweight geopolymer composite incorporating these recycled [...] Read more.

The growing demand for low-carbon building materials and the challenges of handling agroforestry waste and discarded EPS particles have spurred research toward developing novel building composites that utilize solid waste. Therefore, this study aims to develop a lightweight geopolymer composite incorporating these recycled materials to balance thermal insulation, mechanical strength, and waterproofing properties. In this work, geopolymer served as the binder, with various types of raw biomass (sawdust, rice husk, rice straw, and coconut fiber) as the primary aggregates and EPS particles as an additive to create a closed-pore structure. The microstructure of the raw biomass was characterized by SEM, while its specific surface area and average pore diameter were determined by BET analysis. Furthermore, the prepared composites were comprehensively evaluated in terms of their microstructure, pore structure (MIP), density, thermal conductivity, compressive strength, total water absorption, capillary water absorption, surface wettability, and UV aging behavior. The results showed that the prepared composites exhibited a porosity of 59.9–65.7%, a density of 492.9–586.3 kg/m³, a compressive strength of 7.3–10.9 MPa, a thermal conductivity of 0.115–0.142 W/(m·K), a total water absorption of 35.2–42.2%, capillary water uptake coefficients of 4.9–11 kg/m², and a water contact angle exceeding 140° (after modification). In addition, the developed composites offered significant environmental and economic benefits, with a low carbon footprint and an estimated cost of 100.6–150.3 USD/m³, making them more competitive compared to traditional insulation materials. Meanwhile, this study provides a scientific basis for developing high-strength building insulation materials from agroforestry waste, thus outlining a promising direction for future research and industry development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Building Materials and Advanced Energy Systems: High-Performance, Low-Carbon, and Environmentally Friendly)

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23 pages, 15746 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Seismic Behavior of a Novel Modular Connection Joint Between Square Steel Tubular Columns and H-Shaped Steel Beams

by Yuan Wang, Zhang-Xi Fan, Jin-Qi Lu and Li-Min Tian

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3135; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153135 - 6 Aug 2026

Viewed by 351

Abstract

A critical research gap persists in modular steel construction regarding the seismic behavior of inter-module connections between square steel tubular columns and H-shaped steel beams. While numerous connection systems have been proposed, two fundamental challenges remain unresolved: the inherent conflict between construction efficiency [...] Read more.

A critical research gap persists in modular steel construction regarding the seismic behavior of inter-module connections between square steel tubular columns and H-shaped steel beams. While numerous connection systems have been proposed, two fundamental challenges remain unresolved: the inherent conflict between construction efficiency and mechanical performance, and the insufficiency of restoring force models that systematically describe hysteretic characteristics and stiffness degradation under cyclic loading. To address these issues, a novel box-type modular connection between square steel tubular columns and H-shaped steel beams is proposed. A finite element model was established using ABAQUS, and the modeling methodology was validated against experimental results from the literature. The seismic behavior was systematically investigated, and a restoring force model with theoretical saturation and linear degradation was developed. Results show that the novel joint is a semi-rigid connection that satisfies the “strong column–weak beam” design principle. The outer ring plate shifts the plastic hinge away from the vulnerable beam end region, preventing failure at the beam–column connection. Among the detrimental factors identified, the insert-to-column gap has the most severe impact, causing up to a 49.5% reduction in energy dissipation and a 6.5% reduction in initial stiffness; the outer ring plate thickness below the beam flange thickness causes a 44.6% drop in energy dissipation. The proposed restoring force model, validated against nine calibration specimens and one independent specimen, predicts peak load with a deviation of only 1.14% and the equivalent viscous damping coefficient with a relative error of 14.7%, confirming its reliability in capturing the cyclic behavior of the joint. This study provides both design recommendations for engineering practice and a theoretical foundation for elasto-plastic analysis of modular frames with this connection type. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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19 pages, 6027 KB

Open AccessArticle

Phase-Resolved Reorganization of Seismic Load Paths in a Full-Scale Mass-Timber Rocking-Wall Building

by Jun Chuai, Junfeng Duan and Zhilong Hou

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3134; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153134 - 6 Aug 2026

Viewed by 292

Abstract

Self-centering rocking systems redistribute seismic demand as contact conditions at structural interfaces change during excitation. Conventional peak-response measures, global-response model calibration, and system-identification summaries can obscure the transient redistribution among diaphragms, wall couplings, and restoring components. This study addresses that gap with a [...] Read more.

Self-centering rocking systems redistribute seismic demand as contact conditions at structural interfaces change during excitation. Conventional peak-response measures, global-response model calibration, and system-identification summaries can obscure the transient redistribution among diaphragms, wall couplings, and restoring components. This study addresses that gap with a phase-resolved analysis of heterogeneous measurements from fourteen full-scale shake-table tests of a two-story mass-timber building with post-tensioned cross-laminated timber rocking walls. Acceleration, strain, post-tensioning-force, and wall-uplift records were aligned, screened, and placed on a common analysis grid; uplift-defined operating phases were then evaluated using normalized subsystem activity, entropy, effective participation, conditional directed predictability, and dimensional force-uplift work. Median effective participation increased from 2.7 subsystems in the closed state to approximately 5.8 during rocking. The median closed-to-rocking Jensen–Shannon divergence was 0.195, the median post-recontact recovery index was 0.813, and restoring work was 4.6–10.7% greater on the south wall line. Rocking-phase floor-diaphragm activity co-varied with south restoring work (Spearman ρ = 0.873, p < 0.001). The new scientific result is that wall uplift reorganizes the composition of measured subsystem activity rather than simply scaling a fixed response pattern. The proposed indicators therefore provide complementary, phase-conditioned targets for experimental comparison and nonlinear-model validation, while remaining distinct from equilibrium force fractions, damage indices, or unrestricted causal measures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances and Applications in Structural Vibration Control: 2nd Edition)

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25 pages, 6995 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rubber Aggregate Concrete with Enhanced Damping Performance for Mass Concrete Applications

by Yanan Li, Xianguo Dong and Zejun Li

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3133; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153133 - 6 Aug 2026

Viewed by 263

Abstract

Mass concrete structures are subjected to long-term dynamic excitations, yet traditional concrete lacks the damping needed for effective vibration control. Rubber aggregate concrete has shown promise for vibration mitigation, but how rubber particle size and replacement ratio govern damping mechanisms and thermal performance [...] Read more.

Mass concrete structures are subjected to long-term dynamic excitations, yet traditional concrete lacks the damping needed for effective vibration control. Rubber aggregate concrete has shown promise for vibration mitigation, but how rubber particle size and replacement ratio govern damping mechanisms and thermal performance in mass concrete remains unclear. Here we study rubber aggregate concrete with two particle sizes (40-mesh and 100-mesh) at 5%, 10%, and 20% sand replacement, combining mechanical, thermal, and dynamic testing with multi-scale microstructural characterization including FTIR, MIP, and nanoindentation. The damping ratio increased by up to 110% (from 1.43% to 3.01%), the adiabatic temperature rise decreased by 32%, and the linear expansion coefficient by 88%. Three damping mechanisms were identified: rubber viscoelasticity, interfacial friction at the weak rubber–mortar interface, and pore and micro-crack energy dissipation. Finer 100-mesh rubber outperformed coarser 40-mesh at higher replacement ratios due to a micro-filler effect that refined pore structure. RC-20-100 achieved 26.6 MPa at 90 days, adequate for non-primary structural elements. We recommend 20% fine rubber as the optimal balance of high damping, thermal crack mitigation, and adequate strength for vibration-controlled mass concrete applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research on Concrete Materials in Construction)

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23 pages, 5019 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Visual Pose Detection Method for Bridge Prestressed Corrugated Pipes Using SC-YOLOv11

by Dong-Po Chen, Hai-Bin Huang, Si-Hao Zhang, Yuan Cheng and Dong Liang

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3132; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153132 - 6 Aug 2026

Viewed by 283

Abstract

During the fabrication of prestressed concrete beams, the quality and positional accuracy of the laid corrugated ducts (or prestressing ducts) directly influence the load-bearing capacity and durability of the beams. However, traditional manual inspection is inefficient, highly subjective, and difficult to achieve full [...] Read more.

