Forests

14 pages, 1895 KB

Open AccessArticle

Quality Assessment of Quercus scytophylla Liebm Charcoal Produced in a Metal Kiln in the Cordón Grande Ejido, Guerrero, Mexico

by José Navarro-Martínez, Humberto Ávila-Pérez, Ma. Amparo Máxima Borja de la Rosa, Iván Gallardo-Bernal, José Luis Rosas-Acevedo, Lorena Inés Bernal-Mendoza and María Guzmán-Martínez

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1877; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121877 - 18 Dec 2025

Viewed by 495

Abstract

The present study evaluates the quality of charcoal produced from Quercus scytophylla Liebm. in Guerrero, Mexico, using a portable metal oven, namely, the Guadiana Valley Experimental Field (CEVAG) type. A

2 \times 3

factorial design was employed to analyse the influence of wood [...] Read more.

The present study evaluates the quality of charcoal produced from Quercus scytophylla Liebm. in Guerrero, Mexico, using a portable metal oven, namely, the Guadiana Valley Experimental Field (CEVAG) type. A

2 \times 3

factorial design was employed to analyse the influence of wood heterogeneity (sapwood vs. heartwood) and position within the oven (low, medium, high) on the yield and physicochemical properties of the charcoal. The mean yield of the process was found to be 20.0–26.7%. The characteristics of six properties were determined: moisture content, volatile matter, ash content, fixed carbon, basic density, and calorific value. The charcoal exhibited a low moisture content (1.49–3.56%) and ash content (2.18–2.52%), meeting international standards. Volatile matter was higher in heartwood (22%). Fixed carbon (73.73–74.05%) was close to the optimal parameters of international standards. The calorific value exhibited marked variations in accordance with the position during the process of carbonisation, with elevated values observed in the lower section (6751–7508 cal g⁻¹). The basic density of the wood was higher in the sapwood, with a maximum value of 0.57 g cm⁻³ observed in the upper section. A positive linear relationship was identified between the basic density and calorific value, although the coefficient of determination was small (

R^{2} = 0.67

) and therefore inconclusive. The analysis showed the type of relationship that can be established between these two variables. The upper part of the kiln exhibited the optimal physicochemical properties, with the levels deemed acceptable. The utilisation of this oak for charcoal production fosters sustainable forest management and engenders direct economic benefits for rural communities. In conclusion, the research provides a viable technical model for sustainable wood energy production in forestry regions and underscores the need to evaluate other timber species with this potential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sustainable Processing of Wood and Lignocellulosic Materials: From Molecular Engineering to Industrial Implementation)

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21 pages, 9696 KB

Open AccessArticle

Microbial Co-Occurrence Network Robustness, Not Diversity, Is a Key Predictor of Soil Organic Carbon in High-Altitude Mountain Forests

by Yiming Feng, Chunyan Lv, Tianwei Wu, Jinhua Li, Ling Wang and Changming Zhao

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1876; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121876 - 18 Dec 2025

Viewed by 241

Abstract

Altitude-driven environmental changes influence the persistence of soil organic carbon (SOC) via microbial metabolic pathways. However, the degree to which the network robustness of microbial communities directly predicts the persistence of organic carbon in alpine mountain forests remains unclear. This study focused on [...] Read more.

Altitude-driven environmental changes influence the persistence of soil organic carbon (SOC) via microbial metabolic pathways. However, the degree to which the network robustness of microbial communities directly predicts the persistence of organic carbon in alpine mountain forests remains unclear. This study focused on the Qilian Sabina przewalskii forest, situated along an altitude gradient of 2900–3400 m in the Qilian Mountains, systematically exploring the organization of soil microbial communities, the co-occurrence networks’ robustness, and their predictive capacity for organic carbon storage. The results indicate that altitude, as a critical driving factor, not only alters the physicochemical properties, microbial composition, and diversity of the soil but also significantly impacts its complexity and network robustness. The complexity and robustness of the microbial network are highest in the mid-altitude region (3100–3200 m), which is conducive to the development of robust microbial networks. Both bacterial α diversity and network robustness exhibit positive correlations with SOC, whereas fungal diversity shows a negative correlation with SOC. Furthermore, statistical modeling revealed that indices of microbial co-occurrence network robustness were stronger predictors of SOC storage than classical alpha-diversity indices. The structural equation model reveals that microbial biomass nitrogen (MBN) serves as a key mediating factor linking microbial diversity and SOC. Soil characteristics emerge as the primary direct driving factor, whereas the robustness of microbial networks exerts a significant yet minor direct and mediating influence. This study underscores that the robustness of microbial networks, rather than their diversity, is a critical predictor of soil organic carbon in high-altitude mountain forests. It offers a novel theoretical framework for understanding the mechanisms of the carbon cycle in mountain forest ecosystems in the context of climate warming. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Plant, Soil, Microorganisms and Their Interactions—2nd Edition)

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37 pages, 1136 KB

Open AccessArticle

Professional Degree Graduate Education in Forestry: Comparative Insights Across Developing and Developed Countries

by Taojing Wang, Yasmina Radani, Tingting Dai, Wenjun Hou and Liming Yang

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1875; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121875 - 18 Dec 2025

Viewed by 342

Abstract

Forests play a central role in biodiversity conservation, climate mitigation, and sustainable development, requiring highly skilled professionals trained through effective graduate education. Grounded in Comparative Education Theory, this study conducts a comparative analysis of ten flagship forestry graduate programs across developed and developing [...] Read more.

Forests play a central role in biodiversity conservation, climate mitigation, and sustainable development, requiring highly skilled professionals trained through effective graduate education. Grounded in Comparative Education Theory, this study conducts a comparative analysis of ten flagship forestry graduate programs across developed and developing countries, examining how institutional characteristics influence curriculum design, professional preparation, and student outcomes. Using a structured document review of program handbooks, curriculum guides, faculty profiles, and sectoral reports from 2015 to 2025, the study analyzes six dimensions of program design: curriculum structure, faculty and research capacity, industry engagement, infrastructure resources, funding models, and international partnerships. Findings reveal substantial variation across institutions. Programs in developed countries often benefit from stronger research environments, diversified funding, and well-established collaborations with industry and government agencies. Several developing-country programs face constraints related to funding, infrastructure, and technological capacity, yet demonstrate strengths in traditional ecological knowledge and community-based training. Across cases, graduate employment outcomes are shaped by sectoral dynamics, program specialization, and opportunities for experiential learning. The study highlights institutional and not national patterns and emphasizes that broader generalizations require larger, more representative datasets. Insights may inform program enhancement, capacity development, and future research on global forestry education. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Economics, Policy, and Social Science)

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20 pages, 7574 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Visibility in Urban Parks and Social Functions: A Multimodal Correlational Study

by Yuxiang Liu, Yi Chen, Shuhan Zhou, Kaixuan Chen, Shuang Zhao and Mingze Chen

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1874; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121874 - 18 Dec 2025

Viewed by 237

Abstract

Urban parks are fundamental to building sustainable and inclusive cities, yet the mechanisms linking their spatial configuration to human activities and social functions remain insufficiently understood. A scalable multimodal framework is developed to quantify how spatial visibility is associated with patterns of park [...] Read more.

