Batteries

17 pages, 3881 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Influence of Lithium Plating on the Thermal Properties of Automotive High Energy Pouch Batteries

by Syed Muhammad Abbas, Gregor Gstrein, Andrey W. Golubkov, Oliver Korak, Simon Erker and Christian Ellersdorfer

Batteries 2025, 11(9), 338; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11090338 - 10 Sep 2025

Viewed by 1015

Abstract

In this study, the effect of lithium plating (LP) on the thermal properties of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) was investigated. A large-format pouch 64.6 Ah cell with a graphite-SiO_x/NMC chemistry was artificially aged (AA_LP) in the laboratory under specific conditions to induce [...] Read more.

In this study, the effect of lithium plating (LP) on the thermal properties of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) was investigated. A large-format pouch 64.6 Ah cell with a graphite-SiO_x/NMC chemistry was artificially aged (AA_LP) in the laboratory under specific conditions to induce LP on the anode. For thermal behavior analysis, temperature ramp experiments were conducted in a nitrogen-filled steel container on the cycled cell, as well as on fresh and real-life aged cells with the same specifications. Characteristic temperatures, such as first venting and safety critical temperatures, were monitored; additionally, the exhaust gas composition was analyzed using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and gas chromatography. It was revealed that the voltage decay of the cells started well before any safety-critical temperature, and the first venting of the AA_LP cell was significantly reduced to 112 °C in comparison to the fresh and real-life aged cells, in which it occurred at 130 °C and 134 °C, respectively. The earlier venting of the AA_LP cell was attributed to the reaction of the plated metallic lithium and the electrolyte. The safety-critical temperature rate (>10 °C/min) occurred at 160.9 °C for AA_LP and at around 159.1 °C for the fresh and real-life aged cells. The maximum temperatures reached were 616 °C, 553 °C, and 566 °C for the fresh, real-life aged, and AA_LP cells, respectively. No significant difference was observed in the exhaust gas after the thermal runaway for the tested cells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Feature Papers in Batteries)

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21 pages, 4773 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effect of Short-Chain Polymer Binders on the Mechanical and Electrochemical Performance of Silicon Anodes

by Fei Sun, L. Zurita-Garcia and Dean R. Wheeler

Batteries 2025, 11(9), 329; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11090329 - 1 Sep 2025

Viewed by 1888

Abstract

Polymer binders are crucial components in providing both mechanical support and chemical stability to the structure of porous Li-ion electrodes. Particularly in silicon anodes, the active material undergoes substantial volume expansion of up to 275%. Due to the mechanical constraint of the current [...] Read more.

Polymer binders are crucial components in providing both mechanical support and chemical stability to the structure of porous Li-ion electrodes. Particularly in silicon anodes, the active material undergoes substantial volume expansion of up to 275%. Due to the mechanical constraint of the current collector, these silicon materials tend to expand in the normal direction while exhibiting substantial particle rearrangement and plastic deformation. Conventional rigid binders such as polyacrylic acid (PAA) and polyimide (PI), while providing satisfactory initial capacity, do not eliminate diminished long-term performance. Our research attempts to develop binder formulations that can accommodate sufficient flexibility for the substantial volume changes of silicon particles. Specifically, we explore the use of short-chain polymer binders and a strategic blend of binders with different molecular weights. Experiments have demonstrated that cells combining both long- and short-chain PAA binders delivered an initial capacity of 2200 mAh/g at a 0.1C rate, compared to 1700 mAh/g for pristine PAA cells. Initial work indicated that shorter polymer chains might compromise the adhesion to the current collector, so we developed a multilayer anode (MLA) structure to mitigate this issue. Nevertheless, at this early stage of development, there was no observed increase in cycling performance for the MLA electrodes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Electrode Materials and Electrolytes for Next-Generation Rechargeable Batteries)

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16 pages, 3686 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Effects of Cell Chemistry, State of Charge, and Abuse Method on Gas Generation in Li-Ion Cell Failure

by Gemma E. Howard, Jonathan E. H. Buston, Jason Gill, Steven L. Goddard, Jack W. Mellor and Philip A. P. Reeve

Batteries 2025, 11(9), 320; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11090320 - 27 Aug 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2109

Abstract

We report on the effect state of charge (SoC), cell format, and chemistry have on the volume and composition (H₂, CO₂, CO, CH₄, C₂H₄, C₂H₆, C₃H₆ [...] Read more.

We report on the effect state of charge (SoC), cell format, and chemistry have on the volume and composition (H₂, CO₂, CO, CH₄, C₂H₄, C₂H₆, C₃H₆, and C₃H₈) of cell failure gas from Li-ion cells. Nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) 21700 cells with a 5 Ah capacity were externally heated to failure at a 5–100% SoC under an inert atmosphere. This showed that the volume of gas increased with cell SoC (1.8 L at 5% SoC vs. 8.3 L at 100% SoC). The effect of the cell chemistry format and abuse method was also investigated using 18650, pouch, and prismatic cells (2.3–50 Ah) with Ni-based or lithium cobalt oxide (LCO) cathodes or lithium titanium oxide (LTO) anodes. The results showed that at higher SoCs, larger quantities of gas were generated; however, there was no correlation between the cell SoC and the composition of gases produced. Tests on the other cells found that the Ni-based cell generated 1.29–1.89 L/Ah of gas. The main constituents of this were H₂, CO, and CO₂; however, all other hydrocarbons were identified in varying quantities. The LTO cells generated lower volumes of gas, 0.8 L/Ah compared to Ni-based cells, and the gas was found to contain lower H₂ concentrations but higher concentrations of CO₂. The LCO cell was found to generate a gas volume of 1.2 L/Ah. This forms the final of four papers which cover a total of 213 tests on 29 cell types with six different chemistries, all tested using a single robust testing method. Full article

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24 pages, 6368 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Electro-Thermal Modeling and Parameter Identification of an EV Battery Pack Using Drive Cycle Data

by Vinura Mannapperuma, Lalith Chandra Gaddala, Ruixin Zheng, Doohyun Kim, Youngki Kim, Ankith Ullal, Shengrong Zhu and Kyoung Pyo Ha

Batteries 2025, 11(9), 319; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11090319 - 27 Aug 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2980

Abstract

This paper presents a novel electro-thermal modeling approach for a lithium-ion battery pack in an electric vehicle (EV), along with parameter identification using controller area network (CAN) data collected from chassis dynamometer and real-world driving tests. The proposed electro-thermal model consists of a [...] Read more.

This paper presents a novel electro-thermal modeling approach for a lithium-ion battery pack in an electric vehicle (EV), along with parameter identification using controller area network (CAN) data collected from chassis dynamometer and real-world driving tests. The proposed electro-thermal model consists of a first-order equivalent circuit model (ECM) and a lumped-parameter thermal network in considering a simplified cooling circuit layout and temperature distributions across four distinct zones within the battery pack. This model captures the nonuniform heat transfer between the pack modules and the coolant, as well as variations in coolant temperature and flow rates. Model parameters are identified directly from vehicle-level test data without relying on laboratory-level measurements. Validation results demonstrate that the model can predict terminal voltage with an RMSE of less than 6 V (normalized root mean square error of less than 2%), and battery module surface temperatures with root mean square errors of less than 2 °C for over 90% of the test cases. The proposed approach provides a cost-effective and accurate solution for predicting electro-thermal behavior of EV battery systems, making it a valuable tool for battery design and management to optimize performance and ensure the safety of EVs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Battery Modeling: Models, Charging Strategies, Performance Estimations and Thermal Management)

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35 pages, 3497 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Recent Advances in Dendrite Suppression Strategies for Solid-State Lithium Batteries: From Interface Engineering to Material Innovations

by Abniel Machín, Francisco Díaz, María C. Cotto, José Ducongé and Francisco Márquez

Batteries 2025, 11(8), 304; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11080304 - 8 Aug 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 10378

Abstract

Solid-state lithium batteries (SSLBs) have emerged as a promising alternative to conventional lithium-ion systems due to their superior safety profile, higher energy density, and potential compatibility with lithium metal anodes. However, a major challenge hindering their widespread deployment is the formation and growth [...] Read more.

Solid-state lithium batteries (SSLBs) have emerged as a promising alternative to conventional lithium-ion systems due to their superior safety profile, higher energy density, and potential compatibility with lithium metal anodes. However, a major challenge hindering their widespread deployment is the formation and growth of lithium dendrites, which compromise both performance and safety. This review provides a comprehensive and structured overview of recent advances in dendrite suppression strategies, with special emphasis on the role played by the nature of the solid electrolyte. In particular, we examine suppression mechanisms and material innovations within the three main classes of solid electrolytes: sulfide-based, oxide-based, and polymer-based systems. Each electrolyte class presents distinct advantages and challenges in relation to dendrite behavior. Sulfide electrolytes, known for their high ionic conductivity and good interfacial wettability, suffer from poor mechanical strength and chemical instability. Oxide electrolytes exhibit excellent electrochemical stability and mechanical rigidity but often face high interfacial resistance. Polymer electrolytes, while mechanically flexible and easy to process, generally have lower ionic conductivity and limited thermal stability. This review discusses how these intrinsic properties influence dendrite nucleation and propagation, including the role of interfacial stress, grain boundaries, void formation, and electrochemical heterogeneity. To mitigate dendrite formation, we explore a variety of strategies including interfacial engineering (e.g., the use of artificial interlayers, surface coatings, and chemical additives), mechanical reinforcement (e.g., incorporation of nanostructured or gradient architectures, pressure modulation, and self-healing materials), and modifications of the solid electrolyte and electrode structure. Additionally, we highlight the critical role of advanced characterization techniques—such as in situ electron microscopy, synchrotron-based X-ray diffraction, vibrational spectroscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)—for elucidating dendrite formation mechanisms and evaluating the effectiveness of suppression strategies in real time. By integrating recent experimental and theoretical insights across multiple disciplines, this review identifies key limitations in current approaches and outlines emerging research directions. These include the design of multifunctional interphases, hybrid electrolytes, and real-time diagnostic tools aimed at enabling the development of reliable, scalable, and dendrite-free SSLBs suitable for practical applications in next-generation energy storage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Solid Electrolytes and Solid-State Batteries)

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18 pages, 5066 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Influence of Pulse Duration on Cutting-Edge Quality and Electrochemical Performance of Lithium Metal Anodes

by Lars O. Schmidt, Houssin Wehbe, Sven Hartwig and Maja W. Kandula

Batteries 2025, 11(8), 286; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11080286 - 26 Jul 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1232

Abstract

Lithium metal is a promising anode material for next-generation batteries due to its high specific capacity and low density. However, conventional mechanical processing methods are unsuitable due to lithium’s high reactivity and adhesion. Laser cutting offers a non-contact alternative, but photothermal effects can [...] Read more.