During the fabrication of prestressed concrete beams, the quality and positional accuracy of the laid corrugated ducts (or prestressing ducts) directly influence the load-bearing capacity and durability of the beams. However, traditional manual inspection is inefficient, highly subjective, and difficult to achieve full coverage. To address this problem, this paper proposes an automated detection method that integrates improved YOLOv11-based pose estimation, robust curve fitting, and image stitching techniques. The method automatically identifies duct positions and evaluates laying quality. By incorporating the SE channel attention mechanism and the SPPFCSPC multi-scale pooling module, the SC-YOLOv11 model is developed, which significantly enhances the detection accuracy of slender corrugated pipe key points in environments with dense rebar occlusion. The RANSAC algorithm is employed to fit curves to the predicted key points, effectively suppressing the influence of outliers. Furthermore, the SIFT algorithm is used for precise stitching of drone-captured segmented images, which are then transformed into a unified front orthographic coordinate system of the entire box girder via perspective transformation, enabling accurate reconstruction of the corrected 2D layout of corrugated ducts across the full beam. Ablation experiments using 5-fold cross-validation demonstrate that SC-YOLOv11 improves mAP₅₀ and mAP_50–95 by 2.6% and 1.2%, respectively, with statistical significance (paired t-test, p < 0.01). The model achieves a per-image inference time of 6.37 ms, with 4.34 M parameters and 8.1 GFLOPs, meeting real-time requirements. In a 30 m prefabricated box girder field application, the measured section trajectory fitting curves of the corrugated ducts were compared with the design alignment, successfully identifying two abnormal locations where the laying deviation exceeded the allowable threshold. Cross-validation with on-site inspector records shows that over 92% of the measurement points agree within ±10 mm. This method achieves a fully automated analysis chain from key point detection and curve fitting to deviation quantification, providing an efficient, non-contact, and traceable intelligent tool for quality control of bridge prestressed systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Risks and Challenges of AI-Driven Construction Industry)

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31 pages, 3196 KB

Open AccessReview

Polymer Modification in Asphalt: Reviewing the Synergistic Effects of SBS and Styrene–Methyl Methacrylate Copolymer-Based Modifier

by Linglong Li, Xianru Wang, Haryati Yaacob, Chee-Loong Chin, Chau-Khun Ma, Weiyi Ju and Jun Tian

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3131; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153131 - 6 Aug 2026

Viewed by 434

Abstract

Polymer-modified asphalt has been widely used to improve pavement durability under increasing traffic loads and complex environmental conditions. Styrene–butadiene–styrene (SBS) is one of the most effective elastomer modifiers. It can form a polymer-rich network within asphalt. Styrene–methyl methacrylate copolymer-based modifier (SMC) can be [...] Read more.

Polymer-modified asphalt has been widely used to improve pavement durability under increasing traffic loads and complex environmental conditions. Styrene–butadiene–styrene (SBS) is one of the most effective elastomer modifiers. It can form a polymer-rich network within asphalt. Styrene–methyl methacrylate copolymer-based modifier (SMC) can be produced from recycled rubber and plastic resources. It has attracted increasing attention because of its potential compatibility, processability, and environmental benefits. This paper reviews the modification mechanisms, rheological properties, fatigue performance, aging resistance, and engineering applications of SBS-, SMC-, and SMC–SBS-modified asphalt and mixtures. Particular attention is given to the synergistic effects between SBS and SMC, including polymer swelling, phase morphology, network formation, interfacial compatibility, and durability evolution. Existing studies indicate that SBS mainly improves elastic recovery and high-temperature deformation resistance. In contrast, SMC can enhance workability, low-temperature flexibility, and construction compatibility. Their composite modification shows strong potential for balancing high-temperature, low-temperature, fatigue, and aging performance. However, current studies are still limited by insufficient quantitative comparisons, unclear microstructural mechanisms, and the lack of unified evaluation methods. Future studies should establish multi-scale structure–property–durability models. The modifier dosage range should also be optimized. This review provides a systematic reference for the development of high-performance and sustainable polymer-modified asphalt materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lifecycle Approaches to Sustainable Building Materials: Recycling and Performance Optimization)

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17 pages, 10914 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fiber-Reinforced Facing Boards Based on Magnesium Binder

by Ruslan Ibragimov, Yuliya Bikaeva, Azariy Lapidus and Dmitriy Topchiy

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3130; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153130 - 6 Aug 2026

Viewed by 260

Abstract

The influence of polypropylene fiber reinforcement of different lengths on the physical and mechanical properties of magnesia-based facing boards was investigated, and the interfacial bond strength between the fibers and the magnesium cement matrix was determined. The physical and mechanical properties and microstructure [...] Read more.

The influence of polypropylene fiber reinforcement of different lengths on the physical and mechanical properties of magnesia-based facing boards was investigated, and the interfacial bond strength between the fibers and the magnesium cement matrix was determined. The physical and mechanical properties and microstructure of the developed composites were characterized using standard testing methods: scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, and numerical simulations performed in the ANSYS 2024 R1 software environment. The results showed that the highest flexural strength was achieved with the incorporation of 6 mm polypropylene fibers at a volumetric content of 1.5–2.0%. Under these conditions, the interfacial bond strength reached 1.29 MPa, while the strengthening coefficient increased by a factor of 4.35. For composites prepared using a mechanomagnetically activated binder, the bond strength increased to 1.81 MPa and the strengthening coefficient increased by a factor of 5.34. These findings demonstrate that polypropylene fiber reinforcement is an effective approach for improving the physical and mechanical performance of magnesia-based composites. Moreover, mechanomagnetic activation of the binder for 3 min, corresponding to the maximum isobaric–isothermal potential, contributes to the formation of a denser magnesia stone structure, leading to reduced crystallite size and increased dislocation density. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Composite Materials for Sustainable Construction)

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21 pages, 3836 KB

Open AccessArticle

Semantic Segmentation and Spatial Feature Quantification of Interior Environmental Design Elements: A Deep Learning-Based Framework for Data-Driven Indoor Space Analysis

by Yunda Shi, Hui Yu, Xin Dong and Chenyu Tang

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3129; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153129 - 6 Aug 2026

Viewed by 319

Abstract

Image-based analysis offers a scalable way to examine indoor environmental design, but semantic segmentation studies often stop at pixel-level recognition and provide limited design-oriented quantification. This study proposes the Interior Design Element Segmentation and Spatial Quantification Framework (IDESQ Framework) to convert indoor scene [...] Read more.

