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Forests
Volume 17
Issue 1
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Forests, Volume 17, Issue 1 (January 2026) – 148 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Forest soils store vast carbon and regulate greenhouse gas exchange yet increasingly accumulate heavy metals from industry. Mycorrhizal fungi—symbiotic partners of nearly all forest trees—sit at the intersection of these concerns. These organisms govern carbon transfer between plants and soil, influence nitrogen cycling, and shape soil structure determining oxygen availability for microbes. When heavy metals contaminate forest soils, mycorrhizal communities respond in ways that cascade to CO2, N2O, and CH4 fluxes. This review integrates three research domains developed largely in isolation: mycorrhizal ecology, metal toxicology, and greenhouse gas biogeochemistry. Using a framework of three contamination scenarios, we synthesize current knowledge and identify critical gaps where interdisciplinary investigation is needed. View this paper
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23 pages, 3646 KB  
Article
Effects of PDADMAC Solution Pretreatment on Beech Wood—Waterborne Coating Interaction
by Tanja Palija, Daniela Djikanović, Milica Rančić, Marko Petrič and Matjaž Pavlič
Forests 2026, 17(1), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010148 - 22 Jan 2026
Viewed by 182
Abstract
This study builds on previous research into the surface modification of beech wood with polyethyleneimine (PEI) prior to finishing it with a waterborne coating. Poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDADMAC) is introduced as an alternative cationic polyelectrolyte for the pretreatment of beech wood surfaces. Wood samples [...] Read more.
This study builds on previous research into the surface modification of beech wood with polyethyleneimine (PEI) prior to finishing it with a waterborne coating. Poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDADMAC) is introduced as an alternative cationic polyelectrolyte for the pretreatment of beech wood surfaces. Wood samples were treated with aqueous 1% PDADMAC solutions of low (LMW—8000 g mol−1) and high (HMW—100,000–200,000 g mol−1) molecular weights, with or without NaCl addition. The effects of the treatments on wood surface chemistry, wettability, surface energy, water absorption, coating penetration, coating adhesion strength, and surface roughness of coated wood were analysed using FTIR, fluorescence microscopy, SEM/EDS, and standardised tests commonly used in wood surface finishing. The results showed that polyelectrolyte pretreatment modified the surface properties of wood, reducing water absorption and surface roughness without significantly affecting coating adhesion strength. PDADMAC formed a more uniform surface layer of wood with limited coating penetration, and NaCl addition improved wood surface smoothness (reducing surface roughness parameters of coated wood by 23%–29%, in samples treated with PDADMAC LMW with 0.01 M NaCl). These findings confirm that cationic polyelectrolyte pretreatment enhances the compatibility and performance of waterborne coatings, offering an environmentally friendly approach to improving wood–waterborne coating interactions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Testing and Assessment of Wood and Wood Products)
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20 pages, 5306 KB  
Article
The Link Between Stemflow Chemistry and Forest Canopy Condition Under Industrial Air Pollution
by Vyacheslav Ershov, Nickolay Ryabov and Tatyana Sukhareva
Forests 2026, 17(1), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010147 - 22 Jan 2026
Viewed by 198
Abstract
Rainfall is an essential component of boreal forest ecosystems. Aerotechnogenic pollution significantly affects the composition of rainfall. To predict the dynamics of biogeochemical cycles and develop strategies to enhance forest resilience in the Arctic zone, it is necessary to study the composition and [...] Read more.
Rainfall is an essential component of boreal forest ecosystems. Aerotechnogenic pollution significantly affects the composition of rainfall. To predict the dynamics of biogeochemical cycles and develop strategies to enhance forest resilience in the Arctic zone, it is necessary to study the composition and characteristics of rainfall. The objective of this study is to evaluate the variation in the chemical composition of stemflow in the most typical pine and spruce forests of Fennoscandia under conditions of aerotechnogenic pollution based on long-term monitoring data from 1999 to 2022. The research was carried out in forests exposed to atmospheric industrial pollution from the largest copper–nickel smelter in northern Europe (Murmansk Region, Russia). The study of rainwater composition was conducted in four microsites: open areas (OA), between crowns (BWC), below crowns (BC) and stemflow (SF). A significant influence of the tree canopy on the rainfall composition was noted. Stemflow was found to have the highest concentration of pollutants, indicating a significant biochemical role of this type of precipitation. The results showed an increase in the concentrations of heavy metals and sulfates in rainwater as we moved closer to the pollution source. Below crowns and in the stemflow of spruce forests, element concentrations are higher compared to pine forests. The highest concentrations of major pollutants in stemflow (Ni, Cu and SO42−) are observed in June—at the beginning of the growing season. Long-term dynamics reveal a decrease in the concentrations of Cu, Cd and Cr in defoliated forests and technogenic sparse forests. Stemflow volume rises from background to technogenic sparse forests due to deteriorating tree-crown conditions. This is associated with the deteriorating condition of tree stands, as manifested by reductions in tree height, diameter and needle cover. It has been established that under pollution conditions, trees’ assimilating organs actively accumulate heavy metals, thereby altering the composition of precipitation passing through the canopy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Meteorology and Climate Change)
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18 pages, 2175 KB  
Article
Foliar Nitrogen and Phosphorus Asymmetrically Predict the Thermal and Hydric Niches of Woody Plants in Eastern China
by Longxin Zhang, Yufang Huang, Xiaoying Zhang, Wenmei Ren, Zhen Ma and Chunhui Zhang
Forests 2026, 17(1), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010146 - 22 Jan 2026
Viewed by 179
Abstract
Understanding the formation mechanisms of plant hydrothermal niches is a core issue in ecology. This study focused on 362 woody plant species in eastern China to investigate the effects of leaf nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and their ratio (N/P) on hydrothermal niches and [...] Read more.
Understanding the formation mechanisms of plant hydrothermal niches is a core issue in ecology. This study focused on 362 woody plant species in eastern China to investigate the effects of leaf nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and their ratio (N/P) on hydrothermal niches and to assess the role of phylogenetic signals. Our results showed that all niche parameters exhibited significant yet varying strengths of phylogenetic signals, with thermal niche signals generally stronger than those of hydric niches. Leaf N and P were significantly correlated with thermal niche dimensions (e.g., breadth and lower limits), whereas leaf N/P and P primarily drove variation in hydric niche dimensions (e.g., breadth and upper limits). This study confirms the asymmetric and dimension-specific influences of leaf nutrients on hydrothermal niches, highlights the necessity of controlling for phylogenetic history in trait-niche research, and provides new perspectives for understanding plant environmental adaptation and evolution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Biodiversity)
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16 pages, 4039 KB  
Article
Sexual Dimorphism in the Sensory Organs of Monochamus saltuarius Gebler (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae): A Morphometric Analysis of Compound Eyes and Stridulatory Files
by Jingjing Yang, Yue Xiang and Zehai Hou
Forests 2026, 17(1), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010145 - 22 Jan 2026
Viewed by 187
Abstract
The Sakhalin pine sawyer, Monochamus saltuarius Gebler, 1830 (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), is a newly discovered insect vector of the pine wood nematode (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus) in China. Despite its ecological importance, the detailed morphology of its sensory systems remains largely unexplored. This study [...] Read more.
