polymers-logo

Journal Browser

Journal Browser

Editor’s Choice Articles

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Order results
Result details
Results per page
Select all
Export citation of selected articles as:
12 pages, 2410 KB  
Article
Modulating Cell–Scaffold Interaction via dECM-Decorated Melt Electrowriting PCL Scaffolds
by Wenchao Li, Xiang Gao and Peng Zhang
Polymers 2025, 17(23), 3133; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17233133 - 25 Nov 2025
Viewed by 316
Abstract
Aligned fibrous scaffolds are essential for directing soft-tissue regeneration, yet synthetic polymers lack native biochemical cues. To bridge this gap, bioactive and anisotropic scaffolds were developed by combining melt electrowriting (MEW) with decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) decoration to enhance cell–scaffold interactions for soft [...] Read more.
Aligned fibrous scaffolds are essential for directing soft-tissue regeneration, yet synthetic polymers lack native biochemical cues. To bridge this gap, bioactive and anisotropic scaffolds were developed by combining melt electrowriting (MEW) with decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) decoration to enhance cell–scaffold interactions for soft tissue engineering. Porous polycaprolactone (PCL) scaffolds with aligned microfibers and tunable pore architectures (aspect ratios 1:1, 1:2, and 1:3) were fabricated via MEW and subsequently coated with porcine skeletal muscle dECM using a dip-gelation method. Comprehensive surface characterization confirmed the presence and robust adhesion of the dECM coating on the PCL scaffolds, which concurrently enhanced surface hydrophilicity. Furthermore, mechanical testing demonstrated that the resulting composite scaffold retained the structural integrity required to meet the mechanical demands of tissue regeneration. In vitro studies using L929 fibroblasts demonstrated that dECM decoration significantly improved cell adhesion, proliferation, and alignment along the fiber direction. Notably, scaffolds with 1:1 and 1:2 aspect ratios supported the highest cell density and guided morphological elongation most effectively. These findings highlight the synergistic potential of topographical cues and biochemical signaling in scaffold design for functional tissue regeneration. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 604 KB  
Article
Influence of the Resin Matrix Phase on the Fatigue Resistance of Model Dental Composite Resins
by Diana Leyva del Rio and Robert R. Seghi
Polymers 2025, 17(23), 3118; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17233118 - 24 Nov 2025
Viewed by 307
Abstract
This study aimed to assess how different resin matrix formulations affect the fatigue resistance of resin dental composites. Model dental composites were formulated using six distinct monomer mixtures: two Bis-GMA (bisphenol A-glycidyl methacrylate):TEGDMA (triethylene glycol dimethacrylate) (60:40 and 80:20 mole%), two UDMA (urethane [...] Read more.
This study aimed to assess how different resin matrix formulations affect the fatigue resistance of resin dental composites. Model dental composites were formulated using six distinct monomer mixtures: two Bis-GMA (bisphenol A-glycidyl methacrylate):TEGDMA (triethylene glycol dimethacrylate) (60:40 and 80:20 mole%), two UDMA (urethane dimethacrylate):TEGDMA (60:40 and 80:20 mole%), one Bis-GMA:UDMA:TEGDMA (35:35:30 mole%), and one Fit852:UDMA:TEGDMA (35:35:30 mole%). Cyclic fatigue resistance (CFR) of the resin composites was measured in a biaxial test mode using staircase analysis. Additional evaluations included biaxial flexural strength (BFS), degree of conversion (DC), water sorption (WS), and viscoelastic properties of the unfilled resins, such as the storage modulus (E′), loss modulus (E″), tan δ (E″/E′), and stiffness (k′). Data were subjected to one-way ANOVA with Tukey post hoc analyses. Pearson correlation and stepwise regression analyses were conducted to examine the relationships among variables. The UT6040 model composite exhibited the highest CFR (82.61 ± 8.83 MPa), significantly outperforming other formulations. Tan δ of the resin matrix showed the strongest correlation with CFR (r = 0.974), and was also shown to be the most influential predictor for the CFR of the particulate composites. The composition of the resin matrix has a significant impact on the CFR of dental composites. Among the properties evaluated, the viscoelastic parameter tan δ emerged as a strong and reliable predictor of CFR, emphasizing the importance of targeting viscoelastic behavior in the design of dental composite formulations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Analysis and Characterization)
Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 6379 KB  
Article
Ionic Conductive Hydrogels with Choline Salt for Potential Use in Electrochemical Capacitors
by Jan Malczak, Wiktoria Żyła, Piotr Gajewski, Katarzyna Szcześniak, Łukasz Popenda and Agnieszka Marcinkowska
Polymers 2025, 17(22), 3030; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17223030 - 14 Nov 2025
Viewed by 628
Abstract
Choline salts represent sustainable and safe electrolyte systems. In this study, an aqueous 1 M choline nitrate solution was employed to prepare hydrogel polymer electrolytes (HPE) via in situ photopolymerization. To enhance compatibility between the electrolyte and polymer matrix, choline methacrylate was synthesized [...] Read more.
Choline salts represent sustainable and safe electrolyte systems. In this study, an aqueous 1 M choline nitrate solution was employed to prepare hydrogel polymer electrolytes (HPE) via in situ photopolymerization. To enhance compatibility between the electrolyte and polymer matrix, choline methacrylate was synthesized and used as a functional monomer alongside HEMA and PEGDA. The photocurable formulation contained 70 wt.% electrolyte and 30 wt.% monomer mixture. Subsequent electrolyte uptake increased the electrolyte fraction in the HPE to 87 wt.%. The use of choline methacrylate enabled the formation of transparent HPE with favorable mechanical performance, showing puncture resistance of 0.33 N and 0.28 N at elongations of 7.9 mm and 4.4 mm for samples with 70 and 87 wt.% electrolyte, respectively. High ionic conductivity was achieved, reaching ~18 mS/cm and ~34 mS/cm for HPE with 70 and 87 wt.% electrolyte. Finally, a capacitor assembled with HPE containing 87 wt.% electrolyte demonstrated good operational parameters, confirming the applicability of this system in energy storage devices. This work highlights the potential of choline-based electrolytes and polymerizable choline derivatives as functional components for the design of efficient, safe, and environmentally friendly gel polymer electrolytes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Active Polymeric Materials for Electrochemical Applications)
Show Figures

Graphical abstract

24 pages, 8615 KB  
Article
Xylitol Modification of Electrospun Polymer Scaffolds: Impact on Physicochemical and Antibacterial Properties
by Francesco Boschetto, Matteo Zanocco, Kaeko Kamei, Huaizhong Xu and Elia Marin
Polymers 2025, 17(22), 3024; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17223024 - 14 Nov 2025
Viewed by 535
Abstract
Electrospun fibrous scaffolds based on cellulose acetate (CA), polycaprolactone (PCL), and poly (L-lactic acid) (PLLA) are versatile materials with applications spanning diverse fields, but in their pristine form, they typically lack significant inherent antibacterial properties. To address this limitation and expand their utility, [...] Read more.
Electrospun fibrous scaffolds based on cellulose acetate (CA), polycaprolactone (PCL), and poly (L-lactic acid) (PLLA) are versatile materials with applications spanning diverse fields, but in their pristine form, they typically lack significant inherent antibacterial properties. To address this limitation and expand their utility, this study explored the incorporation of xylitol, a natural antibacterial sugar alcohol, into these polymer matrices to enhance their physicochemical and antimicrobial properties. Electrospinning was employed to fabricate pristine and xylitol-loaded scaffolds with varying xylitol concentrations. Morphological analysis revealed polymer-dependent changes in fiber diameter and porosity. Mechanical testing assessed the impact of xylitol on tensile properties, while thermal analysis investigated alterations in melting temperature and crystallinity. The antibacterial efficacy against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli was evaluated using WST assay and live/dead staining. Notably, xylitol significantly enhanced the antibacterial activity against both bacterial species, with a more pronounced and rapid effect observed against S. aureus. The tailored scaffold properties and imparted antimicrobial characteristics highlight the potential of these xylitol-modified electrospun materials: they are easily produced, low-cost, and appropriate for a range of applications (dental applications, filters, masks, wound dressing, and packaging) where preventing bacterial contamination is crucial. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites)
Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 4576 KB  
Article
Impedance-Matched Iron-Added Polymeric Composite Film Incorporated with Iron Nanowire for Electromagnetic Absorption Application
by Yuh-Jing Chiou, Pei-Jung Chang, Pei-Ru Su, Sheng-Jung Tsou and Chung-Kwei Lin
Polymers 2025, 17(21), 2965; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212965 - 6 Nov 2025
Viewed by 578
Abstract
Salisbury screen-type radar absorption structures (RASs) consisting of a resistance sheet, a spacer, and a conductive base provide an efficient method for microwave absorption. An impedance-matched resistance sheet allows microwaves to enter, whereas superior microwave absorbers enhance their performance further. In the present [...] Read more.
Salisbury screen-type radar absorption structures (RASs) consisting of a resistance sheet, a spacer, and a conductive base provide an efficient method for microwave absorption. An impedance-matched resistance sheet allows microwaves to enter, whereas superior microwave absorbers enhance their performance further. In the present work, an impedance matching composite film was prepared by using polymer/iron/iron nanowires. By varying the polymer, poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), poly (vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF), and poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA), to iron powder ratios (1:1, 2:1, and 4:1), composite films were synthesized and examined by scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and the four-point probe method to determine the materials’ characteristics. An impedance-matched composite film was prepared based on the selected composition with 1–10 wt.% iron nanowire additions. Experimental results showed that the polymeric composite film prepared by a ratio of iron-PVA of 4:1 exhibited a sheet resistance of 49 ± 9.7 Ω/sq due to well dispersion of iron powder in PVA. With 1 wt.% Fe nanowire addition, the optimal composite sheet resistance was 329.7 ± 45.3 Ω/sq, which corresponded to an impedance matching degree (i.e., |Zin/Z0| value) of 0.88 ± 0.12 and can be used as a resistance sheet for a Salisbury screen-type absorber in RAS applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites)
Show Figures