Image-based analysis offers a scalable way to examine indoor environmental design, but semantic segmentation studies often stop at pixel-level recognition and provide limited design-oriented quantification. This study proposes the Interior Design Element Segmentation and Spatial Quantification Framework (IDESQ Framework) to convert indoor scene images into measurable spatial design indicators. Using ADEChallengeData2016, an indoor subset containing eight scene categories was constructed, and the original ADE semantic labels were re-mapped into twelve interior environmental design element categories. U-Net, DeepLabv3+, PSPNet, and SegFormer-B0 were evaluated under the same annotation system. DeepLabv3+ achieved the highest performance, with a mean Intersection over Union (mIoU) of 0.494, Pixel Accuracy of 0.755, and Mean Accuracy of 0.661 on the internal test split; on the independent ADE validation subset, its mIoU was 0.495. The predicted masks were then used to calculate area proportions, furniture density, functional facility ratio, soft decoration ratio, decorative object ratio, greenery ratio, visual complexity, and spatial distribution features. The quantified results showed scene-dependent patterns, including a high spatial envelope ratio and low visual complexity in corridors, higher functional facility ratios in kitchens and bathrooms, and richer decorative composition in living rooms. Ground-truth–prediction (GT–Pred) consistency analysis showed that scene-level aggregation improved agreement between prediction-derived and GT-derived indicators, with a Pearson correlation of 0.960 for the eight main indicators. These results indicate that IDESQ can support automated and interpretable comparison of indoor design element composition and spatial patterns across scene types. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)

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29 pages, 5256 KB

Open AccessArticle

Toward Eco-Intelligent Concrete for Resilient Urban Infrastructure: Explainable Surrogate Optimization and LLM-Assisted Low-Clinker Mix Design

by Junyi Zhang, Haidong Yang, Guo Hu, Jun Wu and Xiaotian Wu

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3128; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153128 - 6 Aug 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 288

Abstract

Concrete mix design increasingly requires rapid screening of mixture proportions against mechanical and resource-efficiency targets. This study develops an explainable, cement-reduction-oriented computational screening framework based on the UCI Concrete Compressive Strength dataset. The dataset records Portland cement, fly ash, blast furnace slag, aggregates, [...] Read more.

Concrete mix design increasingly requires rapid screening of mixture proportions against mechanical and resource-efficiency targets. This study develops an explainable, cement-reduction-oriented computational screening framework based on the UCI Concrete Compressive Strength dataset. The dataset records Portland cement, fly ash, blast furnace slag, aggregates, water, superplasticizer, curing age, and compressive strength, but does not report clinker factor, material-specific emission factors, or durability performance. Cement dosage is therefore minimized only as a surrogate objective; the study does not claim quantified embodied-carbon optimization. A LightGBM surrogate was trained using raw mixture variables and domain-informed ratios. On the held-out test set, the model achieved an

R^{2}

of 0.946 and a mean absolute error of 2.639 MPa. Shapley Additive Explanations were used to examine the statistical influence of mixture variables, with the water-to-binder ratio emerging as the dominant predictor. Constraint-filtered Monte Carlo sampling and non-dominated sorting were then used to screen Pareto-efficient binder allocations. For a 28-day target of 45 MPa, repeated searches identified candidates with a mean Portland cement dosage of

164.4 {kg/m}^{3}

, 44.2% below the mean of empirical mixtures in the same strength band. The evaluated numerical modules were embedded in a Streamlit prototype in which a DeepSeek large language model performs only intent parsing and report generation. The main contribution is this tool-augmented separation of language interaction from deterministic engineering computation. The resulting mixtures remain computational candidates and should next be validated experimentally and assessed using material-specific life-cycle carbon and durability data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

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42 pages, 19405 KB

Open AccessArticle

Daylighting and Glare Optimization in University Classrooms Based on Parametric Simulation and Machine Learning: A Case Study of Yunnan University

by Yaoning Yang, Tinggang Fu, Jingyi Ye, Renpei Zhao, Jinyao Lei, Wei Jiang, Siqi Zeng, Jialu Dai, Yaqi Chen, Jingbo Xia, Yuyao Zhu and Yingli Zhu

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3127; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153127 - 6 Aug 2026

Viewed by 379

Abstract

Low-latitude plateau classrooms, such as those in Kunming, experience intense solar radiation that often causes insufficient far-window illumination, excessive near-window brightness, and viewing-direction glare under side-lighting conditions. To investigate this spatial imbalance, field surveys of nine classrooms were used to define realistic parameter [...] Read more.

Low-latitude plateau classrooms, such as those in Kunming, experience intense solar radiation that often causes insufficient far-window illumination, excessive near-window brightness, and viewing-direction glare under side-lighting conditions. To investigate this spatial imbalance, field surveys of nine classrooms were used to define realistic parameter ranges, while 100 parametric design cases were evaluated through annual simulation, machine learning, and SHAP analysis. The viewing-direction glare model achieved a test-set R² of 0.819, indicating adequate predictive performance for factor interpretation. Compared with simply increasing the window-to-wall ratio (WWR), coordinated control of classroom geometry, window configuration, and surface reflectance produced a more balanced luminous environment. Daylight availability and excessive illuminance were primarily governed by WWR and window reveal depth, whereas glare was more strongly influenced by seating position, viewing direction, window width, and orientation. Classroom-wide averages may therefore conceal localized glare experienced by students. A moderate WWR of 0.26–0.40 combined with a window reveal depth of 0.75–1.17 m emerged as a preferable strategy within the investigated design space. These findings support desktop-level daylight assessment and student-perspective glare evaluation in the design and renewal of ordinary side-lit classrooms in Kunming and comparable low-latitude plateau regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Novel Tools and Methods for Climate-Adaptive Urban Development)

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34 pages, 9999 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Objective Optimization of Building Performance for University Dormitories in Cold Climate Regions During Winter

by Puhan Guo, Hongchi Zhang, Shengqi Deng and Liangshan You

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3126; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153126 - 6 Aug 2026

Viewed by 316

Abstract

University dormitories in cold climate regions face the dual challenges of high heating energy consumption and poor outdoor pedestrian comfort during winter. Existing studies on university dormitories have primarily focused on individual building performance optimization, while insufficient attention has been paid to the [...] Read more.

University dormitories in cold climate regions face the dual challenges of high heating energy consumption and poor outdoor pedestrian comfort during winter. Existing studies on university dormitories have primarily focused on individual building performance optimization, while insufficient attention has been paid to the optimization of dormitory cluster layouts and their multi-objective performance. To address this gap, this study establishes a parametric multi-objective optimization framework to simultaneously minimize building energy use intensity, minimize wind speed at pedestrian height, and maximize outdoor thermal comfort. Based on three floor area ratio scenarios, 24 dormitory prototypes are extracted from three building typologies: row-type buildings, detached buildings, and enclosed buildings. The optimization process was implemented on the Grasshopper platform using the NSGA-II algorithm. Cluster analysis is conducted on the Pareto front, and Pearson correlation analysis is applied to investigate the relationships between six urban morphological parameters and the three optimization objectives. The results indicate that: (1) enclosed buildings (E-1 type) and detached buildings (D-1 type) dominate the Pareto-optimal solution set; (2) high-FAR buildings are predominantly distributed in the northeastern part of the site, while public spaces are concentrated in the central-southern area; (3) correlation analysis indicates that shape coefficient (SC) exhibits the strongest correlations with the three objectives; and (4) compared with dominated solutions, Pareto-optimal solutions reduce WS by 10.46% and EUI by 6.57%, while improving UTCI by 0.05 °C. This study provides quantitative decision-making support for efficient planning and low-carbon design of university dormitory clusters in cold climate regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Low-Carbon Comfort and Climate-Resilient Design in Buildings and Complex Infrastructure)

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24 pages, 32180 KB

Open AccessArticle

Measuring the Mismatch Between Visual Environment Configuration and Exposure: Integrating Street Scenes and Encounter Frequencies Within Harbin’s 15-Minute Community Life Circles

by Yuling Chen, Yu Shao, Dong Xiang and Mengxiao Jin

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3125; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153125 - 6 Aug 2026

Viewed by 326

Abstract

Exposure to high-quality visual environments characterized by features such as structural order, biophilic/natural elements, and positive atmosphere is important for walking experience within community life circles (CLCs). However, compared with the static configuration of visual environments within CLCs, dynamic walking-based exposure may highlight [...] Read more.