The Sakhalin pine sawyer, Monochamus saltuarius Gebler, 1830 (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), is a newly discovered insect vector of the pine wood nematode (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus) in China. Despite its ecological importance, the detailed morphology of its sensory systems remains largely unexplored. This study presents comprehensive ultrastructural analysis of the compound eyes and stridulatory organs in adult M. saltuarius, with a focus on sexual differences. Our morphometric results revealed pronounced sexual dimorphism: males possessed significantly larger compound eyes in terms of total area and perimeter. Furthermore, all three types of ommatidial facets (hexagonal, pentagonal, and quadrilateral) exhibited significantly greater area, perimeter, and diameter in males. Interestingly, while the total number of ommatidia and the counts within the dorsal and ventral eye regions showed no significant sexual difference, they were strongly positively correlated with body length in both sexes. Regarding the stridulatory organs, key morphological features including the transverse diameter, longitudinal diameter, and width of the lateral sulcus of the stridulatory file were also significantly greater in males. In contrast, no sexual dimorphism was detected in the width or density of the stridulatory teeth. These findings collectively indicate a significant investment in sexually dimorphic sensory organs in M. saltuarius, which we hypothesize is closely linked to sex-specific behavioral roles, particularly in active mate searching, courtship displays, and intrasexual competition. This research provides a crucial morphological foundation for understanding the species’ visual and acoustic communication, supporting future work on its sensory ecology and the development of behavior-based control strategies for pine wilt disease. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pest Infestation in Trees: Mechanisms, Effects and Control Methods)
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16 pages, 2002 KB  
Review
A Dual Soil Carbon Framework for Enhanced Silicate Rock Weathering: Integrating Organic and Inorganic Carbon Pathways Across Forest and Cropland Ecosystems
by Yang Ding, Zhongao Yan, Hao Wang, Yifei Mao, Zeding Liu, Jordi Sardans, Chao Fang and Zhaozhong Feng
Forests 2026, 17(1), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010144 - 22 Jan 2026
Viewed by 277
Abstract
Enhanced silicate rock weathering (ESRW) has been proposed as a promising carbon dioxide removal strategy, yet its carbon sequestration pathways, durability, and ecosystem dependence remain incompletely understood. Here, we synthesize evidence from field experiments, observational studies, and modeling to compare ESRW-induced carbon dynamics [...] Read more.
Enhanced silicate rock weathering (ESRW) has been proposed as a promising carbon dioxide removal strategy, yet its carbon sequestration pathways, durability, and ecosystem dependence remain incompletely understood. Here, we synthesize evidence from field experiments, observational studies, and modeling to compare ESRW-induced carbon dynamics across forest and cropland ecosystems using a unified SOC–SIC dual-pool framework. Across both systems, ESRW operates through shared geochemical processes, including proton consumption during silicate dissolution and base cation release, which promote atmospheric CO2 uptake. However, carbon fate diverges markedly among ecosystems. Forest systems, characterized by high biomass production, deep rooting, and strong hydrological connectivity, primarily favor biologically mediated pathways, enhancing net primary productivity and mineral-associated organic carbon (MAOC) formation, while facilitating downstream export of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC). In contrast, intensively managed croplands more readily accumulate measurable soil inorganic carbon (SIC) and soil DIC over short to medium timescales, particularly under evapotranspiration-dominated or calcium-rich conditions, although SOC responses are often moderate and variable. Importantly, only a subset of ESRW-driven pathways—such as MAOC formation and secondary carbonate precipitation—represent durable carbon storage on decadal to centennial timescales. By explicitly distinguishing carbon storage from carbon transport, this synthesis clarifies the conditions under which ESRW can contribute to climate change mitigation and highlights the need for ecosystem-specific deployment and monitoring strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Soil)
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19 pages, 1467 KB  
Article
Can Spatial Patterns Moderate Nonlinearity Between Greenspace and Subjective Wellbeing? Evidence from China’s Urban Areas
by Chuhong Li, Chenjie Jia, Jiaxin Guo and Longfeng Wu
Forests 2026, 17(1), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010143 - 22 Jan 2026
Viewed by 193
Abstract
Although extensive evidence notes a nonlinear relationship between urban greenspace and wellbeing, the conditional role of spatial patterns in this relationship has rarely been examined. To address this gap, this study investigates whether and how landscape metrics moderate the nonlinear association between greenspace [...] Read more.
Although extensive evidence notes a nonlinear relationship between urban greenspace and wellbeing, the conditional role of spatial patterns in this relationship has rarely been examined. To address this gap, this study investigates whether and how landscape metrics moderate the nonlinear association between greenspace coverage and life satisfaction (LS) in urban China. Using nationally representative data from the 2015 wave of the Chinese Social Survey (N = 4319 across 321 subdistricts), this study combines individual-level LS scores with high-resolution GlobeLand30 land use data. Moderated quadratic regression models and formal endpoint slope and turning point tests are applied to identify both the shape and dynamics of the greenspace–wellbeing relationship. The analysis reveals a robust U-shaped curve: LS is lowest at moderate greenspace levels and higher at both low and high extremes. Critically, spatial pattern features, including aggregation index, Euclidean nearest neighbor distance, patch density, and patch richness, significantly moderate this relationship. The turning point of the U-shape moves rightward with greater aggregation and leftward with higher fragmentation or richness. While visual presentation indicates that the curve flips at low patch isolation, further statistical analyses indicate insufficient curve steepness. These findings support that the “more is better” argument should be extended to consider both greenspace quantity and spatial configuration in urban planning for optimal wellbeing outcomes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Urban Forestry)
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27 pages, 5777 KB  
Review
A Review of Remote Sensing Monitoring of Plant Diversity in Tropical Forests
by Xi-Qing Sun, Hao-Biao Wu, Dao-Sheng Chen, Xiao-Dong Yang, Xing-Rong Ma, Huan-Cai Feng, Xiao-Yan Cheng, Shuang Yang, Hai-Tao Zhou and Run-Ze Wu
Forests 2026, 17(1), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010142 - 22 Jan 2026
Viewed by 321
Abstract
Tropical forests are the most plant-diverse ecosystems on Earth, characterized by extremely high species richness and playing essential roles in ecosystem stability, carbon sequestration, and hydrological regulation. Although remote sensing has been widely applied to monitoring tropical forest plant diversity in recent decades, [...] Read more.
Tropical forests are the most plant-diverse ecosystems on Earth, characterized by extremely high species richness and playing essential roles in ecosystem stability, carbon sequestration, and hydrological regulation. Although remote sensing has been widely applied to monitoring tropical forest plant diversity in recent decades, a systematic understanding of its actual monitoring capacity remains limited. Based on a bibliometric analysis of 15,878 publications from 1960 to 2025, this study draws several key conclusions: (1) Global research is highly unevenly distributed, with most studies concentrated in China’s tropical monsoon forests, Brazil’s Amazon rainforest, Costa Rica’s tropical rainforests, and Mexico’s tropical dry forests, while many other regions remain understudied; (2) The Sentinel-2 and Landsat series are the most widely used satellite sensors, and indirect indicators are applied more frequently than direct spectral metrics in monitoring models. Hyperspectral data, Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR), and nonlinear models generally achieve higher accuracy than multispectral data, Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), and linear models; (3) Sampling scales range from 64 m2 to 1600 ha, with the highest accuracy achieved when plot size is within 400 m2 < Area ≤ 2500 m2, and spatial resolutions below 10 m perform best. Based on these findings, we propose four priority directions for future research: (1) Quantifying spectral indicators and models; (2) Assessing the influence of canopy structure on biodiversity remote sensing accuracy; (3) Strengthening the application of high-resolution data and reducing intraspecific spectral variability; and (4) Enhancing functional diversity monitoring and advancing research on the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Biodiversity)
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24 pages, 1938 KB  
Article
The Swedish Forest-Based Sector in Turbulent Times
by Ragnar Jonsson
Forests 2026, 17(1), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010141 - 21 Jan 2026
Viewed by 476
Abstract
The European forest-based sector faces a perfect storm of demographic, geopolitical, climatic, and policy-driven challenges. These multipronged, oftentimes interlinked factors are particularly consequential for export-oriented, forest-rich economies like Sweden. This study provides a qualitative scenario analysis to assess potential futures for the Swedish [...] Read more.