Graphical abstract

17 pages, 10249 KB  
Article
Mater-Bi-Based Biocomposites Reinforced with Lemongrass: A Comparison Between Leaf- and Culm-Derived Particles
by Manuela Ceraulo, Luigi Botta, Carmelo Sanfilippo, Sanjay Mavinkere Rangappa, Suchart Siengchin and Vincenzo Fiore
Polymers 2025, 17(21), 2909; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212909 - 30 Oct 2025
Viewed by 428
Abstract
In this study, aiming to develop novel biocomposites that offer competitive properties while retaining their renewable and biodegradable characteristics, a biodegradable polymer matrix (Mater-Bi® HF51L2) was reinforced with natural particles extracted from the culm and leaf of Cymbopogon flexuosus (lemongrass). Particles (<500 [...] Read more.
In this study, aiming to develop novel biocomposites that offer competitive properties while retaining their renewable and biodegradable characteristics, a biodegradable polymer matrix (Mater-Bi® HF51L2) was reinforced with natural particles extracted from the culm and leaf of Cymbopogon flexuosus (lemongrass). Particles (<500 µm) were incorporated at 10 and 20 wt.% via twin-screw extrusion followed by compression moulding. Morphological analysis via SEM revealed distinct structural differences between culm- and leaf-derived particles, with the latter exhibiting smoother surfaces, higher density, and better dispersion in the matrix, resulting in lower void content. Quasi-static mechanical tests showed increased stiffness with filler content, particularly for leaf-based composites. This material, at 20 wt.% filler loadings, enhanced the tensile and flexural moduli of the neat Mater-Bi approximately three and two times, respectively, a result attributed to enhanced interfacial adhesion. Rheological measurements (rotational and capillary) indicated significant increases in complex viscosity, particularly for leaf-filled systems, confirming restricted polymer chain mobility and good matrix–filler interaction. Dynamic mechanical thermal tests (DMTA) results showed an increased storage modulus and a shift in glass transition temperature (Tg) for all biocomposites in comparison to Mater-Bi matrix. Specifically, the neat matrix had a Tg of −28 °C, which increased to −24 °C and −18 °C for the 20 wt.% culm-reinforced and leaf-reinforced biocomposites, respectively. Overall, the leaf-derived particles demonstrated superior reinforcing potential, effectively improving the mechanical, rheological, and thermal properties of Mater-Bi-based biocomposites. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites)
Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 2578 KB  
Article
Comparing the Printability, Biological and Physicochemical Properties of Bio-Based Photo-Crosslinkable Hydrogels
by Ane García-García, Unai Silván, Leyre Pérez-Álvarez and Senentxu Lanceros
Polymers 2025, 17(21), 2867; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212867 - 28 Oct 2025
Viewed by 568
Abstract
Bio-based photo-crosslinkable hydrogels are used in tissue engineering as three-dimensional printable scaffolds due to their functional and biological similarities with the extracellular matrix (ECM). In this work, emerging bioink candidates such as chitosan, alginate and gelatin-based photo-crosslinkable hydrogel were developed using extrusion-based 3D [...] Read more.
Bio-based photo-crosslinkable hydrogels are used in tissue engineering as three-dimensional printable scaffolds due to their functional and biological similarities with the extracellular matrix (ECM). In this work, emerging bioink candidates such as chitosan, alginate and gelatin-based photo-crosslinkable hydrogel were developed using extrusion-based 3D printing to establish a better understanding of their applicability. The polymers were methacrylated by the same methacrylation reaction pathway, which enabled successful light-induced 3D printing. Morphology, swelling (6–40%), mechanical (Young’s modulus, 0.1–0.5 KPa) and rheological properties (300–1000 Pa), degradation kinetics (10->60 days) and printability of the gels were also characterized in identical conditions for the first time. 3D-printability results indicated that methacrylated gelatin enhanced printability, shape fidelity and integrity of printed structures compared to methacrylated alginate, which presents structural instability and poorer printing control due to its low crosslink density. Moreover, cell attachment and Live/Dead assays using bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BM-MSCs) showed that all formulations have good biocompatibility for use as scaffolds. Specifically, gelatin-based hydrogels showed a higher level of BM-MSCs attachment and spreading than the other types of hydrogels. Overall, our results suggest that the hydrogels based on these three biopolymers present good potential as a biomaterial for light-induced extrusion-based 3D printing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sustainable Polymeric Materials, 3rd Edition)
Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 5797 KB  
Article
Investigation of Blade Printing Technique for Nano-Structuring Piezoelectric Polymer Ink in a Porous Anodic Aluminum Oxide
by Tsvetozar Tsanev and Mariya Aleksandrova
Polymers 2025, 17(21), 2839; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212839 - 24 Oct 2025
Viewed by 434
Abstract
In this work, we investigated the use of a piezoelectric flexible device for energy harvesting. The main goal of the study was to fill the nanostructured pores of anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) films with piezoelectric polymer (PVDF-TrFE) via a modified conventional screen printing [...] Read more.
In this work, we investigated the use of a piezoelectric flexible device for energy harvesting. The main goal of the study was to fill the nanostructured pores of anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) films with piezoelectric polymer (PVDF-TrFE) via a modified conventional screen printing technique using blade printing. In this way, it is possible to obtain a composite from nanostructured thin films of polymer nanorods that shows improved charge generation ability compared to other non-nanostructured composites or pure (non-composite) aluminum with similar dimensions. This behavior is due to the effect of the highly developed surface of the material used to fill in the AAO nanopore template and its ability to withstand the application of higher mechanical loads to the structured piezoelectric material during deformation. The contact blade print filling technique can produce nanostructured piezoelectric polymer films with precise geometric parameters in terms of thickness and nanorod diameters, at around 200 nm, and a length of 12 μm. At a low frequency of 17 Hz, the highest root-mean-square (RMS) voltage generated using the nanostructured AAO/PVDF-TrFE sample with aluminum electrodes was around 395 mV. At high frequencies above 1700 Hz, the highest RMS voltage generated using the nanostructured AAO/PVDF-TrFE sample with gold electrodes was around 680 mV. The RMS voltage generated using a uniform (non-nanostructured) layer of PVDF-TrFE was 15% lower across the whole frequency range. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymers for Harnessing Power and Energy)
Show Figures

Graphical abstract

25 pages, 1716 KB  
Review
Sustainable Valorisation of End-of-Life Tyres Through Pyrolysis-Derived Recovered Carbon Black in Polymer Composites
by Dharanija Banala, Ylias Sabri, Namita Roy Choudhury and Rajarathinam Parthasarathy
Polymers 2025, 17(20), 2771; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17202771 - 16 Oct 2025
Viewed by 1654
Abstract
More than one billion end-of-life tyres (EOLTs) are produced worldwide every year, and this is continuously increasing and has become an issue in sustainable development. This review discusses recent developments in the management of EOLTs and focuses on pyrolysis, which produces valuable tyre-derived [...] Read more.
More than one billion end-of-life tyres (EOLTs) are produced worldwide every year, and this is continuously increasing and has become an issue in sustainable development. This review discusses recent developments in the management of EOLTs and focuses on pyrolysis, which produces valuable tyre-derived products (TDPs) like steel, gas, oil, and char. This review focuses on recovered carbon black (rCB), a refined char with great potential as a sustainable alternative to commercial carbon black (CB). The review introduces a novel classification system for CB, virgin carbon black (vCB), recovered carbon black (rCB), and sustainable carbon black (sCB) to guide the transition toward environmentally friendly materials. It also examines how rCB enhances polymer properties for addressing price volatility and reducing carbon footprint. Additionally, a SWOT analysis evaluates the strengths (cost-effectiveness, reduced environmental impact), weaknesses (quality consistency), opportunities (emerging markets, circular economy integration), and threats (competition from virgin materials) of using rCB as a polymer reinforcement. By positioning rCB as a key material, this review outlines pathways for addressing the EOLT crisis and advancing a circular economy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Recycling and Upcycling: Toward a Circular Materials Economy)
Show Figures

Graphical abstract

17 pages, 4400 KB  
Article
Advanced Polyamidoamine Hydrogels for the Selective Cleaning of Artifacts in Heritage Conservation
by Elisabetta Ranucci and Jenny Alongi
Polymers 2025, 17(19), 2680; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17192680 - 3 Oct 2025
Viewed by 622
Abstract
A polyamidoamine-based hydrogel (H-M-GLY) and its montmorillonite-based composite (H-M-GLY/MMT) were studied as selective cleaning materials for cultural heritage conservation. H-M-GLY was synthesized from a glycine-based polyamidoamine oligomer with acrylamide terminals (M-GLY) through radical polymerization at pH 7.3 and had a basic character. The [...] Read more.
A polyamidoamine-based hydrogel (H-M-GLY) and its montmorillonite-based composite (H-M-GLY/MMT) were studied as selective cleaning materials for cultural heritage conservation. H-M-GLY was synthesized from a glycine-based polyamidoamine oligomer with acrylamide terminals (M-GLY) through radical polymerization at pH 7.3 and had a basic character. The M-GLY oligomer was in turn synthesized from N,N′-methylenebisacrylamide and glycine in a 1:0.85 molar ratio. H-M-GLY/MMT was obtained by cross-linking a 1:0.1—weight ratio—M-GLY/MMT mixture at pH 4.0, to promote polyamidoamine-MMT interaction. The composite hydrogel absorbed less water than the plain hydrogel and proved tougher, due to montmorillonite’s electrostatic interactions with the positively charged M-GLY units. Scanning electron microscopic analysis showed that MMT was uniformly dispersed throughout the hydrogel. Both hydrogels were subjected to ink bleeding tests on papers written with either iron gall or India ink. Microscopic observation revealed neither bleeding nor release of hydrogel fragments. Being basic, H-M-GLY successfully deacidified the surface of aged paper. H-M-GLY/MMT, swollen in a 1:9 ethanol/water solution, was found to be effective in removing wax, known to trap carbonaceous particles and form dark stains on artistic artifacts. This study demonstrates the great potential of polyamidoamine-based hydrogels as versatile selective cleaning systems for cellulosic and other cultural heritage materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Chemistry)
Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 1429 KB  
Article
Diffusion Behavior of Polyethylene Furanoate (PEF) and Tritan as Sustainable Polyester Packaging Materials
by Frank Welle
Polymers 2025, 17(19), 2674; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17192674 - 2 Oct 2025
Viewed by 1336
Abstract
Polyethylene furanoate (PEF) and TritanTM copolyester are sustainable polyester polymers. PEF is made from biobased resources, whereas Tritan is mainly used for reusable food contact articles. Both polyesters are alternatives for polyethylene terephthalate (PET), which is currently the most used polyester in [...] Read more.
Polyethylene furanoate (PEF) and TritanTM copolyester are sustainable polyester polymers. PEF is made from biobased resources, whereas Tritan is mainly used for reusable food contact articles. Both polyesters are alternatives for polyethylene terephthalate (PET), which is currently the most used polyester in food packaging. Like all packaging polymers, sustainable alternatives to fossil-based PET must also comply with food law requirements. Prediction of the migration can be used as an alternative to complex and time-consuming experimental migration measurements. Since there are no such predictive models for either PEF or Tritan, the modelling parameters for PEF and Tritan were determined in this study from experimentally determined diffusion coefficients and activation energies. The diffusivity of PEF and Tritan was compared with PET and polyethylene naphthalate (PEN). Of the four polyester polymers, PEF shows the lowest diffusion, followed by PEN, PET, and Tritan. Overall, the results show that the investigated polyesters are low-diffusivity polymers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)
Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 717 KB  
Article
Molecular Properties of Starch–Water Interactions in the Presence of Bioactive Compounds from Barley and Buckwheat—LF NMR Preliminary Study
by Greta Adamczyk, Łukasz Masewicz, Krzysztof Przybył, Aleksandra Zaryczniak, Przemysław Łukasz Kowalczewski, Monika Beszterda-Buszczak, Wojciech Cichocki and Hanna Maria Baranowska
Polymers 2025, 17(19), 2606; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17192606 - 26 Sep 2025
Viewed by 633
Abstract
The retrogradation of starch strongly influences the texture and stability of starchy foods. This study applied low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF NMR) to examine the effect of buckwheat hull (BH) fiber and green barley (GB) on water dynamics in normal (NPS) and waxy [...] Read more.
The retrogradation of starch strongly influences the texture and stability of starchy foods. This study applied low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF NMR) to examine the effect of buckwheat hull (BH) fiber and green barley (GB) on water dynamics in normal (NPS) and waxy (WPS) potato starch gels. Relaxation times (T1, T2) and mean correlation times (τc) were monitored during 15 days of storage to evaluate changes in water mobility and starch–polymer interactions. Results showed that WPS, with its high amylopectin content, retrograded earlier than NPS. The addition of BH inhibited conformational changes associated with water binding in WPS gels, indicating that insoluble fiber entrapped water within the amylopectin network. Conversely, GB promoted higher τc values in WPS, reflecting enhanced ordering and reduced water mobility, while its impact on NPS was minor. In NPS systems, BH decreased τc, suggesting disruption of amylose-driven structural reorganization. These findings demonstrate that BH and GB exert opposite effects on starch retrogradation and highlight their potential as functional additives for tailoring texture and stability in starch-based food systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Spectroscopy for Polymers: Design and Characterization)
Show Figures