Exposure to high-quality visual environments characterized by features such as structural order, biophilic/natural elements, and positive atmosphere is important for walking experience within community life circles (CLCs). However, compared with the static configuration of visual environments within CLCs, dynamic walking-based exposure may highlight unpredictable encounter areas and heterogeneous environmental quality. Neglecting this mismatch may misdirect environmental interventions and limit their health-promoting potential. This study aims to integrate multidimensional visual environment features into interpretable scene clusters to improve comparability and measure configuration–exposure mismatches across CLCs at scale. We examine 1262 CLCs in Harbin, China, identifying visual scene clusters from 67,840 street-view images and extracting exposure frequencies from 981,500 mobility tracks. The results show that (1) eight scene clusters effectively describe the complex visual environments of CLCs; (2) significant small-to-moderate mismatches exist between configuration and exposure; (3) the trend of commute-related walking activity is often consistent with strengthened exposure to high-disorder scenes and weakened exposure to some high-quality scenes with positive atmospheres. This study provides a data-driven framework for identifying mismatches in both the intensity and spatial distribution of visual scene configuration and exposure, supporting refined community environmental governance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Buildings and Cities: Integrated Research on Smart Strategies for Renewal and Resilience)

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25 pages, 8597 KB

Open AccessArticle

Deformation Characteristics and Control of Adjacent Building Piles Subjected to Multi-Pit Excavation in Highly Permeable Gravel Deposits

by Ceng Wu, Juntao Kang, Kan Liu, Bin Zhu and Hongsheng Qiu

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3124; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153124 - 6 Aug 2026

Viewed by 264

Abstract

Waterfront multi-pit excavation in highly permeable gravel deposits can induce complex pile deformation because excavation unloading, groundwater drawdown, and river-stage disturbance act simultaneously. This problem is particularly important for foundation pits constructed near existing pile-supported buildings, yet the combined effects of excavation sequence, [...] Read more.

Waterfront multi-pit excavation in highly permeable gravel deposits can induce complex pile deformation because excavation unloading, groundwater drawdown, and river-stage disturbance act simultaneously. This problem is particularly important for foundation pits constructed near existing pile-supported buildings, yet the combined effects of excavation sequence, pit spacing and excavation depth under river-connected gravel aquifers remain insufficiently quantified. This study fills the research gap on the seepage–stress-coupled deformation mechanism of adjacent building piles under multi-pit excavation in highly permeable gravel strata, and quantifies the spatial superposition effect of excavation disturbance. In this study, a three-dimensional seepage–stress-coupled finite-element model was established for the Yidu Green Intelligent Shipbuilding Industrial Park project on the right bank of the Yangtze River. The model was validated against field monitoring data from the slipway pit excavation, and comparisons show that the relative errors of pile horizontal displacement and ground settlement between simulation and measurement are both less than 8%, verifying the reliability of the numerical model. The validated model was then used to evaluate single-pit excavation, different multi-pit excavation sequences, pit group spacing, excavation-depth ratio and steel sheet pile parameters. The results show that pile deformation is controlled not only by the excavation of an individual pit, but also by the interaction between pit groups located on opposite sides of the building. Simultaneous excavation reduced the peak horizontal displacement of the adjacent building pile by 45.7% compared with single excavation of the slipway pit and by 31.6% compared with the slipway-first sequence. For pits on the same side of the building, a far-to-near excavation sequence produced the smallest pile displacement and settlement. The inter-pit ground deformation changed from heave-dominated to settlement-dominated when the spacing increased to approximately 90–100 m. The research results can provide reference for deformation control and safety assessment of adjacent buildings during multi-pit excavation in similar highly permeable gravel areas. These findings indicate that coordinated excavation sequence and spacing control can effectively reduce deformation risks in waterfront multi-pit projects, although the proposed thresholds should be verified for different layouts, geological conditions and hydrogeological conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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34 pages, 12132 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Blockchain-Enabled Materials Lifecycle Management for Advancing Circular Economy Practices in the Construction Industry: A Systematic Review

by Hasith Chathuranga Victar, Chethana Illankoon and Chyi Lin Lee

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3123; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153123 - 6 Aug 2026

Viewed by 418

Abstract

The construction industry faces significant challenges in materials management, including inefficient supply chains and limited adoption of Circular Economy (CE) goals, which blockchain may address through automated tracking and verification systems. This systematic review examines blockchain technology applications in construction materials management to [...] Read more.

The construction industry faces significant challenges in materials management, including inefficient supply chains and limited adoption of Circular Economy (CE) goals, which blockchain may address through automated tracking and verification systems. This systematic review examines blockchain technology applications in construction materials management to support CE strategies. Following PRISMA guidelines, 138 articles were selected from 1891 publications across four databases covering 2018 to 2025. The findings present a lifecycle-based framework across five building stages integrating smart contracts, IoT sensors, digital material passports, and tokenized waste exchange systems. Blockchain enables automated supply chain transparency, eliminates manual verification, and facilitates continuous material tracking. This research contributes by transforming conventional materials management into autonomous, data-driven workflows through a blockchain-enabled framework that systematically maps automated solutions for tracking, compliance, and circular resource flows across five building lifecycle stages, enabling practitioners to implement automated CE strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Buildings and Digital Construction)

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19 pages, 1753 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Blowing-Agent Depletion on Thermal Conductivity During Accelerated Thermal Aging of Polyisocyanurate Foams

by Tomas Makaveckas, Andrius Jaskūnas, Raimondas Bliūdžius, Jurga Kumžienė and Vilma Šipailaitė-Ramoškienė

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3122; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153122 - 6 Aug 2026

Viewed by 287

Abstract

Polyisocyanurate (PIR) insulation boards are widely used in buildings because of their low thermal conductivity, however their long-term performance is affected by aging. This study investigates the effect of accelerated thermal aging at +70 °C on the thermal conductivity and gas composition of [...] Read more.