The European forest-based sector faces a perfect storm of demographic, geopolitical, climatic, and policy-driven challenges. These multipronged, oftentimes interlinked factors are particularly consequential for export-oriented, forest-rich economies like Sweden. This study provides a qualitative scenario analysis to assess potential futures for the Swedish forest sector towards 2050, focusing on the impacts of key drivers: geopolitical alignment, European Union (EU) policy implementation, economic and demographic trends, technological progress, and climate change. Two critical uncertainties—Europe’s geopolitical positioning and the policy balance between wood use and forest conservation—form the axes for four contrasting scenarios. Results indicate that, across all futures, volume-based manufacturing in Sweden is expected to stagnate or decline due to high costs and weak EU demand, with bulk production shifting to the Global South. Long-term viability hinges on a strategic shift to high-value segments (e.g., specialty packaging solutions, biochemicals, construction components) and the adoption of advanced technologies. Concurrently, the sector must adapt to increased forest disturbances and diversify tree species, despite industry processes being optimized for current conifers. The study concludes that without a decisive transition from commodity production to innovative, value-added strategies, the Swedish forest sector’s competitiveness and resilience are at serious risk. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strategic Forest-Based Sector Planning and Management in the Era of Bioeconomy, 2nd Edition)
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19 pages, 1918 KB  
Article
Retention of Atmospheric Particulate Matter and Dissolved Trace Elements by Picea crassifolia Forest in the Qilian Mountains in Northwest China
by Wenfang Zeng, Jiechang Chen, Yan Zhang, Wenzhe Lang, Zheng Yao, Fei Zang and Hu Hao
Forests 2026, 17(1), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010140 - 21 Jan 2026
Viewed by 338
Abstract
Forest canopies effectively remove airborne particles, reducing the frequency of atmospheric haze and improving air quality as well as playing a crucial role in maintaining human health. In this study, we examined the retention of particulate matter by Picea crassifolia Kom. (P. [...] Read more.
Forest canopies effectively remove airborne particles, reducing the frequency of atmospheric haze and improving air quality as well as playing a crucial role in maintaining human health. In this study, we examined the retention of particulate matter by Picea crassifolia Kom. (P. crassifolia) needles using an aerosol regenerator in two typical catchments, while the concentrations of dissolved trace elements (Na, Zn, Pb, and Cd) were determined only in the Tianlaochi catchment. The results showed that the retention of airborne particles was lower in the Tianlaochi catchment (e.g., total suspended particles (TSP): 0.0049 μg cm−2 in summer) than in the Sancha catchment (e.g., TSP: 0.0145 μg cm−2) in summer and autumn, while the opposite trend was found in winter and spring, with Tianlaochi catchment reaching higher TSP levels (0.0230 μg cm−2 in spring) compared to Sancha catchment (0.0205 μg cm−2). The big tree exhibited the highest particulate retention, with a maximum flux of 84.870 μg cm−2, indicating it was the most effective at particle trapping. The highest Na, Zn, Cd, and Pb values absorbed by the needle samples were 1.794 mg L−1, 11.345 μg L−1, 0.081 μg L−1, and 4.316 μg L−1, respectively. P. crassifolia needles absorbed more Na, Zn, and Cd in July and August than in June. The absorption capacity of the needles decreased in the order Na > Zn > Pb > Cd. P. crassifolia forest can effectively reduce airborne particulate matter. Our study provides a theoretical foundation to examine the role of forest ecosystems in the retention of atmospheric particulate matter in the Qilian Mountains region. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Elemental Cycling in Forest Soils)
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20 pages, 11103 KB  
Article
Climate-Informed Afforestation Planning in Portugal: Balancing Wood and Non-Wood Production
by Natália Roque, Alice Maria Almeida, Paulo Fernandez, Maria Margarida Ribeiro and Cristina Alegria
Forests 2026, 17(1), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010139 - 21 Jan 2026
Viewed by 599
Abstract
This study explores the potential for afforestation in Portugal that could balance wood and non-wood forest production under future climate change scenarios. The Climate Envelope Models (CEM) approach was employed with three main objectives: (1) to model the current distribution of key Portuguese [...] Read more.
This study explores the potential for afforestation in Portugal that could balance wood and non-wood forest production under future climate change scenarios. The Climate Envelope Models (CEM) approach was employed with three main objectives: (1) to model the current distribution of key Portuguese forest species—eucalypts, maritime pine, umbrella pine, chestnut, and cork oak—based on their suitability for wood and non-wood production; (2) to project their potential distribution for the years 2070 and 2090 under two Shared Socioeconomic Pathway (SSP) scenarios: SSP2–4.5 (moderate) and SSP5–8.5 (high emissions); and (3) to generate integrated species distribution maps identifying both current and future high-suitability zones to support afforestation planning, reflecting climatic compatibility under fixed thresholds. Species’ current CMEs were produced using an additive Boolean model with a set of environmental variables (e.g., temperature-related and precipitation-related, elevation, and soil) specific to each species. Species’ current CEMs were validated using forest inventory data and the official Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) map of Portugal, and a good agreement was obtained (>99%). By the end of the 21st century, marked reductions in species suitability are projected, especially for chestnut (36%–44%) and maritime pine (25%–35%). Incorporating future suitability projections and preventive silvicultural practices into afforestation planning is therefore essential to ensure climate-resilient and ecologically friendly forest management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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31 pages, 9516 KB  
Article
Optimization of Hydrothermal and Oleothermal Treatments for the Resistance of Dabema (Piptadeniastrum africanum (Hook.f.) Brenan) Wood
by John Nwoanjia, Jean Jalin Eyinga Biwôlé, Joseph Zobo Mfomo, Joel Narcisse Bebga, Desmond Mufor Zy, Junior Maimou Nganko, Yvane S. Nké Ayinda, Pierre-Marie Tefack, Antonio Pizzi, Ioanna A. Papadopoulou, Salomé Ndjakomo Essiane, Antonios N. Papadopoulos and Achille Bernard Biwolé
Forests 2026, 17(1), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010138 - 21 Jan 2026
Viewed by 334
Abstract
This study evaluates the effects of hydrothermal and oleothermal treatments on the physical, colorimetric, and mechanical properties of Dabema wood. Samples were heated at 100, 160, and 220 °C for 2, 3.5, and 5 h. Equilibrium moisture content decreased from 13.16% in untreated [...] Read more.
This study evaluates the effects of hydrothermal and oleothermal treatments on the physical, colorimetric, and mechanical properties of Dabema wood. Samples were heated at 100, 160, and 220 °C for 2, 3.5, and 5 h. Equilibrium moisture content decreased from 13.16% in untreated wood to approximately 43% lower after hydrothermal treatment at 160 °C for 5 h and to 64% lower after oleothermal treatment at 220 °C for 5 h. Water absorption decreased from 78% in untreated samples to 25%–64% following hydrothermal treatment and to 17%–44% after oleothermal treatment. Hydrothermal treatment caused significant darkening, whereas oleothermal treatment maintained a lighter, more stable color. Mechanical properties improved substantially: in compression, MOE increased by 113% after oleothermal treatment at 220 °C for 5 h. In bending, MOR and MOE rose by 25%–35% under optimal oil-heat conditions. In tensile, MOE increased by 30%, and maximum tensile stress improved by up to 130%. Oleothermal treatments yielded the most stable enhancements, whereas severe hydrothermal treatments sometimes reduced mechanical performance despite improving moisture resistance. Multivariate analysis (PCA) and response surface methodology (RSM) indicate that oleothermal treatment at 160 °C for 3.5–5 h provides the best compromise between stiffness and color stability. Thermogravimetric analyses (TG/DTG) show hydrothermal treatment promotes hemicelluloses degradation, whereas oleothermal treatment stabilizes the cellulose–lignin network. Overall, hydrothermal treatment enhances dimensional stability, while oleothermal treatment achieves an optimal balance of stiffness, mechanical performance, and color retention. Deep color changes from furanic resin formation under hydrothermal conditions are strongly suppressed by oil during oleothermal processing, yielding lighter and more durable wood. For commercial applications such as furniture and structural components, oleothermal treatment is recommended, whereas hydrothermal treatment is more suitable when dimensional stability is prioritized over mechanical performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Testing, Processing and Modification)
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28 pages, 1659 KB  
Review
Research Progress in Chemical Control of Pine Wilt Disease
by Die Gu, Taosheng Liu, Zhenhong Chen, Yanzhi Yuan, Lu Yu, Shan Han, Yonghong Li, Xiangchen Cheng, Yu Liang, Laifa Wang and Xizhuo Wang
Forests 2026, 17(1), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010137 - 20 Jan 2026
Viewed by 461
Abstract
Pine wilt disease (PWD), caused by Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, is driven by a tri-component system involving the pinewood nematode, Monochamus spp. beetle vectors, and susceptible pine hosts. Chemical control remains a scenario-dependent option for emergency suppression and high-value protection, but its deployment is [...] Read more.