Graphical abstract

17 pages, 3397 KB  
Article
Preparation and Performance of Poly(Butylene Succinate) (PBS) Composites Reinforced with Taxus Residue and Compatibilized with Branched PBS
by Shiwanyi Chen, Shufeng Li, Bing Wang, Chen Chen and Liuchun Zheng
Polymers 2025, 17(19), 2597; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17192597 - 25 Sep 2025
Viewed by 1202
Abstract
In response to the escalating plastic pollution crisis, the development of high-performance biodegradable materials is critical. Poly(butylene succinate) (PBS) is an important biodegradable polymer as it possesses excellent biodegradability and processability. But it suffers from limitations such as low mechanical strength, poor thermal [...] Read more.
In response to the escalating plastic pollution crisis, the development of high-performance biodegradable materials is critical. Poly(butylene succinate) (PBS) is an important biodegradable polymer as it possesses excellent biodegradability and processability. But it suffers from limitations such as low mechanical strength, poor thermal stability, and high production costs. In this study, taxus residue (TF), a waste by-product, was utilized as a reinforcing filler to reduce PBS costs while enhancing its overall performance. To address the interfacial incompatibility between TF and PBS, branched PBS (T-PBS) was introduced as a compatibilizer. The TF was surface-modified via alkali treatment and silane coupling (KH550), and a series of PBS/TF/T-PBS composites with varying T-PBS viscosity grades were prepared by melt blending. The compatibilization mechanism of T-PBS and its influence on the composite structure, crystallization behavior, thermal stability, rheological, and mechanical properties were systematically investigated. Results show that the branched structure significantly enhanced T-PBS melt strength and reactivity. The introduction of T-PBS effectively improved interfacial compatibility between TF and PBS matrix, reducing phase separation and interfacial defects. Compared to uncompatibilized PBS/TF composites, those with appropriately viscous T-PBS exhibited improved tensile strength (increased by 19.7%) and elongation at break (increased by 78.8%), while flexural strength was also maintained at an enhanced level. The branched points acted as nucleating agents, increasing the onset temperature and degree of crystallinity. In the high-temperature region, the synergistic barrier effect from TF and char residue improved thermal stability (T85% reached 408.19 °C). Rheological analysis revealed enhanced viscosity and elasticity of the system. This study provides a promising strategy and theoretical foundation for the high-value utilization of taxus waste and the development of high-performance biodegradable PBS-based composites. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 4453 KB  
Article
Two-Component Response Regulators CitT, YvcP, and YycI Differentially Control Pectin and Hemicellulose Degradation in Degumming of Ramie Fibers by Bacillus subtilis Strain 168
by Qi Yang, Shihang Ma, Lifeng Cheng, Xiang Zhou, Guoguo Xi, Chen Chen, Zhenghong Peng, Yuqin Hu, Si Tan and Shengwen Duan
Polymers 2025, 17(18), 2473; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17182473 - 12 Sep 2025
Viewed by 500
Abstract
Exploring the metabolic regulatory mechanisms of bacteria for ramie degumming and constructing more efficient engineered strains are preferred strategies to solve the technical bottleneck of high residual gum content in fibers. Bacillus subtilis strain 168, an advantageous bacterium for microbial degumming, was previously [...] Read more.
Exploring the metabolic regulatory mechanisms of bacteria for ramie degumming and constructing more efficient engineered strains are preferred strategies to solve the technical bottleneck of high residual gum content in fibers. Bacillus subtilis strain 168, an advantageous bacterium for microbial degumming, was previously found to significantly up-regulate the expression of bast two-component system (TCS) response regulators CitT, YvcP, and YycI when using ramie as the sole carbon source. In this study, the genes encoding CitT, YvcP, and YycI proteins were knocked out and compared the effects between these gene knockouts and the original strain on the degumming efficiency. The aim was to identify the key TCS response regulators that significantly affect degumming efficiency and to explore the functions of these different response regulators. The results demonstrated that knockout of citT, yvcP, or yycI genes significantly reduced degumming efficiency. Specifically, CitT protein primarily regulated the degradation of pectin, YvcP protein mainly regulated the degradation of hemicellulose, and YycI protein was involved in the regulation of both pectin and hemicellulose degradation. Notably, the absence of CitT protein caused the most significant reduction in degumming efficiency. These findings provide valuable insights into the construction of engineered strains with high degumming efficiency for ramie fibers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application and Characterization of Cellulose-Based Polymers)
Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 3468 KB  
Article
Density-Based Topology-Optimized 3D-Printed Fixtures for Cyclic Mechanical Testing of Lattice Structures
by Josué Castro, Rodrigo Valle, Jorge Leiva, Angelo Oñate, Enrico Saggionetto, Anne Mertens and Víctor Tuninetti
Polymers 2025, 17(18), 2468; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17182468 - 12 Sep 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1076
Abstract
The reliable experimental characterization of architected lattice materials under cyclic loading requires accurate fixture systems that ensure proper load transfer without introducing parasitic effects. This study presents the design and validation of testing fixtures optimized using density-based topological optimization techniques for performing cyclic [...] Read more.
The reliable experimental characterization of architected lattice materials under cyclic loading requires accurate fixture systems that ensure proper load transfer without introducing parasitic effects. This study presents the design and validation of testing fixtures optimized using density-based topological optimization techniques for performing cyclic load tests on lattice structures. The supports were manufactured with PLA filaments and evaluated using finite element simulation and experimental testing. The results show that the final design achieved a safety factor of 4.25, significantly improving on the initial value of 2.08. Likewise, the optimized supports showed reduced deformations by around 80% compared to the machine clamps, ensuring rigid and reliable stress transfer. In particular, while the metal structure of the test system showed deformations of several millimeters, the optimized PLA supports recorded displacements around 0.73 mm, confirming that they remain virtually rigid and ensure correct transmission of forces to the Kelvin-type structure. These findings confirm the viability of using PLA as an alternative to conventional metal devices in fixtures for mechanical testing of lattice materials. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 3530 KB  
Review
Direct Analysis of Solid-Phase Carbohydrate Polymers by Infrared Multiphoton Dissociation Reaction Combined with Synchrotron Radiation Infrared Microscopy and Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry
by Takayasu Kawasaki, Heishun Zen, Kyoko Nogami, Ken Hayakawa, Takeshi Sakai and Yasushi Hayakawa
Polymers 2025, 17(17), 2273; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17172273 - 22 Aug 2025
Viewed by 1030
Abstract
To determine the structure of carbohydrate polymers using conventional analytical technology, several complicated steps are required. We instead adopted a direct approach without the need for pretreatments, using an intense infrared (IR) laser for carbohydrate analysis. IR free-electron lasers (FELs) driven by a [...] Read more.
To determine the structure of carbohydrate polymers using conventional analytical technology, several complicated steps are required. We instead adopted a direct approach without the need for pretreatments, using an intense infrared (IR) laser for carbohydrate analysis. IR free-electron lasers (FELs) driven by a linear accelerator possess unique spectroscopic features, including extensive wavelength tunability and high laser energy in the IR region from 1000 cm−1 (10 μm) to 4000 cm−1 (2.5 μm). FELs can induce IR multiphoton dissociation reactions against various molecules by supplying vibrational excitation energy to the corresponding chemical bonds. Chitin from crayfish and cellulose fiber were irradiated by FELs tuned to νC–O (9.1–9.8 μm), νC–H (3.5 μm), and δH–C–O (7.2 μm) in glycosidic bonds, and their low-molecular-weight sugars were separated, which were revealed by combining synchrotron radiation IR spectroscopy and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. An intense IR laser can be viewed as a “molecular scalpel” for dissecting and directly analyzing the internal components in rigid biopolymers. This method is simple and rapid compared with general analytical techniques. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Spectroscopy for Polymers: Design and Characterization)
Show Figures

Graphical abstract

24 pages, 4305 KB  
Article
Driving the Green Transition: Innovative Tyre Formulation Using Agricultural and Pyrolysed Tyres Waste
by Carlo Di Bernardo, Francesca Demichelis, Mehran Dadkhah, Debora Fino, Massimo Messori and Camilla Noè
Polymers 2025, 17(17), 2275; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17172275 - 22 Aug 2025
Viewed by 1071
Abstract
The rubber industry is facing increasing pressure to adopt sustainable practices due to environmental concerns associated with the use of non-renewable resources and the growing accumulation of waste tyres and agricultural byproducts. This study explores the potential of partially replacing conventional carbon black [...] Read more.
The rubber industry is facing increasing pressure to adopt sustainable practices due to environmental concerns associated with the use of non-renewable resources and the growing accumulation of waste tyres and agricultural byproducts. This study explores the potential of partially replacing conventional carbon black (CB) with sustainable alternatives derived from agricultural waste (wine by-products) and pyrolysed waste tyres in natural rubber/styrene-butadiene rubber (NR/SBR) composites for tyre applications. A series of NR/SBR composites were formulated with varying ratios of CB to agricultural waste and pyrolysed tyre waste, while maintaining consistent levels of other additives. The resulting composites were then subjected to a comprehensive suite of analyses, including scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) surface area measurements, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), bound rubber content determination, Payne effect analysis, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA), and mechanical property testing. Furthermore, a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Life Cycle Costing (LCC) analysis were conducted to evaluate the environmental and economic viability of the proposed CB replacements. The results reveal that the incorporation of agricultural waste and pyrolysed tyre waste can significantly impact the curing behaviour, mechanical properties, and thermal stability of rubber composites. Importantly, some of the formulations demonstrate comparable tensile strength, elongation at break, and hardness compared to traditional CB-filled composites. The LCA and LCC analyses further highlight the potential for substantial reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, fossil resource depletion, and overall production costs, thereby supporting the transition toward more sustainable tyre manufacturing practices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Bio-Based and Circular Polymers and Composites)
Show Figures

Graphical abstract

26 pages, 7957 KB  
Article
Elastoplastic Modeling of Kevlar® Composite Laminates: A Cyclic Loading Approach for In-Plane Characterization
by Rene Alejandro Canceco de la Cruz, Luis Adrián Zúñiga Avilés, Gabriel Plascencia Barrera, Alberto Díaz Díaz and José Martin Herrera Ramírez
Polymers 2025, 17(16), 2235; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17162235 - 17 Aug 2025
Viewed by 961
Abstract
This study investigates the elastoplastic behavior of phenol formaldehyde/polyvinyl butyral matrix (70% PF/30% PVB) reinforced with Kevlar® fibers through comprehensive in-plane tensile testing. Cyclic loading–unloading tests were conducted at a 100%/min strain rate using a universal testing system at room temperature on [...] Read more.
This study investigates the elastoplastic behavior of phenol formaldehyde/polyvinyl butyral matrix (70% PF/30% PVB) reinforced with Kevlar® fibers through comprehensive in-plane tensile testing. Cyclic loading–unloading tests were conducted at a 100%/min strain rate using a universal testing system at room temperature on 04, 904, and ±45s laminates. The experimental results revealed significant nonlinear hardening behavior beyond yield stress, accompanied by yarn stiffening effects during loading cycles. A novel elastoplastic constitutive model was developed, incorporating Hill’s yield criterion adapted for orthotropic materials and an isotropic hardening function that accounts for equivalent plastic strains and progressive yarn stiffening. Laminates with other stacking sequences were also tested and the accuracy of the predictions of the nonlinear behavior was assessed. In these laminates, delaminations took place and the model provided an overestimation of the stress–strain response. Since the model could not predict delamination onset and propagation, an adaptation of the model considering fully delaminated interfaces brought a lower bound of this response. Despite the limitations of the model, it can be used to provide reasonable limits to the stress–strain response of laminates accounting for plastic strains within plies. This study provides essential mechanical properties and constitutive relationships for designing Kevlar® composite structures with tailored stiffness characteristics for impact-resistant applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Constitutive Modeling of Polymer Matrix Composites)
Show Figures

Figure 1

27 pages, 4903 KB  
Article
Biodegradation in Freshwater: Comparison Between Compostable Plastics and Their Biopolymer Matrices
by Valerio Bocci, Martina De Vivo, Sara Alfano, Simona Rossetti, Francesca Di Pippo, Loris Pietrelli and Andrea Martinelli
Polymers 2025, 17(16), 2236; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17162236 - 17 Aug 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1464
Abstract
Plastic pollution in freshwater ecosystems is an increasing environmental concern, prompting the search for biodegradable polymer (BP) alternatives. However, their degradation in natural aquatic environments remains poorly investigated and understood. This four-month in situ study compared the degradation in a lentic freshwater ecosystem [...] Read more.
Plastic pollution in freshwater ecosystems is an increasing environmental concern, prompting the search for biodegradable polymer (BP) alternatives. However, their degradation in natural aquatic environments remains poorly investigated and understood. This four-month in situ study compared the degradation in a lentic freshwater ecosystem of two compostable items, Mater-Bi® shopping bag and disposable dish, with their respective pure polymer matrices, poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) and polylactic acid (PLA). Additionally, biodegradable poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) and oil-based polypropylene (PP) were also tested. Changes in morphology, chemical composition and thermal and mechanical properties, as well as microbial colonization, were analyzed over time. A validated cleaning protocol was employed to ensure accurate surface analysis. Results showed detectable but limited degradation of pure polymers and their matrices in commercial products after 120 days of immersion with variations observed among polymer materials. Compostable materials exhibited significant leaching of fillers (starch, inorganic particles), leading to morphological changes and fragmentation. PHBV showed the fastest degradation among tested polyesters. PP exhibited only minor surface changes. Microbial colonization varied with polymer structure and degradability, but long-term degradation was limited by polymer properties and the gradual development of the plastisphere. This study highlights that standard laboratory tests may overestimate the environmental degradability of BPs and emphasizes the importance of in situ assessments, careful cleaning procedures and property characterizations to accurately assess polymer degradation in freshwater systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Degradation of Polymers)
Show Figures

