Batteries

30 pages, 9167 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Review of Thermal Safety and Management of Second-Life Batteries: Cell Screening, Pack Configuration and Health Estimation

by Md Imran Hasan, Gang Lei, Dylan Lu and Pablo Poblete Durruty

Batteries 2026, 12(3), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12030099 - 15 Mar 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1533

Abstract

Electric vehicle (EV) adoption is generating a rapidly increasing stream of retired lithium-ion batteries for second-life deployment. However, thermal safety concerns continue to limit their reuse. This paper reviews second-life battery (SLB) thermal safety and management and organizes existing work through a mechanism-to-deployment [...] Read more.

Electric vehicle (EV) adoption is generating a rapidly increasing stream of retired lithium-ion batteries for second-life deployment. However, thermal safety concerns continue to limit their reuse. This paper reviews second-life battery (SLB) thermal safety and management and organizes existing work through a mechanism-to-deployment framework linking four domains: degradation mechanisms, cell screening, pack configuration, and monitoring. Evidence indicates that thermal risk depends on the degradation pathway rather than capacity fade. In fact, cells with comparable capacity can exhibit substantially different trigger temperatures depending on whether lithium plating or solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) growth dominates. Therefore, capacity-based screening is insufficient because cells that satisfy capacity thresholds may still remain thermally unstable. The four domains are tightly coupled: the degradation pathway determines screening requirements; screening outcomes constrain pack design; pack topology influences fault escalation; and together these factors determine what monitoring can reliably detect. This review highlights three gaps and outlines future research directions in the field of SLB thermal safety and management: limited aged-cell thermal characterization by degradation pathway, insufficient diagnostic validation under industrial-throughput conditions, and the incomplete translation of screening outputs into design rules. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Runaway and Thermal Management: Toward Safe and Reliable Batteries)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 3712 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Nitrogen-Enriched Shell Graphite-Core C–Si–N Composite for Reduced Swelling in Si/Graphite Negative Electrodes

by Jeewon Jang, Seongwoo Lee, Sangyup Lee, Paul Maldonado Nogales, Honggeun Lee, Seunga Yang, Minji Kim, Jeonghun Oh and Soon-Ki Jeong

Batteries 2026, 12(3), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12030098 - 13 Mar 2026

Viewed by 1059

Abstract

This study reports a graphite-core, multiphase gradient C–Si–N composite architecture for Si-containing graphite-based negative electrodes in lithium-ion batteries. The increase in electrode thickness is used as a practical metric of expansion-driven degradation. The composite is prepared by the simultaneous nitridation and carbonization of [...] Read more.

This study reports a graphite-core, multiphase gradient C–Si–N composite architecture for Si-containing graphite-based negative electrodes in lithium-ion batteries. The increase in electrode thickness is used as a practical metric of expansion-driven degradation. The composite is prepared by the simultaneous nitridation and carbonization of a graphite core–Si precursor using polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) as the N source. Scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy indicates a quasi-continuous radial trend in the relative N signal toward the outer shell, consistent with preferential N enrichment near the particle exterior. This spatially distributed N arrangement may spatially separate the Si-rich expansion-prone region from the carbon-rich exterior containing nitrides and other N-bearing species, thereby enabling stress partitioning. The shell architecture is designed to disperse expansion-induced stress and stabilize the electrode–electrolyte interface. During electrochemical cycling, the C–Si–N electrode with 10% PVP preserves its core–shell morphology and exhibits the smallest average electrode thickness expansion (~58% after 40 cycles, based on four independent cells). The reduced thickness growth is discussed in relation to a mechanically robust Si–N matrix (Si₃N₄-like/SiN_x-like), potential Li–N interphase species, and N-containing carbon, together with the post-mortem morphology and electrochemical impedance evolution. This study presents reduced swelling as an electrode-level trend versus nominal PVP addition, along with associated nitride-related signatures, thereby highlighting spatially graded stress buffering as an electrode-level design principle. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solid Polymer Electrolytes for Lithium Batteries and Beyond)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 1983 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

An Integrated Hydrometallurgical–Electrodialysis Process for High-Purity Lithium Carbonate Recovery from Battery Waste

by Jose Luis Aldana, Lourdes Yurramendi, Javier Antoñanzas, Javier Nieto and Carmen del Río

Batteries 2026, 12(3), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12030089 - 5 Mar 2026

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1648

Abstract

The rapid increase in end-of-life lithium-ion batteries demands sustainable recycling routes for lithium recovery. This work presents a novel integrated hydrometallurgical–electrodialysis process designed specifically for recovering lithium from off-specification NMC cathode materials while enabling full reagent recyclability. Selective leaching with oxalic acid was [...] Read more.