Pine wilt disease (PWD), caused by Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, is driven by a tri-component system involving the pinewood nematode, Monochamus spp. beetle vectors, and susceptible pine hosts. Chemical control remains a scenario-dependent option for emergency suppression and high-value protection, but its deployment is constrained by strong regional regulatory and practical differences. In Europe (e.g., Portugal and Spain), field chemical control is generally not practiced; post-harvest phytosanitary treatments for wood and wood packaging rely mainly on heat treatment, and among ISPMs only sulfuryl fluoride is listed for wood treatment with limited use. This review focuses on recent progress in PWD chemical control, summarizing advances in nematicide discovery and modes of action, greener formulations and delivery technologies, and evidence-based, scenario-oriented applications (standing-tree protection, vector suppression, and infested-wood/inoculum management). Recent studies highlight accelerated development of target-oriented nematicides acting on key pathways such as neural transmission and mitochondrial energy metabolism, with structure–activity relationship (SAR) efforts enabling lead optimization. Formulation innovations (water-based and low-solvent products, microemulsions and suspensions) improve stability and operational safety, while controlled-release delivery systems (e.g., micro/nanocapsules) enhance penetration and persistence. Application technologies such as trunk injection, aerial/Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) operations, and fumigation/treatment approaches further strengthen scenario compatibility and operational efficiency. Future research should prioritize robust target–mechanism evidence, resistance risk management and rotation strategies, greener formulations with smart delivery, and scenario-based exposure and compliance evaluation to support precise, green, and sustainable integrated control together with biological and other sustainable approaches. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Health)
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17 pages, 5352 KB  
Article
Preliminary Study on Mechanism of Cold Stress on Dendroctonus valens Larvae
by Debin Li, Shisong Lu, Shiyu Kuang, Bo Dong, Hongna Chen, Yijing Wang and Shengwei Jiang
Forests 2026, 17(1), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010136 - 19 Jan 2026
Viewed by 273
Abstract
To elucidate the effect of cold stress on Dendroctonus valens larvae, a study was conducted under controlled laboratory conditions to examine the physiological and biochemical mechanisms associated with cold stress, coupled with transcriptome sequencing. Physiological and biochemical assessments indicated stable water content in [...] Read more.
To elucidate the effect of cold stress on Dendroctonus valens larvae, a study was conducted under controlled laboratory conditions to examine the physiological and biochemical mechanisms associated with cold stress, coupled with transcriptome sequencing. Physiological and biochemical assessments indicated stable water content in larvae during cold stress initiation, with triglycerides and fats serving as primary energy reserves that decreased over cold stress progression. Glycogen and trehalose were identified as energy sources for larval energy metabolism, with their levels increasing as cold stress duration extended. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity exhibited an initial decline followed by an increase, while peroxidase (POD) activity initially rose before decreasing over induction time, and catalase (CAT) activity decreased during cold stress induction. Transcriptome sequencing at various time points revealed 4630 upregulated and 1554 downregulated genes, predominantly involved in metabolic pathways such as carbohydrate, amino acid, and lipid metabolism. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) results validated the transcriptome data accuracy. This investigation delineated the physiological, biochemical, and transcriptome alterations during cold stress, offering a theoretical framework for the rational prediction of Dendroctonus valens outbreaks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Health)
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18 pages, 3420 KB  
Article
From Establishment to Expansion: Changing Drivers of Acacia spp. Invasion in Mainland Central Portugal
by Matilde Salgueiro, Carla Mora and César Capinha
Forests 2026, 17(1), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010135 - 19 Jan 2026
Viewed by 311
Abstract
Land abandonment and recurrent wildfires are major drivers of landscape transformation in Mediterranean Europe, creating favorable conditions for the spread of non-native invasive woody species. Among these, Australian wattles (genus Acacia) are particularly widespread and problematic in Portugal. This work analyzed the [...] Read more.
Land abandonment and recurrent wildfires are major drivers of landscape transformation in Mediterranean Europe, creating favorable conditions for the spread of non-native invasive woody species. Among these, Australian wattles (genus Acacia) are particularly widespread and problematic in Portugal. This work analyzed the spatiotemporal dynamics of Acacia spp. in two municipalities of central Portugal (Sertã and Pedrógão-Grande) by combining multitemporal photointerpretation of aerial imagery (2004–2021), generalized additive models (GAMs), and local perception surveys. Results reveal a 417% increase in occupied area over the last two decades. Modeling outcomes indicate a temporal shift in invasion drivers: from an establishment phase (2004–2010), mainly constrained by altitude and proximity to primary introduction sites, to a disturbance-driven expansion phase (2010–2021), influenced by fire recurrence, slope, and land-use context. Spatial clustering persisted throughout, underscoring the role of founder populations. Surveys confirmed high public awareness of Acacia invasiveness and identified abandonment and wildfire as the main perceived triggers of spread. By integrating ecological and social dimensions, this study provides a socioecological perspective on Acacia spp. expansion in Mediterranean rural landscapes and highlights the urgent need for integrated, landscape-scale management strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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22 pages, 3006 KB  
Review
Molecular Crosstalk Underlying Pre-Colonization Signaling and Recognition in Ectomycorrhizal Symbiosis
by Rosario Ramírez-Mendoza, Magdalena Martínez-Reyes, Yanliang Wang, Yunchao Zhou, Arturo Galvis-Spinola, Juan José Almaraz-Suárez, Fuqiang Yu and Jesus Perez-Moreno
Forests 2026, 17(1), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010134 - 19 Jan 2026
Viewed by 425
Abstract
Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) symbiosis is a fundamental mutualism crucial for forest eco-system health. Its establishment is governed by sophisticated molecular dialogue preceding physical colonization. This review synthesizes this pre-colonization crosstalk, beginning with reciprocal signal exchange where root exudates trigger fungal growth, and fungal lipochitooligosaccharides [...] Read more.
Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) symbiosis is a fundamental mutualism crucial for forest eco-system health. Its establishment is governed by sophisticated molecular dialogue preceding physical colonization. This review synthesizes this pre-colonization crosstalk, beginning with reciprocal signal exchange where root exudates trigger fungal growth, and fungal lipochitooligosaccharides activate host symbiotic programming, often via the common symbiosis pathway. Successful colonization requires fungi to navigate plant immunity. They employ effectors, notably mycorrhiza-induced small secreted proteins (MiSSPs), to suppress defenses, e.g., by stabilizing jasmonate signaling repressors or inhibiting apoplastic proteases, establishing a localized “mycorrhiza-induced resistance.” Concurrent structural adaptations, including fungal hydrophobins, expansins, and cell wall-modifying enzymes like chitin deacetylase, facilitate adhesion and apoplastic penetration. While this sequential model integrates immune suppression with structural remodeling, current understanding is predominantly derived from a limited set of model systems. Significant knowledge gaps persist regarding species-specific determinants in non-model fungi and hosts, the influence of environmental variability and microbiome interactions, and methodological challenges in capturing early signaling in situ. This review’s main contributions are: providing a synthesized sequential model of molecular crosstalk; elucidating the dual fungal strategy of simultaneous immune suppression and structural remodeling; and identifying crucial knowledge gaps regarding non-model systems and species-specific determinants, establishing a research roadmap with implications for forest management and ecosystem sustainability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Genetics and Molecular Biology)
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17 pages, 7554 KB  
Article
The Impact of Inundation Frequency on the Distribution of Floodplain Vegetation in the Jingjiang Section of the Yangtze River
by Jiefeng Kou, Xiaolong Huang, Jingjing Lin, Haihua Zhuo, Zheng Zhou and Chao Yang
Forests 2026, 17(1), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010133 - 19 Jan 2026
Viewed by 209
Abstract
Floodplain vegetation is an essential part of riverine wetland ecosystems. Hydrological fluctuations significantly influence its survival and distribution. This study examines the floodplain vegetation of the Jingjiang section of the Yangtze River. This study uses annual mean NDVI data over six time periods [...] Read more.
Floodplain vegetation is an essential part of riverine wetland ecosystems. Hydrological fluctuations significantly influence its survival and distribution. This study examines the floodplain vegetation of the Jingjiang section of the Yangtze River. This study uses annual mean NDVI data over six time periods from 2000 to 2023 to represent the changes in floodplain vegetation. The driving factors include inundation frequency, annual mean temperature, annual mean precipitation, elevation, and slope gradient. To analyze the data, this study employs multiple analytical methods, including threshold segmentation, pixel-by-pixel linear regression (using the least squares method), Geodetector, and Pearson’s correlation analysis. This study clarifies the spatiotemporal evolution of the NDVI and the distribution of vegetation in these floodplain. It also quantitatively assesses the influence of multiple drivers and reveals the areas and extent of vegetation distribution affected by different inundation frequencies. The findings indicate: (1) Over six time periods from 2000 to 2023, NDVI values and the area covered by vegetation in the Jingjiang section of the Yangtze River floodplain exhibited fluctuating growth trends. The area covered by vegetation increased by 66.94 km2 in 2023 compared with that in 2000. (2) NDVI values were influenced by multiple interacting drivers, with inundation frequency being the dominant factor affecting vegetation change in the Jingjiang section (q-value: 0.79–0.86), followed by slope (q-value: 0.46–0.56). Interactions between different drivers amplify their impact on the annual average NDVI value. (3) Areas with inundation frequencies of 20%–40% exhibit positive spatial correlation with NDVI values. The maximum area of positive correlation is 112.51 km2, which is predominantly distributed across the central and marginal bars of the Jingjiang section. Within this range, inundation frequency has the strongest positive effect on vegetation growth. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Vegetation Dynamics and Environmental Monitoring Using GIS and Remote Sensing)
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30 pages, 4912 KB  
Review
The Cross-Laminated Bamboo (CLB): A Comprehensive Review of Research and Development
by André Luis Christoforo, Larissa Fé Alves, Victor De Araujo, Fernando Júnior Resende Mascarenhas and Sergio Neves Monteiro
Forests 2026, 17(1), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010132 - 19 Jan 2026
Viewed by 463
Abstract
Cross-laminated bamboo (CLB) has gained increasing attention as an emerging structural material combining high mechanical performance with remarkable sustainability potential. This comprehensive review summarizes and critically discusses the main advances and trends in CLB research, drawing on experimental, analytical, and numerical approaches reported [...] Read more.
Cross-laminated bamboo (CLB) has gained increasing attention as an emerging structural material combining high mechanical performance with remarkable sustainability potential. This comprehensive review summarizes and critically discusses the main advances and trends in CLB research, drawing on experimental, analytical, and numerical approaches reported in the literature. The review highlights that the mechanical performance of CLB depends on panel architecture, bamboo product type, and adhesive systems. Reported experimental results indicate that CLB panels can achieve competitive or higher mechanical performance than selected cross-laminated timber (CLT) configurations made from specific wood species, particularly in bending, compression, tension, and rolling shear. At the same time, the literature reveals variability associated with manufacturing parameters, adhesive types, and lamella orientation, which affects the comparability of results and highlights current challenges for standardization. Structural applications investigated include floor and wall panels, beams, and rocking walls, especially for seismic-resilient building systems. Despite growing experimental evidence, most investigations remain limited to laboratory-scale elements, with modelling simplifications that constrain predictive accuracy. This review identifies the main challenges and research opportunities towards industrial scalability, standardized testing procedures, and design models adapted to the specific behavior of CLB, paving the way for its consolidation as a reliable and sustainable construction material. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Quality and Mechanical Properties: 3rd Edition)
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35 pages, 14165 KB  
Article
Spatiotemporal Patterns of Aboveground Carbon Storage in Hainan Mangroves Based on Machine Learning and Multi-Source Remote Sensing Data
by Zhikuan Liu, Zhaode Yin, Wenlu Zhao, Zhongke Feng, Huiqing Pei, Pietro Grimaldi and Zixuan Qiu
Forests 2026, 17(1), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010131 - 19 Jan 2026
Viewed by 396
Abstract
As an essential blue carbon ecosystem, mangroves play a vital role in coastal protection, biodiversity conservation, and climate regulation. However, their complex and variable growth environments pose challenges for precise monitoring. Hainan Island represents a region within China where mangrove forests are the [...] Read more.
As an essential blue carbon ecosystem, mangroves play a vital role in coastal protection, biodiversity conservation, and climate regulation. However, their complex and variable growth environments pose challenges for precise monitoring. Hainan Island represents a region within China where mangrove forests are the most concentrated and diverse in type. In recent years, ecological restoration efforts have led to the recovery of their coverage areas. This study analyzed the spatial distribution, canopy height, and aboveground carbon storage variations in Hainan mangrove forests. Deep-learning and multiple machine-learning algorithms were used to integrate multitemporal Sentinel-2 remote sensing imagery from 2019 to 2023 with unmanned aerial vehicle observations and field survey data. Multi-rule image fusion and deep-learning techniques effectively enhanced mangrove identification accuracy. The mangrove classification achieved an overall accuracy exceeding 90%. The mangrove area in Hainan increased from 3948.83 ha in 2019 to 4304.29 ha in 2023. Gradient-boosted decision tree (GBDT) models estimated average canopy height with a high coefficient of determination (R2 = 0.89), and Random Forest (RF) models yielded the best estimations of total above-ground carbon stock with strong agreement to field observations. Integrating multisource remote sensing data with artificial intelligence algorithms enabled high-precision dynamic monitoring of mangrove distribution, structure, and carbon storage to provide scientific support for the assessment, management, and carbon sink accounting of Hainan mangrove ecosystems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spatial Information for Forest Biomass and Carbon Stock Estimation: New Technologies and Approaches)
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18 pages, 3324 KB  
Article
New Poplar Clones from Conventional and Agroforestry Plantations in Northern Italy: Preliminary Results on Peeling Attitude and Properties of Solid Wood and Plywood
by Silvana Calvano, Alberto Bombieri, Daniele Rizza, Sara Bergante, Pier Mario Chiarabaglio, Corrado Cremonini, Francesco Negro and Roberto Zanuttini
Forests 2026, 17(1), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010130 - 19 Jan 2026
Viewed by 355
Abstract
Specialized poplar plantations are relevant for wood-based panel production. In recent years, the Italian poplar sector has progressively moved towards more sustainable cultivation systems. Breeding programs developed new clones with fast growth and increased disease resistance. Agroforestry (AF) has emerged as a promising [...] Read more.