Polyisocyanurate (PIR) insulation boards are widely used in buildings because of their low thermal conductivity, however their long-term performance is affected by aging. This study investigates the effect of accelerated thermal aging at +70 °C on the thermal conductivity and gas composition of pentane-blown PIR boards. Thermal conductivity was monitored over time, while changes in blowing-agent composition were analyzed using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Thermal conductivity increased from 0.0201–0.0211 W/(m·K) to 0.0243–0.0247 W/(m·K), corresponding to an increase of approximately 18–22%, with the most pronounced changes occurring during the first 40–50 days before stabilizing. GC/MS identified isopentane, cyclopentane, and pentane as the main gases in the foam cells, with isopentane as the dominant component. Accelerated aging caused a progressive decrease in blowing-agent concentration, explaining the deterioration in thermal insulation performance. Thermal outgassing proved more reliable than solvent extraction, providing higher sensitivity and reproducibility. Sample location, sample size, and outgassing temperature significantly affected the measured gas quantities, while higher outgassing temperatures improved analytical sensitivity without changing gas composition trends. The results confirm that the aging-induced increase in thermal conductivity is primarily caused by the loss of low-conductivity blowing agents, improving understanding of the long-term performance of PIR insulation materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

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27 pages, 10782 KB

Open AccessArticle

Durability Performance and Microstructural Evolution of Carbonation-Solidified Red Mud-Based Backfill Under Wetting–Drying Cycles and Alkaline Red Mud Liquor Immersion

by Lizhu Qi, Tanjia Zhang, Dechao Cui, Shiqi Chang, Xiaoqiang Dong and Junlian Yin

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3121; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153121 - 6 Aug 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 341

Abstract

Red mud-based backfill containing circulating fluidized bed (CFB) ash and reactive MgO must maintain adequate mechanical integrity and environmental stability under moisture and alkaline exposure. This study investigated the durability of carbonation-solidified red mud-based backfill subjected to wetting–drying cycles and alkaline red mud [...] Read more.

Red mud-based backfill containing circulating fluidized bed (CFB) ash and reactive MgO must maintain adequate mechanical integrity and environmental stability under moisture and alkaline exposure. This study investigated the durability of carbonation-solidified red mud-based backfill subjected to wetting–drying cycles and alkaline red mud liquor (RML) immersion. Specimens carbonated for 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 h were evaluated in terms of macroscopic morphology, mass loss, linear shrinkage, unconfined compressive strength (UCS), electrical resistivity, pH, hazardous-element leaching, scanning electron microscopy, and X-ray diffraction. Increasing carbonation duration generally reduced mass loss and linear shrinkage while improving UCS and electrical resistivity within the investigated exposure range. Wetting–drying cycling resulted in progressive surface erosion, shrinkage, and strength deterioration. By contrast, RML immersion produced an initial increase in UCS and resistivity, followed by stabilization or a slight decline at later ages. The observed changes were consistent with pore filling by carbonate-bearing products and low-crystallinity reaction products, followed by local pore development and disruption of the cemented structure during prolonged exposure. At a UCS threshold of 0.8 MPa, the response-surface models yielded estimated threshold exposures of 6.92–13.98 cycles under wetting–drying conditions and 45.69–75.05 d under RML immersion, with the RML estimates extrapolated from the 28 d dataset. Within the tested conditions, carbonation improved the resistance of the backfill material to cyclic moisture disturbance and alkaline immersion, with the 8–10 h groups retaining relatively higher mechanical and dimensional performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Cementitious Materials Incorporating Solid Waste for Sustainable Construction)

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32 pages, 20122 KB

Open AccessReview

A Bibliometric Analysis and Systematic Review of Image Recognition for Intelligent Damage Detection in Engineering Structures

by Peifeng Han, Hao Huang and Daiguo Chen

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3120; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153120 - 6 Aug 2026

Viewed by 434

Abstract

Structural health monitoring and regular damage inspection are critical to ensure the operational safety of civil infrastructure and reduce life-cycle maintenance costs, while traditional manual inspection suffers from low efficiency, high subjectivity, and occupational safety risks for inspectors in hard-to-reach areas. Although existing [...] Read more.

Structural health monitoring and regular damage inspection are critical to ensure the operational safety of civil infrastructure and reduce life-cycle maintenance costs, while traditional manual inspection suffers from low efficiency, high subjectivity, and occupational safety risks for inspectors in hard-to-reach areas. Although existing reviews have explored image-based damage detection, most focus on single damage types or individual infrastructure categories, with few providing quantitative bibliometric mapping of the whole field. This study combines bibliometric analysis and systematic review to trace the development trajectory, identify unresolved technical bottlenecks and industry–academia gaps, and provide a structured reference for researchers and engineering practitioners. Following PRISMA guidelines, 171 peer-reviewed publications from the Web of Science Core Collection (2009–2025) were included after two rounds of screening (initial retrieval: 892 records). CiteSpace and VOSviewer were jointly used to analyze publication trends, institutional cooperation networks, and emerging research hotspots, followed by a systematic review of technical evolution and engineering applications. Results show that annual publications have maintained a growth rate of over 40% since 2019, with China (54.4%) and the United States (22.2%) as the core global contributors; 89.5% of research outputs come from universities and research institutes, while enterprise participation accounts for only 8.3%, indicating a clear technology translation gap. Technically, the field has evolved from traditional digital image processing to deep learning paradigms (CNN, YOLO, U-Net, GAN, Transformer), integrated with UAV platforms and 3D reconstruction to achieve both intelligent damage identification and 3D quantitative assessment. Key bottlenecks include scarcity of high-quality multi-class annotated datasets, poor model robustness in complex field environments, insufficient pixel-to-engineering scale conversion accuracy, and low model interpretability. Future directions include multimodal sensor fusion, unsupervised domain adaptation for real-world generalization, lightweight edge-deployable detection models, strengthened industry–academia collaboration, and explainable artificial intelligence to accelerate technology deployment in engineering practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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27 pages, 4616 KB

Open AccessArticle

Demountable Friction Beam-to-Column Shear Connections: Concept, Design and FE Modelling

by Alessandro Prota, Aldo Milone and Raffaele Landolfo

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3119; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153119 - 6 Aug 2026

Viewed by 505

Abstract

This study proposes a novel friction-based beam-to-column shear connection designed to behave as a nominally pinned joint while avoiding any perforation of the connected members. The connection relies on frictional resistance to transfer shear forces, enabling full reversibility and preserving the integrity of [...] Read more.

This study proposes a novel friction-based beam-to-column shear connection designed to behave as a nominally pinned joint while avoiding any perforation of the connected members. The connection relies on frictional resistance to transfer shear forces, enabling full reversibility and preserving the integrity of the structural elements for future reuse. A comprehensive design methodology is first introduced, addressing key parameters such as clamping force, friction coefficient, and slip resistance. Subsequently, an extensive numerical investigation is carried out using refined finite-element models, i.e., considering multiple geometric configurations and loading conditions. The local behaviour of the connection is hence assessed in terms of stiffness, strength, and slip capacity. Results show that—with proper sizing—plastic deformation localises in the beam while the joint remains elastic and slip is limited, confirming the conservativeness of the approach. The joints behave as nominally pinned in terms of resistance while showing moderate stiffness. Derived findings highlight the feasibility of adopting friction-based, non-invasive connections as a viable alternative for circular steel construction, contributing to the ongoing transition toward more sustainable structural systems. Full article

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33 pages, 61570 KB

Open AccessArticle

Meteorological Input Selection for Cooling Load Forecasting in a Large Public Building: A Case Study

by Xiangyu Du, Guofeng Xiao, Weihong Kuang, Jingtao Liu, Yunfeng Yue, Jinchuan Guo, Weihan Hao, Shihong Shi, Min Zhou and Yunfei Ding

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3118; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153118 - 6 Aug 2026

Viewed by 276

Abstract

Cooling electricity consumption in central air-conditioning systems of large public buildings accounts for a substantial share of urban electricity use and is strongly influenced by outdoor meteorological conditions. Under increasingly frequent extreme summer heat events, accurate cooling-load forecasting is important for HVAC operation, [...] Read more.