Urban parks are fundamental to building sustainable and inclusive cities, yet the mechanisms linking their spatial configuration to human activities and social functions remain insufficiently understood. A scalable multimodal framework is developed to quantify how spatial visibility is associated with patterns of park use and the provision of social ecosystem services. A total of 94,635 geo-tagged user-generated images from 148 parks in Vancouver, Canada, were analyzed using the Contrastive Language-Image Pretraining (CLIP) model to classify user activities into six behavioral categories. Concurrently, airborne LiDAR data and space syntax analysis were used to derive three visibility metrics—Mean Isovist Area (MIA), reflecting internal openness; Mean Visual Integration (MVI), indicating visual connectivity within the park interior; and External Isovist Ratio (EIR), representing edge openness and boundary visibility. The results indicate that EIR exhibits the strongest and most consistent relationships with user activity patterns, positively associated with family recreation, social vibrancy, and physical activity, while negatively linked to nature immersion and quiet relaxation. MIA shows moderate associations with socially interactive and child-oriented activities, whereas MVI contributes little explanatory power compared to localized visibility conditions. These findings highlight spatial visibility as a critical design attribute that is closely associated with human–forest interactions. By illustrating that moderate visual openness and edge permeability are associated with more inclusive and multifunctional patterns of park use, actionable insights are provided for urban park planning and design, and the promotion of social sustainability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecological Functions of Urban Green Spaces)

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24 pages, 13541 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influencing Factor Analysis of Vegetation Spatio-Temporal Variability in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei Region Based on Interpretable Machine Learning

by Yuan Cao, Lanxuan Guo, Hefeng Wang and Anbing Zhang

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1873; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121873 - 18 Dec 2025

Viewed by 232

Abstract

To address the insufficient quantitative understanding of vegetation driving mechanisms across spatio-temporal scales, this study integrated multi-source data and machine learning methods to simulate and analyze Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) changes in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei (BTH) region over the past two decades. Using [...] Read more.

To address the insufficient quantitative understanding of vegetation driving mechanisms across spatio-temporal scales, this study integrated multi-source data and machine learning methods to simulate and analyze Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) changes in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei (BTH) region over the past two decades. Using the SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) method, we identified the most important predictors of climate and human activities in the XGBoost model and quantified their spatial contributions. We further analyzed the spatio-temporal variation of the main predictors across different land use types The main findings were as follows: (1) The XGBoost model achieved excellent performance (R² > 0.96, MEA < 0.02, RMSE < 0.027) on the datasets from 2000 to 2020, outperforming random forest (RF), support vector machines (SVM), and K-nearest neighbors (KNN) in prediction accuracy. (2) Vegetation showed an overall improving trend, with areas exhibiting significant improvement accounting for 47.96% of the total region. Precipitation, temperature, and human activities were identified as the most significant predictors of NDVI. Their relative importance varied over time, and NDVI responses to these factors exhibited clear spatial heterogeneity. (3) Primary predictors differed by land use type: NDVI in cropland and grassland was mainly driven by precipitation, forest NDVI by temperature, and urban/built-up areas by human activities. This study developed an analytical framework integrating nonlinearity and spatial heterogeneity, achieving a quantitative “overall-categorical” analysis of the important predictors behind NDVI changes. The approach provided a novel methodological reference for attributing vegetation dynamics. The findings contributed to the implementation of classified regulation in the BTH region, promoting the transition of human activities toward ecological restoration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Remote Sensing in Vegetation Dynamics and Ecology—2nd Edition)

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13 pages, 6258 KB

Open AccessArticle

Determining the Distribution of Red Deer (Cervus elaphus L.) in the Kopački Rit Nature Park Using Bioacoustic Monitoring

by Denis Deže, Siniša Ozimec, Vlatko Rožac, Ivana Majić, Tihomir Florijančić, Ankica Sarajlić, Dorijan Radočaj, Helena Ereš and Ivan Plaščak

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1872; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121872 - 18 Dec 2025

Viewed by 284

Abstract

Red deer (Cervus elaphus), as a highly vocal species, provide versatile ecosystem functions beyond grazing. Their flexible use of different habitats allows them to occupy a variety of ecosystems. As global efforts to conserve biodiversity increase, there is a growing need [...] Read more.

Red deer (Cervus elaphus), as a highly vocal species, provide versatile ecosystem functions beyond grazing. Their flexible use of different habitats allows them to occupy a variety of ecosystems. As global efforts to conserve biodiversity increase, there is a growing need for new approaches to continuous wildlife monitoring. Bioacoustics is a rapidly developing field that provides valuable data, especially in environments that are difficult to access. The spatial occupancy of red deer in Kopački Rit Nature Park was investigated using passive acoustic devices during the rutting season (September–October) in 2023 and 2024. A total of 332,302 recordings were collected with AudioMoth devices configured to record for 1 min every 5 min over a 10-day period. A recognition model was trained on the Arbimon platform, and a random forest model was applied to the detection data. The occupancy model revealed differences in spatial occupancy between the two years. Although none of the tested covariates showed statistically significant effects, the observed differences likely reflect unmeasured ecological dynamics, such as hydrological variability and resource availability. These findings highlight the potential of passive acoustic monitoring as a reliable, non-invasive approach for large mammal studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Biodiversity)

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33 pages, 11553 KB

Open AccessArticle

Forest Habitats, Management Intensity, and Elevation as Drivers of Eumycetozoa Distributions and Their Utility as Bioindicators

by Tomasz Pawłowicz, Tomasz Oszako and Adam Okorski

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1871; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121871 - 17 Dec 2025

Viewed by 250

Abstract

Slime moulds (Eumycetozoa) are closely associated with forest structure, moisture and the availability of microhabitats, which together make them promising candidates for bioindication. This study synthesised an integrated, georeferenced resource from Central and Eastern Europe to assess how forest habitat, management intensity, and [...] Read more.

Slime moulds (Eumycetozoa) are closely associated with forest structure, moisture and the availability of microhabitats, which together make them promising candidates for bioindication. This study synthesised an integrated, georeferenced resource from Central and Eastern Europe to assess how forest habitat, management intensity, and elevation structure assemblages, and to identify indicator taxa suited to monitoring. Analyses in R (RStudio, version 4.5.2) combined effort-controlled diversity comparisons, models of record intensity, habitat-stratified elevation responses, constrained ordination, and indicator testing at species and higher ranks. The resulting corpus encompassed 624 species from 16 countries and eight consolidated forest habitat classes, enabling quantification of joint assemblage responses to habitat, management intensity, and elevation under effort-controlled sampling, and facilitating the identification of indicator sets that are robust to uneven sampling. At the order and genus levels, Physarales, Trichiales, and Stemonitidales, together with genera such as Trichia, Meriderma, and Polyschismium, exhibited the clearest and most transferable indicator behaviour, while species including Trichia varia, Fuligo septica, and Meriderma carestiae emerged as promising candidates for fine-grained bioindication along habitat and elevation gradients. Habitat exerted clearer contrasts than management; elevation effects were strongly habitat specific, and a compact set of taxa showed stable, interpretable indicator behaviour across gradients. These indicator assemblages, together with an appraisal of cross-country generalisation, provide an operational basis for elevation-aware, habitat-structured bioindication with slime moulds in European forests. Taken together, these results indicate that slime mould assemblages have the potential to complement existing forest bioindication systems, both by tracking broad forest habitat types along management and elevation gradients and by providing indirect information on less conspicuous attributes such as stand naturalness and the availability of dead wood, although such applications remain at a proof-of-concept stage and will require further targeted evaluation before operational deployment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Biodiversity)

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19 pages, 2903 KB

Open AccessArticle

Development of an Indicator Assessment Framework for Urban Forest Effects Through a Scoping Review

by Jinsuk Jeong, Hye-Rin Joo, Hong-Duck Sou, Sumin Choi and Chan-Ryul Park

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1870; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121870 - 17 Dec 2025

Viewed by 315

Abstract

Urban forests offer a range of environmental, climatic, economic, and social benefits to citizens. However, these effects have not been systematically measured owing to the localized nature of urban forests. This study developed a framework to assess the effects of urban forest ecosystem [...] Read more.