Specialized poplar plantations are relevant for wood-based panel production. In recent years, the Italian poplar sector has progressively moved towards more sustainable cultivation systems. Breeding programs developed new clones with fast growth and increased disease resistance. Agroforestry (AF) has emerged as a promising alternative to the conventional plantation (C), and its ecosystem services have been widely documented. This exploratory study compares the main physico-mechanical properties of solid wood from five new poplar clones cultivated in conventional and agroforestry plantation models. The peeling yields and the performances of plywood produced with their veneers are also investigated. Wood was obtained by harvesting seven-year-old trees in two experimental plantations located in the Veneto Region. All the clones were found to have a higher basic density than that of the ‘I-214’, the reference in the sector, and were suitable for veneers production. It was possible to obtain top-quality sheets from trees of both systems, with some differences between clones. However, the overall quality of the veneers depended on the type of clone and on the cultivation system, where conventional plantations provided better results. Higher mechanical performances were found in plywood produced from clones with higher density. The results provide knowledge to optimize agroforestry cultivation of poplar, also as a complementary source of timber supply for the concerned industrial sector. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Wood Science and Forest Products)
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20 pages, 9095 KB  
Article
Radial Growth Patterns Across the Growing Season in Response to Microclimate in Silvopastoral Systems of Nothofagus antarctica Forests
by Julián Rodríguez-Souilla, Juan Manuel Cellini, María Vanessa Lencinas, Lucía Bottan, Jimena Elizabeth Chaves, Fidel Alejandro Roig and Guillermo Martínez Pastur
Forests 2026, 17(1), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010129 - 17 Jan 2026
Viewed by 361
Abstract
Silvopastoral systems in Patagonia (Argentina) aim to synergize forest and grassland productivity through thinning interventions in native forests of Antarctic beech (Nothofagus antarctica (G.Forst.) Oerst.), locally known as ñire, modifying ecosystem dynamics. This study aimed to determine how thinning strategies modify microclimatic [...] Read more.
Silvopastoral systems in Patagonia (Argentina) aim to synergize forest and grassland productivity through thinning interventions in native forests of Antarctic beech (Nothofagus antarctica (G.Forst.) Oerst.), locally known as ñire, modifying ecosystem dynamics. This study aimed to determine how thinning strategies modify microclimatic conditions (air and soil temperatures, precipitation, soil water content) and modulate the intra-annual radial growth patterns in N. antarctica trees within subpolar deciduous forests of Tierra del Fuego, Argentina. We established three treatments: unmanaged mature forest (UF), thinning under crown cover influence (UC), and thinning outside crown cover influence (OC). Microclimate and radial growth were continuously monitored using high-precision dendrometers and associated data loggers during the 2021–2022 and 2023–2024 growing seasons. Data were analyzed using Generalized Linear Mixed Models and Principal Component Analysis. OC treatment consistently exhibited the highest total annual radial growth, averaging 1.44 mm yr−1, which was substantially greater than the observed in both the UC (0.56 mm yr−1) and UF (0.83 mm yr−1) across the two seasons. An advanced growth dynamic, with cambial activity starting approximately five days earlier than in UF and UC, was detected. Air temperature was a primary positive driver of daily growth (GLMM Estimates > 0.029, p < 0.001 for all treatments), while soil water content (SWC) was significantly higher in OC (mean 25.4%) compared to UF (22.3%) and UC (15.9%). These findings showed that OC, characterized by higher soil moisture, likely facilitated the trees’ ability to capitalize on warm temperature days. This accelerates and extends the period of radial growth, offering a direct strategy to enhance productivity in these silvopastoral systems, essential for long-term forest sustainability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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16 pages, 8518 KB  
Article
Genome-Wide Identification and Expression Analysis of the GRX Gene Family Reveals Its Potential Role in Floral Organ Development and Sex Differentiation in Litsea cubeba
by Siqi Wang, Yangdong Wang, Ming Gao, Yicun Chen and Yunxiao Zhao
Forests 2026, 17(1), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010128 - 16 Jan 2026
Viewed by 467
Abstract
As a class of glutathione-dependent oxidoreductases, glutaredoxins (GRXs) play a central role in maintaining cellular redox homeostasis, thereby influencing diverse biological processes including growth, development, and stress adaptation in plants. This study identified 36 GRX genes in Litsea cubeba through whole-genome analysis. Phylogenetic [...] Read more.
As a class of glutathione-dependent oxidoreductases, glutaredoxins (GRXs) play a central role in maintaining cellular redox homeostasis, thereby influencing diverse biological processes including growth, development, and stress adaptation in plants. This study identified 36 GRX genes in Litsea cubeba through whole-genome analysis. Phylogenetic classification placed them into four subfamilies (CC-, CGFS-, CPYC-type, and a species-specific SS branch), consistent with patterns in model plants like Arabidopsis thaliana and Oryza sativa, indicating evolutionary conservation of GRX core motifs. Genomic analyses including chromosomal location, collinearity, and gene structure revealed family evolution features. Expression profiling showed 11 LcGRX genes were flower-specific, with marked differential expression during stamen (M2) and pistil (F2) degeneration, supporting their roles in sexual dimorphism. Functional assays confirmed that floral highly expressed LcGRX12 directly interacts with TGA transcription factor LcTGA10, similar to its Arabidopsis homolog ROXY1. This study reveals the GRX-TGA module’s role in floral organ development in L. cubeba, offering insights into redox-mediated sex differentiation in Lauraceae and providing candidate genes for molecular breeding. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Genetics and Molecular Biology)
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15 pages, 1904 KB  
Article
Stand Age and Litter Shape Myriapod Communities in a Forest Mosaic (Diplopoda, Chilopoda)
by Marea Grinvald and Ivan Hadrián Tuf
Forests 2026, 17(1), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010127 - 16 Jan 2026
Viewed by 347
Abstract
(1) Forest fragmentation and associated edge effects can strongly modify the diversity and distribution of soil invertebrates, yet their responses in temperate floodplain forests remain poorly understood. We investigated myriapod (centipede and millipede) assemblages in a fragmented forest mosaic in the protected landscape [...] Read more.
(1) Forest fragmentation and associated edge effects can strongly modify the diversity and distribution of soil invertebrates, yet their responses in temperate floodplain forests remain poorly understood. We investigated myriapod (centipede and millipede) assemblages in a fragmented forest mosaic in the protected landscape area Litovelské Pomoraví (Czech Republic), focusing on the role of stand age, ecotones and key microhabitat variables. (2) Myriapods were sampled continuously during two years using pitfall traps arranged along transects crossing four neighboring patches (clear-cut with seedlings, 10-year-old stand, 87-year-old and 127-year-old Querco–Ulmetum forests). Species diversity was quantified using the Shannon–Wiener index, and patterns were analyzed by t-tests, canonical correspondence analysis and generalized additive models. (3) We collected over six thousand individuals (10 centipede and 10 millipede species). Diversity peaked in old-growth stands and adjacent ecotones, and two of the three ecotones supported particularly high species abundances. Litter cover and thickness, stand age, and the structure of the herb and shrub layers were the most important predictors of species distributions. Dominant species (e.g., Glomeris tetrasticha Brandt, 1833, Lithobius mutabilis L. Koch, 1862, L. forficatus (Linnaeus, 1758)) showed contrasting habitat preferences, reflecting niche differentiation along microhabitat and stand-age gradients. (4) Our findings indicate that conserving a fine-grained mosaic of stand ages, together with structurally complex forest interiors and ecotones, is essential for maintaining myriapod diversity and the ecosystem functions they provide in Central European forests. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Distribution, Species Richness, and Diversity of Wildlife in Forests)
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18 pages, 4298 KB  
Article
Development of Low-Power Forest Fire Water Bucket Liquid Level and Fire Situation Monitoring Device
by Xiongwei Lou, Shihong Chen, Linhao Sun, Xinyu Zheng, Siqi Huang, Chen Dong, Dashen Wu, Hao Liang and Guangyu Jiang
Forests 2026, 17(1), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010126 - 16 Jan 2026
Viewed by 218
Abstract
A portable and integrated monitoring device was developed to digitally assess both water levels and surrounding fire-related conditions in forest firefighting water buckets using multi-sensor fusion. The system integrates a hydrostatic liquid-level sensor with temperature–humidity and smoke sensors. Validation was performed through field-oriented [...] Read more.