The rapid increase in end-of-life lithium-ion batteries demands sustainable recycling routes for lithium recovery. This work presents a novel integrated hydrometallurgical–electrodialysis process designed specifically for recovering lithium from off-specification NMC cathode materials while enabling full reagent recyclability. Selective leaching with oxalic acid was optimised by setting the water-to-oxalic acid dihydrate ratio (H₂O/OA·2H₂O) to 7.3:1 w/w, achieving 81% lithium extraction at room temperature within 2 h while limiting the co-dissolution of Ni, Co and Mn to 0.2%, 1.6% and 1.7% by weight, respectively. The resulting leachate was processed in a four-chamber electrodialysis cell equipped with two Nafion 117 cation-exchange membranes and one Neosepta AMX-fmg anion-exchange membrane operating at −1.6 V versus Ag/AgCl, enabling 96% lithium recovery and 98% oxalic acid recovery. The regenerated oxalic acid stream (41.8 g L⁻¹) was fully restored to its initial concentration and reused in successive cycles without performance loss. Subsequent precipitation of lithium with Na₂CO₃ yielded 99.3%-pure Li₂CO₃. This combined leaching–electrodialysis–precipitation presents a high selectivity, low-waste, circular recovery system, offering a scientifically original approach that integrates reagent regeneration with high-purity lithium production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from Circular Materials Conference 2025)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 4601 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Toward the Commercialization of Lithium Manganese Iron Phosphate for Advanced High-Energy Lithium-Ion Batteries and Beyond

by Atiyeh Nekahi and Karim Zaghib

Batteries 2026, 12(3), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12030087 - 3 Mar 2026

Viewed by 1685

Abstract

Lithium manganese iron phosphate [LiMn_xFe_1−xPO₄ (x ≤ 0.5)]-based cathode materials were synthesized via a hydrothermal method to investigate their composition effect on structure and electrochemical performance. The X-ray diffraction results confirmed a single-phase olivine structure (Pnma) for all [...] Read more.

Lithium manganese iron phosphate [LiMn_xFe_1−xPO₄ (x ≤ 0.5)]-based cathode materials were synthesized via a hydrothermal method to investigate their composition effect on structure and electrochemical performance. The X-ray diffraction results confirmed a single-phase olivine structure (Pnma) for all the compositions, with minor lithium phosphate (Li₃PO₄) impurities detected at high manganese (Mn) contents (x ≥ 0.4). The morphological evolution from small particles with low Mn content to compact rod-like particles at x = 0.3 indicates optimized crystal growth and improved interparticle connectivity. Electrochemical testing revealed that the discharge capacity initially increased with the substituted Mn content to a maximum of 140 mAh g⁻¹ at 0.5 C for LiMn_0.3Fe_0.7PO₄/C with remarkable cycling stability. This high capacity is attributed to the activation of Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺ and Mn²⁺/Mn³⁺ redox couples and the minimal formation of electrochemically inactive phases. Further Mn incorporation (x > 0.3) caused structural distortion, Li₃PO₄ formation, and overall capacity loss. Codoping with Mg (LiMg_0.05Mn_xFe_1−xPO₄) improved stability but lowered discharge capacity owing to the electrochemical inactivity of Mg²⁺ and impurity formation. Notably, an optimal x value of ~0.3 exhibited an effective balance between high energy density, rate capability, and structural integrity in Mn-doped LiFePO₄ cathodes for next-generation lithium-ion batteries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Materials and Interfaces: Anode, Cathode, Separators and Electrolytes or Others)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 4694 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

AI-Driven Thermal Management Optimization for Lithium-Ion Battery Packs: A Surrogate Model Approach to Cell Spacing Design

by Florin Mariasiu, Ioan Szabo and George E. Mariasiu

Batteries 2026, 12(3), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12030086 - 2 Mar 2026

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2053

Abstract

The article presents the possibilities of integrating artificial intelligence (through specific machine learning techniques) in the design and construction process of a battery in order to optimize its thermal management. The workflow starts from CFD thermal simulations (1C-rate) of a battery (16 Li-ion [...] Read more.