Urban forests offer a range of environmental, climatic, economic, and social benefits to citizens. However, these effects have not been systematically measured owing to the localized nature of urban forests. This study developed a framework to assess the effects of urban forest ecosystem services and elucidate the service and benefit pathways of its indicators. Two PRISMA-guided scoping reviews were conducted using Web of Science and Scopus to identify English peer-reviewed articles (2015–2024) on the effects of urban forests and indicators. The studies on the urban forest effects were analyzed to systematically code and classify the criteria, effects, methods, and techniques based on the nature-based solutions. In terms of indicators, the ecosystem service cascade was employed to organize indicators across four pathways with structures/function, service, benefit, and value. The review revealed that temperature regulation, air pollution reduction, and carbon sequestration were the most studied effects, followed by social effects; in contrast, economic benefits and sound and noise were the least studied and assessed. Furthermore, indicator pathways were found to vary by effects. Drawing on this scoping review, a standard and expanded indicator assessment framework was developed. The proposed framework provides a decision-support tool to assess urban forest performance based on evidence, facilitating link between biophysical properties and human outcomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecological Functions of Urban Green Spaces)

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21 pages, 4009 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Soil Health of Panax notoginseng Forest Plantations Based on Minimum Data Set

by Wenqi Tang, Jianqiang Li, Huiying Yan, Lianling Cha, Yuan Yang and Linling Wang

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1869; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121869 - 17 Dec 2025

Viewed by 255

Abstract

Healthy soil serves as the fundamental basis for sustainable Panax notoginseng (Burkill) F.H. Chen ex C.Y. Wu & K.M. Feng cultivation in understory systems. Current management practices have raised concerns about potential soil degradation and ecological imbalance. To comprehensively assess the soil health [...] Read more.

Healthy soil serves as the fundamental basis for sustainable Panax notoginseng (Burkill) F.H. Chen ex C.Y. Wu & K.M. Feng cultivation in understory systems. Current management practices have raised concerns about potential soil degradation and ecological imbalance. To comprehensively assess the soil health status, this study investigated typical understory P. notoginseng plantations in the subtropical mountain monsoon region of western Yunnan. By analyzing 29 soil physical, chemical, and biological indicators, we constructed a Minimum Data Set (MDS) using Principal Component Analysis to evaluate soil health and identify major constraints. The results showed that the MDS for soil health assessment consisted of 11 key indicators: acid phosphatase, fungal ACE index, organic matter, total nitrogen, sucrase, fungal Simpson index, fine sand, non-capillary porosity, silt content, bulk density, and microbial biomass nitrogen. Using both linear and non-linear scoring functions, the Soil Health Index (SHI) calculated based on the MDS showed a significant positive correlation with the SHI derived from the Total Data Set (TDS) (linear scoring: R² = 0.43, p < 0.001; non-linear scoring: R² = 0.305, p < 0.001). This indicates that the MDS captures a substantial and significant portion of the variation explained by the TDS and can serve as a practical and simplified alternative for soil health evaluation in this cultivation system. Based on the MDS, the SHI values obtained using linear and non-linear scoring functions ranged from 0.53 to 0.72 and 0.48–0.59, with mean values of 0.62 and 0.51, respectively, indicating moderate soil health status in the study area. Significant differences in SHI were observed across planting durations and seasons (p < 0.05), with two-year-old plantations showing notably better soil health indices than three-year-old plantations, particularly during the rainy season. The main constraints identified in understory P. notoginseng plantations included microbial community degradation, nutrient imbalance, and physical structural deterioration. Implementing scientific soil management strategies such as optimized rotation cycles, organic amendment applications, and microbial community regulation can effectively mitigate these soil constraints, enhance soil health, and promote the sustainable development of understory P. notoginseng cultivation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Soil)

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21 pages, 2410 KB

Open AccessArticle

Unveiling Drivers of Green Production in Forest-Grown Ginseng Farms in China: An Ordered Probit-LGBM Fusion Approach

by Xin-Bo Zhang, Yi-Jun Lou, Yu-Ning Jia, Jia-Fang Han, Yang Zhang and Cheng-Liang Wu

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1868; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121868 - 17 Dec 2025

Viewed by 239

Abstract

This study investigates the drivers of green production practices among forest-cultivated ginseng growers in Jilin Province, China, by integrating the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and the Technology–Organization–Environment (TOE) framework. Based on survey data from 369 households in the major production regions of [...] Read more.

This study investigates the drivers of green production practices among forest-cultivated ginseng growers in Jilin Province, China, by integrating the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and the Technology–Organization–Environment (TOE) framework. Based on survey data from 369 households in the major production regions of Tonghua, Baishan, and Yanbian areas, an Ordered Probit model and a Light Gradient Boosting Machine (LGBM) algorithm are employed for cross-validation. The results indicate that growers’ cognitive traits (awareness of green production standards and ecological/quality safety) and willingness (acceptance of price premiums for green products) are the most stable and critical drivers. Policy incentives (e.g., certification subsidies and outreach) not only directly promote green practices but also exhibit synergistic effects through interactions with resource endowments and psychological cognition. Regional heterogeneity is evident: Tonghua shows policy–market co-drive, Baishan is dominated by ecological constraints and safeguard policies, while Yanbian relies more on education and individual resources. Accordingly, this study proposes a differentiated policy system based on diagnosis–intervention–evaluation to support the high-quality development of forest-cultivated ginseng industry and ecological-economic synergies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Economics, Policy, and Social Science)

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26 pages, 4198 KB

Open AccessArticle

Community Forestry and Carbon Dynamics in Nepal’s Lowland Sal Forests: Integrating Field Inventories and Remote Sensing for REDD+ Insights

by Padam Raj Joshi, Aidi Huo, Adam Shaaban Mgana and Binaya Kumar Mishra

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1867; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121867 - 17 Dec 2025

Viewed by 552

Abstract

Community-managed forests within agroforestry landscapes are vital for both carbon sequestration and agricultural sustainability. This study assesses the Hariyali Community Forest (HCF) in western Nepal, emphasizing its role in carbon storage within a Sal (Shorea robusta)-dominated lowland forest containing diverse native [...] Read more.

Community-managed forests within agroforestry landscapes are vital for both carbon sequestration and agricultural sustainability. This study assesses the Hariyali Community Forest (HCF) in western Nepal, emphasizing its role in carbon storage within a Sal (Shorea robusta)-dominated lowland forest containing diverse native and medicinal species. Stratified field inventories combined with satellite-derived biomass and land-use/land-cover data were used to quantify carbon stocks and spatial trends. In 2022, the mean aboveground carbon density was 165 tC ha⁻¹, totaling approximately 101,640 tC (~373,017 tCO₂e), which closely matches satellite-based trends and indicates consistent carbon accumulation. Remote sensing from 2015–2022 showed a net tree cover gain of 427 ha compared to a 2000 baseline of 188 ha, evidencing effective community-led regeneration. The 615 ha Sal-dominated landscape also sustains agroforestry, small-scale horticulture, and subsistence crops, integrating livelihoods with conservation. Temporary carbon declines between 2020 and 2022, linked to localized harvesting and management shifts, highlight the need for stronger governance and local capacity. This study, among the first integrated carbon assessments in Nepal’s lowland Sal forests, demonstrates how community forestry advances REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation, and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries) objectives while enhancing rural resilience. Linking field inventories with satellite-derived biomass and land-cover data situates community forestry within regional environmental change and SDG (Sustainable Development Goals) targets (13, 15, and 1) through measurable ecosystem restoration and livelihood gains. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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15 pages, 2887 KB

Open AccessArticle

Quantifying Nitrogen Uptake Preferences in Mature Tropical Plantation Trees with an In Situ Whole-Tree Paired ¹⁵N Labeling Method

by Terun Bao, Ang Wang, Xueyan Wang, Yuying Qu, Feifei Zhu, Ying Tu, Chenxia Su, Tao Zhang, Dexiang Chen, Yinghua Li and Yunting Fang

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1866; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121866 - 17 Dec 2025

Viewed by 266

Abstract

The nitrogen (N) uptake preferences of mature tropical trees remain poorly understood, largely because traditional hydroponic methods fail to adequately simulate field conditions. To address this, we applied an in situ whole-tree paired ¹⁵N labeling experiment to quantify N acquisition strategies in [...] Read more.