Cooling electricity consumption in central air-conditioning systems of large public buildings accounts for a substantial share of urban electricity use and is strongly influenced by outdoor meteorological conditions. Under increasingly frequent extreme summer heat events, accurate cooling-load forecasting is important for HVAC operation, building energy management, urban electricity security, and power-system planning. This study investigates the effects of measured outdoor meteorological inputs on cooling-load forecasting for a large public building in Guangzhou. Consecutive hourly cooling-load data and measured meteorological data, including outdoor air temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation, wind speed, and wind direction, were collected from June to September 2022. The corresponding 2023 dataset was analyzed separately using the same modeling and evaluation procedure to assess cross-year repeatability; data from the two years were not combined. Correlation and univariate linear regression analyses were first used for preliminary candidate-input screening. Nine Long Short-Term Memory sub-models with different meteorological input combinations were then developed and compared using the 2022 dataset, and the selected input configuration was subsequently re-evaluated using the separate 2023 dataset. Solar radiation exhibited the strongest marginal association with cooling load, followed by outdoor air temperature and relative humidity. The negative association of relative humidity reflected its coupled variation with temperature and solar radiation during the investigated summer period. For the 2022 dataset, the model using outdoor air temperature, relative humidity, and solar radiation achieved the lowest MAPE. Compared with the model using all five meteorological variables, it reduced MAE, RMSE, and MAPE by 14.55%, 7.24%, and 19.07%, respectively, while R² increased from 0.9542 to 0.9601. Evaluation using the 2023 dataset showed corresponding reductions of 20.01%, 18.37%, and 25.81% in MAE, RMSE, and MAPE, respectively, together with an increase in R² from 0.9592 to 0.9708. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Building Technologies: Equipment Performance, Built Environment, and Building Retrofit)

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29 pages, 6354 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Salutogenic Manageability Factors on Residents’ Well-Being in the Open Spaces of High-Rise Residential Complexes: Evidence from Erbil City

by Sidra Salah Abubaker, Saya Jamal Rashid, Vian Sabr Qadir and Awat Latif Qader

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3117; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153117 - 6 Aug 2026

Viewed by 364

Abstract

Salutogenesis is a health-related design paradigm that links physical environmental characteristics to positive well-being by enhancing the Sense of Coherence. The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between the manageability factors of the salutogenic theory namely functional design, safety, accessibility, [...] Read more.

Salutogenesis is a health-related design paradigm that links physical environmental characteristics to positive well-being by enhancing the Sense of Coherence. The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between the manageability factors of the salutogenic theory namely functional design, safety, accessibility, person-centered design, and positive affordances and residents’ well-being in the outdoor spaces of three high-rise residential complexes in Erbil, Iraq. A cross-sectional mixed-methods approach was adopted, combining observation checklists, questionnaire surveys of 60 residents (20 from each residential complex), and statistical analyses using SPSS, including Spearman correlation, one-way ANOVA, and multiple linear regression. The results revealed considerable differences among the three residential complexes. Nawroz City achieved the highest standardized checklist score (61.8%), followed by Cihan City (55.9%), while New Eskan City recorded the lowest score (17.6%). Correlation analysis indicated that all manageability factors were positively associated with residents’ well-being. Multiple linear regression analysis showed that design for positive affordances was the only statistically significant individual predictor of residents’ well-being (β = 0.497, p = 0.003). Overall, the findings suggest that higher levels of manageability are associated with greater residents’ well-being, highlighting the importance of supportive outdoor design features in high-rise residential complexes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architectural Design Innovations for Health and Wellness: Leveraging AI and Digital Technologies)

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18 pages, 12499 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bending- and Non-Destructive Tests of Oak (Quercus spp.) Glued-Laminated Timber

by Mátyás Báder, Róbert Németh, Dénes Ákos Horváth and Sándor Fehér

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3116; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153116 - 6 Aug 2026

Viewed by 225

Abstract

This study investigates the mechanical performance and non-destructive evaluation of oak (Quercus spp.) glued-laminated timber (GLT), manufactured from predominantly low-quality lamellae (five layers of 20 mm thick lamellae). The other GLT type tested was a veneer-reinforced configuration (4 mm thick veneers in [...] Read more.

This study investigates the mechanical performance and non-destructive evaluation of oak (Quercus spp.) glued-laminated timber (GLT), manufactured from predominantly low-quality lamellae (five layers of 20 mm thick lamellae). The other GLT type tested was a veneer-reinforced configuration (4 mm thick veneers in the first and third layers on both sides of the reinforced GLT, combined with five layers of 15 mm thick low-quality lamellae). 18 basic GLT and 5 reinforced GLT beams, with nominal lengths of 2000 mm were produced using polyurethane adhesive and tested under four-point bending, according to EN 408. Their average densities and standard deviations were 759 ± 23 kg/m³ for basic GLT and 781 ± 6 kg/m³ for reinforced GLT. The reinforced GLT exhibited a substantially higher modulus of rupture (70.9 ± 4.6 MPa) compared to the basic GLT (37.6 ± 6.2 MPa), representing an increase of 89%. The bending modulus of elasticity also increased by 17.2% (12.0 ± 0.6 vs. 10.3 ± 0.6 GPa). The 11.4–12.0 GPa dynamic modulus of elasticity values were consistent with static results. Strain increased by +66.7% from 0.15% to 0.25% with reinforcement. Despite similar densities, adhesive-related failures governed performance in basic GLT. Veneer reinforcement significantly improved their strength, stiffness, and structural reliability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Timber Engineering: Design, Modification Techniques, Durability, Modeling and Sustainability)

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30 pages, 10698 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on the Quality Control Decision-Making of the Project Owner in an Engineering Supply Chain Involving Subcontractors Under the Consideration of Early Completion Benefits

by Xiangtian Nie, Yi Jian, Jiahang Liu, Meng Chen, Zihan Wang, Ying Guo and Tianyu Fan

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3115; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153115 - 6 Aug 2026

Viewed by 205

Abstract

In a three-tier construction supply chain consisting of the owner, the general contractor, and subcontractors, early project completion offers the owner additional operational benefits but also introduces potential quality risks. This study develops a game-theoretic principal–agent model to investigate the owner’s optimal quality [...] Read more.