The article presents the possibilities of integrating artificial intelligence (through specific machine learning techniques) in the design and construction process of a battery in order to optimize its thermal management. The workflow starts from CFD thermal simulations (1C-rate) of a battery (16 Li-ion cells, type 18650, 4 × 4 arrangement), and based on the results, a complex thermal landscape is created through radial basis function (Rbf) interpolation. Furthermore, a robust neural network (NN) model is proposed and validated through the obtained performances, which is used further for the optimization of the design space (DSO) and multi-objective optimization (MOO) processes. The obtained results show that for DSO, a cell spacing of 1.37 mm is proposed for a maximum cell temperature of 25.53 °C, and in the case of MOO, a cell spacing of 2.64 mm (for minimum fan energy consumption). The main conclusion of the obtained results shows that the use of the NN model as a surrogate (the Digital Twin of a physical model) presents two great advantages in the process of designing a battery: running a CFD simulation for each point on the 2D grid would take hours, while the NN model can generate the entire map and find the optimum in less than 2 s, and moreover, thousands of additional points can be evaluated to find the thin limit of optimal models, effectively filtering out thousands of energy-consuming “suboptimal” configurations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence-Based State-of-Health Estimation of Lithium-Ion Batteries: 3rd Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 1353 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Battery State-of-Health Estimation with Embedded Impedance Spectrum Features Under Multiple Battery Chemistry and Temperature Conditions

by Yue Xiang, Dikshit Chauhan and Dipti Srinivasan

Batteries 2026, 12(2), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12020077 - 20 Feb 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1263

Abstract

The transition to clean energy and electrification of transportation requires accurate, real-time monitoring of the state of health (SoH) of lithium-ion batteries, which serve as critical components for energy storage. Conventional SoH estimation methods typically rely on fixed statistical feature extraction, have poor [...] Read more.

The transition to clean energy and electrification of transportation requires accurate, real-time monitoring of the state of health (SoH) of lithium-ion batteries, which serve as critical components for energy storage. Conventional SoH estimation methods typically rely on fixed statistical feature extraction, have poor generalization ability, and are unsuitable for multiple battery chemistry and temperature conditions. In this work, we propose a deep learning framework based on a transformer encoder and XGBoost to extract ageing-related electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) features, capturing low-, mid-, and high-frequency ageing characteristics, directly from daily operation profiles for capacity estimation. The approach requires only current, voltage, and temperature time-series data, making it suitable for edge deployment without the need for explicit EIS measurements. Validation on a dataset with two battery chemistries and three temperature conditions yields a root-mean-square error of 0.16% to 0.20% in capacity estimation. These results establish the feasibility of accurate SoH estimation during multiple operation of battery energy storage systems and electric vehicles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Management Systems Based on Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

50 pages, 3749 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Review of Nail Penetration and Thermal Abuse Tests of Lithium-Ion Batteries and Their Emission Characterization

by Ananthu Shibu Nair, Xiao-Yu Wu, Prodip K. Das and Michael Fowler

Batteries 2026, 12(2), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12020074 - 18 Feb 2026

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3445

Abstract

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are pivotal in electric vehicles (EVs), grid storage, and portable electronics, but their high energy density introduces safety risks, particularly thermal runaway (TR). TR can lead to fires, explosions, and hazardous emissions, posing severe health and environmental threats. Experimental investigation [...] Read more.