Graphical abstract

14 pages, 3778 KB  
Article
A New Recycling Technology to Produce Premixed Thermal Insulating Mortars from Polyurethane Waste Foams
by Antonis Kountouris, Kypros Efstathiou, Nikolaos Kostoglou, Dimitrios Manolakos and Claus Rebholz
Polymers 2025, 17(16), 2233; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17162233 - 17 Aug 2025
Viewed by 1164
Abstract
The increasing demand for sustainable construction materials has driven research into the reuse of plastic waste for renewable building applications. This study introduces a new lightweight insulating mortar for floor and roof systems, utilizing recycled rigid polyurethane (PU) foam as the primary aggregate. [...] Read more.
The increasing demand for sustainable construction materials has driven research into the reuse of plastic waste for renewable building applications. This study introduces a new lightweight insulating mortar for floor and roof systems, utilizing recycled rigid polyurethane (PU) foam as the primary aggregate. The binder mainly consists of Portland cement, with no added sand, and includes minor additives to enhance mechanical, physical, and thermal properties. Initial tests demonstrated that key performance metrics—density, compressive strength, and thermal conductivity—are significantly influenced by the PU content. As the proportion of PU increased, all three parameters decreased. The optimized formulation, comprising 92.25 vol.% PU foam, 6.75 vol.% cement, and 1 vol.% additives, achieved a low bulk density of 420 kg/m3, a compressive strength of 1 MPa, and a thermal conductivity of 0.07 W/m·K. A pilot-scale production system with a capacity of 1500 L/h (equivalent to 20 bags of 75 L) was subsequently designed, implemented, and validated. These findings underscore the potential of PU-based lightweight insulating mortars to reduce environmental impact and support the development of sustainable construction practices globally. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Polymeric Materials in Building and Construction)
Show Figures

Graphical abstract

21 pages, 1652 KB  
Article
Antimicrobial and Physicochemical Properties of Hemicellulose-Based Films Incorporating Carvacrol
by Syed Ammar Hussain, Brajendra K. Sharma, Phoebe X. Qi, Madhav P. Yadav and Tony Z. Jin
Polymers 2025, 17(15), 2073; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17152073 - 29 Jul 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1055
Abstract
Antimicrobial food packaging with natural antimicrobials and biodegradable polymers presents an innovative solution to mitigate microbial contamination, prolong freshness, reduce food waste, and alleviate environmental burden. This study developed antimicrobial hemicellulose-based films by incorporating carvacrol (1% and 2%) as a natural antimicrobial agent [...] Read more.
Antimicrobial food packaging with natural antimicrobials and biodegradable polymers presents an innovative solution to mitigate microbial contamination, prolong freshness, reduce food waste, and alleviate environmental burden. This study developed antimicrobial hemicellulose-based films by incorporating carvacrol (1% and 2%) as a natural antimicrobial agent through micro-emulsification produced by high-pressure homogenization (M-films). For comparison, films with the same formula were constructed using coarse emulsions (C-films) without high-pressure homogenization. These films were investigated for their antimicrobial efficacy, mechanical and barrier properties, and physicochemical attributes to explore their potential as sustainable antimicrobial packaging solutions. The M-films demonstrated superior antimicrobial activity, achieving reductions exceeding 4 Log CFU/mL against Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli, and Salmonella enterica, compared to the C-films. High-pressure homogenization significantly reduced the emulsion’s particle size, from 11.59 to 2.55 μm, and considerably enhanced the M-film’s uniformity, hydrophobicity, and structural quality. Most importantly, the M-films exhibited lower oxygen transmission (35.14 cc/m2/day) and water vapor transmission rates (52.12 g/m2/day) than the C-films at 45.1 and 65.5 cc/m2/day, respectively, indicating superior protection against gas and moisture diffusion. Markedly improved mechanical properties, including foldability, toughness, and bubble-free surfaces, were also observed, making the M-films suitable for practical applications. This study highlights the potential of high-pressure homogenization as a method for enhancing the functional properties of hemicellulose-based films (i.e., M-films). The fabricated films offer a viable alternative to conventional plastic packaging, paving the way for safer and greener solutions tailored to modern industry needs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Coatings: Principles, Development and Applications)
Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 4630 KB  
Article
Electrospun Polymeric Composite Fibers Containing Te-Doped Bioactive Glass Powders
by Marta Miola, Elisa Piatti, Francesco Iorio, Aldo R. Boccaccini and Enrica Verné
Polymers 2025, 17(15), 2057; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17152057 - 28 Jul 2025
Viewed by 637
Abstract
In this work, the electrospinning technique was used to prepare novel polymeric composite fibers containing Te-doped bioactive glass powders. Bioactive glass powders containing tellurium (STe5 glass) were chosen as fillers for the composites, owing to their bioactive, antibacterial, and antioxidant properties. The biopolymer [...] Read more.
In this work, the electrospinning technique was used to prepare novel polymeric composite fibers containing Te-doped bioactive glass powders. Bioactive glass powders containing tellurium (STe5 glass) were chosen as fillers for the composites, owing to their bioactive, antibacterial, and antioxidant properties. The biopolymer poly (ϵ-caprolactone) (PCL) and acetic acid (AA) were used as raw materials for the preparation of the polymeric matrix. FESEM analysis confirmed a good incorporation of the glass powders in the polymeric fibers, of up to 20% by weight. Wettability, mechanical, in vitro stability and preliminary antibacterial tests were also performed. The results showed that the treatment in AA did not affect the bioactivity of the glass powders, the presence of STe5 powders in PCL enhanced the wettability of the fibers, and mechanical properties improved by increasing the amount of STe5 powders, as well as the antibacterial effect. Therefore, the obtained materials appear promising for developing multifunctional composite materials for applications in tissue engineering. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites)
Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 2025 KB  
Article
Retainment of Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate) Properties from Oil-Fermented Cupriavidus necator Using Additional Ethanol-Based Defatting Process
by Tae-Rim Choi, Gaeun Lim, Yebin Han, Jong-Min Jeon, Shashi Kant Bhatia, Hyun June Park, Jeong Chan Joo, Hee Taek Kim, Jeong-Jun Yoon and Yung-Hun Yang
Polymers 2025, 17(15), 2058; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17152058 - 28 Jul 2025
Viewed by 862
Abstract
Engineering of Cupriavidus necator could enable the production of various polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs); particularly, poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate) (P(3HB-co-3HH)), a biopolymer with enhanced mechanical and thermal properties compared to poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB), can be efficiently produced from vegetable oils. However, challenges remain in the [...] Read more.
Engineering of Cupriavidus necator could enable the production of various polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs); particularly, poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate) (P(3HB-co-3HH)), a biopolymer with enhanced mechanical and thermal properties compared to poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB), can be efficiently produced from vegetable oils. However, challenges remain in the recovery process, particularly in removing residual oil and minimizing degradation of the polymer structure during extraction steps. This study investigated the effects of ethanol-based defatting on the recovery and polymeric properties of P(3HB-co-3HH). The proposed method involves the addition of ethanol to the cell broth to effectively remove residual oil. Ethanol improved the separation of microbial cells from the broth, thereby streamlining the downstream recovery process. Using ethanol in the washing step increased the recovery yield and purity to 95.7% and 83.4%, respectively (compared to 87.4% and 76.2% for distilled water washing), representing improvements of 8.3% and 7.2%. Ethanol washing also resulted in a 19% higher molecular weight compared to water washing, indicating reduced polymer degradation. In terms of physical properties, the elongation at break showed a significant difference: 241.9 ± 27.0% with ethanol washing compared to water (177.7 ± 10.3%), indicating ethanol washing retains flexibility. Overall, an ethanol washing step for defatting could simplify the recovery steps, increase yield and purity, and retain mechanical properties, especially for P(3HB-co-3HH) from oils. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 4008 KB  
Article
Carboxymethyl Chitosan Cinnamaldehyde Coated SilverNanocomposites for Antifungal Seed Priming in Wheat: A Dual-Action Approach Toward Sustainable Crop Protection
by María Mondéjar-López, María Paz García-Simarro, Lourdes Gómez-Gómez, Oussama Ahrazem and Enrique Niza
Polymers 2025, 17(15), 2031; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17152031 - 25 Jul 2025
Viewed by 776
Abstract
Biogenic silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were synthesized via a green chemistry strategy using wheat extract and subsequently functionalized with a carboxymethyl chitosan–cinnamaldehyde (CMC=CIN) conjugate through covalent imine bonding. The resulting nanohybrid (AgNP–CMC=CIN) was extensively characterized to confirm successful biofunctionalization: UV–Vis spectroscopy revealed characteristic cinnamaldehyde [...] Read more.
Biogenic silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were synthesized via a green chemistry strategy using wheat extract and subsequently functionalized with a carboxymethyl chitosan–cinnamaldehyde (CMC=CIN) conjugate through covalent imine bonding. The resulting nanohybrid (AgNP–CMC=CIN) was extensively characterized to confirm successful biofunctionalization: UV–Vis spectroscopy revealed characteristic cinnamaldehyde absorption peaks; ATR-FTIR spectra confirmed polymer–terpene bonding; and TEM analysis evidenced uniform nanoparticle morphology. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) measurements indicated an increase in hydrodynamic size upon coating (from 59.46 ± 12.63 nm to 110.17 ± 4.74 nm), while maintaining low polydispersity (PDI: 0.29 to 0.27) and stable surface charge (zeta potential ~ −30 mV), suggesting colloidal stability and homogeneous polymer encapsulation. Antifungal activity was evaluated against Fusarium oxysporum, Penicillium citrinum, Aspergillus niger, and Aspergillus brasiliensis. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) against F. oxysporum was significantly reduced to 83 μg/mL with AgNP–CMC=CIN, compared to 708 μg/mL for uncoated AgNPs, and was comparable to the reference fungicide tebuconazole (52 μg/mL). Seed priming with AgNP–CMC=CIN led to improved germination (85%) and markedly reduced fungal colonization, while maintaining a favorable phytotoxicity profile. These findings highlight the potential of polysaccharide-terpene-functionalized biogenic AgNPs as a sustainable alternative to conventional fungicides, supporting their application in precision agriculture and integrated crop protection strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Materials for Environmental Applications)
Show Figures