The nitrogen (N) uptake preferences of mature tropical trees remain poorly understood, largely because traditional hydroponic methods fail to adequately simulate field conditions. To address this, we applied an in situ whole-tree paired ¹⁵N labeling experiment to quantify N acquisition strategies in three common species of tropical plantations in southern China: Hevea brasiliensis, Pinus caribaea, and Acacia mangium. The in situ whole-tree paired ¹⁵N labeling experiment revealed distinct species-specific nitrogen uptake strategies: Hevea brasiliensis preferentially absorbed nitrate (contributing 76% to total N uptake), Pinus caribaea relied more heavily on ammonium (61%), while Acacia mangium exhibited no strong preference for either N form but demonstrated the highest N uptake rate. These findings indicate the significant role of mycorrhizal type and biological nitrogen fixation in shaping N uptake patterns. Importantly, even when accounting for the dilution by the soil nitrogen pool, nitrate still contributed 42–99% of the total nitrogen uptake across the three tree species. All three species showed a substantial capacity for nitrate assimilation, challenging the conventional view of ammonium dominance in tropical trees and providing a mechanistic basis for refining nitrogen management practices in plantation forestry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Woody Plant Ecophysiology, Morphology, and Functional Diversity Across Tropical Forest Ecosystems)

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16 pages, 3485 KB

Open AccessArticle

Climate Change Drives Adaptive Distribution and Corridor Identification of the Endangered Rhodiola Species on the Tibetan Plateau

by Huayong Zhang, Lan Ma, Yihe Zhang, Zhongyu Wang and Zhao Liu

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1865; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121865 - 17 Dec 2025

Viewed by 247

Abstract

Climate change significantly impacts the survival and distribution of alpine vegetation on the Tibetan Plateau. Endangered Rhodiola species, represented by Rhodiola crenulata (Hook. f. & Thomson) H. Ohba and Rhodiola tangutica (Maxim.) S.H. Fu. are highly sensitive to climate change. Modeling their adaptive [...] Read more.

Climate change significantly impacts the survival and distribution of alpine vegetation on the Tibetan Plateau. Endangered Rhodiola species, represented by Rhodiola crenulata (Hook. f. & Thomson) H. Ohba and Rhodiola tangutica (Maxim.) S.H. Fu. are highly sensitive to climate change. Modeling their adaptive distribution and identifying ecological corridors are crucial for developing conservation strategies. Using the biomod2 platform and the MCR model, this study projects the potential geographical distribution of the two Rhodiola species under current and future climate scenarios and further identifies key ecological corridors. The results indicate that under current climate conditions, Rhodiola crenulata is mainly distributed in the southern part of the Tibetan Plateau, while Rhodiola tangutica is primarily concentrated in the northeastern region. Temperature, precipitation, and elevation are identified as key environmental drivers influencing their distribution. Under future climate scenarios, the total adaptive area of Rhodiola crenulata is projected to expand. The most significant expansion, reaching 22%, is projected under the SSP585 scenario in the 2090s. In contrast, the total adaptive area of Rhodiola tangutica is expected to contract, with a reduction of 2.99% under the SSP585 scenario in the 2070s. Based on the migration trends of the two species, ecological corridors suitable for development, such as primary corridors and secondary corridors, were established to support species migration and biodiversity conservation. By integrating species distribution models with the MCR model, this study provides a scientific basis for the conservation of endangered Rhodiola species under climate change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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24 pages, 7477 KB

Open AccessArticle

Artificial Drying of Eucalyptus Logs: Influence of Diameter, Cutting Pattern, and Residence Time on Energy Efficiency for Continuous Carbonization

by Angélica de Cássia Oliveira Carneiro, Clarissa G. Figueiró, Antonio J. V. Zanuncio, Lucas de F. Fialho, Iara F. Demuner, Ana Márcia Macedo Ladeira Carvalho, Evanderson L. C. Evangelista, Dandara P. da S. Guimarães, João Gilberto M. Ucella Filho, Amélia Guimarães Carvalho, Bárbara L. de Lima and Solange de Olivera Araújo

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1864; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121864 - 17 Dec 2025

Viewed by 189

Abstract

High and variable moisture in wood logs limits their use in continuous carbonization reactors. Artificial drying emerges as a solution to homogenize the moisture of the raw material, optimizing the process, increasing yield, and improving the quality of charcoal. This study aimed to [...] Read more.

High and variable moisture in wood logs limits their use in continuous carbonization reactors. Artificial drying emerges as a solution to homogenize the moisture of the raw material, optimizing the process, increasing yield, and improving the quality of charcoal. This study aimed to develop an experimental fixed-bed drying system for logs, evaluating the effects of cutting layout (40 cm, 20 cm, and split), diameter class (>12 cm, 12.1–14 cm, 14.1–16 cm, and 16.1–18 cm), and residence time (30, 60, and 90 min) at 300 °C. Split logs showed higher heating and drying rates, positively impacting efficiency. However, split and 20 cm logs subjected to 90 min of drying underwent combustion, indicating operational limits for these layouts under the tested conditions. The heartwood and sapwood regions of split logs heated more rapidly, resulting in higher drying rates and moisture loss, directly affecting drying efficiency. Split logs dried for 60 min showed the best drying efficiency and greatest moisture reduction, making this the most recommended treatment. This study not only demonstrates the technical feasibility of artificial drying of logs for continuous carbonization but also establishes fundamental guidelines for the development of more efficient, safe and sustainable industrial technologies in the charcoal production sector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Wood Science and Forest Products)

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21 pages, 3443 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Propagation Strategies for Superior Genotypes of Moringa oleifera L. to Enhance Sustainable Planting Material Production

by Sures Kumar Muniandi, Farah Fazwa Md Ariff, Samsuri Toh Harun, Syafiqah Nabilah Samsul Bahari, Masitah Mohd Taini and Mohd Zaki Abdullah

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1863; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121863 - 17 Dec 2025

Viewed by 301

Abstract

The sustainable cultivation of Moringa oleifera is constrained by limited availability of high-quality planting materials. This study established an integrated propagation framework combining seed, cutting, and air-layering methods for the rapid and reliable multiplication of superior genotypes with good morphological traits and elevated [...] Read more.