Lithium metal is a promising anode material for next-generation batteries due to its high specific capacity and low density. However, conventional mechanical processing methods are unsuitable due to lithium’s high reactivity and adhesion. Laser cutting offers a non-contact alternative, but photothermal effects can negatively impact the cutting quality and electrochemical performance. This study investigates the influence of pulse duration on the cutting-edge characteristics and electrochemical behavior of laser-cut 20 µm lithium metal on 10 µm copper foils using nanosecond and picosecond laser systems. It was demonstrated that shorter pulse durations significantly reduce the heat-affected zone (HAZ), resulting in improved cutting quality. Electrochemical tests in symmetric Li|Li cells revealed that laser-cut electrodes exhibit enhanced cycling stability compared with mechanically separated anodes, despite the presence of localized dead lithium “reservoirs”. While the overall pulse duration did not show a direct impact on ionic resistance, the characteristics of the cutting edge, particularly the extent of the HAZ, were found to influence the electrochemical performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Processing, Manufacturing and Recycling)

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28 pages, 47946 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Artificial Neural Networks for Residual Capacity Estimation of Cycle-Aged Cylindric LFP Batteries

by Pasquale Franzese, Diego Iannuzzi, Roberta Merolla, Mattia Ribera and Ivan Spina

Batteries 2025, 11(7), 260; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11070260 - 10 Jul 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1349

Abstract

This paper introduces a data-driven methodology for accurately estimating the residual capacity (RC) of lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries through a tailored artificial neural network (ANN) architecture. The proposed model integrates a long short-term memory (LSTM) layer with a fully connected layer, leveraging [...] Read more.

This paper introduces a data-driven methodology for accurately estimating the residual capacity (RC) of lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries through a tailored artificial neural network (ANN) architecture. The proposed model integrates a long short-term memory (LSTM) layer with a fully connected layer, leveraging their combined strengths to achieve precise RC predictions. A distinguishing feature of this study is its ability to deliver highly accurate estimates using a limited dataset that was derived from a single cylindrical LFP battery with a 40 Ah capacity and collected during a controlled experimental campaign. Despite the constraints imposed by the dataset size, the ANN demonstrates remarkable performance, underscoring the model’s capability to operate effectively with minimal data. The dataset is partitioned into the training and testing subsets to ensure a rigorous evaluation. Additionally, the robustness of the approach is validated by testing the trained ANN on data from a second battery cell subjected to a distinct aging process, which was entirely unseen during training. This critical aspect underscores the method’s applicability in estimating RC for batteries with varying aging profiles, a key requirement for real-world deployment. The proposed LSTM-based architecture was also benchmarked against a GRU-based model, yielding significantly lower prediction errors. Furthermore, beyond LFP chemistry, the method was tested on a broader NMC dataset comprising seven cells aged under different C-rates and temperatures, where it maintained high accuracy, confirming its scalability and robustness across chemistries and usage conditions. These results advance battery management systems by offering a robust, efficient modeling framework that optimizes battery utilization across diverse applications, even under data-constrained conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence and Batteries: AI-Powered Innovations in Battery Technology)

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117 pages, 10736 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Design Principles and Engineering Strategies for Stabilizing Ni-Rich Layered Oxides in Lithium-Ion Batteries

by Alain Mauger and Christian M. Julien

Batteries 2025, 11(7), 254; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11070254 - 4 Jul 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 9388

Abstract

Nickel-rich layered oxides such as LiNi_xMn_yCo_zO₂ (NMC), LiNi_xCo_yAl_zO₂ (NCA), and LiNi_xMn_yCo_zAl_{(1–x–y–z)}O₂ (NMCA), where x [...] Read more.

Nickel-rich layered oxides such as LiNi_xMn_yCo_zO₂ (NMC), LiNi_xCo_yAl_zO₂ (NCA), and LiNi_xMn_yCo_zAl_{(1–x–y–z)}O₂ (NMCA), where x ≥ 0.6, have emerged as key cathode materials in lithium-ion batteries due to their high operating voltage and superior energy density. These materials, characterized by low cobalt content, offer a promising path toward sustainable and cost-effective energy storage solutions. However, their electrochemical performance remains below theoretical expectations, primarily due to challenges related to structural instability, limited thermal safety, and suboptimal cycle life. Intensive research efforts have been devoted to addressing these issues, resulting in substantial performance improvements and enabling the development of next-generation lithium-ion batteries with higher nickel content and reduced cobalt dependency. In this review, we present recent advances in material design and engineering strategies to overcome the problems limiting their electrochemical performance (cation mixing, phase stability, oxygen release, microcracks during cycling). These strategies include synthesis methods to optimize the morphology (size of the particles, core–shell and gradient structures), surface modifications of the Ni-rich particles, and doping. A detailed comparison between these strategies and the synergetic effects of their combination is presented. We also highlight the synergistic role of compatible lithium salts and electrolytes in achieving state-of-the-art nickel-rich lithium-ion batteries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Batteries: 10th Anniversary)

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18 pages, 1972 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Lithium Growth on Alloying Substrates and Effect on Volumetric Expansion

by Laura C. Merrill, Robert L. Craig, Damion P. Cummings and Julia I. Deitz

Batteries 2025, 11(7), 249; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11070249 - 29 Jun 2025

Viewed by 1284

Abstract

The widespread implementation of next-generation Li metal anodes is limited, in part, due to the formation of dendritic and/or mossy electrodeposits during cycling. These morphologies can lead to battery failure due to the formation of short circuits and significant volumetric expansion at the [...] Read more.

The widespread implementation of next-generation Li metal anodes is limited, in part, due to the formation of dendritic and/or mossy electrodeposits during cycling. These morphologies can lead to battery failure due to the formation of short circuits and significant volumetric expansion at the anode. One strategy to control the electrodeposition of Li metal is to use lithiophilic materials at the anode. Here, we evaluate the impact of Ag and Au on the early stages of Li metal electrodeposition and cycling. The alloying substrates decrease the voltage for Li reduction and improve Li wetting/adhesion. We probe volumetric expansion directly through dilatometry measurements and find that the degree of volumetric expansion is less when lithium is cycled on an alloying substrate compared to a non-alloying substrate (Cu). Dilatometry experiments reveal that Au has the least amount of volumetric expansion and coin cell cycling experiments indicate that Ag yields more stable cycling compared to Au or Cu. The evaluation of in situ cross-sectional images of cycled coin cells shows that Ag has the lowest volumetric expansion in a coin cell format. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Batteries: 10th Anniversary)

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59 pages, 11235 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Review of EV Adoption, Charging Standards, and Charging Infrastructure Growth in Europe and Italy

by Mahwish Memon and Claudio Rossi

Batteries 2025, 11(6), 229; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11060229 - 12 Jun 2025

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 11197

Abstract

This work analyzes the electric vehicle (EV) sales trends of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and trends in the growth of Alternating Current (AC) and Direct Current (DC) charging infrastructure station scenarios in Europe and Italy. It offers [...] Read more.

This work analyzes the electric vehicle (EV) sales trends of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and trends in the growth of Alternating Current (AC) and Direct Current (DC) charging infrastructure station scenarios in Europe and Italy. It offers a comprehensive view of market trends, technical developments, infrastructure development, and worldwide standardization initiatives for policymakers, researchers, and industry. A detailed classification of the charging technologies of EVs, i.e., conductive, wireless power transfer (WPT), battery swapping (BS), and different EV types, is presented. Finally, this work provides a comparative overview of charging standards and protocols, including the ones established by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), and Standardization Administration of China (SAC), emphasizing interoperability and cross-border integration to accelerate the transition to clean transportation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Electric Vehicles Smart Charging: Strategies, Technologies, and Challenges)

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28 pages, 5473 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Advances in the Battery Thermal Management Systems of Electric Vehicles for Thermal Runaway Prevention and Suppression

by Le Duc Tai and Moo-Yeon Lee

Batteries 2025, 11(6), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11060216 - 1 Jun 2025

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 11325

Abstract

In response to the global imperative to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and fossil fuel dependency, electric vehicles (EVs) have emerged as a sustainable transportation alternative, primarily utilizing lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) due to their high energy density and efficiency. However, LIBs are highly sensitive [...] Read more.

In response to the global imperative to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and fossil fuel dependency, electric vehicles (EVs) have emerged as a sustainable transportation alternative, primarily utilizing lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) due to their high energy density and efficiency. However, LIBs are highly sensitive to temperature fluctuations, significantly affecting their performance, lifespan, and safety. One of the most critical threats to the safe operation of LIBs is thermal runaway (TR), an uncontrollable exothermic process that can lead to catastrophic failure under abusive conditions. Moreover, thermal runaway propagation (TRP) can rapidly spread failures across battery cells, intensifying safety threats. To address these challenges, developing advanced battery thermal management systems (BTMS) is essential to ensure optimal temperature control and suppress TR and TRP within LIB modules. This review systematically evaluates advanced cooling strategies, including indirect liquid cooling, water mist cooling, immersion cooling, phase change material (PCM) cooling, and hybrid cooling based on the latest studies published between 2020 and 2025. The review highlights their mechanisms, effectiveness, and practical considerations for preventing TR initiation and suppressing TRP in battery modules. Finally, key findings and future directions for designing next-generation BTMS are proposed, contributing valuable insights for enhancing the safety and reliability of LIB applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management in Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects)

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12 pages, 2446 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Characterization of Industrial Black Mass from End-of-Life LiFePO₄-Graphite Batteries

by Nanna Bjerre-Christensen, Caroline Birksø Eriksen, Kristian Oluf Sylvester-Hvid and Dorthe Bomholdt Ravnsbæk

Batteries 2025, 11(6), 210; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11060210 - 26 May 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3718

Abstract

The use of Li-ion batteries is drastically increasing, especially due to the growing sales of electric vehicles. Simultaneously, there is a shift towards exchanging the traditional Co- and Ni-rich electrode materials with more sustainable alternatives such as LiFePO₄. This transition challenges [...] Read more.

The use of Li-ion batteries is drastically increasing, especially due to the growing sales of electric vehicles. Simultaneously, there is a shift towards exchanging the traditional Co- and Ni-rich electrode materials with more sustainable alternatives such as LiFePO₄. This transition challenges conventional recycling practices, which typically rely on shredding batteries into a substance known as black mass, which is subsequently processed via hydrometallurgical or pyrometallurgical methods to extract valuable elements. These routes may not be economically viable for future sustainable chemistries with lower contents of high-value metal. Hence, new methods for processing the black mass, allowing, e.g., for physical separation and direct recycling, are direly needed. Such developments require that the black mass is thoroughly understood. In this study, we thoroughly characterize a commercially produced Graphite/LFP black mass sample from real battery waste using a suite of analytical techniques. Our findings reveal detailed chemical, morphological, and structural insights and show that the components in the black mass have different micro-size profiles, which may enable simple size separation. Unfortunately, our analysis also reveals that the employed processing of battery waste into black mass leads to the formation of an unknown Fe-containing compound, which may hamper direct recycling routes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Batteries: Second-Life Applications and Recycling of Li-Ion Batteries)

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19 pages, 1500 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Comprehensive Study of the Gas Volume and Composition Generated by 5 Ah Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC) Li-Ion Pouch Cells Through Different Failure Mechanisms at Varying States of Charge

by Gemma E. Howard, Katie C. Abbott, Jonathan E. H. Buston, Jason Gill, Steven L. Goddard and Daniel Howard

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 197; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050197 - 17 May 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2347

Abstract

Lithium-ion batteries risk failing when subjected to different abuse tests, resulting in gas and flames. In this study, 5 Ah nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) pouch cells were subjected to external heating; overcharge at rates of 2.5, 5 and 10 A; and nail [...] Read more.