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are pivotal in electric vehicles (EVs), grid storage, and portable electronics, but their high energy density introduces safety risks, particularly thermal runaway (TR). TR can lead to fires, explosions, and hazardous emissions, posing severe health and environmental threats. Experimental investigation of TR commonly relies on abuse testing methods, among which mechanical abuse via nail penetration (NP) and thermal abuse (TA) are widely used to simulate crash-induced and heat-driven failure scenarios, respectively. This review provides a comprehensive and comparative synthesis of NP and TA testing methodologies, examining how variations in test configuration, cell parameters (capacity, state of charge, and chemistry), and environmental conditions influence TR behavior and emission characteristics. Particular emphasis is placed on comparing reported emission profiles from NP- and TA-triggered TR events, including CO₂, CO, HF, hydrocarbons, and solvent vapors, and identifying the methodological origins of discrepancies across studies. By systematically linking emission variability to gas collection methods, analytical techniques, and data normalization approaches, this review highlights key limitations in current testing standards related to emission characterization. Finally, recommendations are offered for harmonizing abuse testing protocols and improving experimental design to enhance reproducibility, enabling meaningful cross-study comparison, and supporting safer deployment of LIBs in high-risk applications such as EVs and grid-scale energy storage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Management in Electric Vehicles: Current Status and Future Trends: 3rd Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 4009 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Strategies for Enhancing Battery Life Under Fast Charging: Insights from NMC-Based Cell Cycling

by Saiful Islam, Pete Barnes, Bumjun Park, Bianca Yi Wen Mak, Michael C. Evans, Eric J. Dufek and Tanvir R. Tanim

Batteries 2026, 12(2), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12020073 - 17 Feb 2026

Viewed by 2246

Abstract

Fast charging improves the usability of consumer electronics and electric vehicles (EVs) by reducing range anxiety and downtime but accelerates battery degradation and raises safety concerns. Optimizing operational conditions during fast-charging is critical to mitigating aging and ensuring safety. This study evaluated multilayer [...] Read more.

Fast charging improves the usability of consumer electronics and electric vehicles (EVs) by reducing range anxiety and downtime but accelerates battery degradation and raises safety concerns. Optimizing operational conditions during fast-charging is critical to mitigating aging and ensuring safety. This study evaluated multilayer Gr/NMC811 cells under various conditions, including depths of discharge (DODs of 68%, 84%, and 100%), upper charge cutoff voltages (4.1–4.2 V), and post-charge rest periods (2–30 min), using a 20 min fast charging protocol for up to 500 cycles (up to 150,000 miles of EV use assuming 3.3 mi/kWh vehicle level energy efficiency). Surprisingly, higher DODs under fast charging improved battery life and performance compared to lower DODs. Reducing the upper charge cut-off voltage helped mitigate degradation. A brief 2 min rest period after charging further reduced aging effects. The primary aging modes were loss of lithium inventory and cathode active material. Although minor lithium plating was observed within 500 cycles, it did not affect performance significantly. These findings suggest that, with optimized conditions, cells can sustain hundreds of fast charge cycles—equivalent to over 100,000 miles of EV use—without significant adverse effects on performance or longevity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Energy Storage System Aging, Diagnosis and Safety)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 9542 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Architectural Evolution and Advanced Joining Techniques in High-Energy-Density Cylindrical Li-Ion Cells

by Masilamani Chelladurai Asirvatham, Puritut Nakhanivej, Vincent A. Perry-French, Ehman F. Altaf, Melanie J. Loveridge, Tanveerkhan S. Pathan and James D. McLaggan

Batteries 2026, 12(2), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12020072 - 17 Feb 2026

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1729

Abstract

This study presents a comparative analysis of cylindrical lithium-ion cell architectures, tracing the evolution from the conventional tabbed design (18650/21700) to the large-format 4680 cell with its tabless current collectors. This architectural shift is driven by the imperative to minimise internal ohmic resistance [...] Read more.