The sustainable cultivation of Moringa oleifera is constrained by limited availability of high-quality planting materials. This study established an integrated propagation framework combining seed, cutting, and air-layering methods for the rapid and reliable multiplication of superior genotypes with good morphological traits and elevated astragalin content. Seed pretreatment trials showed that simple soaking for 12 h significantly reduced mean germination time without affecting final germination percentage, while a topsoil–cocopeat–compost mixture enhanced early seedling survival and growth. HPLC profiling identified four genotypes with significantly higher astragalin concentrations (187–281 ppm), linking phytochemical quality with propagation performance. Vegetative propagation experiments revealed that cutting position and girth strongly influenced regeneration success. Cutting position experiments showed clear positional differences, with basal cuttings achieving the highest rooting response. Bottom cuttings produced the highest number of shoots (4.22), nodes (5.00), and thickest shoots (24.65 mm), as well as the highest rooting percentage. Middle cuttings developed the longest shoots (40.21 cm) and the greatest number of roots (32.83), with a rooting percentage of 66.70%. Top cuttings showed the lowest performance across all shoot and root traits. Larger-diameter cuttings produced more shoots but fewer roots while smaller-diameter cuttings produced more roots but fewer shoots. Air-layering with Jiffy-7 pellets achieved the highest root number (43.83) and length (7.23 cm), with 100% survival. Overall, the study provides a robust, mechanism-supported propagation strategy that enables large-scale, uniform production of superior Moringa genotypes, strengthening future programs in clonal improvement, genetic conservation, and sustainable agroforestry development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)

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13 pages, 1297 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Carbon Fiber Content on the Mechanical Performance of Particleboards

by Izabela Burawska, Piotr Borysiuk and Michał Budek

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1862; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121862 - 16 Dec 2025

Viewed by 245

Abstract

Conventional particleboards often exhibit limited mechanical strength, which restricts their use in load-bearing and high-performance applications; reinforcing these boards with carbon fibers offers a potential solution to overcome these limitations. This study investigated the effect of carbon fiber (CF) content on the mechanical [...] Read more.

Conventional particleboards often exhibit limited mechanical strength, which restricts their use in load-bearing and high-performance applications; reinforcing these boards with carbon fibers offers a potential solution to overcome these limitations. This study investigated the effect of carbon fiber (CF) content on the mechanical performance of single-layer particleboards bonded with polymeric methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (pMDI) adhesive. Carbon fibers were examined as a reinforcement to improve the mechanical properties of particleboards. Experimental boards were produced with 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50% CF (based on the oven-dry mass of wood particles). The analysis included density profile distribution, modulus of rupture (MOR), modulus of elasticity (MOE), and screw withdrawal resistance (SWR). The results showed that mechanical performance improved only at lower CF contents. The most pronounced effect was observed at 10% CF, where MOR increased from 15.2 MPa (control) to 19.2 MPa, and MOE increased from 2.45 GPa to 2.91 GPa. Higher CF additions (≥20%) did not yield further improvements, and at elevated levels (≥30%), bending performance decreased (MOR dropped to 14.1–13.5 MPa) due to poor fiber dispersion and weakened interfacial bonding between fibers and wood particles. Screw withdrawal resistance increased gradually with CF content, from 156 N in the control boards to 182 N at 50% CF, although the improvement was limited by adhesion quality and mat heterogeneity. Overall, the study demonstrates that small CF additions can enhance selected mechanical properties of particleboards, whereas higher loadings negatively affect performance due to microstructural incompatibilities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations in Timber Engineering)

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19 pages, 11058 KB

Open AccessArticle

Extreme Climate Drivers and Their Interactions in Lightning-Ignited Fires: Insights from Machine Learning Models

by Yu Wang, Yingda Wu, Huanjia Cui, Yilin Liu, Maolin Li, Xinyu Yang, Jikai Zhao and Qiang Yu

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1861; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121861 - 16 Dec 2025

Viewed by 282

Abstract

Lightning is the primary natural cause of wildfires in mid- to high-latitude forests, and it is increasing in frequency under climate change. Traditional fire danger forecasts, reliant on standard meteorological data, often fail to capture extreme events and future risk. To address this [...] Read more.

Lightning is the primary natural cause of wildfires in mid- to high-latitude forests, and it is increasing in frequency under climate change. Traditional fire danger forecasts, reliant on standard meteorological data, often fail to capture extreme events and future risk. To address this issue, we integrate extreme climate indices with meteorological, vegetation, soil, and topographic data, and apply four machine learning methods to build probabilistic models for lightning fire occurrence. The results show that incorporating extreme climate indices significantly improves model performance. Among the models, XGBoost achieved the highest accuracy (87.4%) and AUC (0.903), clearly outperforming traditional fire weather indices (accuracy 60%–71%). Model interpretation with SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) further revealed the driving mechanisms and interaction effects of extreme factors. Extreme temperature and precipitation indices contributed nearly 60% to fire occurrence, with growing season length (GSL), minimum of daily maximum temperature (TXn), diurnal temperature range (DTR), and warm spell duration index (WSDI) identified as key drivers. In contrast, heavy precipitation indices exerted a suppressing effect. Compound hot and dry conditions amplified fuel aridity and markedly increased ignition probability. This interpretable framework improves short-term lightning fire prediction and offers quantitative support for risk warning and resource allocation in a warming climate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Fire Detection, Prevention and Management)

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16 pages, 4651 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating the Carbon Budget and Seeking Alternatives to Improve Carbon Absorption Capacity at Pinus rigida Plantations in South Korea

by Chang Seok Lee, Jieun Seok, Gyu Tae Kang, Bong Soon Lim and Seung Jin Joo

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1860; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121860 - 16 Dec 2025

Viewed by 388

Abstract

This study was carried out to investigate stand structure, growth dynamics, and carbon fluxes in Pinus rigida plantations of varying ages in South Korea. Field measurements across four mountain sites quantified diameter-class distributions, net primary productivity (NPP), soil respiration, and net ecosystem production [...] Read more.

This study was carried out to investigate stand structure, growth dynamics, and carbon fluxes in Pinus rigida plantations of varying ages in South Korea. Field measurements across four mountain sites quantified diameter-class distributions, net primary productivity (NPP), soil respiration, and net ecosystem production (NEP). P. rigida exhibited normally distributed diameter structures in larger classes, whereas Quercus spp. showed reverse J-shaped patterns, indicating active regeneration and ongoing succession toward mixed broadleaved stands. Individual NPP was highest in P. densiflora (4.77 kg yr⁻¹) and P. rigida (4.31 kg yr⁻¹), while Quercus spp. displayed lower growth due to light limitation. Stand-level NPP peaked in 20–40-year-old stands (4.27–4.88 ton C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) and declined with age (2.30 ton C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹). Soil respiration averaged 1.0 ton C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ and was strongly temperature dependent (R² = 0.56; Q₁₀ = 2.70). NEP on Mt. Galmi reached 4.38 ton C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, demonstrating substantial carbon sink capacity. These findings indicate that aging P. rigida plantations maintain ecosystem-level carbon uptake through successional compensation. Policy efforts should prioritize adaptive thinning, assisted natural regeneration, and long-term monitoring frameworks to accelerate the transition toward climate-resilient mixed forests and to strengthen national forest carbon neutrality strategies. Future research should integrate long-term carbon flux observations, species interaction modeling, and assessments of climate-driven disturbance regimes to refine management pathways for resilient mixed-forest landscapes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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27 pages, 3269 KB

Open AccessArticle

Phyllosphere Fungal Diversity and Community in Pinus sylvestris Progeny Trials and Its Heritability Among Plus Tree Families

by Carel Elizabeth Carvajal-Arias, Ahto Agan, Kalev Adamson, Tiit Maaten and Rein Drenkhan

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1859; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121859 - 16 Dec 2025

Viewed by 232

Abstract

Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) is a key species in boreal forests, valued both economically and ecologically, in part due to its associations with foliar fungi. These fungi influence plant health, nutrient cycling, and resistance induction. To investigate these interactions, we collected [...] Read more.

Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) is a key species in boreal forests, valued both economically and ecologically, in part due to its associations with foliar fungi. These fungi influence plant health, nutrient cycling, and resistance induction. To investigate these interactions, we collected 1367 needle and shoot samples across 12 plus tree genotypes grown in 4 progeny trials in Estonia. Amplifying the ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 gene region, we obtained over 1.3 million high-quality sequences and identified 1261 fungal OTUs at the 98% species hypothesis level. Among the identified OTUs, 24.6% were classified as saprotrophic and 18.2% as pathogenic fungi. Fungal diversity varied significantly between tree tissue types, progeny trial locations, and plus tree origins. Fungal community composition varied across tissue types, with older needles tending to harbor more complex communities. Plus trees 593 and 267-1 progenies stood out for their high phyllosphere fungal richness, and genotype-specific correlations indicated associations between fungal diversity and tree height or needle retention, suggesting potential genotype-dependent effects on tree performance. Heritability of fungal diversity between ramets in seed orchard and progeny trees was found for saprotrophic fungi but was negligible for total fungi and pathogens, indicating strong influence of microclimate conditions. These findings underscore the potential value of integrating fungal community traits into Scots pine breeding programs. Considering microbial associations alongside traditional growth traits may help identify genotypes better suited for future forestry needs under changing environmental conditions. Additionally, Setomelanomma holmii is reported here as a new fungal pathogen on Scots pine shoots in Estonia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodiversity Patterns and Ecosystem Functions in Forests)

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22 pages, 3627 KB

Open AccessArticle

Transcriptomic Response of Larix kaempferi to Infection Stress from Bursaphelenchus xylophilus

by Debin Li, Weitao Wang, Yijing Wang, Hao Wu, Jiaqing Wang and Shengwei Jiang

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1858; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121858 - 15 Dec 2025

Viewed by 287

Abstract

The pine wood nematode (PWN) Bursaphelenchus xylophilus is a highly destructive forest quarantine pest and causal agent of pine wilt disease. The molecular response mechanism of Larix kaempferi (Japanese larch) to B. xylophilus infection remains unclear. This study aims to reveal the dynamic [...] Read more.

The pine wood nematode (PWN) Bursaphelenchus xylophilus is a highly destructive forest quarantine pest and causal agent of pine wilt disease. The molecular response mechanism of Larix kaempferi (Japanese larch) to B. xylophilus infection remains unclear. This study aims to reveal the dynamic patterns of its defense response and screen key genes through time series transcriptomics. We found larch trees can proactively adjust their defense strategies to deal with the invasion of B. xylophilus. According to the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis, plant hormone signal transduction, MAPK signal pathway, and genes related to phenylpropane biosynthesis were more important. Through weighted gene coexpression network analysis (WGCNA), we identified two core modules that were rich in terpenoids, genes related to phenylpropane metabolism and cell wall strengthening, hormone signaling and defense regulation, and cytoskeleton and transport. Ultimately, we identified 20 core genes that were associated with several resistance-related processes, including the biosynthesis of resistance metabolites, post-translational regulation of protein homeostasis and defense signals, and transcriptional and translational reprogramming of gene expression. This study systematically depicted for the first time the continuous transcriptional regulatory network of L. kaempferi in response to pine wood nematodes. The key genes discovered provide important targets for subsequent functional verification and resistance breeding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Health)

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15 pages, 6299 KB

Open AccessArticle

Finite Element Analysis of Structural Strength in Flattened Bamboo Sheet Furniture

by Chunjin Wu, Yan Li, Ran Chen, Shasha Song, Yi Liu and Huanrong Liu

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1857; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121857 - 15 Dec 2025

Viewed by 249

Abstract

To advance “bamboo-as-plastic-substitute” initiatives and the sustainable use of furniture materials, this study investigates flattened bamboo sheets by determining their principal-direction elastic constants and evaluating two common furniture T-joints—dowel-jointed panel-type and right-angle mortise-and-tenon frame-type—through tensile and bending load-bearing tests alongside finite element (FE) [...] Read more.

To advance “bamboo-as-plastic-substitute” initiatives and the sustainable use of furniture materials, this study investigates flattened bamboo sheets by determining their principal-direction elastic constants and evaluating two common furniture T-joints—dowel-jointed panel-type and right-angle mortise-and-tenon frame-type—through tensile and bending load-bearing tests alongside finite element (FE) comparisons. The results show a pronounced anisotropy, with the longitudinal elastic modulus markedly higher than in other directions. At the joint level, the average ultimate load-bearing capacities were 4.06 kN (panel-type tension), 3.70 kN (frame-type tension), 0.264 kN (panel-type bending), and 0.589 kN (frame-type bending). Under identical structural configurations and boundary conditions, the tensile and bending capacities of flattened bamboo sheets were comparable to or exceeded those of the comparator materials (MDF, cherry wood, bamboo-based composites), and failures predominantly occurred in the adhesive layer rather than the bamboo substrate. Across four representative cases, FE predictions achieved a mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) of 6.5% with a maximum relative error of 12.5%; the regression correlation was R² ≈ 0.999 based on four paired observations, which should be interpreted with caution due to the small sample size. The study validates that FE models driven by experimentally measured anisotropic parameters can effectively reproduce the mechanical response of flattened bamboo T-joints, providing a basis for structural design, lightweighting, and parameter optimization in furniture applications. Further work should characterize adhesive systems, environmental durability, and interfacial failure mechanisms to enhance the model’s general applicability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Scientific Developments in Bamboo Science and Wood Biomaterials)

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24 pages, 8449 KB

Open AccessArticle

From Ecological Functions to Green Space Management: Driving Factors and Planning Implications of Urban Ecosystem Service Bundles

by Jingyi Wei, Mengbo Wu, Na Liu, Daihui Rao, Xiong Yao and Zhipeng Zhu

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1856; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121856 - 14 Dec 2025

Viewed by 246

Abstract

Amidst rapid urbanization, balancing ecological protection with development demands has become a critical challenge for sustainable planning. This article collected data on the natural geography and socio-economic aspects of Fuzhou City and quantified five key ecosystem services—crop production, water yield, carbon sequestration, soil [...] Read more.

Amidst rapid urbanization, balancing ecological protection with development demands has become a critical challenge for sustainable planning. This article collected data on the natural geography and socio-economic aspects of Fuzhou City and quantified five key ecosystem services—crop production, water yield, carbon sequestration, soil conservation, and habitat quality—using the InVEST model. By using SOFM to identify different ESBs and combining sensitivity analysis to form different ecological functional zones, and using geographic detectors to detect their driving factors, this aims to provide a framework for urban green space management. The results indicate that ecosystem services have a significant northwest southeast spatial gradient and can be divided into five types of ESBs. Among them, the core ecological clusters account for 59.36% of the study area and are mainly distributed in the forest-covered northwest region. Based on different service bundles and sensitivity levels, it is divided into five ecological functional zones. Geographic detector analysis shows that the interaction effect between natural factors (such as altitude and precipitation) and socio-economic factors (such as GDP density and land use) significantly enhances the explanatory power of ESB distribution. This study provides a transferable model for ecological management in global coastal cities facing similar terrain complexity and urbanization pressures. The framework demonstrates how understanding ecosystem service packages and their driving factors can effectively guide urban ecological planning decisions and provide valuable insights into coordinating ecological protection and urban development through targeted green space management methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecological Functions of Urban Green Spaces)

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13 pages, 1632 KB

Open AccessArticle

Aluminum Stress Stimulates Growth in Phyllostachys edulis Seedlings: Evidence from Phenotypic and Physiological Stress Resistance

by Zhujun He, Bin Zhang, Jia Tu, Chao Peng, Wensheng Ai, Ming Yang, Yong Meng, Meiqun Li and Cheng Zhou

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1855; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121855 - 14 Dec 2025

Viewed by 212

Abstract

The exacerbation of Aluminum (Al) toxicity is a leading cause of forest degradation. However, the effects of Al on clone bamboo are not well-characterized. This study examined the influence of Al on bamboo growth using one-year-old Phyllostachys edulis seedlings subjected to control Al [...] Read more.