Lithium-ion batteries risk failing when subjected to different abuse tests, resulting in gas and flames. In this study, 5 Ah nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) pouch cells were subjected to external heating; overcharge at rates of 2.5, 5 and 10 A; and nail penetration. Tests were conducted in air and N₂ atmospheres. Additional external heat tests were performed on cells at 5, 25, 50, and 75% SoC and on two, three, and four cell blocks. Gas volumes were calculated, and the gas composition was given for H₂, CO, CO₂, C₂H₄, C₂H₆, CH₄, C₃H₆, and C₃H₈. For tests under an air atmosphere at 100% SoC, the volume of gas varied between abuse methods: 3.9 L (external heat), 6.4 L (overcharge), and 8.9 L (nail penetration). The gas composition was found to predominantly contain H₂, CO₂, and CO for all abuse methods; however, higher concentrations of H₂ and CO were present in tests performed under N₂. External heat tests at different SoCs showed that the gas volume decreased with SoC. Overall, the type of abuse method can have a large effect on the gas volume and composition produced by cell failure. Full article

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18 pages, 1112 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Domain Generalization Using Maximum Mean Discrepancy Loss for Remaining Useful Life Prediction of Lithium-Ion Batteries

by Wenbin Li, Yue Yang and Stefan Pischinger

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 194; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050194 - 14 May 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2028

Abstract

The capacity of Lithium-ion batteries degrades over the time, making accurate prediction of their Remaining Useful Life (RUL) crucial for maintenance and product lifespan design. However, diverse aging mechanisms, changing working conditions and cell-to-cell variation lead to the inhomogeneous cell lifespan and complicated [...] Read more.

The capacity of Lithium-ion batteries degrades over the time, making accurate prediction of their Remaining Useful Life (RUL) crucial for maintenance and product lifespan design. However, diverse aging mechanisms, changing working conditions and cell-to-cell variation lead to the inhomogeneous cell lifespan and complicated life prediction. In this work, a data-driven algorithm based on stacked Long Short Term Memory (LSTM) encoder–decoders is proposed for RUL prediction. The encoder and upstream decoder form an autoencoder framework for feature extraction. The encoder and the downstream decoder form the encoder–decoder framework for RUL prediction. To enhance generalization during training, the Maximum Mean Discrepancy (MMD) loss is included in the autoencoder framework. The similarity of aging patterns is analyzed during splitting source and target datasets through k-means and Density-Based Spatial Clustering of Applications with Noise (DBSCAN). The Euclidean metric with accumulated Equivalent Cycle Number (ECN) sequence during aging shows better performance for similarity-based data splitting than the Dynamic Time Wrapping (DTW) distance metric based on capacity fading trajectory. The experimental results indicate that the proposed algorithm can provide accurate RUL prediction using 5% fading data and shows good generalization with Coefficient of Determination (R²) score of 0.98. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Data-Driven Modeling, Degradation, Control, and Advanced Management Systems for Batteries)

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52 pages, 1276 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Review of Battery Energy Storage Optimization in the Built Environment

by Simone Coccato, Khadija Barhmi, Ioannis Lampropoulos, Sara Golroodbari and Wilfried van Sark

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 179; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050179 - 2 May 2025

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 12726

Abstract

The increasing adoption of renewable energy sources necessitates efficient energy storage solutions, with buildings emerging as critical nodes in residential energy systems. This review synthesizes state-of-the-art research on the role of batteries in residential settings, emphasizing their diverse applications, such as energy storage [...] Read more.

The increasing adoption of renewable energy sources necessitates efficient energy storage solutions, with buildings emerging as critical nodes in residential energy systems. This review synthesizes state-of-the-art research on the role of batteries in residential settings, emphasizing their diverse applications, such as energy storage for photovoltaic systems, peak shaving, load shifting, demand response, and backup power. Distinct from prior review studies, our work provides a structured framework categorizing battery applications, spanning individual use, shared systems, and energy communities, and examines modeling techniques like State of Charge estimation and degradation analysis. Highlighting the integration of batteries with renewable infrastructures, we explore multi-objective optimization strategies and hierarchical decomposition methods for effective battery utilization. The findings underscore that advanced battery management systems and technological innovations are aimed at extending battery life and enhancing efficiency. Finally, we identify critical knowledge gaps and propose directions for future research, with a focus on scaling battery applications to meet operational, economic, and environmental objectives. By bridging theoretical insights with practical applications, this review contributes to advancing the understanding and optimization of residential energy storage systems within the energy transition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)

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25 pages, 3739 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Electrochemical–Thermal Modeling of Lithium-Ion Batteries: An Analysis of Thermal Runaway with Observation on Aging Effects

by Milad Tulabi and Roberto Bubbico

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 178; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050178 - 2 May 2025

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6834

Abstract

The increasing demand for energy storage solutions, particularly in electric vehicles and renewable energy systems, has intensified research on lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery safety and performance. A critical challenge is thermal runaway (TR), a highly exothermic sequence of reactions triggered by mechanical, electrical, or [...] Read more.

The increasing demand for energy storage solutions, particularly in electric vehicles and renewable energy systems, has intensified research on lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery safety and performance. A critical challenge is thermal runaway (TR), a highly exothermic sequence of reactions triggered by mechanical, electrical, or thermal abuse, which can lead to catastrophic failures. While most TR models focus on fresh cells, aging significantly impacts battery behavior and safety. This study develops an electrochemical–thermal coupled model that incorporates aging effects to better predict thermal behavior and TR initiation in cylindrical Li-ion batteries. The model is validated against experimental data for fresh NMC and aged NCA cells, and statistical analysis is conducted to identify key factors influencing TR (p < 0.05). A full factorial design evaluates the effects of internal resistance (10, 20, 30, and 40 mΩ), capacity (1, 2, 3, and 5 Ah), and current rate (1C, 3C, 6C, and 8C) on temperature evolution. Additionally, a machine learning algorithm (logistic regression) is employed to identify an internal resistance threshold, beyond which thermal runaway (TR) becomes highly probable, and to predict TR probability based on key battery parameters. The model achieved a high prediction accuracy of 95% on the test dataset. Results indicate that aging affects thermal stability in complex ways. The increased internal resistance exacerbates heating rates, while capacity fade reduces stored energy, mitigating TR risk. These findings provide a validated framework for enhancing battery thermal management and predictive safety mechanisms, which contributed to the development of safer, more reliable Li-ion energy storage systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Breakthrough of Traditional Electrochemical Energy Storage Systems)

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19 pages, 257 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Advances in Standardised Battery Testing for Enhanced Safety and Innovation in Electric Vehicles: A Comprehensive Review

by Márton Pepó, Soma Fullér, Tibor Cseke and Zoltán Weltsch

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 157; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040157 - 16 Apr 2025

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6057

Abstract

Standardised battery tests are essential for evaluating the safety, reliability, and performance of modern battery technologies, especially with the rapid emergence of innovations such as solid-state and lithium–sulphur batteries. This review reveals critical shortcomings in current international standards (e.g., IEC, IEEE, SAE), which [...] Read more.

Standardised battery tests are essential for evaluating the safety, reliability, and performance of modern battery technologies, especially with the rapid emergence of innovations such as solid-state and lithium–sulphur batteries. This review reveals critical shortcomings in current international standards (e.g., IEC, IEEE, SAE), which often do not keep pace with technological developments and are not harmonised across regions, limiting their effectiveness in real-world applications. The paper stresses the need for the continuous review of test protocols through collaboration between researchers, manufacturers, and regulators. A detailed case study of the BYD Dolphin battery demonstrates the practical importance of comprehensive testing in real-world conditions, spanning electrical, thermal, and mechanical ranges. The review concludes that up-to-date, harmonised, and scenario-specific test methods are needed to ensure accurate battery assessment, support global comparability, and enable the safe introduction of next-generation batteries for electric mobility and energy storage. Future work should prioritise operational monitoring, open access data sharing, and the development of sustainability-focused practices such as recycling and reclamation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Performance, Ageing, Reliability and Safety)

32 pages, 1077 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Optimizing Multi-Microgrid Operations with Battery Energy Storage and Electric Vehicle Integration: A Comparative Analysis of Strategies

by Syed Muhammad Ahsan and Petr Musilek

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040129 - 27 Mar 2025

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3552

Abstract

This study presents a comprehensive comparative analysis of the operational strategies for multi-microgrid systems that integrate battery energy storage systems and electric vehicles. The analyzed strategies include individual operation, community-based operation, a cooperative game-theoretic method, and the alternating direction method of multipliers for [...] Read more.

This study presents a comprehensive comparative analysis of the operational strategies for multi-microgrid systems that integrate battery energy storage systems and electric vehicles. The analyzed strategies include individual operation, community-based operation, a cooperative game-theoretic method, and the alternating direction method of multipliers for multi-microgrid systems. The operation of multi-microgrid systems that incorporate electric vehicles presents challenges related to coordination, privacy, and fairness. Mathematical models for each strategy are developed and evaluated using annual simulations with real-world data. Individual operation offers simplicity but incurs higher costs due to the absence of power sharing among microgrids and limited optimization of battery usage. However, individual optimization reduces the multi-microgrid system cost by 47.5% when compared to the base case with no solar PV or BESS and without optimization. Community-based operation enables power sharing, reducing the net cost of the multi-microgrid system by approximately 7%, as compared to individual operation, but requires full data transparency, raising privacy concerns. Game theory ensures fair benefit allocation, allowing some microgrids to achieve cost reductions of up to 13% through enhanced cooperation and shared use of energy storage assets. The alternating direction method of multipliers achieves a reduction in the electricity costs of each microgrid by 6–7%. It balances privacy and performance without extensive data sharing while effectively utilizing energy storage. The findings highlight the trade-offs between cost efficiency, fairness, privacy, and computational efficiency, offering insights into optimizing multi-microgrid operations that incorporate advanced energy storage solutions. Full article

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41 pages, 7831 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Carbonaceous Materials as Anodes for Lithium-Ion and Sodium-Ion Batteries

by Koorosh Nikgoftar, Anil Kumar Madikere Raghunatha Reddy, Mogalahalli Venkatashamy Reddy and Karim Zaghib

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040123 - 25 Mar 2025

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 10310

Abstract

The increasing global population and, thus, energy demand have made research into renewable energy sources more critical. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) have been recognized as the most promising technologies for storing energy and effectively addressing this demand. Carbonaceous materials are [...] Read more.