Figure 1

61 pages, 2268 KB  
Review
Biodegradable Polymers: Properties, Applications, and Environmental Impact
by Rashid Dallaev, Nikola Papež, Mohammad M. Allaham and Vladimír Holcman
Polymers 2025, 17(14), 1981; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17141981 - 18 Jul 2025
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 7745
Abstract
The accelerating global demand for sustainable materials has brought biodegradable polymers to the forefront of scientific and industrial innovation. These polymers, capable of decomposing through biological processes into environmentally benign byproducts, are increasingly seen as viable alternatives to conventional plastics in sectors such [...] Read more.
The accelerating global demand for sustainable materials has brought biodegradable polymers to the forefront of scientific and industrial innovation. These polymers, capable of decomposing through biological processes into environmentally benign byproducts, are increasingly seen as viable alternatives to conventional plastics in sectors such as packaging, agriculture, and biomedicine. However, despite significant advancements, the field remains fragmented due to the diversity of raw materials, synthesis methods, degradation mechanisms, and application requirements. This review aims to provide a comprehensive synthesis of the current state of biodegradable polymer development, including their classifications, sources (natural, synthetic, and microbially derived), degradation pathways, material properties, and commercial applications. It highlights critical scientific and technological challenges—such as optimizing degradation rates, ensuring mechanical performance, and scaling up production from renewable feedstocks. By consolidating recent research findings and regulatory considerations, this review serves as a crucial reference point for researchers, material scientists, and policymakers. It strives to bridge knowledge gaps in order to accelerate the deployment of biodegradable polymers as integral components of a circular and low-impact material economy. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 5750 KB  
Article
Effect of Irradiated Nanocellulose on Enhancing the Functionality of Polylactic Acid-Based Composite Films for Packaging Applications
by Ilaria Improta, Mariamelia Stanzione, Elena Orlo, Fabiana Tescione, Marino Lavorgna, Xavier Coqueret and Giovanna G. Buonocore
Polymers 2025, 17(14), 1939; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17141939 - 15 Jul 2025
Viewed by 1322
Abstract
This study investigates the combined use of electron beam irradiation (EBI) and nanotechnology to develop improved food packaging films. EBI, commonly applied for sterilization, can alter polymer microstructure, while irradiated cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) offer enhanced functionality when incorporated into biopolymer matrices. Here, CNCs [...] Read more.
This study investigates the combined use of electron beam irradiation (EBI) and nanotechnology to develop improved food packaging films. EBI, commonly applied for sterilization, can alter polymer microstructure, while irradiated cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) offer enhanced functionality when incorporated into biopolymer matrices. Here, CNCs were irradiated with doses up to 50 kGy, leading to the formation of carboxyl and aldehyde groups, confirmed by FTIR analysis, as a consequence of the initial formation of free radicals and peroxides that may subsist in that original form or be converted into various carbonyl groups. Flexible films were obtained by incorporating pristine and EB-irradiated CNCs in an internal mixer, using minute amounts of poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) to facilitate the dispersion of the filler within the polymer matrix. The resulting PLA/PEO/CNC films were evaluated for their mechanical, thermal, barrier, and antioxidant properties. The results showed that structural modifications of CNCs led to significant enhancements in the performance of the composite films, including a 30% improvement in water barrier properties and a 50% increase in antioxidant activity. These findings underscore the potential of irradiated CNCs as effective additives in biopolymer-based active packaging, offering a sustainable approach to reduce dependence on synthetic preservatives and potentially extend the shelf life of food products. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Polymers for Value Added and Functional Packaging)
Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 4000 KB  
Article
Structure-Properties Correlations of PVA-Cellulose Based Nanocomposite Films for Food Packaging Applications
by Konstantinos Papapetros, Georgios N. Mathioudakis, Dionysios Vroulias, Nikolaos Koutroumanis, George A. Voyiatzis and Konstantinos S. Andrikopoulos
Polymers 2025, 17(14), 1911; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17141911 - 10 Jul 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1728
Abstract
Bio-nanocomposites based on poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and cellulosic nanostructures are favorable for active food packaging applications. The current study systematically investigates the mechanical properties, gas permeation, and swelling parameters of PVA composites with cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) or nano lignocellulose (NLC) fibers. Alterations [...] Read more.
Bio-nanocomposites based on poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and cellulosic nanostructures are favorable for active food packaging applications. The current study systematically investigates the mechanical properties, gas permeation, and swelling parameters of PVA composites with cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) or nano lignocellulose (NLC) fibers. Alterations in these macroscopic properties, which are critical for food packaging applications, are correlated with structural information at the molecular level. Strong interactions between the fillers and polymer host matrix were observed, while the PVA crystallinity exhibited a maximum at ~1% loading. Finally, the orientation of the PVA nanocrystals in the uniaxially stretched samples was found to depend non-monotonically on the CNC loading and draw ratio. Concerning the macroscopic properties of the composites, the swelling properties were reduced for the D1 food simulant, while for water, a considerable decrease was observed only when high NLC loadings were involved. Furthermore, although the water vapor transmission rates are roughly similar for all samples, the CO2, N2, and O2 gas permeabilities are low, exhibiting further decrease in the 1% and 1–5% loading for CNC and NLC composites, respectively. The mechanical properties were considerably altered as a consequence of the good dispersion of the filler, increased crystallinity of the polymer matrix, and morphology of the filler. Thus, up to ~50%/~170% enhancement of the Young’s modulus and up to ~20%/~50% enhancement of the tensile strength are observed for the CNC/NLC composites. Interestingly, the elongation at break is also increased by ~20% for CNC composites, while it is reduced by ~40% for the NLC composites, signifying the favorable/unfavorable interactions of cellulose/lignin with the matrix. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellulose and Its Composites: Preparation and Applications)
Show Figures

Graphical abstract

18 pages, 5009 KB  
Article
Preparation of Glass Fiber Reinforced Polypropylene Bending Plate and Its Long-Term Performance Exposed in Alkaline Solution Environment
by Zhan Peng, Anji Wang, Chen Wang and Chenggao Li
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1844; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131844 - 30 Jun 2025
Viewed by 797
Abstract
Glass fiber reinforced polypropylene composite plates have gradually attracted more attention because of their repeated molding, higher toughness, higher durability, and fatigue resistance compared to glass fiber reinforced thermosetting composites. In practical engineering applications, composite plates have to undergo bending effect at different [...] Read more.
Glass fiber reinforced polypropylene composite plates have gradually attracted more attention because of their repeated molding, higher toughness, higher durability, and fatigue resistance compared to glass fiber reinforced thermosetting composites. In practical engineering applications, composite plates have to undergo bending effect at different angles in corrosive environment of concrete, including bending bars from 0~90°, and stirrups of 90°, which may lead to long-term performance degradation. Therefore, it is important to evaluate the long-term performance of glass fiber reinforced polypropylene composite bending plates in an alkali environment. In the current paper, a new bending device is developed to prepare glass fiber reinforced polypropylene bending plates with the bending angles of 60° and 90°. It should be pointed out that the above two bending angles are simulated typical bending bars and stirrups, respectively. The plate is immersed in the alkali solution environment for up to 90 days for long-term exposure. Mechanical properties (tensile properties and shear properties), thermal properties (dynamic mechanical properties and thermogravimetric analysis) and micro-morphology analysis (surface morphology analysis) were systematically designed to evaluate the influence mechanism of bending angle and alkali solution immersion on the long-term mechanical properties. The results show the bending effect leads to the continuous failure of fibers, and the outer fibers break under tension, and the inner fibers buckle under compression, resulting in debonding of the fiber–matrix interface. Alkali solution (OH ions) corrode the surface of glass fiber to form soluble silicate, which is proved by the mass fraction of glass fiber decreased obviously from 79.9% to 73.65% from thermogravimetric analysis. This contributes to the highest degradation ratio of tensile strength was 71.6% (60° bending) and 65.6% (90° bending), respectively, compared to the plate with bending angles of 0°. A high curvature bending angle (such as 90°) leads to local buckling of fibers and plastic deformation of the matrix, forming microcracks and fiber–resin interface bonding at the bending area, which accelerates the chemical erosion and debonding process in the interface area, bringing about an additional maximum 10.56% degradation rate of the shear strength. In addition, the alkali immersion leads to the obvious degradation of storage modulus and thermal decomposition temperature of composite plate. Compared with the other works on the long-term mechanical properties of glass fiber reinforced polypropylene, it can be found that the long-term performance of glass fiber reinforced polypropylene composites is controlled by the corrosive media type, bending angle and immersion time. The research results will provide durability data for glass fiber reinforced polypropylene composites used in concrete as stirrups. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites)
Show Figures

Figure 1

33 pages, 11174 KB  
Review
Photopolymer Flexographic Printing Plate Mold for PDMS Microfluidic Manufacture
by Ana Belén Peñaherrera-Pazmiño, Gustavo Iván Rosero, Maximiliano Pérez and Betiana Lerner
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1723; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131723 - 20 Jun 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2412
Abstract
Flexographic printing, traditionally used in the packaging industry, has emerged as a promising technology for microfluidic device fabrication due to enabling high resolution and being commercially available at a low cost compared to conventional techniques. This review explores the adaptation of a photopolymer [...] Read more.
Flexographic printing, traditionally used in the packaging industry, has emerged as a promising technology for microfluidic device fabrication due to enabling high resolution and being commercially available at a low cost compared to conventional techniques. This review explores the adaptation of a photopolymer flexographic printing plate mold (FMold) for microfluidics, examining its advantages, challenges, and applications. It offers a state-of-the-art view of the application of FMold for microfluidic systems, which offers a unique opportunity in terms of cost-effectiveness, scalability, and rapid prototyping. Applications are diverse: FMold has enabled the fabrication of microfluidic devices used in enhanced oil recovery to prepare rock-on-a-chip models, droplet generation and storage, suspension cell culture, monoclonal antibody production, complex cell differentiation pattern creation, phage screening, drug screening, cell detection, and cancer stem cell culture. Since its first appearance in 2018, FMold has been utilized in 50 publications in different laboratories around the world. Key advancements, current research trends, and future prospects are discussed to provide a comprehensive overview of this evolving tool. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Functional Polymer Materials for Biomedical Applications)
Show Figures

Graphical abstract

17 pages, 3390 KB  
Article
Controlled Formation of Au Nanonetworks via Discrete BTA-Oligo(Acrylic Acid)3 Supramolecular Templates
by Sadaf Aiman, Soonyoung Choi, Hyosun Lee, Sang-Ho Lee and Eunyong Seo
Polymers 2025, 17(12), 1662; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17121662 - 15 Jun 2025
Viewed by 791
Abstract
Precise control over molecular dispersity and supramolecular assembly is essential for designing nanostructures with targeted properties and functionalities. In this study, we explore the impact of molecular dispersity in BTA-oligo(AA)3 oligomers on the formation and structural organization of Au nanomaterials in an [...] Read more.
Precise control over molecular dispersity and supramolecular assembly is essential for designing nanostructures with targeted properties and functionalities. In this study, we explore the impact of molecular dispersity in BTA-oligo(AA)3 oligomers on the formation and structural organization of Au nanomaterials in an aqueous system. Discrete and polydisperse BTA-oligo(AA)3 samples are systematically synthesized and characterized to evaluate their role as templates for nanostructure formation. UV-vis spectroscopy and TEM analyses reveal distinct differences in the resulting nanostructures. Specifically, discrete oligomers facilitate the formation of well-defined, interconnected Au nanonetworks with high structural uniformity, even at elevated concentrations. In contrast, polydisperse oligomers facilitated the formation of isolated Au nanoparticles with limited control over morphology and connectivity. These differences are attributed to the greater molecular uniformity and enhanced self-assembly capabilities of the discrete oligomers, which serve as effective templates for directing Au precursor organization and reduction into ordered nanostructures. This study provides mechanistic insight into how molecular dispersity affects the templating and assembly of gold nanomaterials. The findings offer a promising strategy for developing tailored nanostructures with interconnected morphologies and controlled optical and structural properties, paving the way for advanced applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymer Structures: Chemistry for Engineering Applications)
Show Figures