The exacerbation of Aluminum (Al) toxicity is a leading cause of forest degradation. However, the effects of Al on clone bamboo are not well-characterized. This study examined the influence of Al on bamboo growth using one-year-old Phyllostachys edulis seedlings subjected to control Al treatments, which aim to provide theoretical support for improving the soil quality of bamboo forests. The results indicated that the Al content in the seedlings increased by 86.42% to 162.79% compared to the control. However, it remained within a relatively stable range, with the root being the primary site of accumulation. Among the treatments, the 0.3 mM Al group (Al³⁺) exhibited the highest values in biomass indexes (LB, RB and AGB). In contrast, the 2.0 mM Al treatment led to a significantly higher root-to-shoot ratio (RSR) than other groups. Physiological analyses revealed coordinated responses in key antioxidant enzymes (POD, SOD, CAT) and osmotic adjustment substances (Pro, SP, Bet). These findings demonstrate that P. edulis possesses considerable tolerance to Al, with a significant phenotypic inhibitory effect that was not observed with 2.0 mM Al treatment. Bamboo responds to Al stress through controlling Al absorption, optimizing resource reallocation, and enhancing adaptability physiology capacity, illustrating a comprehensive collaboration adaptive mechanism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)

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26 pages, 2340 KB

Open AccessArticle

Productivity Dynamics in Chinese Fir Plantations: The Driving Role of Plant–Soil–Microbe Interactions in Northern Subtropical China

by Lijie Wang, Honggang Sun, Jianfeng Zhang and Linshui Dong

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1854; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121854 - 13 Dec 2025

Viewed by 387

Abstract

Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata) is a cornerstone timber species in southern China. However, yet its plantation productivity frequently declines under successive rotations, threatening long-term sustainability. While belowground processes are suspected drivers, the mechanisms—particularly plant–soil–microbe interactions—remain poorly resolved. To address this, we [...] Read more.

Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata) is a cornerstone timber species in southern China. However, yet its plantation productivity frequently declines under successive rotations, threatening long-term sustainability. While belowground processes are suspected drivers, the mechanisms—particularly plant–soil–microbe interactions—remain poorly resolved. To address this, we examined a chronosequence of C. lanceolata plantations (5, 15, 20, and 30 years) in Jingdezhen, Jiangxi Province, integrating soil physicochemical assays, high-throughput sequencing, and extracellular enzyme activity profiling. We found that near-mature stands (20 years) exhibited a 60.7% decline in mean annual volume increment relative to mid-aged stands (15 years), despite continued increases in individual tree volume—suggesting a strategic shift from resource-acquisitive to nutrient-conservative growth. Peak values of soil organic carbon (32.87 g·kg⁻¹), total nitrogen (2.51 g·kg⁻¹), microbial biomass carbon (487.33 mg·kg⁻¹), and phosphorus (25.65 mg·kg⁻¹) coincided with this stage, reflecting accelerated nutrient turnover and intensified plant–microbe competition. Microbial communities shifted markedly over time: Basidiomycota and Acidobacteria became dominant in mature stands, replacing earlier Ascomycota and Proteobacteria. Random Forest and Partial Least Squares Path Modeling (PLS-SEM) identified total nitrogen, ammonium nitrogen, and total phosphorus as key predictors of productivity. PLS-SEM further revealed that stand age directly enhanced productivity (β = 0.869) via improved soil properties, but also indirectly suppressed it by stimulating microbial biomass (β = 0.845)—a “dual-effect” that intensified nutrient competition. Fungal and bacterial functional profiles were complementary: under phosphorus limitation, fungi upregulated acid phosphatase to enhance P acquisition, while bacteria predominately mediated nitrogen mineralization. Our results demonstrate a coordinated “soil–microbe–enzyme” feedback mechanism regulating productivity dynamics in C. lanceolata plantations. These insights advance a mechanistic understanding of rotation-associated decline and underscore the potential for targeted nutrient and microbial management to sustain long-term plantation yields. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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17 pages, 2894 KB

Open AccessArticle

From Forestation to Invasion: A Remote Sensing Assessment of Exotic Pinaceae in the Northwestern Patagonian Wildland–Urban Interface

by Camilo Ernesto Bagnato, Jaime Moyano, Sofía Laura Gonzalez, Melisa Blackhall, Jorgelina Franzese, Rodrigo Freire, Cecilia Nuñez, Valeria Susana Ojeda and Luciana Ghermandi

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1853; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121853 - 13 Dec 2025

Viewed by 266

Abstract

Biological invasions are major threats to global biodiversity, and mapping their distribution is essential to prioritizing management efforts. The Pinaceae family (hereafter pines) includes invasive trees, particularly in Southern Hemisphere regions where they are non-native. These invasions can increase the severity of fires [...] Read more.

Biological invasions are major threats to global biodiversity, and mapping their distribution is essential to prioritizing management efforts. The Pinaceae family (hereafter pines) includes invasive trees, particularly in Southern Hemisphere regions where they are non-native. These invasions can increase the severity of fires in wildland–urban interfaces (WUIs). We mapped pine invasion in the Bariloche WUI (≈150,000 ha, northwest Patagonia, Argentina) using supervised land cover classification of Sentinel-2 imagery with a Random Forest algorithm on Google Earth Engine, achieving 90% overall accuracy but underestimating the pine invasion area by about 25%. We then assessed in which main vegetation context pine invasions occurred relying on major vegetation units across the precipitation gradient of our study area. Invasions cover 2% of the study area, mainly in forests (61%), steppes (25.4%), and shrublands (13.4%). Most invaded areas (89.1%) are on private land; nearly 70% are on large properties (>10 ha), where state financial incentives could support removal. Another 13.5% occur on many small properties (<1 ha), where awareness campaigns could enable decentralized, low-effort control. Our land cover map can be developed further to integrate invasion dynamics, inform fire risk and behavior models, optimize management actions, and guide territorial planning. Overall, it provides a valuable tool for targeted, scale-appropriate strategies to mitigate ecological and fire-related impacts of invasive pines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Fire Detection, Prevention and Management)

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13 pages, 3762 KB

Open AccessArticle

Patterns in Population Dynamics of the Nun Moth (Lymantria monacha L.) Based on Long-Term Studies in North-West Poland

by Axel Schwerk, Izabela Dymitryszyn, Agata Jojczyk, Marek Kondras, Katarzyna Szyszko-Podgórska and Jan Szyszko

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1852; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121852 - 13 Dec 2025

Viewed by 333

Abstract

Threats to forest ecosystems from pest insects are supposed to become more severe due to climate change. Therefore, understanding the dynamics of forest pest insects and the mechanisms of their outbreaks is going to be of even greater importance. To understand these phenomena [...] Read more.

Threats to forest ecosystems from pest insects are supposed to become more severe due to climate change. Therefore, understanding the dynamics of forest pest insects and the mechanisms of their outbreaks is going to be of even greater importance. To understand these phenomena and cope with the consequences, the question of which patterns show meta-populations of pest insects before and after outbreaks is of high interest. Therefore, long-term studies have been carried out in two research areas in North-West Poland with the aim of studying the fluctuations of meta-populations of the Nun moth (Lymantria monacha L.) (Lepidoptera: Erebidae) using pheromone traps. Synchronization of the fluctuations at the individual study plots was tested for correlations with the numbers of the Nun moth per trap, changes in the numbers of the Nun moth per trap, and the growth factors. The studied Nun moth meta-populations showed a certain pattern in fluctuations of their sub-populations (interaction groups) with phases of asynchronous and synchronous fluctuations; the latter seem to be important when it comes to distinctive peaks in Nun moth numbers in the meta-populations. We conclude that predicting population dynamics of the Nun moth demands long-term studies, including research on both density-dependent factors and stochastic processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Health)

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17 pages, 3482 KB

Open AccessArticle

Changes in Runoff Responses After Replantation Following Clearcutting in a Mixed Forest Headwater Catchment

by Sooyoun Nam, Honggeun Lim, Hyung Tae Choi, Byoungki Choi and Qiwen Li

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1851; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121851 - 12 Dec 2025

Viewed by 228

Abstract

This study examined changes in runoff responses in a 17.8 ha catchment, with a focus on quick and delayed runoff components associated with logging and replantation. In total, 176 precipitation events were observed from 2011 to 2019, including in the pre-cutting, operation, and [...] Read more.