The increasing global population and, thus, energy demand have made research into renewable energy sources more critical. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) have been recognized as the most promising technologies for storing energy and effectively addressing this demand. Carbonaceous materials are the most widespread anode material due to their fascinating features, such as high theoretical capacity, high electrical conductivity, and excellent structural stability. Additionally, these materials’ abundance, cost-effectiveness, and environmental friendliness have emphasized the need for further investigation and development. Among these carbon-based materials, graphite (both artificial and natural) stands out as the most ubiquitous anode material due to its layered crystal structure, high mechanical strength, long cycle life, and excellent safety profile, making it ideal for intercalation with lithium and sodium. In recent years, extensive research has been conducted to enhance the efficiency of anodes and, ultimately, the overall performance of batteries. In this review, the role of carbonaceous materials in anodes for lithium-ion and sodium-ion batteries was comprehensively investigated, focusing on advancements in synthesizing and optimizing artificial graphite. Furthermore, the intercalation mechanism and the factors influencing the electrochemical properties of both LIBs and SIBs were extensively discussed. This work also provides a holistic perspective on the differences between these two types of batteries, highlighting their cost, safety applications, and future potential advancement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Materials and Interfaces: Anode, Cathode, Separators and Electrolytes or Others)

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15 pages, 1678 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Assessment of Laser-Ablated Silicon Wafers as Lithium-Ion Battery Anodes

by Byeongcheol Min, Anustup Chakraborty, Chen Cai, Mool C. Gupta and Gary M. Koenig, Jr.

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040121 - 23 Mar 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1847

Abstract

Silicon materials have been widely investigated as anode materials for lithium-ion batteries. However, they are typically processed as fine powders into composite electrodes. Towards potentially repurposing silicon wafers as battery anodes, in this work, the impacts of the laser ablation of silicon wafers [...] Read more.

Silicon materials have been widely investigated as anode materials for lithium-ion batteries. However, they are typically processed as fine powders into composite electrodes. Towards potentially repurposing silicon wafers as battery anodes, in this work, the impacts of the laser ablation of silicon wafers on electrochemical cycling outcomes were investigated. Both pristine wafers and laser-ablated wafers were assessed, where the silicon anodes were paired with all-active material LiCoO₂ cathodes to assess the system as lithium-ion full cells. The laser ablation process modified the surface morphology of the silicon wafers, creating a polycrystalline silicon layer with increased surface area. Electrochemical cycling revealed that the laser-treated wafers demonstrated higher capacity retention and improved rate capability compared to untreated wafers, especially when discharged at the highest current density of 7 mA cm⁻². This work demonstrated the improvements in electrochemical outcomes with the direct use of silicon wafers as lithium-ion anodes when laser ablation surface treatment is applied. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Materials and Interfaces: Anode, Cathode, Separators and Electrolytes or Others)

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35 pages, 4055 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Water-in-Salt Electrolytes: Advances and Chemistry for Sustainable Aqueous Monovalent-Metal-Ion Batteries

by Rashmi Nidhi Mishra, Anil Kumar Madikere Raghunatha Reddy, Marc-Antoni Goulet and Karim Zaghib

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040120 - 22 Mar 2025

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 9370

Abstract

Electrolytes play a vital role in the performance and safety of electrochemical energy storage devices, such as lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). While traditional LIBs rely on organic electrolytes, these flammable solutions pose safety risks and require expensive, moisture-sensitive manufacturing processes. Aqueous electrolytes offer a [...] Read more.

Electrolytes play a vital role in the performance and safety of electrochemical energy storage devices, such as lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). While traditional LIBs rely on organic electrolytes, these flammable solutions pose safety risks and require expensive, moisture-sensitive manufacturing processes. Aqueous electrolytes offer a safer, more cost-effective alternative, but their narrow electrochemical window, corrosivity to electrodes, and enabling of dendritic growth on metal anodes limit their practical applications. Water-in-salt electrolytes (WiSEs) have emerged as a promising solution to these challenges. By significantly reducing water activity and forming a stable solid–electrolyte interphase (SEI), WiSEs can expand the electrochemical stability window, inhibit material dissolution, and suppress dendritic growth. This unique SEI formation mechanism, which is similar to that observed in organic electrolytes, contributes to the improved performance and stability of WiSE-based batteries. Additionally, the altered solvation structure of WiSEs minimizes the presence of free water molecules, further stabilizing the SEI and reducing water activity. This review comprehensively examines the composition, mechanisms, and characterization of WiSEs and their application in monovalent-metal-ion batteries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aqueous Batteries)

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15 pages, 2917 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Plasticized Ionic Liquid Crystal Elastomer Emulsion-Based Polymer Electrolyte for Lithium-Ion Batteries

by Zakaria Siddiquee, Hyunsang Lee, Weinan Xu, Thein Kyu and Antal Jákli

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030106 - 12 Mar 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2465

Abstract

The development and electrochemical characteristics of ionic liquid crystal elastomers (iLCEs) are described for use as electrolyte components in lithium-ion batteries. The unique combination of elastic and liquid crystal properties in iLCEs grants them robust mechanical attributes and structural ordering. Specifically, the macroscopic [...] Read more.

The development and electrochemical characteristics of ionic liquid crystal elastomers (iLCEs) are described for use as electrolyte components in lithium-ion batteries. The unique combination of elastic and liquid crystal properties in iLCEs grants them robust mechanical attributes and structural ordering. Specifically, the macroscopic alignment of phase-segregated, ordered nanostructures in iLCEs serves as an ion pathway, which can be solidified through photopolymerization to create ion-conductive solid-state polymer lithium batteries (SSPLBs) with high ionic conductivity (1.76 × 10⁻³ S cm⁻¹ at 30 °C), and a high (0.61) transference number. Additionally, the rubbery state ensures good interfacial contact with electrodes that inhibits lithium dendrite formation. Furthermore, in contrast to liquid electrolytes, the iLCE shrinks upon heating, thus preventing any overheating-related explosions. The Li/LiFePO₄ (LFP) cells fabricated using iLCE-based solid electrolytes show excellent cycling stability with a discharge capacity of ~124 mAh g⁻¹ and a coulombic efficiency close to 100%. These results are promising for the practical application of iLCE-based SSPLBs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances of All-Solid-State Battery)

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14 pages, 2120 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Design and Validation of Anode-Free Sodium-Ion Pouch Cells Employing Prussian White Cathodes

by Ashley Willow, Marcin Orzech, Sajad Kiani, Nathan Reynolds, Matthew Houchell, Olutimilehin Omisore, Zari Tehrani and Serena Margadonna

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030097 - 4 Mar 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4197

Abstract

This study investigated the impact of pouch cell design on energy density, both volumetric and gravimetric, through the development of accurate 3D models of small-format (<5 Ah) pouch cells. Various configurations were analysed, considering material properties and extrapolating expected electrochemical performance from studies [...] Read more.

This study investigated the impact of pouch cell design on energy density, both volumetric and gravimetric, through the development of accurate 3D models of small-format (<5 Ah) pouch cells. Various configurations were analysed, considering material properties and extrapolating expected electrochemical performance from studies on Prussian white cathodes in coin and pouch cells. This approach allowed for a rapid assessment of several performance-influencing factors, including the number of layers in the pouch cell, cathode thickness, active material percentage, and electrolyte volume. The highest calculated energy density of small-format pouch cells was shown to be 282 Wh kg⁻¹ and 454 Wh L⁻¹, achieved in a 3 Ah, 20-layer pouch cell. The calculations were validated using sodium-ion anode-free pouch cells utilising a Prussian white cathode in single- and few-layer format pouch cells (<0.1 Ah) cycled under a low external pressure (~200 kPa). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials Development and Optimization for Sodium/Potassium-Ion Batteries)

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13 pages, 6626 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Exploring the Solubility of Ethylene Carbonate in Supercritical Carbon Dioxide: A Pathway for Sustainable Electrolyte Recycling from Li-Ion Batteries

by Nils Zachmann, Claude Cicconardi and Burçak Ebin

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030098 - 4 Mar 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3269

Abstract

Ethylene carbonate is, among other applications, used in Li-ion batteries as an electrolyte solvent to dissociate Li-salt. Supercritical CO₂ extraction is a promising method for the recycling of electrolyte solvents from spent batteries. To design an extraction process, knowledge of the solute [...] Read more.

Ethylene carbonate is, among other applications, used in Li-ion batteries as an electrolyte solvent to dissociate Li-salt. Supercritical CO₂ extraction is a promising method for the recycling of electrolyte solvents from spent batteries. To design an extraction process, knowledge of the solute solubility is essential. In this work, the solubility of ethylene carbonate at different pressure (80–160 bar) and temperature (40 °C, and 60 °C) conditions is studied. It is shown that the solubility of ethylene carbonate increased with pressure at both temperatures, ranging from 0.24 to 8.35 g/kg CO₂. The retrieved solubility data were fitted using the Chrastil model, and the average equilibrium association number was determined to be 4.46 and 4.02 at 40 °C and 60 °C, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction analysis of the collected ethylene carbonate indicated that the crystal morphology and structure remained unchanged. A proof-of-principle experiment showed that EC can be successfully extracted from Li-ion battery waste at 140 bar and 40 °C. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycling and Reuse of End-of-Life Lithium-Ion Batteries: Challenges and Strategies—2nd Edition)

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41 pages, 10418 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Advancements in Vibration Testing: Effects on Thermal Performance and Degradation of Modern Batteries

by Khursheed Sabeel, Maher Al-Greer and Imran Bashir

Batteries 2025, 11(2), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020082 - 19 Feb 2025

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6933

Abstract

Lithium-ion cells are increasingly being used as central power storage systems for modern applications, i.e., e-bikes, electric vehicles (EVs), satellites, and spacecraft, and they face significant and constant vibrations. This review examines how these vibrations affect the batteries’ mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties. [...] Read more.

Lithium-ion cells are increasingly being used as central power storage systems for modern applications, i.e., e-bikes, electric vehicles (EVs), satellites, and spacecraft, and they face significant and constant vibrations. This review examines how these vibrations affect the batteries’ mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties. Vibrations can cause structural issues, such as the separation of electrodes and the deformation of separators. These problems raise internal resistance and lead to localized heat generation. As a result, thermal management becomes more complicated, battery aging accelerates, and safety risks arise, including short circuits and thermal runaways. To tackle these challenges, we need more realistic testing protocols that consider the combined effects of vibrations, temperature, and mechanical stress. Improving thermal management systems (TMSs) using advanced cooling techniques and materials, e.g., phase change solutions, can help to alleviate these problems. It is also essential to design batteries with vibration-resistant materials and enhanced structural integrity to boost their durability. Moreover, vibrations play a significant role in various degradation mechanisms, including dendrite formation, self-discharge, and lithium plating, all of which can reduce battery capacity and lifespan. Our current research builds on these insights using a multiscale physics-based modeling approach to investigate how vibrations interact with thermal behavior and contribute to battery degradation. By combining computational models with experimental data, we aim to develop strategies and tools to enhance lithium-ion batteries’ safety, reliability, and longevity in challenging environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Lithium-Ion Battery Safety and Fire)

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29 pages, 20118 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Heteroatom Doping Strategy of Advanced Carbon for Alkali Metal-Ion Capacitors

by Ti Yin, Yaqin Guo, Xing Huang, Xinya Yang, Leixin Qin, Tianxiang Ning, Lei Tan, Lingjun Li and Kangyu Zou

Batteries 2025, 11(2), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020069 - 8 Feb 2025

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2843

Abstract

Alkali metal-ion capacitors (AMICs) combine the advantages of the high specific energy of alkali metal-ion batteries (AMIBs) and the high power output of supercapacitors (SCs), which are considered highly promising and efficient energy storage devices. It is found that carbon has been the [...] Read more.