Graphical abstract

18 pages, 8613 KB  
Review
Sensitive Chemical and Biological Sensors Based on Phosphorus Dendrimers
by Anne-Marie Caminade
Polymers 2025, 17(12), 1591; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17121591 - 6 Jun 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1005
Abstract
Dendrimers are a special type of ball-shaped hyperbranched polymers consisting of branched monomers organized stepwise around a multifunctional core. They possess many reactive functions, and they are easily accessible as they are located on the surface of the dendrimers. By modifying their terminal [...] Read more.
Dendrimers are a special type of ball-shaped hyperbranched polymers consisting of branched monomers organized stepwise around a multifunctional core. They possess many reactive functions, and they are easily accessible as they are located on the surface of the dendrimers. By modifying their terminal functions, it is possible to change the specificities of dendrimers to give them the desired properties. Dendrimers have been used as catalysts, in diverse fields of nanomedicine, and for the elaboration or modification of materials. The internal structure of dendrimers should be carefully chosen depending on the sought-after properties. Poly(phosphorhydrazone) (PPH) dendrimers possess a relatively rigid and hydrophobic internal structure and an easily functionalized surface, which make them appealing in the field of materials. Indeed, they can be used as a matrix, as glue for stabilizing multilayers, or as multifunctional tools. This review describes the use of PPH dendrimers and dendrons (dendritic wedges) for elaborating sensitive chemical, electrochemical, and biological sensors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development of Applications of Polymer-Based Sensors and Actuators)
Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 1694 KB  
Article
An Assessment of Anion Exchange Membranes for CO2 Capture Processes: A Focus on Fumasep® and Sustainion®
by Kseniya Papchenko, Sandra Kentish and Maria Grazia De Angelis
Polymers 2025, 17(11), 1581; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17111581 - 5 Jun 2025
Viewed by 2067
Abstract
Anion exchange membranes are utilised in cutting-edge energy technologies including electrolysers and fuel cells. Recently, these membranes have also emerged as a promising tool in CO2 capture techniques, such as moisture-driven direct air capture and the separation of CO2 from other [...] Read more.
Anion exchange membranes are utilised in cutting-edge energy technologies including electrolysers and fuel cells. Recently, these membranes have also emerged as a promising tool in CO2 capture techniques, such as moisture-driven direct air capture and the separation of CO2 from other gases, leveraging the moisture-induced sorption/desorption and diffusion of CO2 in its ionic forms. In this study, we examine the absorption and permeation of CO2 and CH4 in two commercially available anion exchange membranes, Fumasep® and Sustainion®, under dry conditions. With the exception of CO2 sorption in Fumasep®, these measurements have not been previously reported. These new data points are crucial for evaluating the fundamental separation capabilities of these materials and for devising innovative CO2 capture strategies, as well as for the simulation of novel combined processes. In a dry state, both materials demonstrate similar CO2 absorption levels, with a higher value for Sustainion®. The CO2 solubility coefficient decreases with pressure, as is typical for glassy polymers. Fumasep® exhibits higher CO2/CH4 ideal solubility selectivity, equal to ~10 at sub-ambient pressures, and higher diffusivity. The CO2 diffusion coefficient increases with the CO2 concentration in both membranes due to swelling of the matrix, varying between 0.7 and 2.2 × 10−8 cm2/s for Fumasep® and between 1.6 and 9.0 × 10−9 cm2/s for Sustainion®. CO2 permeability exhibits a minimum at a pressure of approximately 2–3 bar. The CO2 permeability in the dry state is higher in Fumasep® than in Sustainion®: 3.43 and 0.72 Barrer at a 2-bar transmembrane pressure, respectively. The estimated perm-selectivity was found to reach values of up to 40 at sub-ambient pressures. The CO2 permeability and CO2/CH4 estimated perm-selectivity in both polymers are of a similar order of magnitude to those measured in fluorinated ion exchange membranes such as Nafion®. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 2036 KB  
Article
Oxidative Decomposition of Poly(phenylene sulfide) Composites Under Fast Elevation of Temperature
by Aurélie Bourdet, Yann Carpier, Eric Dargent, Benoit Vieille and Nicolas Delpouve
Polymers 2025, 17(11), 1560; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17111560 - 3 Jun 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1599
Abstract
The thermal resistance of carbon fiber–reinforced poly(phenylene sulfide) to harsh oxidative conditions is investigated through thermogravimetric experiments performed in an oxygen atmosphere. While these materials usually show great resistance against thermal decomposition in a nitrogen atmosphere, the experiments in oxygen reveal the total [...] Read more.
The thermal resistance of carbon fiber–reinforced poly(phenylene sulfide) to harsh oxidative conditions is investigated through thermogravimetric experiments performed in an oxygen atmosphere. While these materials usually show great resistance against thermal decomposition in a nitrogen atmosphere, the experiments in oxygen reveal the total decomposition of both the matrix and the carbon fibers. The Gram–Schmidt signal, obtained by coupling thermogravimetric analysis in standard conditions with Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, exhibits multiple events, evidencing that the decomposition proceeds through distinct stages. The first step characterizes the char formation, while the second relates to its oxidative decomposition. A third step, only observed for composites, is interpreted as the signature of the oxidative decomposition of carbon fibers. To mimic the sudden elevation of temperature encountered during a fire, the analyses are performed at rates of up to 500 K min−1. These specific experimental conditions reveal a complex dependence of the thermogravimetric signature on the heating rate. Independent of the atmosphere, nitrogen or oxygen, the characteristic temperature of decomposition follows a bell-shape trend, resulting from the combination of lag effects and thermal-conductivity limitations. Additionally, the increase of the heating rate causes the Gram–Schmidt signal to evolve toward a broad peak with indistinct events. To investigate whether these changes affect the decomposition products, the infrared spectra, continuously recorded to probe the whole decomposition, are compared with those from the database. The char formation is characterized by the production of sulfur dioxide, while carbon dioxide is the main product emitted during both char and fiber oxidative decomposition. Owing to the merging of the decomposition stages, sulfur-dioxide detection is partly supplanted by that of carbon dioxide under fast elevations of temperature. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 1479 KB  
Article
Cashmere Blended with Calcium Alginate Fibers: Eco-Friendly Improvement of Flame Retardancy and Maintenance of Hygroscopicity
by Yujie Cai, Zewen Li, Bin Wang, Chao Xu, Xing Tian and Fengyu Quan
Polymers 2025, 17(11), 1497; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17111497 - 28 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 899
Abstract
As a natural fiber, cashmere is favored for its softness, finesse, and warmth. However, its poor flame-retardant properties seriously affect the safety of cashmere. Current flame-retardant treatments for cashmere tend to lead to heavy metal pollution and significantly reduce wearer comfort. In this [...] Read more.
As a natural fiber, cashmere is favored for its softness, finesse, and warmth. However, its poor flame-retardant properties seriously affect the safety of cashmere. Current flame-retardant treatments for cashmere tend to lead to heavy metal pollution and significantly reduce wearer comfort. In this work, natural and environmentally friendly calcium alginate fibers were blended with cashmere to obtain blended fibers. The blended fibers exhibited good hygroscopicity and softness. The incorporation of calcium alginate fibers enhanced the flame retardancy of the blends, and the LOI of the blended fibers reached 40.2 without smoldering. It was due to a stable CaO protective layer formed by Ca2+ during combustion and the dense carbon layer with the decomposition intermediates of cashmere, which exerted a flame-retardant effect in the condensed phase. This study provided an eco-friendly approach to producing high-quality flame-retardant cashmere products. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmentally Friendly Textiles, Fibers and Their Composites)
Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 1540 KB  
Article
Polymeric Membrane Contactors for CO2 Separation: A Systematic Literature Analysis of the Impact of Absorbent Temperature
by Edoardo Magnone, Min Chang Shin and Jung Hoon Park
Polymers 2025, 17(10), 1387; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17101387 - 18 May 2025
Viewed by 933
Abstract
Global warming, driven significantly by carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, necessitates immediate climate action. Consequently, CO2 capture is essential for mitigating carbon output from industrial and power generation processes. This study investigates the effect of absorbent temperature on CO2 separation [...] Read more.
Global warming, driven significantly by carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, necessitates immediate climate action. Consequently, CO2 capture is essential for mitigating carbon output from industrial and power generation processes. This study investigates the effect of absorbent temperature on CO2 separation performance using gas–liquid polymeric hollow fiber membrane (HFM) contactors. It summarizes the relationship between liquid-phase temperature and CO2 capture efficiency across various physical and chemical absorption processes. Twelve relevant studies (nine experimental, three mathematical), providing a comprehensive database of 104 individual measurements, were rigorously analyzed. Liquid-phase temperature significantly influences CO2 separation performance in HFM contactors. In particular, the present analysis reveals that, overall, for every 10 °C temperature increase, physical absorption performance decreases by approximately 3%, while chemical absorption performance improves by 3%, regardless of other parameters. This empirical law was confirmed by direct comparisons with additional experimental results. Strategies for further development of these processes are also proposed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Materials for Environmental Applications)
Show Figures

Graphical abstract

16 pages, 10309 KB  
Article
Chemical Recycling of PLA and Its Copolyesters with Poly(Ethylene Azelate) via Microwave-Assisted Alkaline Hydrolysis and Enzymatic Hydrolysis
by Rafail O. Ioannidis, Nikolaos D. Bikiaris, Evangelia Vouvoudi, Alexandra Zamboulis, Nikolaos Nikolaidis and Dimitrios N. Bikiaris
Polymers 2025, 17(10), 1374; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17101374 - 16 May 2025
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2387
Abstract
Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) is a widely used biobased polyester which can be derived from renewable resources. Due to its excellent properties, it has already been adopted in various industrial sectors. While PLA is compostable, its degradation to the environment is very slow, necessitating [...] Read more.
Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) is a widely used biobased polyester which can be derived from renewable resources. Due to its excellent properties, it has already been adopted in various industrial sectors. While PLA is compostable, its degradation to the environment is very slow, necessitating the development of efficient recycling methods. This study focuses on the chemical recycling via microwave-assisted alkaline hydrolysis of PLA and its copolymers with poly(ethylene azelate) (PEAz), aiming to recover both carboxylic acid monomers: lactic acid and azelaic acid. Moreover, our method tunes the degradation of PLA via the synthesis of the novel aliphatic PLA-based copolyesters, targeting engineering-like applications, specifically in the field of printed electronics. Various process parameters were analyzed, including the temperature and the duration of the experiments as well as different phase transfer catalysts. Complete degradation was achieved at low temperatures (110–125 °C) and short times (12–15 min) for the PLA-based copolyesters, offering significant environmental benefits, as considerably less energy is consumed compared to chemical conventional methods. So, by changing the composition of the copolyesters through the incorporation of PEAz blocky segments, the ester bonds became more susceptible to hydrolysis under alkaline conditions assisted with microwave irradiation. Additionally, enzymatic hydrolysis was also studied in parallel for comparative purposes, revealing low degradation rates, thus establishing the microwave-assisted alkaline hydrolysis as a solid and reliable method for tuning the degradation of PLA-based materials. Full article
Show Figures

Graphical abstract

17 pages, 9487 KB  
Article
Polymer Composite Sandwich Panels Composed of Hemp and Plastic Skins and Composite Wood, Recycled Plastic, and Styrofoam Cores
by Ashiqul Islam, Wahid Ferdous, Paulomi (Polly) Burey, Kamrun Nahar, Libo Yan and Allan Manalo
Polymers 2025, 17(10), 1359; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17101359 - 15 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1648
Abstract
This paper presents an experimental investigation of six different types of composite sandwich panels manufactured from waste-based materials, which are comprised of two different types of skins (made from hemp and recycled PET (Polyethylene terephthalate) fabrics with bio-epoxy resin) and three different cores [...] Read more.
This paper presents an experimental investigation of six different types of composite sandwich panels manufactured from waste-based materials, which are comprised of two different types of skins (made from hemp and recycled PET (Polyethylene terephthalate) fabrics with bio-epoxy resin) and three different cores (composite wood, recycled plastic, and styrofoam) materials. The skins of these sandwich panels were investigated under five different environmental conditions (normal air, water, hygrothermal, saline solution, and 80 °C elevated temperature) over seven months to evaluate their durability performance. In addition, the tensile and dynamic mechanical properties of those sandwich panels were studied. The bending behavior of cores and sandwich panels was also investigated and compared. The results indicated that elevated temperatures are 30% more detrimental to fiber composite laminates than normal water. Composite laminates made of hemp are more sensitive to environmental conditions than composite laminates made of recycled PET. A higher-density core makes panels more rigid and less susceptible to indentation failure. The flexible plastic cores are found to be up to 25% more effective at increasing the strength of sandwich panels than brittle wood cores. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Polymeric Materials in Building and Construction)
Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 4862 KB  
Article
Fabrication of PVDF Membranes with a PVA Layer for the Effective Removal of Volatile Organic Compounds in Semiconductor Wastewater
by Youngmin Choi and Changwoo Nam
Polymers 2025, 17(10), 1332; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17101332 - 14 May 2025
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1995
Abstract
Through the application of advanced membrane modification strategies, high-performance membranes have been developed to effectively remove organic contaminants such as toluene and xylene from wastewater. These membranes demonstrate superior antifouling resistance and long-term operational stability, offering a competitive advantage for semiconductor wastewater treatment. [...] Read more.
Through the application of advanced membrane modification strategies, high-performance membranes have been developed to effectively remove organic contaminants such as toluene and xylene from wastewater. These membranes demonstrate superior antifouling resistance and long-term operational stability, offering a competitive advantage for semiconductor wastewater treatment. This study introduces a novel approach to membrane fabrication using polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), recognized for its cost-effectiveness and distinct antifouling properties in contaminant removal. To enhance the performance of the membrane, the solvent (DMA, DMF, NMP) that dissolves PVDF and the immersion time (30 min, 60 min, 90 min) at which phase separation occurs were identified. Additionally, the membranes were treated with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) through multiple dip coatings to enhance their hydrophilicity before a comparative analysis was conducted. The resulting optimized membranes demonstrated high emulsion fluxes (4412 Lm2h1bar1 for toluene) and achieved oil-removal efficiencies exceeding 90% when tested with various organic solvents, including toluene, cyclohexane, xylene, benzene, and chloroform. The resulting optimized membranes prove to be a reliable means of producing clean water and of efficiently separating organic contaminants from wastewater. Showcasing remarkable antifouling capabilities and suitability for repeated use without significant efficiency loss, this solution effectively addresses cost and fouling challenges, presenting it as a sustainable and efficient wastewater treatment method for the semiconductor industry. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 6080 KB  
Review
Current Status and Future Trends for Modification Technology of Flame Retardant Nylon 66
by Bingtao Feng, Senlong Yu, Hengxue Xiang, Lili Li and Meifang Zhu
Polymers 2025, 17(8), 1074; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17081074 - 16 Apr 2025
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2634
Abstract
Nylon 66 (PA66) has been widely used in automotive, electronics, textiles and other fields due to its excellent mechanical properties, chemical corrosion resistance and thermal stability. However, the fire hazard caused by its flammability severely limits its further application in high–end and high–risk [...] Read more.
Nylon 66 (PA66) has been widely used in automotive, electronics, textiles and other fields due to its excellent mechanical properties, chemical corrosion resistance and thermal stability. However, the fire hazard caused by its flammability severely limits its further application in high–end and high–risk fields. Therefore, improving the flame retardancy of PA66 to enhance its safety has become the focus of current research. This review aims to better understand the research status and development trends of flame retardant PA66. Firstly, the combustion process and flame retardant mechanism of PA66 were described. Secondly, the latest research progress of flame retardant PA66 was comprehensively reviewed, including blending, copolymerization and post–finishing flame retardant modification methods. Meanwhile, the research status of blending flame retardant PA66 was emphatically introduced, and the advantages and disadvantages of different additive flame retardants were analyzed. Finally, the future development direction of flame retardant PA66 is proposed, which provides an important reference for its follow-up study. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Manufacturing Processes)
Show Figures