A portable and integrated monitoring device was developed to digitally assess both water levels and surrounding fire-related conditions in forest firefighting water buckets using multi-sensor fusion. The system integrates a hydrostatic liquid-level sensor with temperature–humidity and smoke sensors. Validation was performed through field-oriented experiments conducted under semi-controlled conditions. Water-level measurements were collected over a three-month period under simulated forest conditions and benchmarked against conventional steel-ruler readings. Early-stage fire monitoring experiments were carried out using dry wood and leaf litter under varying wind speeds, wind directions, and representative extreme weather conditions. The device achieved a mean water-level bias of −0.60%, a root-mean-square error of 0.64%, and an overall accuracy of 99.36%. Fire monitoring reached a maximum detection distance of 7.30 m under calm conditions and extended to 16.50 m under strong downwind conditions, with performance decreasing toward crosswind directions. Stable operation was observed during periods of strong winds associated with typhoon events, as well as prolonged high-temperature exposure. The primary novelty of this work lies in the conceptualization of a Collaborative Forest Resource–Hazard Monitoring Architecture. Unlike traditional isolated sensors, our proposed framework utilizes a dual-domain decision-making model that simultaneously assesses water-bucket storage stability and micro-scale fire threats. By implementing a robust ‘sensing–logic–alert’ framework tailored for rugged environments, this study offers a new methodological reference for the intelligent management of forest firefighting resources. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Forest Inventory, Management and Planning: Intelligent Technologies and Their Applications)
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20 pages, 2313 KB  
Article
Estimating Carbon Sequestration of Urban Street Trees Using UAV-Derived 3D Green Quantity and the Simpson Model
by Xiaoxiao Ma and Tianyi Liu
Forests 2026, 17(1), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010125 - 16 Jan 2026
Viewed by 273
Abstract
Accurately measuring the three-dimensional green quantity (3DGQ) of urban trees is crucial for quantifying carbon sequestration benefits (CSB) in high-density cities. In this study, 540 street trees across 18 species (30 per species) in Shanghai were analyzed to evaluate an Improved Simpson Model [...] Read more.
Accurately measuring the three-dimensional green quantity (3DGQ) of urban trees is crucial for quantifying carbon sequestration benefits (CSB) in high-density cities. In this study, 540 street trees across 18 species (30 per species) in Shanghai were analyzed to evaluate an Improved Simpson Model (ISM) for UAV-derived crown volume estimation against a traditional Approximate Geometry Model (AGM) and a LiDAR-based point cloud method (PCM). The ISM integrates UAV imagery, edge-based canopy profiling, and Simpson’s numerical integration to account for irregular crown shapes and internal leaf-stem gaps. Results show that ISM achieved consistently lower estimation errors than the benchmark methods. Overall, ISM’s 3DGQ estimates had a root mean square error (RMSE) of approximately 5.2 m3 and a mean absolute error (MAE) of about 4.1 m3, indicating a close match with PCM reference values. This represents a dramatic error reduction, on the order of 90%–95% improvement in RMSE, compared to the conventional AGM approach. Broadleaf species with dense, regular canopies (e.g., Cinnamomum camphora and Platanus × acerifolia) exhibited the highest accuracy, with ISM-predicted volumes deviating only ~1%–2% from field measurements. Even for species with more irregular or porous crowns, the ISM maintained robust performance, yielding smaller errors than AGM and nearly matching the LiDAR-based PCM “ground truth.” These findings demonstrate that the proposed ISM can provide highly accurate 3D crown volume and carbon sequestration estimates in complex urban environments, outperforming existing geometric models and offering a practical, efficient alternative to labor-intensive LiDAR surveys. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Urban Green Space Ecosystem Services for Resilient and Sustainable Cities)
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17 pages, 2167 KB  
Article
The Effect of Fuel Bed Edges on Fire Dynamics
by Luis Reis, Jorge Raposo, Hugo Raposo and André Rodrigues
Forests 2026, 17(1), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010124 - 16 Jan 2026
Viewed by 459
Abstract
Wildfires are among the most frequent and destructive natural hazards in Europe, particularly in Portugal. They have severe impacts on forests, ecosystems, human health, and infrastructure, leading to substantial socio-economic losses due to firefighting efforts and post-fire recovery costs. Moreover, wildfires cause numerous [...] Read more.
Wildfires are among the most frequent and destructive natural hazards in Europe, particularly in Portugal. They have severe impacts on forests, ecosystems, human health, and infrastructure, leading to substantial socio-economic losses due to firefighting efforts and post-fire recovery costs. Moreover, wildfires cause numerous casualties each year, highlighting the need for a deeper understanding of fire behaviour to support effective firefighting strategies and ensure the safety of both responders and communities. This study examines the influence of wind flow velocity variation on fire behaviour, both in the presence and absence of an edge wall in the fuel bed, aiming to replicate the characteristics of real wildfire fronts at a laboratory scale. Experimental tests were conducted at the Forest Fire Research Laboratory (LEIF) of the University of Coimbra using a shrub mixture, composed of Ulex europaeus, Baccharis trimera, and Caralluma adscendens, representing one of the most common fine fuels in Portuguese forested landscapes. This research provides novel insights by experimentally analyzing the combined effect of wind velocity variation and fuel bed edge presence on fire behaviour, paving the way for future comparisons with numerical simulations and real wildfire fronts. As expected, increasing wind velocity and the presence of fuel bed edges resulted in higher values of rate of spread, fireline intensity, and fire intensity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Fire: Landscape Patterns, Risk Prediction and Fuels Management)
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16 pages, 7704 KB  
Article
Impacts of Afforestation on Soil Organic Carbon Dynamics Along the Aridity Gradient in China
by Juxiao Lu, Su Wang, Yajing Dong, Yue Wang, Yafeng Jiang, Hailong Zhang, Wenwen Lv, Wangliang Ge, Ruihua Bai and Lei Deng
Forests 2026, 17(1), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010123 - 16 Jan 2026
Viewed by 448
Abstract
Afforestation is recognized as a highly effective strategy for enhancing ecosystem carbon sequestration. However, the changes and drivers of soil organic carbon (SOC) following afforestation are still debated due to climate differences. Clarifying these responses is critical for improving the effectiveness of afforestation-based [...] Read more.
Afforestation is recognized as a highly effective strategy for enhancing ecosystem carbon sequestration. However, the changes and drivers of soil organic carbon (SOC) following afforestation are still debated due to climate differences. Clarifying these responses is critical for improving the effectiveness of afforestation-based carbon sequestration strategies. In this study, we analyzed nine 20-year-old afforestation sites (coniferous and broad-leaved) along a Chinese climatic gradient to quantify SOC and its fractional changes following farmland-to-forest conversion, and to identify the dominant factors controlling SOC sequestration across climatic gradients and forest types. The results showed that afforestation enhanced SOC (5.1%–210.5%, p < 0.05) in humid and semi-humid regions, but showed no significant effect in semi-arid regions, and it even reduced SOC in arid regions (−19%–−53.8%). Across all climatic zones, mineral-associated organic carbon was the dominant contributor to SOC accumulation throughout the entire soil profile (0–60 cm). Climatic-scale analyses based on the aridity index determined that root and litter C/N ratios were the primary drivers of SOC sequestration in coniferous forests, whereas in broad-leaved forests, they were more strongly controlled by soil physicochemical properties, particularly total nitrogen, bulk density, and soil water content. This study identified that SOC responses to afforestation are strongly mediated by climate and forest type, which is helpful for managers to take targeted measures to increase soil carbon sequestration in forest management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Soil)
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14 pages, 4372 KB  
Article
A Multi-Scale Anatomical Wood Identification Approach Applied to Traditional Japanese Chord Instruments
by Flavio Ruffinatto, Simonetta Capetta, Aurora Canepari and Alan Crivellaro
Forests 2026, 17(1), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010122 - 15 Jan 2026
Viewed by 440
Abstract
Accurate wood identification is fundamental to any study, conservation, or restoration activity involving cultural heritage objects, including musical instruments. Here, we apply WoodScope, a structured, multi-scale and minimally invasive workflow for wood identification, to three traditional Japanese chord instruments, showing how a systematic [...] Read more.