Alkali metal-ion capacitors (AMICs) combine the advantages of the high specific energy of alkali metal-ion batteries (AMIBs) and the high power output of supercapacitors (SCs), which are considered highly promising and efficient energy storage devices. It is found that carbon has been the most widely used electrode material of AMICs due to its advantages of low cost, a large specific surface area, and excellent electrical conductivity. However, the application of carbon is limited by its low specific capacity, finite kinetic performance, and few active sites. Doping heteroatoms in carbon materials is an effective strategy to adjust their microstructures and improve their electrochemical storage performance, which effectively helps to increase the pseudo-capacitance, enhance the wettability, and increase the ionic migration rate. Moreover, an appropriate heteroatom doping strategy can purposefully guide the design of advanced AMICs. Herein, a systematic review of advanced heteroatom (N, S, P, and B)-doped carbon, which has acted as a positrode and negatrode in AMICs (M = Li, Na, and K) in recent years, has been summarized. Moreover, emphasis is placed on the mechanism of single-element doping versus two-element doping for the enhancement in the performance of carbon positrodes and negatrodes, and an introduction to the use of doped carbon in dual-carbon alkali metal-ion capacitors (DC-AMICs) is discussed. Finally, an outlook is given to solve the problems arising when using doped carbon materials in practical applications and future development directions are presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Studies on High-Performance Metal-Ion Capacitors: Technologies, Systems and Applications)

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75 pages, 13093 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Review on Advancements in Carbon Nanotubes: Synthesis, Purification, and Multifaceted Applications

by Anil Kumar Madikere Raghunatha Reddy, Ali Darwiche, Mogalahalli Venkatashamy Reddy and Karim Zaghib

Batteries 2025, 11(2), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020071 - 8 Feb 2025

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 13259

Abstract

Since their discovery over two decades ago, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have captivated researchers due to their exceptional electrical, optical, mechanical, and thermal properties, making them versatile candidates for various advanced applications. CNTs have transformed numerous scientific domains, including nanotechnology, electronics, materials science, and [...] Read more.

Since their discovery over two decades ago, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have captivated researchers due to their exceptional electrical, optical, mechanical, and thermal properties, making them versatile candidates for various advanced applications. CNTs have transformed numerous scientific domains, including nanotechnology, electronics, materials science, and biomedical engineering. Their applications range from nanoelectronics, robust nanocomposites, and energy storage devices to innovative materials, sensors, conducting polymers, field emission sources, and Li-ion batteries. Furthermore, CNTs have found critical roles in biosensing, water purification, bone scaffolding, and targeted gene and drug delivery. The chemical reactivity and functional versatility of CNTs are profoundly influenced by their structural and physicochemical properties, such as surface area, surface charge, size distribution, surface chemistry, and purity. This review comprehensively explores the current state of CNT research, focusing on widely used synthesis, purification, and characterization techniques alongside emerging applications. By highlighting recent advancements and addressing unresolved challenges, it aims to present a novel perspective on the transformative potential of CNTs, fostering innovation across diverse scientific and technological fields. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Materials and Interfaces: Anode, Cathode, Separators and Electrolytes or Others)

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30 pages, 10158 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Review of Pnictogenides for Next-Generation Anode Materials for Sodium-Ion Batteries

by Sion Ha, Junhee Kim, Dong Won Kim, Jun Min Suh and Kyeong-Ho Kim

Batteries 2025, 11(2), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020054 - 29 Jan 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2441

Abstract

With the growing market of secondary batteries for electric vehicles (EVs) and grid-scale energy storage systems (ESS), driven by environmental challenges, the commercialization of sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) has emerged to address the high price of lithium resources used in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). However, [...] Read more.

With the growing market of secondary batteries for electric vehicles (EVs) and grid-scale energy storage systems (ESS), driven by environmental challenges, the commercialization of sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) has emerged to address the high price of lithium resources used in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). However, achieving competitive energy densities of SIBs to LIBs remains challenging due to the absence of high-capacity anodes in SIBs such as the group-14 elements, Si or Ge, which are highly abundant in LIBs. This review presents potential candidates in metal pnictogenides as promising anode materials for SIBs to overcome the energy density bottleneck. The sodium-ion storage mechanisms and electrochemical performance across various compositions and intrinsic physical and chemical properties of pnictogenide have been summarized. By correlating these properties, strategic frameworks for designing advanced anode materials for next-generation SIBs were suggested. The trade-off relation in pnictogenides between the high specific capacities and the failure mechanism due to large volume expansion has been considered in this paper to address the current issues. This review covers several emerging strategies focused on improving both high reversible capacity and cycle stability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Two-Dimensional Materials for Battery Applications)

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36 pages, 6468 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Sustainable Extraction of Critical Minerals from Waste Batteries: A Green Solvent Approach in Resource Recovery

by Afzal Ahmed Dar, Zhi Chen, Gaixia Zhang, Jinguang Hu, Karim Zaghib, Sixu Deng, Xiaolei Wang, Fariborz Haghighat, Catherine N. Mulligan, Chunjiang An, Antonio Avalos Ramirez and Shuhui Sun

Batteries 2025, 11(2), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020051 - 28 Jan 2025

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 8487

Abstract

This strategic review examines the pivotal role of sustainable methodologies in battery recycling and the recovery of critical minerals from waste batteries, emphasizing the need to address existing technical and environmental challenges. Through a systematic analysis, it explores the application of green organic [...] Read more.

This strategic review examines the pivotal role of sustainable methodologies in battery recycling and the recovery of critical minerals from waste batteries, emphasizing the need to address existing technical and environmental challenges. Through a systematic analysis, it explores the application of green organic solvents in mineral processing, advocating for establishing eco-friendly techniques aimed at clipping waste and boosting resource utilization. The escalating demand for and shortage of essential minerals including copper, cobalt, lithium, and nickel are comprehensively analyzed and forecasted for 2023, 2030, and 2040. Traditional extraction techniques, including hydrometallurgical, pyrometallurgical, and bio-metallurgical processes, are efficient but pose substantial environmental hazards and contribute to resource scarcity. The concept of green extraction arises as a crucial step towards ecological conservation, integrating sustainable practices to lessen the environmental footprint of mineral extraction. The advancement of green organic solvents, notably ionic liquids and deep eutectic solvents, is examined, highlighting their attributes of minimal toxicity, biodegradability, and superior efficacy, thus presenting great potential in transforming the sector. The emergence of organic solvents such as palm oil, 1-octanol, and Span 80 is recognized, with advantageous low solubility and adaptability to varying temperatures. Kinetic (mainly temperature) data of different deep eutectic solvents are extracted from previous studies and computed with machine learning techniques. The coefficient of determination and mean squared error reveal the accuracy of experimental and computed data. In essence, this study seeks to inspire ongoing efforts to navigate impediments, embrace technological advancements including artificial intelligence, and foster an ethos of environmental stewardship in the sustainable extraction and recycling of critical metals from waste batteries. Full article

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26 pages, 4828 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Temperature-Dependent FTIRS Study of Manganese Oxide Spinel Obtained by Solution Combustion Synthesis (SCS) for Supercapacitor Applications

by Taylan Karakoç, Sécou Sall and Sergey N. Pronkin

Batteries 2025, 11(2), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020039 - 21 Jan 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2135

Abstract

Solution combustion synthesis (SCS) is often utilized to prepare crystalline nanoparticles of transition metal oxides, in particular Mn oxides. The structure and composition of the final product depend on the conditions of the synthesis, in particular on the composition of metal precursors, its [...] Read more.

Solution combustion synthesis (SCS) is often utilized to prepare crystalline nanoparticles of transition metal oxides, in particular Mn oxides. The structure and composition of the final product depend on the conditions of the synthesis, in particular on the composition of metal precursors, its molar ratio to the fuel component, and the mode of heating. In the present work, the study of chemical phenomena that may occur in the SCS process has been studied for the conventional nitrate–glycine synthesis of Mn oxide, as well as for nitrate–citrate–glycine and nitrate–citrate–urea synthesis. In the case of nitrate–glycine synthesis at a 1:1 fuel-to-salt ratio, the formation of a weak complex of Mn(II) and glycine provides the conditions for an instantaneous SCS reaction upon heating, resulting in slight sintering of final oxide nanoparticles. Partial hydrolysis of the Mn precursor during slow solvent evaporation results in the formation of a mixture of oxides, namely MnO and Mn₃O₄. Formation of MnO is completely suppressed when ammonium citrate is added into the initial mixture. Pure Mn₂O₃ oxide is obtained from nitrate–citrate synthesis, while the pure Mn₃O₄ phase is obtained in the case of nitrate–citrate–glycine and nitrate–citrate–urea synthesis, due to the higher temperature generated in the presence of additional fuel. In the presence of citrate, the SCS reaction is slower, resulting in stronger sintering of the nanoparticles. The study of the electrochemical properties of synthesized oxides demonstrates that SCS with the nitrate–citrate–urea mixture provides the highest charge capacitance in 1 M NaOH: 130 F/g at 2 A/g. The impedance characterization of materials allows us to propose a tentative mechanism of degradation of electrode materials during galvanostatic cycling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue High Energy Density Supercapacitors: Acquisition, Characterization, and Application)

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15 pages, 3713 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Analysis of Aging and Degradation in Lithium Batteries Using Distribution of Relaxation Time

by Muhammad Sohaib, Abdul Shakoor Akram and Woojin Choi

Batteries 2025, 11(1), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11010034 - 19 Jan 2025

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6991

Abstract

In this paper, the deconvolution of Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) data into the Distribution of Relaxation Times (DRTs) is employed to provide a detailed examination of degradation mechanisms in lithium-ion batteries. Using an nth RC model with Gaussian functions, this study achieves enhanced [...] Read more.

In this paper, the deconvolution of Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) data into the Distribution of Relaxation Times (DRTs) is employed to provide a detailed examination of degradation mechanisms in lithium-ion batteries. Using an nth RC model with Gaussian functions, this study achieves enhanced separation of overlapping electrochemical processes where Gaussian functions yield smoother transitions and clearer peak identification than conventional piecewise linear functions. The advantages of employing Tikhonov Regularization (TR) with Gaussian functions over Maximum Entropy (ME) and FFT methods are highlighted as this approach provides superior noise resilience, unbiased analysis, and enhanced resolution of critical features. This approach is applied to LIB cell data to identify characteristic peaks of the DRT plot and evaluate their correlation with battery degradation. By observing how these peaks evolve through cycles of battery aging, insights into specific aging mechanisms and performance decline are obtained. This study combines experimental measurements with DRT peak analysis to characterize the impedance distribution within LIBs which enables accelerated detection of degradation pathways and enhances the predictive accuracy for battery life and reliability. This analysis contributes to a refined understanding of LIB degradation behavior, supporting the development of advanced battery management systems designed to improve safety, optimize battery performance, and extend the operational lifespan of LIBs for various applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Management in Electric Vehicles: Current Status and Future Trends: 2nd Edition)

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20 pages, 6706 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

On the Performance of Portable NiMH Batteries of General Use

by Diego F. Quintero Pulido, Catalin Felix Covrig and Matthias Bruchhausen

Batteries 2025, 11(1), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11010030 - 16 Jan 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5865

Abstract

NiMH batteries are the most used technology of rechargeable batteries sold directly to consumers. Herein, we study the performance of the most common sizes of portable NiMH batteries (AA, AAA, D, C, and 9V). The performance and durability parameters—capacity, charge retention, charge recovery, [...] Read more.