Graphical abstract

30 pages, 1614 KB  
Review
Hydrogel-Based Systems as Smart Food Packaging: A Review
by Beata Niemczyk-Soczynska and Paweł Łukasz Sajkiewicz
Polymers 2025, 17(8), 1005; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17081005 - 8 Apr 2025
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4227
Abstract
In recent years, non-degradable petroleum-based polymer packaging has generated serious disposal, pollution, and ecological issues. The application of biodegradable food packaging for common purposes could overcome these problems. Bio-based hydrogel films are interesting materials as potential alternatives to non-biodegradable commercial food packaging due [...] Read more.
In recent years, non-degradable petroleum-based polymer packaging has generated serious disposal, pollution, and ecological issues. The application of biodegradable food packaging for common purposes could overcome these problems. Bio-based hydrogel films are interesting materials as potential alternatives to non-biodegradable commercial food packaging due to biodegradability, biocompatibility, ease of processability, low cost of production, and the absorption ability of food exudates. The rising need to provide additional functionality for food packaging has led scientists to design approaches extending the shelf life of food products by incorporating antimicrobial and antioxidant agents and sensing the accurate moment of food spoilage. In this review, we thoroughly discuss recent hydrogel-based film applications such as active, intelligent packaging, as well as a combination of these approaches. We highlight their potential as food packaging but also indicate the drawbacks, especially poor barrier and mechanical properties, that need to be improved in the future. We emphasize discussions on the mechanical properties of currently studied hydrogels and compare them with current commercial food packaging. Finally, the future directions of these types of approaches are described. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 5025 KB  
Article
Biodegradable Polymer Composites Based on Poly(butylene succinate) Copolyesters and Wood Flour
by Agnieszka Kozłowska, Krzysztof Gorący and Miroslawa El Fray
Polymers 2025, 17(7), 883; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17070883 - 26 Mar 2025
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1544
Abstract
This study investigates the biodegradation behavior of poly(butylene succinate) (PBS) copolyesters containing dilinoleic acid (DLA) co-monomeric units and wood flour (WF) as a filler. PBS-DLA is a segmented thermoplastic elastomer (TPE), where the soft amorphous phase is formed by DLA ester segments, while [...] Read more.
This study investigates the biodegradation behavior of poly(butylene succinate) (PBS) copolyesters containing dilinoleic acid (DLA) co-monomeric units and wood flour (WF) as a filler. PBS-DLA is a segmented thermoplastic elastomer (TPE), where the soft amorphous phase is formed by DLA ester segments, while the hard phase consists of crystallizable PBS domains. Wood–plastic composites (WPCs) were prepared with WF at weight fractions of 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% wt. and analyzed in terms of surface morphology, chemical structure, mechanical performance, and thermal stability before and after biodegradation in soil conditions. The results of microscopic analysis confirmed that the PBS-DLA copolymer and its composites undergo surface biodegradation as manifested by increased surface roughness and microcrack formation, particularly in composites with a higher WF content. ATR FT-IR spectroscopy indicated oxidation and hydrolysis, supporting the hypothesis of progressive surface erosion. Mechanical tests showed a decline in tensile strength and elongation at break, with the most pronounced changes in composites containing 20% WF. Thermal analysis (DSC, DMTA, and TGA) confirmed that the PBS-DLA copolymer retains its thermoplastic elastomeric behavior after a 3-month biodegradation experiment. The storage modulus (E′) remained stable, while only minor variations in melting and crystallization temperatures were observed. These findings reinforce the hypothesis of surface erosion rather than a bulk degradation mechanism. Given their biodegradability and retained thermoplastic behavior, WPC composites based on PBS-DLA copolyester could be promising for eco-friendly applications where controlled degradation is desirable, such as in packaging, agriculture, or biodegradable consumer goods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Biobased and Biodegradable Polymers)
Show Figures

Figure 1

46 pages, 7489 KB  
Review
Environmental Impact of Textile Materials: Challenges in Fiber–Dye Chemistry and Implication of Microbial Biodegradation
by Arvind Negi
Polymers 2025, 17(7), 871; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17070871 - 24 Mar 2025
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 7669
Abstract
Synthetic and natural fibers are widely used in the textile industry. Natural fibers include cellulose-based materials like cotton, and regenerated fibers like viscose as well as protein-based fibers such as silk and wool. Synthetic fibers, on the other hand, include PET and polyamides [...] Read more.
Synthetic and natural fibers are widely used in the textile industry. Natural fibers include cellulose-based materials like cotton, and regenerated fibers like viscose as well as protein-based fibers such as silk and wool. Synthetic fibers, on the other hand, include PET and polyamides (like nylon). Due to significant differences in their chemistry, distinct dyeing processes are required, each generating specific waste. For example, cellulose fibers exhibit chemical inertness toward dyes, necessitating chemical auxiliaries that contribute to wastewater contamination, whereas synthetic fibers are a major source of non-biodegradable microplastic emissions. Addressing the environmental impact of fiber processing requires a deep molecular-level understanding to enable informed decision-making. This manuscript emphasizes potential solutions, particularly through the biodegradation of textile materials and related chemical waste, aligning with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 6, which promotes clean water and sanitation. For instance, cost-effective methods using enzymes or microbes can aid in processing the fibers and their associated dyeing solutions while also addressing textile wastewater, which contains high concentrations of unreacted dyes, salts, and other highly water-soluble pollutants. This paper covers different aspects of fiber chemistry, dyeing, degradation mechanisms, and the chemical waste produced by the textile industry, while highlighting microbial-based strategies for waste mitigation. The integration of microbes not only offers a solution for managing large volumes of textile waste but also paves the way for sustainable technologies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reactive and Functional Biopolymers)
Show Figures

Figure 1

42 pages, 4134 KB  
Review
Solvent-Based Recycling as a Waste Management Strategy for Fibre-Reinforced Polymers: Current State of the Art
by Matthew J. Keith, Bushra Al-Duri, Tom O. McDonald and Gary A. Leeke
Polymers 2025, 17(7), 843; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17070843 - 21 Mar 2025
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3729
Abstract
The growing use of fibre-reinforced polymers (FRPs) is driving a demand for the development of sustainable end-of-life strategies. Solvolysis, a chemical recycling method using solvents to decompose the polymer matrix, has emerged as a promising approach for reclaiming both fibres and organic compounds [...] Read more.
The growing use of fibre-reinforced polymers (FRPs) is driving a demand for the development of sustainable end-of-life strategies. Solvolysis, a chemical recycling method using solvents to decompose the polymer matrix, has emerged as a promising approach for reclaiming both fibres and organic compounds from FRP waste. This work provides a comprehensive overview of solvolysis techniques by discussing the environmental benefits and economic opportunities of this technology, summarising the process conditions, and evaluating the characteristics of the recovered products. The economic viability of solvolysis lies in recovering high-value components; predominantly carbon fibres from CFRPs and organic products from GFRPs, which are suitable for reuse or as a feedstock for new composites. Solvolysis can operate under low temperature and pressure (LTP) or high temperature and pressure (HTP) conditions. The choice of solvent, catalyst, reaction time, and temperature is crucial to achieving high resin decomposition while preserving fibre properties. To achieve an economically viable and environmentally beneficial process, it will be essential to optimise these parameters. A key challenge is maintaining the strength and surface properties of the recovered fibres, as degradation in their performance can limit their suitability for high-performance applications. The implication of this is that, without careful consideration of the recycling process, FRPs cannot be fully circular. They will be continuously downgraded into low-value applications and ultimately incinerated or landfilled. This review further explores the diversity of organic products obtained, which can range from monomers to oligomers to complex mixtures. Efficient separation and upgrading techniques, such as distillation and liquid–liquid extraction, are essential to maximise the value of the recovered organics. These additional processing steps are likely to result in greater financial and resource costs within a commercial recycling system. This review concludes with a summary of commercial solvent-based recycling ventures and an outlook on future research directions, which includes the need to develop processes capable of recovering high-value, long carbon fibres. Successful development of such a process would represent a step-change in the value proposition of a carbon fibre recycling industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Polymer Fibers: Production and Applications)
Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 4497 KB  
Article
Experimental Investigation on the Application of Polymer Agents in Offshore Sandstone Reservoirs: Optimization Design for Enhanced Oil Recovery
by Yanyue Li, Changlong Liu, Yaqian Zhang, Baoqing Xue, Jinlong Lv, Chuanhui Miao, Yiqiang Li and Zheyu Liu
Polymers 2025, 17(5), 673; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17050673 - 2 Mar 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1162
Abstract
The conventional polymer gel has high initial viscosity and short gelation time, making it difficult to meet the requirements of deep profile control in offshore reservoirs with large well spacing and strong heterogeneity. This paper evaluates the performance and core plugging capacity of [...] Read more.
The conventional polymer gel has high initial viscosity and short gelation time, making it difficult to meet the requirements of deep profile control in offshore reservoirs with large well spacing and strong heterogeneity. This paper evaluates the performance and core plugging capacity of novel functional polymer gels and microspheres to determine the applicability of core permeability ranges. On the heterogeneous core designed based on the reservoir characteristics of Block B oilfield, optimization was conducted separately for the formulation, dosage, and slug combinations of the polymer gel/microsphere. Finally, oil displacement experiments using polymer and microsphere combinations were conducted on vertically and planar heterogeneous cores to simulate reservoir development effects. The experimental results show the novel functional polymer gel exhibits slow gelation with high gel strength, with viscosity rapidly increasing four days after aging, ultimately reaching a gel strength of 74,500 mPa·s. The novel functional polymer gel and polymer microsphere can effectively plug cores with permeabilities below 6000 mD and 2000 mD, respectively. For heterogeneous cores with an average permeability of 1000 mD, the optimal polymer microsphere has a concentration of 4000 mg/L and a slug size of 0.3 PV; for heterogeneous cores with an average permeability of 4000 mD, the optimal functional polymer gel has a concentration of 7500 mg/L and a slug size of 0.1 PV. In simulations of vertically and planarly heterogeneous reservoirs, the application of polymer agent increases the oil recovery factor by 53% and 38.7% compared to water flooding. This realizes the gradual and full utilization of layers with high, medium, and low permeability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Studies of Polymer Surfaces and Interfaces: 2nd Edition)
Show Figures