This study presents a comparative analysis of cylindrical lithium-ion cell architectures, tracing the evolution from the conventional tabbed design (18650/21700) to the large-format 4680 cell with its tabless current collectors. This architectural shift is driven by the imperative to minimise internal ohmic resistance and enhance thermal management in high-power automotive battery applications. Forensic investigation reveals that the 4680 design replaces localised, high-resistance tab connections with a distributed, low-impedance interface, necessitating the adoption of advanced manufacturing techniques, including long ultrasonic torsional welding and highly controlled high-power density laser welding. Crucially, the welding of external aluminium busbars to the cell relies on sophisticated microstructural engineering, particularly for the challenging dissimilar Aluminium-Steel (Al-Steel) anode weld. This weld format employs a spiral laser path to limit the formation of brittle aluminium-iron (Al-Fe) intermetallic compounds (IMCs), leveraging the steel cell casing’s nickel plating to promote a more ductile Al-Fe-Ni phase for improved joint reliability. Furthermore, the 4680 cell incorporates a significantly thicker casing (≈0.54 to 0.7 mm) for enhanced mechanical strength. In conclusion, the 4680 cell achieves superior performance through robust mechanical design and advanced welding processes that prioritise microstructurally sound, low-resistance interfaces. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Processing, Manufacturing and Recycling)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

21 pages, 5095 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Parametric LFP Battery Degradation Model for Techno-Economic Assessment of European System-Imbalance Services

by Samuel O. Ezennaya and Julia Kowal

Batteries 2026, 12(2), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12020056 - 8 Feb 2026

Viewed by 1384

Abstract

Battery energy storage systems (BESSs) are increasingly deployed by European Balance Responsible Parties (BRPs) to mitigate system-imbalance exposure; yet, techno-economic assessments often represent degradation using fixed-lifetime or equivalent-full-cycle assumptions that obscure the dependence of wear on operating policy and sizing. This study develops [...] Read more.

Battery energy storage systems (BESSs) are increasingly deployed by European Balance Responsible Parties (BRPs) to mitigate system-imbalance exposure; yet, techno-economic assessments often represent degradation using fixed-lifetime or equivalent-full-cycle assumptions that obscure the dependence of wear on operating policy and sizing. This study develops a data-driven, parameterised degradation framework for LiFePO₄ (LFP) BESS operating under imbalance duty. Using historical imbalance datasets from five European countries spanning eight transmission system operators (TSOs), annual cycle-induced capacity loss, calendar-induced capacity loss, and total annual capacity loss at 25 °C are mapped as explicit functions of energy-to-power ratio (duration), maximum power rating, depth of discharge, state-of-charge operating bounds, and daily cycling intensity. A degree-2 Ridge specification yields compact, auditable coefficients that transfer across entities (including an out-of-time full-year hold-out for Belgium, 2025). The fitted response surfaces reveal consistent EU-wide operating regimes: cycling-dominant ageing for durations

\leq 3

h, a mixed regime for durations

\approx 3

–6 h, and calendar-dominant ageing for durations

\geq 6

h, indicating a practical compromise around ≈4–5.5 h. The resulting coefficientised outputs are Techno-Economic Assessment (TEA)-ready and enable risk-aware sizing and state-of-charge policy design for imbalance-focused BESS portfolios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

30 pages, 24329 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Selective Extraction of Lithium from Li Batteries by Leaching the Black Mass in Oxalic Acid

by Kristina Talianova, Martina Laubertová, Zita Takáčová, Jakub Klimko, Jaroslav Briančin, Simon Nagy and Dušan Oráč

Batteries 2026, 12(2), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12020043 - 25 Jan 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2063

Abstract

In this work, a method for leaching black mass from spent Li batteries using oxalic acid was developed and experimentally verified with the objective of selectively separating lithium and cobalt. Oxalic acid proved to be an efficient and selective leaching agent. Under 1 [...] Read more.

In this work, a method for leaching black mass from spent Li batteries using oxalic acid was developed and experimentally verified with the objective of selectively separating lithium and cobalt. Oxalic acid proved to be an efficient and selective leaching agent. Under 1 M C₂H₂O₄, 120 min, L:S = 20, 80 °C and 300 rpm, a lithium yield of 90% was achieved, while cobalt dissolution remained low at 1.57%. Subsequently, cobalt spontaneously precipitated from the leachate within several hours, and the solid phase was fully separated after 24 h. The leachate contained minor amounts of accompanying metals, with dissolution yields of 0.5% Mn, 8% Fe and 1.4% Cu. These impurities were removed from the leachate by controlled pH adjustment using NaOH at ambient temperature and 450 rpm, with complete precipitation at pH 12. This procedure generated a purified lithium-rich leachate, which was converted into lithium oxalate by crystallisation at 105 °C. Subsequent calcination of the resulting solid at 450 °C for 30 min produced Li₂CO₃ with a purity of 91%. Based on the experimental findings, a conceptual technological process for selective lithium leaching using oxalic acid was proposed, demonstrating the potential of this method for sustainable lithium recovery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Second Life and Recycling: Perspectives for High-Performance Batteries)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