NiMH batteries are the most used technology of rechargeable batteries sold directly to consumers. Herein, we study the performance of the most common sizes of portable NiMH batteries (AA, AAA, D, C, and 9V). The performance and durability parameters—capacity, charge retention, charge recovery, and endurance in cycles—are measured for these types of batteries, according to the standard IEC 61951-2:2017 NiMH batteries. The purpose of this study is to create a basis for setting minimum performance requirements for the parameters in the European Regulation concerning batteries and waste batteries, EU 2023/1542, Annex III, Part B. Results show that the charging time of 16 h could be reduced to 8 h for verifying the rated capacity. The performance of commercial batteries with regard to charge retention, charge recovery, and endurance in cycles is often found to be 25–30% better than required in the relevant IEC standard. Furthermore, we present a short comparative analysis of an application test (IEC 60086-2:2021 “toy”) for portable NiMH batteries with primary batteries. Such data allow comparing the performance of portable NiMH batteries compared to primary batteries in the application test “toy”. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Performance, Ageing, Reliability and Safety)

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15 pages, 4641 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Investigation of the Suitability of the DTV Method for the Online SoH Estimation of NMC Lithium-Ion Cells in Battery Management Systems

by Jan Neunzling, Philipp Hainke, Hanno Winter, David Henriques, Matthias Fleckenstein and Torsten Markus

Batteries 2025, 11(1), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11010025 - 13 Jan 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2001

Abstract

Investigating the temperature behavior of lithium-ion battery cells has become an important part of today’s research and development. The main reason for this is that the temperature profile of a battery cell changes during aging. By using Differential Thermal Voltammetry (DTV), new possibilities [...] Read more.

Investigating the temperature behavior of lithium-ion battery cells has become an important part of today’s research and development. The main reason for this is that the temperature profile of a battery cell changes during aging. By using Differential Thermal Voltammetry (DTV), new possibilities are opened up, especially since this diagnostic method is designed to work in operando by only requiring voltage and temperature readings. In this study, a batch of NMC-21700 cells were aged in calendar and cyclic manners. After a specified aging cycle was complete, a check-up measurement was performed. During this time, the cycler collected the electrical measuring values, while a negative temperature coefficient thermistor, which was located on the cell, was used to record the temperature fluctuations. The data were then evaluated by using the DTV analysis technique. By comparing the characteristic points of DTV, correlations between the changing curve characteristics and the capacity loss, and therefore the aging of the respective cell, were established. Based on these results, a simple model suitable for online State of Health (SoH) is derived and validated, showing an estimation accuracy of

1.1

%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Performance, Ageing, Reliability and Safety)

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23 pages, 10391 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Research on the Thermal Runaway Behavior and Flammability Limits of Sodium-Ion and Lithium-Ion Batteries

by Changbao Qi, Hewu Wang, Minghai Li, Cheng Li, Yalun Li, Chao Shi, Ningning Wei, Yan Wang and Huipeng Zhang

Batteries 2025, 11(1), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11010024 - 12 Jan 2025

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 9169

Abstract

Batteries are widely used in energy storage systems (ESS), and thermal runaway in different types of batteries presents varying safety risks. Therefore, comparative research on the thermal runaway behaviors of various batteries is essential. This study investigates the thermal runaway characteristics of sodium-ion [...] Read more.

Batteries are widely used in energy storage systems (ESS), and thermal runaway in different types of batteries presents varying safety risks. Therefore, comparative research on the thermal runaway behaviors of various batteries is essential. This study investigates the thermal runaway characteristics of sodium-ion batteries (NIBs), lithium iron phosphate batteries (LFP), and lithium-ion batteries with NCM523 and NCM622 cathodes. The experiments were conducted in a nitrogen-filled constant-volume sealed chamber. The results show that the critical surface temperatures at the time of thermal runaway are as follows: LFP (346 °C) > NIBs (292 °C) > NCM523 (290 °C) > NCM622 (281 °C), with LFP batteries exhibiting the highest thermal runaway critical temperature. NIBs have the lowest thermal runaway triggering energy (158 kJ), while LFP has the highest (592.8 kJ). During the thermal runaway of all four battery types, the primary gases produced include carbon dioxide, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane, ethylene, propylene, and ethane. For NCM622 and NCM523, carbon monoxide is the dominant combustible gas, with volume fractions of 35% and 29%, respectively. In contrast, hydrogen is the main flammable gas for LFP and NIBs, with volume fractions of 44% and 30%, respectively. Among these, NIBs have the lowest lower flammability limit (LFL), indicating the highest explosion risk. The thermal runaway characteristics of 50 Ah batteries provide valuable insights for battery selection and design in energy storage applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Safety of Lithium Ion Batteries—2nd Edition)

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16 pages, 5055 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Millimeter-Resolution Operando Thermal Image of Prismatic Li-Ion Batteries Using a Distributed Optical Fiber Sensor

by Zhen Guo, Mina Abedi Varnosfaderani, Calum Briggs, Erdogan Guk and James Marco

Batteries 2025, 11(1), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11010019 - 8 Jan 2025

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2814

Abstract

With the demand for energy gravimetric and volumetric density in electrical vehicles, lithium-ion batteries are undergoing a trend toward larger formats, along with maximized cell-to-pack efficiency. Current battery thermal management systems and battery modeling, relying on point measurement (thermocouples/thermistors), face challenges in providing [...] Read more.

With the demand for energy gravimetric and volumetric density in electrical vehicles, lithium-ion batteries are undergoing a trend toward larger formats, along with maximized cell-to-pack efficiency. Current battery thermal management systems and battery modeling, relying on point measurement (thermocouples/thermistors), face challenges in providing comprehensive characterization for larger batteries and extensive monitoring across the pack. Here, we proposed a novel Rayleigh-scattering-based distributed optical fiber sensor to deliver thermal images of a large prismatic cell. Using an optical fiber of 1 mm diameter wrapped around the cell, the optical sensor delivered over 400 unique measurement locations at 3 mm spatial resolution. During a 1.0 C charge, the optical-measured maximum temperature difference was 8.2 °C, while point-like thermocouples, located at the cell front surface and rear surface center, only had a 0.8 °C maximum temperature difference. Moreover, the all-surface-covered optical sensor identified hotspot generation around the vicinity of the tabs, highlighting the essential role of tabs. The maximum temperature on the negative current tab reached 113.9 °C during a 1.5 C discharge, while the hottest spot on the cell surface was only 52.1 °C. This was further validated by the operando thermal image in both the time domain and the spatial domain, facilitating a detailed analysis of the thermal-behavior-like heat generation on the current tabs, transmission through the surface, and dissipation to the cell bottom. Full article

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23 pages, 2200 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Recent Advancements in Artificial Intelligence in Battery Recycling

by Subin Antony Jose, Connor Andrew Dennis Cook, Joseph Palacios, Hyundeok Seo, Christian Eduardo Torres Ramirez, Jinhong Wu and Pradeep L. Menezes

Batteries 2024, 10(12), 440; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10120440 - 11 Dec 2024

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 9943

Abstract

Battery recycling has become increasingly crucial in mitigating environmental pollution and conserving valuable resources. As demand for battery-powered devices rises across industries like automotive, electronics, and renewable energy, efficient recycling is essential. Traditional recycling methods, often reliant on manual labor, suffer from inefficiencies [...] Read more.

Battery recycling has become increasingly crucial in mitigating environmental pollution and conserving valuable resources. As demand for battery-powered devices rises across industries like automotive, electronics, and renewable energy, efficient recycling is essential. Traditional recycling methods, often reliant on manual labor, suffer from inefficiencies and environmental harm. However, recent artificial intelligence (AI) advancements offer promising solutions to these challenges. This paper reviews the latest developments in AI applications for battery recycling, focusing on methodologies, challenges, and future directions. AI technologies, particularly machine learning and deep learning models, are revolutionizing battery sorting, classification, and disassembly processes. AI-powered systems enhance efficiency by automating tasks such as battery identification, material characterization, and robotic disassembly, reducing human error and occupational hazards. Additionally, integrating AI with advanced sensing technologies like computer vision, spectroscopy, and X-ray imaging allows for precise material characterization and real-time monitoring, optimizing recycling strategies and material recovery rates. Despite these advancements, data quality, scalability, and regulatory compliance must be addressed to realize AI’s full potential in battery recycling. Collaborative efforts across interdisciplinary domains are essential to develop robust, scalable AI-driven recycling solutions, paving the way for a sustainable, circular economy in battery materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards a Smarter Battery Management System: 2nd Edition)

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34 pages, 7437 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Beyond Organic Electrolytes: An Analysis of Ionic Liquids for Advanced Lithium Rechargeable Batteries

by Karthik Vishweswariah, Anil Kumar Madikere Raghunatha Reddy and Karim Zaghib

Batteries 2024, 10(12), 436; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10120436 - 7 Dec 2024

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 9563

Abstract

The fast-growing area of battery technology requires the availability of highly stable, energy-efficient batteries for everyday applications. This, in turn, calls for research into new battery materials, especially with regard to a battery’s main component: the electrolytes. Besides the demands associated with solid [...] Read more.

The fast-growing area of battery technology requires the availability of highly stable, energy-efficient batteries for everyday applications. This, in turn, calls for research into new battery materials, especially with regard to a battery’s main component: the electrolytes. Besides the demands associated with solid ionic conduction and appropriate electrochemical behaviour, considerable effort will be necessary to thoroughly reduce safety risks in terms of flammability, leakage, and thermal runaway. Consequently, completely new classes of electrolytes need to be developed that are compatible with energy storage systems. Despite the progress made in solid polymer electrolytes, such materials have suffered from limitations to their real-world application. Now, ionic liquids are considered a class of electrolytes with the most potential for the creation of more advanced and safer lithium–ion batteries. In recent decades, ILs have been widely explored as potential electrolytes in the search for new breakthroughs in the ESS field, such those associated with fuel cells, lithium–ion batteries, and supercapacitors. The present review will discuss ILs that present high ionic conductivity, a lower melting point below 100 °C, and which feature up to 5–6 V wide electrochemical potential windows vs. Li⁺/Li. Furthermore, ILs exhibit good thermal stability, non-flammability, and low volatility—all of which are attributes realized by appropriate cation–anion combinations. This paper seeks to review the status of research concerning ILs, along with the advantages and challenges yet to be overcome in their development. Full article

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36 pages, 10088 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Recent Advances in Lithium Iron Phosphate Battery Technology: A Comprehensive Review

by Tao Chen, Man Li and Joonho Bae

Batteries 2024, 10(12), 424; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10120424 - 1 Dec 2024

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 18985

Abstract

Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries have emerged as one of the most promising energy storage solutions due to their high safety, long cycle life, and environmental friendliness. In recent years, significant progress has been made in enhancing the performance and expanding the applications [...] Read more.

Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries have emerged as one of the most promising energy storage solutions due to their high safety, long cycle life, and environmental friendliness. In recent years, significant progress has been made in enhancing the performance and expanding the applications of LFP batteries through innovative materials design, electrode engineering, and manufacturing techniques. This review paper provides a comprehensive overview of the recent advances in LFP battery technology, covering key developments in materials synthesis, electrode architectures, electrolytes, cell design, and system integration. This review paper aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the recent advances in lithium iron phosphate (LFP) battery technology, encompassing materials development, electrode engineering, electrolytes, cell design, and applications. By highlighting the latest research findings and technological innovations, this paper seeks to contribute to the continued advancement and widespread adoption of LFP batteries as sustainable and reliable energy storage solutions for various applications. We also discuss the current challenges and future prospects for LFP batteries, emphasizing their potential role in sustainable energy storage solutions for various applications, including electric vehicles, renewable energy integration, and grid-scale energy storage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Materials and Technologies for Post-Lithium-Ion Batteries—2nd Edition)

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9 pages, 5523 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Gravure-Printed Anodes Based on Hard Carbon for Sodium-Ion Batteries

by Maria Montanino, Claudia Paoletti, Anna De Girolamo Del Mauro and Giuliano Sico

Batteries 2024, 10(11), 407; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10110407 - 20 Nov 2024

Viewed by 1781

Abstract

Printed batteries are increasingly being investigated for feeding small, wearable devices more and more involved in our daily lives, promoting the study of printing technologies. Among these, gravure is very attractive as a low-cost and low-waste production method for functional layers in different [...] Read more.

Printed batteries are increasingly being investigated for feeding small, wearable devices more and more involved in our daily lives, promoting the study of printing technologies. Among these, gravure is very attractive as a low-cost and low-waste production method for functional layers in different fields, such as energy, sensors, and biomedical, because it is easy to scale up industrially. Thanks to our research, the feasibility of gravure printing was recently proved for rechargeable lithium-ion batteries (LiBs) manufacturing. Such studies allowed the production of high-quality electrodes involving different active materials with high stability, reproducibility, and good performance. Going beyond lithium-based storage devices, our attention was devoted on the possibility of employing highly sustainable gravure printing for sodium-ion batteries (NaBs) manufacturing, following the trendy interest in sodium, which is more abundant, economical, and ecofriendly than lithium. Here a study on gravure printed anodes for sodium-ion batteries based on hard carbon as an active material is presented and discussed. Thanks to our methodology centered on the capillary number, a high printing quality anodic layer was produced providing typical electrochemical behavior and good performance. Such results are very innovative and relevant in the field of sodium-ion batteries and further demonstrate the high potential of gravure in printed battery manufacturing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrolyte and Electrode Design for Next-Generation Rechargeable Batteries)

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14 pages, 4573 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Stabilizing the Solid Electrolyte Interphase of SiOx Negative Electrodes: The Role of Fluoroethylene Carbonate in Enhancing Electrochemical Performance

by Paul Maldonado Nogales, Sangyup Lee, Seunga Yang, Inchan Yang, Soen Hui Choi, Sei-Min Park, Jae Ho Lee, Chan Jung Kim, Jung-Chul An and Soon-Ki Jeong

Batteries 2024, 10(11), 385; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10110385 - 31 Oct 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2887

Abstract

This study examined the role of fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC) in stabilizing the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) and enhancing the electrochemical performance of SiOx-based composite negative electrodes in lithium-ion batteries. Two electrolyte systems were used: 1.0 mol dm⁻³ (M) LiPF₆ in a [...] Read more.

This study examined the role of fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC) in stabilizing the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) and enhancing the electrochemical performance of SiOx-based composite negative electrodes in lithium-ion batteries. Two electrolyte systems were used: 1.0 mol dm⁻³ (M) LiPF₆ in a mixture of ethylene carbonate (EC) and ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC) with 0.5 wt.% VC, and 1.0 M LiPF₆ in a mixture of EC and EMC with 1.0 wt.% VC and 10 wt.% FEC. These systems enabled the investigation of how FEC contributes to SEI stabilization and cycling stability. FEC promotes the formation of a LiF-rich SEI layer, which mitigates volume expansion and enhances capacity retention. Additionally, the accumulation of Li₂CO₃ and Li₂O in the SEI was found to increase interfacial resistance, as observed through electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Among the SiOx contents tested (0%, 3%, and 7.8%), the 3% SiOx content exhibited the best balance between SiOx and carbon nanotubes, resulting in improved SEI formation and enhanced electrochemical performance. These results offer insights into the optimization of electrolyte formulations for long-term cycling stability in SiOx-based lithium-ion batteries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Materials and Interfaces: Anode, Cathode, Separators and Electrolytes or Others)

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23 pages, 13548 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Synthesis Methods of Si/C Composite Materials for Lithium-Ion Batteries

by Inkyu Park, Hanbyeol Lee and Oh B. Chae

Batteries 2024, 10(11), 381; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10110381 - 28 Oct 2024

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 9992

Abstract

Silicon anodes present a high theoretical capacity of 4200 mAh/g, positioning them as strong contenders for improving the performance of lithium-ion batteries. Despite their potential, the practical application of Si anodes is constrained by their significant volumetric expansion (up to 400%) during lithiation/delithiation, [...] Read more.

Silicon anodes present a high theoretical capacity of 4200 mAh/g, positioning them as strong contenders for improving the performance of lithium-ion batteries. Despite their potential, the practical application of Si anodes is constrained by their significant volumetric expansion (up to 400%) during lithiation/delithiation, which leads to mechanical degradation and loss of electrical contact. This issue contributes to poor cycling stability and hinders their commercial viability, and various silicon–carbon composite fabrication methods have been explored to mitigate these challenges. This review covers key techniques, including ball milling, spray drying, pyrolysis, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and mechanofusion. Each method has unique benefits; ball milling and spray drying are effective for creating homogeneous composites, whereas pyrolysis and CVD offer high-quality coatings that enhance the mechanical stability of silicon anodes. Mechanofusion has been highlighted for its ability to integrate silicon with carbon materials, showing the potential for further optimization. In light of these advancements, future research should focus on refining these techniques to enhance the stability and performance of Si-based anodes. The optimization of the compounding process has the potential to enhance the performance of silicon anodes by addressing the significant volume change and low conductivity, while simultaneously addressing cost-related concerns. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Carbon-Based Materials for Next-Generation Batteries and Supercapacitors)

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18 pages, 7064 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Review on Advanced Battery Thermal Management Systems for Fast Charging in Electric Vehicles

by Le Duc Tai, Kunal Sandip Garud, Seong-Guk Hwang and Moo-Yeon Lee

Batteries 2024, 10(10), 372; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10100372 - 20 Oct 2024

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 16076

Abstract

To protect the environment and reduce dependence on fossil fuels, the world is shifting towards electric vehicles (EVs) as a sustainable solution. The development of fast charging technologies for EVs to reduce charging time and increase operating range is essential to replace traditional [...] Read more.

To protect the environment and reduce dependence on fossil fuels, the world is shifting towards electric vehicles (EVs) as a sustainable solution. The development of fast charging technologies for EVs to reduce charging time and increase operating range is essential to replace traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are efficient energy storage systems in EVs. However, the efficiency of LIBs depends significantly on their working temperature range. However, the huge amount of heat generated during fast charging increases battery temperature uncontrollably and may lead to thermal runaway, which poses serious hazards during the operation of EVs. In addition, fast charging with high current accelerates battery aging and seriously reduces battery capacity. Therefore, an effective and advanced battery thermal management system (BTMS) is essential to ensure the performance, lifetime, and safety of LIBs, particularly under extreme charging conditions. In this perspective, the current review presents the state-of-the-art thermal management strategies for LIBs during fast charging. The serious thermal problems owing to heat generated during fast charging and its impacts on LIBs are discussed. The core part of this review presents advanced cooling strategies such as indirect liquid cooling, immersion cooling, and hybrid cooling for the thermal management of batteries during fast charging based on recently published research studies in the period of 2019–2024 (5 years). Finally, the key findings and potential directions for next-generation BTMSs toward fast charging are proposed. This review offers an in-depth analysis by providing recommendations and potential solutions to develop reliable and efficient BTMSs for LIBs during fast charging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Thermal Management for Batteries)

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18 pages, 36210 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Quantifying Lithium-Ion Battery Rate Capacity, Electrode Structuring, and Transport Phenomena Using E-I Measurements

by Ronan N. Dunne, Simon B. B. Solberg, Mahsid N. Amiri, Ejikeme Raphael Ezeigwe, Jacob J. Lamb and Odne Burheim

Batteries 2024, 10(10), 364; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10100364 - 15 Oct 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4825

Abstract

The specific energy of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) can be enhanced through various approaches, one of which is increasing the proportion of active materials by thickening the electrodes. However, this typically leads to the battery having lower performance at a high cycling rate, a [...] Read more.

The specific energy of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) can be enhanced through various approaches, one of which is increasing the proportion of active materials by thickening the electrodes. However, this typically leads to the battery having lower performance at a high cycling rate, a phenomenon commonly known as rate capacity retention. One solution to this is perforating the electrode, by creating channels or corrugations in the active electrode material, either as holes or as channels. This is known to reduce the rate capacity retention effect, but in order to engineer this better, a simplified transport process analysis needs to be established. In this paper, we propose a classic electrochemical analysis based on voltage–charge cycling measurements in order to obtain a classical mass transport coefficient,

h_{m}

, that is further used as a main indicator for electrode design quality assessment. We also demonstrate theoretically and experimentally how the mass transfer coefficient,

h_{m}

, can be determined and how it changes as the electrode layer thickness increases, with and without electrode corrugations. Full article

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11 pages, 2117 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Recycling of Lithium-Ion Batteries via Electrochemical Recovery: A Mini-Review

by Lu Yu, Yaocai Bai and Ilias Belharouak

Batteries 2024, 10(10), 337; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10100337 - 24 Sep 2024

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 10333

Abstract

With the rising demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), it is crucial to develop recycling methods that minimize environmental impacts and ensure resource sustainability. The focus of this short review is on the electrochemical techniques used in LIB recycling, particularly electrochemical leaching and electrodeposition. [...] Read more.