This study examined changes in runoff responses in a 17.8 ha catchment, with a focus on quick and delayed runoff components associated with logging and replantation. In total, 176 precipitation events were observed from 2011 to 2019, including in the pre-cutting, operation, and post-cutting periods. Approximately 70% of the catchment, which was originally dominated by Pitch pine (Pinus rigida), was clearcut between November 2013 and November 2014 and subsequently replanted with Japanese cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa). Event-based results revealed that both quick and delayed runoff increased significantly under high-magnitude precipitation events (P_t > 60 mm), indicating that rainfall intensity primarily controlled the generation of event runoff. During the operation period, increases in quick runoff contributed to a larger quick-runoff fraction, whereas in the post-cutting period, replantation promoted hydrological recovery by increasing delayed runoff and extending the flow duration. These changes reflect shifts in internal hydrological pathways associated with forest removal and regrowth. Overall, the results highlight that the runoff responses to clearcutting and replantation are strongly mediated by event-scale runoff components and rainfall intensity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forestry Activities and Water Resources)

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21 pages, 22321 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cooling Effects in Large Urban Mountains: A Case Study of Chengdu Longquan Mountains Urban Forest Park

by Yuhang Ren, Liang Lin, Junjie Pan, Yi Feng, Chao Yu, Tianyi Li, Jialin Liu, Zian Guo and Lin Zhang

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1850; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121850 - 12 Dec 2025

Viewed by 437

Abstract

Large Urban Mountains (LUM) with their rich vegetation cover offer a key natural solution to mitigate Urban Heat Island (UHI) effects. This study uses Longquan Mountain Forest Park (LMFP) as a case to investigate the spatiotemporal variations in cooling effects and the key [...] Read more.

Large Urban Mountains (LUM) with their rich vegetation cover offer a key natural solution to mitigate Urban Heat Island (UHI) effects. This study uses Longquan Mountain Forest Park (LMFP) as a case to investigate the spatiotemporal variations in cooling effects and the key factors influencing cooling intensity. Using Landsat images from 2001, 2011, and 2023, surface temperatures (LST) were retrieved through radiative transfer methods, and the thermal environment and cooling effects of LMFP were systematically analyzed. The eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) model and Shapley Additive exPlanations(SHAP) methods were applied to explore the complex relationships between cooling intensity and its driving factors. Results show that in the years 2001, 2011, and 2023, the heat island area in LMFP has gradually shrunk, while the cooling intensity area has expanded. In the three years, the cooling distance increased from 330 m to 420 m, the cooling area expanded to 124.84 km², and cooling efficiency increased to 18.31%. Vegetation coverage, leaf area index (LAI), and elevation are core factors influencing cooling, while human activities such as population and road density have a negative impact. This study provides important theoretical insights into the cooling mechanisms of large urban mountain parks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Urban Forestry)

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32 pages, 21022 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Coal Mining on Growth and Distribution of Sabina vulgaris Shrublands in Mu Us Sandy Land: Evidence from Multi-Temporal Gaofen-1 Remote Sensing Data

by Jia Li, Huanwei Sha, Xiaofan Gu, Gang Qiao, Shuhan Wang, Boyuan Li and Min Yang

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1849; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121849 - 11 Dec 2025

Viewed by 261

Abstract

Sabina vulgaris is a keystone shrub species endemic to arid northwestern China, renowned for its exceptional drought tolerance, sand fixation capabilities, and critical role in desert ecosystem stability. This study investigates the impact of coal mining activities on the spatiotemporal dynamics of S. [...] Read more.

Sabina vulgaris is a keystone shrub species endemic to arid northwestern China, renowned for its exceptional drought tolerance, sand fixation capabilities, and critical role in desert ecosystem stability. This study investigates the impact of coal mining activities on the spatiotemporal dynamics of S. vulgaris shrublands in the ecologically fragile Mu Us Sandy Land, focusing on the Longde Coal Mine adjacent to the Shenmu S. vulgaris Nature Reserve. Utilizing seven periods (2013–2025) of 2 m resolution Gaofen-1 (GF-1) satellite imagery spanning 12 years of mining operations, we implemented a deep learning approach combining UAV-derived hyperspectral ground truth data and the SegU-Net semantic segmentation model to map shrub distribution via GF-1 data with high precision. Classification accuracy was rigorously validated through confusion matrix analysis (incorporating the Kappa coefficient and overall accuracy metrics). Results reveal contrasting trends: while the S. vulgaris Protection Area exhibited substantial expansion (e.g., Southern Section coverage grew from 2.6 km² in 2013 to 7.88 km² in 2025), mining panels experienced significant degradation. Within Panel 202, coverage declined by 15.4% (58.4 km² to 49.5 km²), and Panel 203 showed a 18.5% decrease (3.16 km² to 2.57 km²) over the study period. These losses correlate spatially and temporally with mining-induced groundwater depletion and land subsidence, disrupting the shrub’s shallow-root water access strategy. The study demonstrates that coal mining drives fragmentation and coverage reduction in S. vulgaris communities through mechanisms including (1) direct vegetation destruction, (2) aquifer disruption impairing drought adaptation, and (3) habitat fragmentation. These findings underscore the necessity for targeted ecological restoration strategies integrating groundwater management and progressive reclamation in mining-affected arid regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Guidelines for Sustainable Forest Management: Vegetation and Soil and Water Conservation in Arid Areas)

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11 pages, 3541 KB

Open AccessArticle

Larval Root Feeding by Megistophylla grandicornis (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae): An Emerging Threat to Eucalyptus Plantations

by Xiaohong Huang, Ting Du, Wenquan Wang, Yangyang Li and Lei Shi

Forests 2025, 16(12), 1848; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16121848 - 11 Dec 2025

Viewed by 235

Abstract

Eucalyptus plantations have suffered severe damage from scarab grubs in recent years. To investigate the actual scarab species that damage Eucalyptus trees, continuous closed-net monitoring and monthly soil-digging surveys were conducted in Eucalyptus plantations in Lancang County, China, from 2024 to 2025. The [...] Read more.

Eucalyptus plantations have suffered severe damage from scarab grubs in recent years. To investigate the actual scarab species that damage Eucalyptus trees, continuous closed-net monitoring and monthly soil-digging surveys were conducted in Eucalyptus plantations in Lancang County, China, from 2024 to 2025. The primarily affected roots were covered with nylon mesh bags until the insects reached adulthood. A few adults were successfully collected from the damaged roots. The scarab species that infests Eucalyptus trees has been identified as Megistophylla grandicornis (Fairmaire, 1891). It exhibited a single generation annually in local Eucalyptus plantations. Adults emerge from late April to June, and larvae cause damage from July to November. Eucalyptus trees with severely damaged roots exhibit reduced growth vigor and are highly prone to windthrow and death, leading to substantial losses in forestry production. These preliminary results provide foundational data for recognizing Megistophylla grandicornis as a new root pest of Eucalyptus and establishing targeted larval-monitoring protocols in Eucalyptus plantations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Entomology and Phytopathology: Contemporary Challenges in Forest Conservation)

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Forests, Volume 16, Issue 12 (December 2025) – 124 articles

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