Accurate wood identification is fundamental to any study, conservation, or restoration activity involving cultural heritage objects, including musical instruments. Here, we apply WoodScope, a structured, multi-scale and minimally invasive workflow for wood identification, to three traditional Japanese chord instruments, showing how a systematic sequence of visual, macroscopic, and microscopic observations maximizes diagnostic accuracy while safeguarding object integrity. The results show that out of 39 wooden parts analysed, 38 were identified non-invasively. In one case, targeted micro-sampling was performed, based on macroscopic observation, to obtain additional information. Overall, our results confirm that most instrument components can be reliably identified at the genus level or, when diagnostic characters are insufficient, to broader anatomical groups, without the need for destructive sampling. Our study demonstrates the efficacy of the WoodScope approach to optimise wood identification outcomes while preserving the object’s integrity and confining micro-targeted sampling to instances where microscopic anatomical characters are indispensable for reliable taxonomic identification and cannot be evaluated non-invasively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wood Anatomy: From Species Identification to Ecological and Technological Insights)
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13 pages, 1868 KB  
Article
Stand Properties Relate to the Accuracy of Remote Sensing of Ips typographus L. Damage in Heterogeneous Managed Hemiboreal Forest Landscapes: A Case Study
by Agnis Šmits, Jordane Champion, Ilze Bargā, Linda Gulbe-Viļuma, Līva Legzdiņa, Elza Gricjus and Roberts Matisons
Forests 2026, 17(1), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010121 - 15 Jan 2026
Viewed by 219
Abstract
Under the intensifying water shortages in the vegetation season, early identification of Ips typographus L. damage is crucial for preventing wide outbreaks, which undermine the economic potential of commercial stands of Norway spruce (Picea abies Karst.) across Europe. For this purpose, remote [...] Read more.
Under the intensifying water shortages in the vegetation season, early identification of Ips typographus L. damage is crucial for preventing wide outbreaks, which undermine the economic potential of commercial stands of Norway spruce (Picea abies Karst.) across Europe. For this purpose, remote sensing based on satellite images is considered one of the most efficient methods, particularly in homogenous and wide forested landscapes. However, under highly heterogeneous seminatural managed forest landscapes in lowland Central and Northern Europe, as illustrated by the eastern Baltic region and Latvia in particular, the efficiency of such an approach can lack the desired accuracy. Hence, the identification of smaller damage patches by I. typographus, which can act as a source of wider outbreaks, can be overlooked, and situational awareness can be further aggravated by infrastructure artefacts. In this study, the accuracy of satellite imaging for the identification of I. typographus damage was evaluated, focusing on the occurrence of false positives and particularly false negatives obtained from the comparison with UAV imaging. Across the studied landscapes, correct or partially correct identification of damage patches larger than 30 m2 occurred in 73% of cases. Still, the satellite image analysis of the highly heterogeneous landscape resulted in quite a common occurrence of false negatives (up to one-third of cases), which were related to stand and patch properties. The high rate of false negatives, however, is crucial for the prevention of outbreaks, as the sources of outbreaks can be underestimated, burdening prompt and hence effective implication of countermeasures. Accordingly, elaborating an analysis of satellite images by incorporating stand inventory data could improve the efficiency of early detection systems, especially when coupled with UAV reconnaissance of heterogeneous landscapes, as in the eastern Baltic region. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems for Natural Resource Management of Forest Ecosystems)
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13 pages, 2486 KB  
Article
Influence of Density, Temperature, and Moisture Content on the Dielectric Properties of Pedunculate Oak (Quercus robur L.)
by Dario Pervan, Stjepan Pervan, Miljenko Klarić, Jure Žigon and Aleš Straže
Forests 2026, 17(1), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010120 - 15 Jan 2026
Viewed by 210
Abstract
This study examines the effects of temperature, relative humidity, moisture content, and density on the dielectric constant (ε′) and dielectric loss tangent (tan δ) of oak wood lamellae within a frequency range of 0.079 MHz to 25.1 MHz. The hypothesis tested was that [...] Read more.
This study examines the effects of temperature, relative humidity, moisture content, and density on the dielectric constant (ε′) and dielectric loss tangent (tan δ) of oak wood lamellae within a frequency range of 0.079 MHz to 25.1 MHz. The hypothesis tested was that increased temperature and moisture content enhance both dielectric polarization and loss, while density acts as a dominant structural determinant of dielectric behaviour. Oak lamellas were conditioned above saturated salt solutions at 20 °C and measured using an Agilent 4285A LCR meter according to ASTM D150-22. Multiple linear regression was used to demonstrate the statistically significant influence of temperature, relative humidity, moisture content, and density on the tested electrical properties of the lamellas. The results showed that the dielectric properties increase with higher sample density and higher air humidity. Temperature also had an influence, but it was significantly smaller, though still statistically significant (p < 0.05). Changes in dielectric properties were most pronounced at frequencies below 1 MHz, suggesting that dipolar and interfacial polarization are greater at lower frequencies. The findings in this paper provide a basis for optimizing the high frequency/dielectric heating process for heating before bending of oak and other similar hardwoods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Wood Science and Forest Products)
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23 pages, 3941 KB  
Article
How Environmental Perception and Place Governance Shape Equity in Urban Street Greening: An Empirical Study of Chicago
by Fan Li, Longhao Zhang, Fengliang Tang, Jiankun Liu, Yike Hu and Yuhang Kong
Forests 2026, 17(1), 119; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010119 - 15 Jan 2026
Viewed by 321
Abstract
Urban street greening structure plays a crucial role in promoting environmental justice and enhancing residents’ daily well-being, yet existing studies have primarily focused on vegetation quantity while neglecting how perception and governance interact to shape fairness. This study develops an integrated analytical framework [...] Read more.
Urban street greening structure plays a crucial role in promoting environmental justice and enhancing residents’ daily well-being, yet existing studies have primarily focused on vegetation quantity while neglecting how perception and governance interact to shape fairness. This study develops an integrated analytical framework that combines deep learning, machine learning, and spatial analysis to examine the impact of perceptual experience and socio-economic indicators on the equity of greening structure distribution in urban streets, and to reveal the underlying mechanisms driving this equity. Using DeepLabV3+ semantic segmentation, perception indices derived from street-view imagery, and population-weighted Gini coefficients, the study quantifies both the structural and perceptual dimensions of greening equity. XGBoost regression, SHAP interpretation, and Partial Dependence Plot analysis were applied to reveal the influence mechanism of the “Matthew effect” of perception and the Site governance responsiveness on the fairness of the green structure. The results identify two key findings: (1) perception has a positive driving effect and a negative vicious cycle effect on the formation of fairness, where positive perceptions such as beauty and safety gradually enhance fairness, while negative perceptions such as depression and boredom rapidly intensify inequality; (2) Site management with environmental sensitivity and dynamic mutual feedback to a certain extent determines whether the fairness of urban green structure can persist under pressure, as diverse Tree–Bush–Grass configurations reflect coordinated management and lead to more balanced outcomes. Policy strategies should therefore emphasize perceptual monitoring, flexible maintenance systems, and transparent public participation to achieve resilient and equitable urban street greening structures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Urban Forestry)
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