With the rising demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), it is crucial to develop recycling methods that minimize environmental impacts and ensure resource sustainability. The focus of this short review is on the electrochemical techniques used in LIB recycling, particularly electrochemical leaching and electrodeposition. Our summary covers the latest research, highlighting the principles, progress, and challenges tied to these methods. By examining the current state of electrochemical recovery, this review intends to provide guidance for future advancements and enhance LIB recycling efficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling)

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17 pages, 4493 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Improving Lithium-Ion Battery Performance: Nano Al₂O₃ Coatings on High-Mass Loading LiFePO₄ Cathodes via Atomic Layer Deposition

by Pejman Salimi, Gloria Gottardi, William G. Morais, Ruben Bartali, Nadhira Laidani and Edoardo Gino Macchi

Batteries 2024, 10(9), 304; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090304 - 28 Aug 2024

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 8002

Abstract

Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO₄ or LFP) is a promising cathode material for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), but side reactions between the electrolyte and the LFP electrode can degrade battery performance. This study introduces an innovative coating strategy, using atomic layer deposition (ALD) to [...] Read more.

Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO₄ or LFP) is a promising cathode material for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), but side reactions between the electrolyte and the LFP electrode can degrade battery performance. This study introduces an innovative coating strategy, using atomic layer deposition (ALD) to apply a thin (5 nm and 10 nm) Al₂O₃ layer onto high-mass loading LFP electrodes. Galvanostatic charge–discharge cycling and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) were used to assess the electrochemical performance of coated and uncoated LFP electrodes. The results show that Al₂O₃ coatings enhance the cycling performance at room temperature (RT) and 40 °C by suppressing side reactions and stabilizing the cathode–electrolyte interface (CEI). The coated LFP retained 67% of its capacity after 100 cycles at 1C and RT, compared to 57% for the uncoated sample. Post-mortem analyses, including scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), were conducted to investigate the mechanisms behind the improved performance. These analyses reveal that Al₂O₃ coatings are highly effective in reducing LFP electrode degradation during cycling, demonstrating the potential of ALD Al₂O₃ coatings to enhance the durability and performance of LFP electrodes in LIBs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processes and Advances in Electrode Materials for Lithium-Ion Batteries)

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15 pages, 4783 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Anion Intercalation/De-Intercalation Mechanism Enabling High Energy and Power Densities of Lithium-Ion Capacitors

by Yang Zhang, Junquan Lao and Ping Xiao

Batteries 2024, 10(9), 296; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090296 - 23 Aug 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3002

Abstract

The growing demands for electrochemical energy storage systems is driving the exploration of novel devices, with lithium-ion capacitors (LICs) emerging as a promising strategy to achieve both high energy density and fast charge capability. However, the low capacitance of commercial activated carbon (AC) [...] Read more.

The growing demands for electrochemical energy storage systems is driving the exploration of novel devices, with lithium-ion capacitors (LICs) emerging as a promising strategy to achieve both high energy density and fast charge capability. However, the low capacitance of commercial activated carbon (AC) cathode based on anion absorption/desorption limits LIC applications. Herein, commercial graphite is proposed as the cathode to construct an innovative AC (−)//graphite (+) system. The graphite cathode functions as anion hosting, allowing reversible intercalation/de-intercalation of anions into/from its interlayers. The as-designed AC (−)//graphite (+) full cell achieves stable cycling with 90.6% capacity retention after 200 cycles at 0.1 A g⁻¹ and a prolonged lifespan with 87.5% capacity retention after 5000 cycles at 0.5 A g⁻¹ with the upper cut-off voltage of 5.0 V, yielding a high average Coulombic efficiency (CE) of 99.3%. Moreover, the full cell exhibits a high energy density (>200 Wh kg⁻¹) and power density of 7.7 kW kg⁻¹ (calculated based on active mass in both electrodes). These performances exceed most LICs based on anions absorption/desorption on the surface of AC cathodes. This work explores an effective electrode revolution with the assistance of anion intercalation/de-intercalation chemistry for developing novel LICs with high energy and power densities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Studies on High-Performance Metal-Ion Capacitors: Technologies, Systems and Applications)

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18 pages, 18755 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Experimental Study on Thermal Runaway Characteristics of High-Nickel Ternary Lithium-Ion Batteries under Normal and Low Pressures

by Ye Jin, Di Meng, Chen-Xi Zhao, Jia-Ling Yu, Xue-Hui Wang and Jian Wang

Batteries 2024, 10(8), 287; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10080287 - 12 Aug 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4381

Abstract

High-nickel (Ni) ternary lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are widely used in low-pressure environments such as in the aviation industry, but their attribute of high energy density poses significant fire hazards, especially under low pressure where thermal runaway behavior is complex, thus requiring relevant experiments. [...] Read more.

High-nickel (Ni) ternary lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are widely used in low-pressure environments such as in the aviation industry, but their attribute of high energy density poses significant fire hazards, especially under low pressure where thermal runaway behavior is complex, thus requiring relevant experiments. This study investigates the thermal runaway characteristics of LiNi_0.8Mn_0.1Co_0.1O₂ (NCM811) 18650 LIBs at different states of charge (SOCs) (75%, 100%) under various ambient pressures (101 kPa, 80 kPa, 60 kPa, 40 kPa). The results show that, as the pressure is decreased from 101 kPa to 40 kPa, the onset time of thermal runaway is extended by 28.2 s for 75% SOC and by 40.8 s for 100% SOC; accordingly, the onset temperature of thermal runaway increases by 19.3 °C for 75% SOC and by 33.5 °C for 100% SOC; the maximum surface temperature decreases by 70.8 °C for 75% SOC and by 68.2 °C for 100% SOC. The cell mass loss and loss rate slightly decrease with reduced pressure. However, ambient pressure has little impact on the time and temperature of venting as well as the voltage drop time. SEM/EDS analysis verifies that electrolyte evaporates faster under low pressure. Furthermore, the oxygen concentration is lower under low pressure, which consequently leads to a delay in thermal runaway. This study contributes to understanding thermal runaway characteristics of high-Ni ternary LIBs and provides guidance for their safe application in low-pressure aviation environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Lithium-Ion Battery Safety and Fire)

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21 pages, 5171 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Sustainable Battery Lifecycle: Non-Destructive Separation of Batteries and Potential Second Life Applications

by Gernot Schlögl, Stefan Grollitsch, Christian Ellersdorfer, Florian Feist, Christoph Kirschner, Josef Ecker and Franz Haas

Batteries 2024, 10(8), 280; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10080280 - 5 Aug 2024

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4655

Abstract

Large quantities of battery systems will be discarded from electric vehicles in the future. Non-destructive separation of used electric vehicle (EV) traction batteries enables a second life of battery components, extraction of high value secondary materials, and reduces the environmental footprint of recycling [...] Read more.

Large quantities of battery systems will be discarded from electric vehicles in the future. Non-destructive separation of used electric vehicle (EV) traction batteries enables a second life of battery components, extraction of high value secondary materials, and reduces the environmental footprint of recycling and separation processes. In this study, the key performance indicators (KPIs) for the second life application of spent EV batteries are identified. Three battery packs are analyzed in terms of the joining techniques used—and possible separation techniques—considering only direct recycling methods. The components that can be recovered from these batteries are evaluated against the KPIs. This study shows that all the batteries analyzed allow a second life in stationary and semi-stationary electrical storage systems and marine applications when used at the pack and module levels. Two packs can be reused in electric vehicles such as forklifts. However, the feasibility of re-use in micro-mobility and consumer electronics is very limited. This study shows that technically feasible separation methods are dictated and constrained by the joining techniques used. As welding and adhesive bonding pose challenges to separation processes, future efforts should prioritize ‘design for disassembly’ to ensure sustainable battery life cycle management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Materials and Recycling Processes for Battery Production)

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38 pages, 9849 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Binders for Li-Ion Battery Technologies and Beyond: A Comprehensive Review

by Muskan Srivastava, Anil Kumar M. R. and Karim Zaghib

Batteries 2024, 10(8), 268; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10080268 - 26 Jul 2024

Cited by 43 | Viewed by 29102

Abstract

The effects of global warming highlight the urgent need for effective solutions to this problem. The electrification of society, which occurs through the widespread adoption of electric vehicles (EVs), is a critical strategy to combat climate change. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are vital components [...] Read more.

The effects of global warming highlight the urgent need for effective solutions to this problem. The electrification of society, which occurs through the widespread adoption of electric vehicles (EVs), is a critical strategy to combat climate change. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are vital components of the global energy-storage market for EVs, and sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) have gained renewed interest owing to their potential for rapid growth. Improved safety and stability have also put solid-state batteries (SSBs) on the chart of top batteries in the world. This review examines three critical battery technologies: LIBs, SIBs, and SSBs. Although research has historically concentrated on heavier battery components, such as electrodes, to achieve high gravimetric density, binders, which comprise less than 5% of the battery weight, have demonstrated great promise for meeting the increasing need for energy storage. This review thoroughly examines various binders, focusing on their solubilities in water and organic solvents. Understanding binder mechanisms is crucial for developing binders that maintain strong adhesion to electrodes, even during volume fluctuations caused by lithiation and delithiation. Therefore, we investigated the different mechanisms associated with binders. This review also discusses failure mechanisms and innovative design strategies to improve the performance of binders, such as composite, conductive, and self-healing binders. By investigating these fields, we hope to develop energy storage technologies that are more dependable and efficient while also helping to satisfy future energy needs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Materials and Interfaces: Anode, Cathode, Separators and Electrolytes or Others)

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36 pages, 3484 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Environmental Aspects and Recycling of Solid-State Batteries: A Comprehensive Review

by Abniel Machín, María C. Cotto, Francisco Díaz, José Duconge, Carmen Morant and Francisco Márquez

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 255; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070255 - 17 Jul 2024

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 16883

Abstract

Solid-state batteries (SSBs) have emerged as a promising alternative to conventional lithium-ion batteries, with notable advantages in safety, energy density, and longevity, yet the environmental implications of their life cycle, from manufacturing to disposal, remain a critical concern. This review examines the environmental [...] Read more.

Solid-state batteries (SSBs) have emerged as a promising alternative to conventional lithium-ion batteries, with notable advantages in safety, energy density, and longevity, yet the environmental implications of their life cycle, from manufacturing to disposal, remain a critical concern. This review examines the environmental impacts associated with the production, use, and end-of-life management of SSBs, starting with the extraction and processing of raw materials, and highlights significant natural resource consumption, energy use, and emissions. A comparative analysis with traditional battery manufacturing underscores the environmental hazards of novel materials specific to SSBs. The review also assesses the operational environmental impact of SSBs by evaluating their energy efficiency and carbon footprint in comparison to conventional batteries, followed by an exploration of end-of-life challenges, including disposal risks, regulatory frameworks, and the shortcomings of existing waste management practices. A significant focus is placed on recycling and reuse strategies, reviewing current methodologies like mechanical, pyrometallurgical, and hydrometallurgical processes, along with emerging technologies that aim to overcome recycling barriers, while also analyzing the economic and technological challenges of these processes. Additionally, real-world case studies are presented, serving as benchmarks for best practices and highlighting lessons learned in the field. In conclusion, the paper identifies research gaps and future directions for reducing the environmental footprint of SSBs, underscoring the need for interdisciplinary collaboration to advance sustainable SSB technologies and contribute to balancing technological advancements with environmental stewardship, thereby supporting the transition to a more sustainable energy future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Processing, Manufacturing and Recycling)

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