21 pages, 4803 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Recovery of High-Purity Lithium Hydroxide Monohydrate from Lithium-Rich Leachate by Anti-Solvent Crystallization: Process Optimization and Impurity Incorporation Mechanisms

by Faizan Muneer, Ida Strandkvist, Fredrik Engström and Lena Sundqvist-Öqvist

Batteries 2026, 12(1), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12010035 - 21 Jan 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1291

Abstract

The increasing demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has intensified the need for efficient lithium (Li) recovery from secondary sources. This study focuses on anti-solvent crystallization for the recovery of high-purity lithium hydroxide monohydrate (LiOH·H₂O) from a Li-rich leachate, derived from the [...] Read more.

The increasing demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has intensified the need for efficient lithium (Li) recovery from secondary sources. This study focuses on anti-solvent crystallization for the recovery of high-purity lithium hydroxide monohydrate (LiOH·H₂O) from a Li-rich leachate, derived from the flue dust of a pilot-scale pyrometallurgical process for LIB material recycling. To optimize product yield and purity, a series of experiments were performed, focusing on the influence of parameters such as solvent type, organic-to-aqueous (O/A) volumetric ratio, crystallization time, stirring rate, and anti-solvent addition rate. Acetone was identified as the most effective anti-solvent, producing rectangular cuboid crystals with approximately 90% Li recovery and around 95% purity, under optimized conditions (O/A = 4, 3 h, 150 rpm, and solvent flow rate of 5 mL/min). The flow rate influenced crystal morphology and impurity entrapment, with 5 mL/min favoring nucleation-dominated crystallization regime, producing ~20 μm of well-dispersed crystals with reduced impurity incorporation. SEM-EDS, surface washing, and gradual dissolution of obtained LiOH·H₂O crystals revealed that the impurities sodium (Na), potassium (K), aluminum (Al), calcium (Ca) and chromium (Cr) were crystallized as conglomerates. It was found that Na, K, Al, and Ca primarily crystallized as highly soluble conglomerates, while Cr was crystallized as a lowly soluble conglomerate impurity. In contrast Zn was distributed throughout the crystal bulk, suggesting either the entrapment of soluble zincate species within the growing crystals or the formation of mixed Li-Zn phase. Therefore, to achieve battery-grade purity, further purification measures are necessary. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Processing, Manufacturing and Recycling)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

16 pages, 6964 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Application of Li₃InCl₆-PEO Composite Electrolyte in All-Solid-State Battery

by Han-Xin Mei, Paolo Piccardo and Roberto Spotorno

Batteries 2026, 12(1), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12010021 - 6 Jan 2026

Viewed by 2063

Abstract

Poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO)-based solid polymer electrolytes typically suffer from limited ionic conductivity at near-room temperature and often require inorganic reinforcement. Halide solid-state electrolytes such as Li₃InCl₆ (LIC) offer fast Li⁺ transport but are moisture-sensitive and typically require pressure-assisted densification. [...] Read more.

Poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO)-based solid polymer electrolytes typically suffer from limited ionic conductivity at near-room temperature and often require inorganic reinforcement. Halide solid-state electrolytes such as Li₃InCl₆ (LIC) offer fast Li⁺ transport but are moisture-sensitive and typically require pressure-assisted densification. Here, we fabricate a flexible LIC–PEO composite electrolyte via slurry casting in acetonitrile with a small amount of LiPF₆ additive. The free-standing membrane delivers an ionic conductivity of 1.19 mS cm⁻¹ at 35 °C and an electrochemical stability window up to 5.15 V. Compared with pristine LIC, the composite shows improved moisture tolerance, and its conductivity can be recovered by mild heating after exposure. The electrolyte enables stable Li|LIC–PEO|Li cycling for >620 h and supports Li|LIC–PEO|NCM111 cells with capacity retentions of 84.2% after 300 cycles at 0.2 C and 80.6% after 150 cycles at 1.2 C (35 °C). Structural and surface analyses (XRD, SEM/EDX, XPS) elucidate the composite microstructure and interfacial chemistry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solid Polymer Electrolytes for Lithium Batteries and Beyond)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