In a three-tier construction supply chain consisting of the owner, the general contractor, and subcontractors, early project completion offers the owner additional operational benefits but also introduces potential quality risks. This study develops a game-theoretic principal–agent model to investigate the owner’s optimal quality control and supervision strategies under symmetric, asymmetric, and incomplete information. The model explicitly incorporates the quality control and schedule-compression effort levels of both the general contractor and subcontractors, together with the quality supervision intensity of both the owner and the general contractor. Early completion incentives are captured through a reward-sharing mechanism tied to schedule-compression benefits. Using optimization theory and backward induction, we derive the optimal strategies of all participants under each information scenario. The results show that information asymmetry substantially undermines incentive compatibility among stakeholders and alters the owner’s optimal quality supervision level. Furthermore, appropriately designed incentive and penalty mechanisms can effectively enhance overall supply chain performance by simultaneously safeguarding construction quality and schedule-compression benefits. Numerical simulations indicate that the owner’s optimal supervision level P_a decreases as the general contractor’s quality-control level P_b increases, whereas it increases with a higher schedule-compression effort P_e₁. Under the symmetric information condition, when P_b rises from 0.3 to 0.9, the owner’s supervision intensity decreases monotonically. Under incomplete information, uncertainty about subcontractor behavior forces the owner to maintain a strictly higher supervision level P_a than in the symmetric information benchmark. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Project Management and Smart Construction)

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22 pages, 3569 KB

Open AccessArticle

Risk Assessment of Post-Earthquake Gas Explosion Disaster Chains in High-Rise Residential Buildings: A Fuzzy Bayesian and Complex Network Approach

by Bin He, Yi Tao, Jinben Gu and Xingsi Xie

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3114; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153114 - 5 Aug 2026

Viewed by 469

Abstract

To address the challenges in risk prevention and control of post-earthquake gas explosions in high-rise buildings and the deficiencies of traditional methods in handling uncertainty, this paper conducts a risk evolution analysis from the perspectives of fuzzy Bayesian networks (FBNs) and complex network [...] Read more.

To address the challenges in risk prevention and control of post-earthquake gas explosions in high-rise buildings and the deficiencies of traditional methods in handling uncertainty, this paper conducts a risk evolution analysis from the perspectives of fuzzy Bayesian networks (FBNs) and complex network (CN) theory. First, based on comprehensive risk factor identification, an earthquake-gas explosion disaster chain evolution model was constructed. Subsequently, the nodes and logical relationships of the disaster chain were mapped through Bayesian network (BN) topology, with fuzzy set theory employed to determine prior and conditional probability parameters for causal reasoning and risk diagnosis. Finally, complex network (CN) centrality metrics were introduced to quantify node topological importance, and chain-cutting disaster mitigation strategies were proposed accordingly. The research results indicate that gas overrun (M2) is the node with the highest comprehensive importance, while sensitivity analysis further confirms that it remains the most critical controllable node for interrupting the disaster chain. This method effectively reveals the disaster evolution mechanism and provides a scientific reference for disaster prevention and mitigation decision-making in high-rise buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green, Resilient, and Sustainable Composite Structures: Development, Design, and Construction: 2nd Edition)

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22 pages, 18542 KB

Open AccessArticle

Minimum Intervention Assessment in Historic Building Conservation: An Entropy-Weighted Intervention Intensity Index and Machine Learning Analysis at Caishen Temple, Xinzhou

by Tianxi Lu, Guihua Zu, Siti Sarah Binti Herman and Yang Wang

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3113; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153113 - 5 Aug 2026

Viewed by 299

Abstract

Conservation interventions in historic buildings require quantitative assessment to balance preservation needs and minimal intervention principles. This study presents a quantitative framework for minimum intervention assessment of heritage conservation, based on 133 documented interventions at Caishen Temple in Xinzhou across four periods: 1992, [...] Read more.

Conservation interventions in historic buildings require quantitative assessment to balance preservation needs and minimal intervention principles. This study presents a quantitative framework for minimum intervention assessment of heritage conservation, based on 133 documented interventions at Caishen Temple in Xinzhou across four periods: 1992, 2006, 2016, and 2017. Four dimensions were defined: Extent of Intervention (EI), Reversibility (RE), Information Loss (IL), and Necessity (NE). Expert scoring on a five-point Likert scale yielded high inter-rater reliability (ICC: 0.79–0.88). The entropy weight method was then used to derive data-driven weights from the expert-scoring matrix,

IL = 0.3149

,

EI = 0.3025

,

NE = 0.2572

,

RE = 0.1253

, and the Intervention Intensity Index (

III

) was calculated for each intervention. A random forest model was further developed as an exploratory cross-check, with 19 problematic interventions labelled as

y = 1

and 114 normal interventions as

y = 0

. Target labels were defined through a dual-source procedure combining SSIM- and HSV-based image-similarity assessment for interventions with paired pre- and post-restoration photographs and explicit textual evidence from conservation records for interventions without paired photographs. Feature importance and SHAP analyses indicated that reversibility and necessity had the greatest discriminative importance for distinguishing problematic from normal interventions in this dataset, whereas the entropy-based ranking assigned higher weights to information loss and extent of intervention. This descriptive contrast, based on only four dimensions, highlights the distinction between data dispersion and discriminative capacity. Spatiotemporal analysis indicated that roof and rafter components exhibited the highest intervention intensity, while 1992 interventions contained the largest proportion of problematic practices. This study combines entropy-derived weighting with a machine-learning-based exploratory cross-check, providing a transparent, case-based framework for evidence-based conservation decision-making at historic heritage sites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

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21 pages, 26826 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Investigation of Flexural Performance of Prestressed Precast Hollow-Core Slabs with Foam Inserts and Wet Joints

by Lina Zhuang, Yuan Liao, Jinzhou Chen and Shujun Hu

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3112; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153112 - 5 Aug 2026

Viewed by 378

Abstract

This study introduces a novel prestressed precast hollow-core slab system with integrated polystyrene foam inserts and a spliced design utilizing cast-in-place wet joints, aiming to resolve the inherent trade-off between self-weight reduction and load-bearing capacity in precast floor systems. An experimental investigation was [...] Read more.

This study introduces a novel prestressed precast hollow-core slab system with integrated polystyrene foam inserts and a spliced design utilizing cast-in-place wet joints, aiming to resolve the inherent trade-off between self-weight reduction and load-bearing capacity in precast floor systems. An experimental investigation was conducted on three individual slabs with varied foam geometries and four jointed slabs with different foam configurations and joint concrete types. All specimens were tested under four-point bending. The experimental program meticulously assessed failure modes, load–displacement characteristics, and load–strain relationships of the proposed slab systems. Results reveal that the hollow-core slabs exhibited failure mechanisms similar to conventional cast-in-place slabs, with cracking initiating in the pure bending region and then propagating along the slab edges. Specifically, specimens with square and circular foam inserts achieved weight reduction rates of 24.57% and 19.78%, respectively. Concurrently, their ultimate loads increased by 32.39% and 46.46% compared to the cast-in-place control. The prestressing tendons remained elastic at ultimate load, confirming that failure was governed by concrete crushing in the compression zone rather than tendon rupture, which represents a ductile failure mode providing sufficient warning prior to collapse. For the jointed specimens, while cracks fully penetrated the foam inserts in the pure bending zone, no cracking occurred at the wet joint interfaces, signifying robust composite action. The load capacity of these jointed specimens surpassed that of the equivalent cast-in-place slab by 19.1% to 50.7%. Based on an evaluation of material cost, structural efficiency, and flexural performance among the tested configurations, the combination of square foam inserts and conventional C40 concrete in the wet joint is recommended. This research provides a critical experimental foundation for the development of lightweight, high-performance precast floor systems in prefabricated concrete construction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Seismic and Durability Performance of Steel Connections)

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27 pages, 23890 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Artificial Saw-Cut Notch Depth on the Bond–Slip Behavior and Modeling of CFRP-to-Concrete Interfaces

by Fan Mo, Zhenwen Lai, Jianrui Li, Jian Wang, Jie Xiao, Ben Yang and Haibo Jiang

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3111; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153111 - 5 Aug 2026

Viewed by 307

Abstract

Carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites are widely used for strengthening concrete structures, but the bond behavior of CFRP–concrete interfaces in cracked concrete remains insufficiently understood. This study investigates the effect of saw-cut notch depth on the interfacial bond behavior between CFRP sheets and [...] Read more.

Carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites are widely used for strengthening concrete structures, but the bond behavior of CFRP–concrete interfaces in cracked concrete remains insufficiently understood. This study investigates the effect of saw-cut notch depth on the interfacial bond behavior between CFRP sheets and concrete through double-shear tests. Twelve specimens were prepared with saw-cut notch depths of 0, 10, 20, and 30 mm, where the crack width of the cracked specimens was fixed at 1 mm. The ultimate bearing capacity, CFRP strain transfer behavior, load-relative displacement response, interfacial bond shear stress distribution, and local bond–slip relationship were systematically analyzed. The results show that increasing saw-cut notch depth weakens both the bearing capacity and deformation capacity of the CFRP–concrete interface. Compared with the uncracked specimens, the average ultimate load decreased by approximately 5.0%, 9.2%, and 14.7% for crack depths of 10 mm, 20 mm and 30 mm. Deeper cracks promoted earlier expansion of the CFRP strain transfer region toward the free end and accelerated the development of interfacial relative displacement. The shear stress distribution further indicated that the saw-cut notch altered the interfacial stress transfer path and promoted earlier redistribution of bond shear stress along the bonded length. Based on the experimental results, an empirical normalized curve-shape function was developed to describe the effects of saw-cut notch depth and distance from the notch on the normalized local bond–slip response. Within the present dataset, the calculated curves showed general consistency with the experimental normalized curve trends, particularly in the post-peak descending branch. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Recent Developments in Building Structures)

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24 pages, 10212 KB

Open AccessArticle

Establishment of a Mounting Offset Index and Its Application to Dynamic-Response Evaluation of Long-Span Steel Structures

by Weizhen Wang, Aifu Sun, Chao Sun, Hanwei Wang, Yanan Sun and Renjie Liu

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3110; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153110 - 5 Aug 2026

Viewed by 262

Abstract

Discrete ancillary equipment and local added masses are common in long-span steel structures, yet equal total mass can produce different dynamic responses because existing quantity-based descriptions do not encode spatial redistribution. This study establishes a mounting offset index (MODI) from mass intensity [...] Read more.

Discrete ancillary equipment and local added masses are common in long-span steel structures, yet equal total mass can produce different dynamic responses because existing quantity-based descriptions do not encode spatial redistribution. This study establishes a mounting offset index (MODI) from mass intensity

M_{I}

, eccentricity

E_{I}

, dispersion

D_{I}

, and central–subcentral synergy

C_{I}

. Shaking-table tests on a 1:40 single-layer cylindrical reticulated-shell model examined one unloaded baseline and 44 mounted-mass layouts in the X, Y, and 45° structural orientations, yielding 135 orientation-specific cases. Same-orientation normalization produced four response ratios. All the responses differed significantly among the orientations (

p < 0.001

), while the equal-mass layouts exhibited distinct MODI values and responses. In 100 repeated five-fold analyses, the four-component model achieved

Q^{2} = 0.554 \pm 0.039

for the X-orientation time-domain peak ratio and

0.364 \pm 0.052

for its frequency-domain peak ratio; the composite MODI had no stable predictive capability. These results establish a hierarchical evaluation framework: the MODI supplies a pre-test spatial coordinate for layout comparison, the components support selected within-orientation interpretations, and the directional sensitivity index with the three-orientation envelope identifies direction-sensitive and relatively unfavorable measured-node responses. The MODI is therefore an engineering screening descriptor rather than a universal response-prediction formula. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

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22 pages, 13765 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Study on the Physical and Mechanical Properties of Loess Improved by an LM-1 Curing Agent and Cement Composite

by Chunxiang Guo, Qicheng He, Weijun Mi, Wenjuan Zhang, Bangjie Xie and Daijun Jiang

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3109; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153109 - 5 Aug 2026

Viewed by 326

Abstract

This study focuses on loess in the Lanzhou region and employs a self-developed LM-1 ionic cementitious curing agent (mainly sodium silicate) combined with cement for loess improvement. Through mechanical tests, X-ray diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analysis, the mechanical properties, microstructure, and [...] Read more.

This study focuses on loess in the Lanzhou region and employs a self-developed LM-1 ionic cementitious curing agent (mainly sodium silicate) combined with cement for loess improvement. Through mechanical tests, X-ray diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analysis, the mechanical properties, microstructure, and mineralogical evolution of composite-improved loess were systematically investigated, with emphasis on revealing the reinforcement mechanism. The results show that combining LM-1 and cement significantly enhances the unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of loess. The optimal proportion of 1.5% LM-1 + 10% cement achieves 7-day and 28-day UCS values of 3.43 MPa and 4.12 MPa, representing increases of 69.0% and 54.7% over 10% cement alone, and outperforming 12% cement-only specimens. This formulation develops a uniform, dense C-S-H gel network with optimized pore structure and reduced microcracks. LM-1 generates hydrated silicate products through alkali-activated reactions, which together with cement hydration C-S-H gel form a dual-gel cementation system, while effectively accelerating cement hydration. This provides a theoretical basis and technical support for balancing cement reduction and performance enhancement in subgrade reinforcement and slope protection in loess regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

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21 pages, 56116 KB

Open AccessArticle

Point-Cloud-Based Spatial Shape Inspection of Historic Suspension Bridges: A Case Study of the Longjiang Bridge

by Zizhou Jiang, Ziqi Dong, Yingqi Liang, Fengze Tian and Yuqi Miao

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3108; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153108 - 5 Aug 2026

Viewed by 535

Abstract

Spatial shape inspection of modern suspension bridges is relatively well-developed, whereas research on historic suspension bridges remains scarce. Historic bridges usually lack original drawings and maintenance records. Their slender members intersect, vegetation surrounds the structure, and no design geometry is available for comparison. [...] Read more.

Spatial shape inspection of modern suspension bridges is relatively well-developed, whereas research on historic suspension bridges remains scarce. Historic bridges usually lack original drawings and maintenance records. Their slender members intersect, vegetation surrounds the structure, and no design geometry is available for comparison. This study develops a point-cloud-based spatial shape inspection method for historic suspension bridges. The method covers point-cloud acquisition and processing, multi-module semantic segmentation, spatial shape anomaly screening, and historical shape reconstruction. It was tested on the Longjiang Bridge in Yunnan, China. On all labeled points, the segmentation achieved an overall accuracy of 98.35%, a macro-F1 score of 96.09%, and an mIoU of 92.78%, outperforming a rule-based configuration by 40.79 percentage points. No continuous profile anomaly was found within the effectively observed span, and a controlled 40 mm local displacement activated the screening criterion. The present main-cable sag was 3.12 m; a 0.3% effective cable-length change gave a historical sag of 2.57 m, and a support range of ±50 mm widened the admissible interval to 2.21–2.92 m. The proposed method can serve as a preliminary step in the health inspection of historic suspension bridges and provides methodological support for building digital archives of historic bridges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Technologies for the Preservation and Restoration of Historic Buildings)

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