Figure 1

37 pages, 1657 KB  
Review
Regulatory Frameworks and State-of-the-Art Decontamination Technologies for Recycled Polystyrene for Food Contact Applications
by Javiera Sepúlveda-Carter, José L. Moreno de Castro, Laura Marín, Paula Baños, Marcos Sánchez Rodríguez and Marina P. Arrieta
Polymers 2025, 17(5), 658; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17050658 - 28 Feb 2025
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3798
Abstract
Recycling post-consumer plastics for food contact applications is crucial for the circular economy; however, it presents challenges due to potential contamination and regulatory requirements. This review outlines the current European and U.S. legislation governing recycled plastics in food contact materials (FCM). The European [...] Read more.
Recycling post-consumer plastics for food contact applications is crucial for the circular economy; however, it presents challenges due to potential contamination and regulatory requirements. This review outlines the current European and U.S. legislation governing recycled plastics in food contact materials (FCM). The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) mandates the evaluation and authorization of recycling processes. This includes examining input/output flows, prioritizing the use of previously authorized FCM, and assessing decontamination efficiency through material-specific challenge tests. Additionally, it evaluates new installations intended to apply approved decontamination technologies. In contrast, the voluntary submission to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) provides guidelines with general advice on methodologies and recommended parameters and challenge tests. Applications to the EFSA for non-PET materials, such as HDPE, PP, and PS, are reviewed, highlighting the challenges of each material. Recycled PS, with its lower diffusivity compared to polyolefins shows promise for food packaging, with potential as a next material approved for use in the European Union. Decontamination technologies for post-consumer PS are explored, including super-cleaning processes, solvent extraction, and industrial methods. The review emphasizes the need for multidisciplinary collaboration to address the uncertainties around potential contaminants and ensure the safety of recycled plastics for food contact applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycling of Plastic and Rubber Wastes, 2nd Edition)
Show Figures

Figure 1

94 pages, 13734 KB  
Review
Advancing Textile Waste Recycling: Challenges and Opportunities Across Polymer and Non-Polymer Fiber Types
by Mehrdad Seifali Abbas-Abadi, Brecht Tomme, Bahman Goshayeshi, Oleksii Mynko, Yihan Wang, Sangram Roy, Rohit Kumar, Bhargav Baruah, Karen De Clerck, Steven De Meester, Dagmar R. D’hooge and Kevin M. Van Geem
Polymers 2025, 17(5), 628; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17050628 - 26 Feb 2025
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 14493
Abstract
The growing environmental impact of textile waste, fueled by the rapid rise in global fiber production, underscores the urgent need for sustainable end-of-life solutions. This review explores cutting-edge pathways for textile waste management, spotlighting innovations that reduce reliance on incineration and landfilling while [...] Read more.
The growing environmental impact of textile waste, fueled by the rapid rise in global fiber production, underscores the urgent need for sustainable end-of-life solutions. This review explores cutting-edge pathways for textile waste management, spotlighting innovations that reduce reliance on incineration and landfilling while driving material circularity. It highlights advancements in collection, sorting, and pretreatment technologies, as well as both established and emerging recycling methods. Smart collection systems utilizing tags and sensors show great promise in streamlining logistics by automating pick-up routes and transactions. For sorting, automated technologies like near-infrared and hyperspectral imaging lead the way in accurate and scalable fiber separation. Automated disassembly techniques are effective at removing problematic elements, though other pretreatments, such as color and finish removal, still need to be customized for specific waste streams. Mechanical fiber recycling is ideal for textiles with strong mechanical properties but has limitations, particularly with blended fabrics, and cannot be repeated endlessly. Polymer recycling—through melting or dissolving waste polymers—produces higher-quality recycled materials but comes with high energy and solvent demands. Chemical recycling, especially solvolysis and pyrolysis, excels at breaking down synthetic polymers like polyester, with the potential to yield virgin-quality monomers. Meanwhile, biological methods, though still in their infancy, show promise for recycling natural fibers like cotton and wool. When other methods are not viable, gasification can be used to convert waste into synthesis gas. The review concludes that the future of sustainable textile recycling hinges on integrating automated sorting systems and advancing solvent-based and chemical recycling technologies. These innovations, supported by eco-design principles, progressive policies, and industry collaboration, are essential to building a resilient, circular textile economy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Circular and Green Sustainable Polymer Science)
Show Figures

Graphical abstract

31 pages, 11807 KB  
Article
Experimental and Theoretical Investigation into the Thermal Conductivity and Heating-Softening Bending of Glass-Fiber-Reinforced Polypropylene Rebars
by Mingxue Xu, Anni Wang and Xiaogang Liu
Polymers 2025, 17(5), 595; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17050595 - 24 Feb 2025
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1996
Abstract
Thermoplastic fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) reinforcement has a significant advantage over traditional thermosetting FRP reinforcements in that it can be bent on site by heating-softening processing. However, current experimental and theoretical research on the thermal conductivity and heating-softening processing characteristics of thermoplastic FRP reinforcements [...] Read more.
Thermoplastic fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) reinforcement has a significant advantage over traditional thermosetting FRP reinforcements in that it can be bent on site by heating-softening processing. However, current experimental and theoretical research on the thermal conductivity and heating-softening processing characteristics of thermoplastic FRP reinforcements is quite insufficient. Through heating-softening processing tests, numerical simulation, and theoretical calculation, this study investigated the heating-softening processing time of a thermoplastic glass-fiber-reinforced polypropylene (GFRPP) reinforcement. In the heat transfer process, thermal conductivity is typically treated as a constant. However, the experimental results indicated that the thermal conductivity/diffusivity coefficient of the GFRPP reinforcement was temperature-dependent. On this basis, an equivalent modified thermal diffusivity coefficient of glass fiber was proposed to account for the time-temperature-dependent heat conductivity of the GFRPP reinforcement, utilizing a series model. Utilizing the modified thermal diffusivity coefficient, the simulation model presented a heating-softening processing time that coincided well with the experimental results, with a mean ratio of 1.005 and a coefficient of variation of 0.033. Moreover, based on an equivalent homogeneous circular cross-section assumption of the GFRPP reinforcement, an analytical solution to the heat conduction equation was derived. Combining the experimental and simulation results, a semi-analytical and semi-empirical calculation model was also proposed for predicting the heating-softening processing time of a GFRPP reinforcement with a silicone tube cover. The model’s calculated results align with the simulation trends, with an average deviation of 1.0% and a coefficient of variation of 0.026, demonstrating strong potential for engineering applications. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 7097 KB  
Article
Numerical Prediction and Experimental Validation of Deposited Filaments in Direct Ink Writing: Deposition Status and Profile Dimension
by Yongqiang Tu, Haoran Zhang, Xue Shi, Jianyu Fan, Baohua Bao, Gang Lu, Fuwei Han, Hao Wu and Alaa Hassan
Polymers 2025, 17(5), 573; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17050573 - 21 Feb 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 893
Abstract
The deposition status and profile dimension of deposited filaments have an impact on the quality of the printed parts fabricated by direct ink writing (DIW). Previous works often failed to realize the full quantitative characterizations of the detailed influence of the process parameters [...] Read more.
The deposition status and profile dimension of deposited filaments have an impact on the quality of the printed parts fabricated by direct ink writing (DIW). Previous works often failed to realize the full quantitative characterizations of the detailed influence of the process parameters on the deposition status and profile dimension. Herein, we predict and analyze the deposition status and profile dimension by proposing an improved three-dimensional (3D) numerical model. The prediction accuracy of the proposed numerical model is verified through filament deposition experiments. The maximum relative errors of width and height between the experimental and simulation results of cross-sections are 10.13% and 7.37%, respectively. The effect of process parameters on the deposition status and profile dimension has been quantified. Critical process parameters are identified as the dimensionless nozzle velocity (V*) and the dimensionless height (H*). Three deposition statuses named over-deposition, pressed deposition and freeform deposition are characterized depending on the combination of V* and H*. The current work demonstrates an effective approach for the prediction of the deposition status and profile dimension of the deposited filaments along with the investigation of the effects of process parameters in DIW based on numerical simulations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Physics and Theory)
Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 3763 KB  
Article
Bio-Based and Solvent-Free Epoxy Vitrimers Based on Dynamic Imine Bonds with High Mechanical Performance
by Lei Chen, Na Ning, Gang Zhou, Yan Li, Shicheng Feng, Zhengyan Guo and Yi Wei
Polymers 2025, 17(5), 571; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17050571 - 21 Feb 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2856
Abstract
Conventional epoxy thermosets, with irreversible crosslinking networks, cannot be reprocessed and recycled. Furthermore, the utilization of petroleum-based materials accelerates the depletion of non-renewable resources. The introduction of dynamic covalent bonds and the use of bio-based materials for thermosets can effectively address the above [...] Read more.
Conventional epoxy thermosets, with irreversible crosslinking networks, cannot be reprocessed and recycled. Furthermore, the utilization of petroleum-based materials accelerates the depletion of non-renewable resources. The introduction of dynamic covalent bonds and the use of bio-based materials for thermosets can effectively address the above issues. Herein, a series of bio-based epoxy vitrimers with dynamic covalent imine bonds were synthesized via a simple solvent-free, one-pot method using vanillin-derived aldehyde monomers, 4,4-diaminodiphenylsulfone (DDS) and bisphenol F diglycidyl ether (BFDGE) as raw materials. The effect of crosslinking density, crosslinking structure and imine bond content on the resulting bio-based vitrimers was studied, demonstrating their excellent thermal properties, UV shielding and solvent resistance, as well as outstanding mechanical properties compared to those of the previously reported vitrimers. In particular, the cured neat resin of vitrimer had a maximum tensile strength of 109 MPa and Young’s modulus of 6257 MPa, which are higher than those of previously reported imine-based vitrimers. The dynamic imine bonds endow these vitrimers with good reprocessability upon heating (over 70% recovery) and degradation under acidic conditions, enabling recycling by physical routes and gentle degradation by chemical routes. This study demonstrates a simple and effective process to prepare high-performance bio-based and recycled epoxy thermosets. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 3225 KB  
Article
Tailoring Thermomechanical, Shape Memory and Self-Healing Properties of Furan-Based Polyketone via Diels-Alder Chemistry with Different Bismaleimide Crosslinkers
by Esteban Araya-Hermosilla, Marco Carlotti, Felipe Orozco, Guilherme Macedo R. Lima, Rodrigo Araya-Hermosilla, Daniela E. Ortega, Diego Cortés-Arriagada, Francesco Picchioni, Ranjita K. Bose, Virgilio Mattoli and Andrea Pucci
Polymers 2025, 17(5), 565; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17050565 - 20 Feb 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1777
Abstract
Furan/maleimide dynamic covalent chemistry has been extensively used to fabricate re-workable and self-healing thermosets. Understanding the relationship between crosslinker structure, network dynamics, and material final properties, however, remains a challenge. This study introduces self-healing and shape-memory thermosets derived from furan-functionalized polyketones (PKFU) crosslinked [...] Read more.
Furan/maleimide dynamic covalent chemistry has been extensively used to fabricate re-workable and self-healing thermosets. Understanding the relationship between crosslinker structure, network dynamics, and material final properties, however, remains a challenge. This study introduces self-healing and shape-memory thermosets derived from furan-functionalized polyketones (PKFU) crosslinked with aromatic bis-maleimides, i.e., 1,1′-(methylenedi-4,1-phenylene)bis-maleimide (BISM1) and bis(3-ethyl-5-methyl-4-maleimidophenyl)methane (BISM2), via a thermally reversible Diels-Alder reaction. Polyketones were chemically modified with furfurylamine through the Paal-Knorr reaction, achieving varying furan grafting ratios. The resulting networks, characterized by ATR-FTIR, 1H-NMR, gel permeation chromatography (GPC), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and rheology, demonstrated tunable thermomechanical properties. BISM2-based thermosets exhibited enhanced thermal stability and reversibility over a broad temperature range (20–120 °C), with a shape recovery ratio of up to 89% and complete self-healing at 120 °C within 5 min. These findings highlight the potential of polyketone-based thermosets for applications requiring adaptive thermomechanical properties, efficient self-repair, and sustainability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Chemistry)
Show Figures

Figure 1

Back to TopTop