19 pages, 4836 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Experimental Study of Pouch-Type Battery Cell Thermal Characteristics Operated at High C-Rates

by Marius Vasylius, Deivydas Šapalas, Benas Dumbrauskas, Valentinas Kartašovas, Audrius Senulis, Artūras Tadžijevas, Pranas Mažeika, Rimantas Didžiokas, Ernestas Šimkutis and Lukas Januta

Batteries 2026, 12(1), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12010014 - 28 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1701

Abstract

This paper investigates pouch-type lithium-ion battery cells with a nominal voltage of 3.7 V and a nominal capacity of 57 Ah. A numerical model of the cell was developed and implemented using the NTGK method, which accurately predicts electrochemical and thermal processes. The [...] Read more.

This paper investigates pouch-type lithium-ion battery cells with a nominal voltage of 3.7 V and a nominal capacity of 57 Ah. A numerical model of the cell was developed and implemented using the NTGK method, which accurately predicts electrochemical and thermal processes. The results of numerical modeling matched with the experimental results of battery cell temperature measurements—the average deviation was about 4.5%; therefore, it can be considered reliable for further engineering research and construction of battery modules. In the experimental part of the paper, the battery cell was loaded in various C-rates (from 0.5 to 2 C), using heat flux sensors, thermocouples, and a thermal imaging camera. The studies revealed that the highest temperature is in the tabs area of cells. The temperature on the face of the cell surface exceeds 35 °C already from a load of 1.35 C, which accelerates cell degradation and reduces the number of cycles. Thermal imaging revealed uneven temperature distribution, whereby the top of the cell heats up more than the bottom of the cell and the temperature gradient can reach 2–4 °C. It was observed that during faster charge/discharge modes, the temperature rises from the tabs of the cell, and during slower ones, more in the middle face surface of the cell. The studies highlight the need to apply additional cooling solutions, especially cooling of the upper cell face, to ensure durability and uniform heat distribution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Charging Systems and Charging Management Strategies for Battery Electric Vehicles)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 8743 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Deep Learning-Based State Estimation for Sodium-Ion Batteries Using Long Short-Term Memory Network

by Yunzhe Li, Yuhao Li, Jiangong Zhu, Haifeng Dai, Zhi Li and Bo Jiang

Batteries 2026, 12(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12010006 - 25 Dec 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1620

Abstract

Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) have attracted growing attention as an alternative to lithium-ion technologies for electric mobility and stationary energy-storage applications, owing to the wide availability of sodium resources, cost advantages, and comparatively favorable safety characteristics. Accurate state-of-health (SOH) estimation is essential for safe [...] Read more.

Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) have attracted growing attention as an alternative to lithium-ion technologies for electric mobility and stationary energy-storage applications, owing to the wide availability of sodium resources, cost advantages, and comparatively favorable safety characteristics. Accurate state-of-health (SOH) estimation is essential for safe and reliable SIB deployment, yet existing data-driven methods still suffer from limited accuracy and interpretability, as well as a lack of dedicated aging datasets. This study proposes an explainable SOH estimation methodology based on a long short-term memory (LSTM) network combined with model-agnostic KernelSHAP analysis. Thirteen health indicators (HIs) are extracted from charge/discharge data and post-charge relaxation segments, and the most relevant indicators are selected via Pearson correlation screening as model inputs. Built on these HIs, an LSTM-based multi-step framework is developed to take HI sequences as input and forecast the SOH trajectory over the subsequent 20 cycles. Experimental results show that the proposed method achieves high accuracy and robust cross-cell generalization, with mean absolute error (MAE) below 1.0%, root-mean-square error (RMSE) below 1.2% across all cells, and an average RMSE of about 0.75% in the main cross-cell setting. KernelSHAP-based global and temporal analyses further clarify how different HIs and time positions influence SOH estimates, enhancing model transparency and physical interpretability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Control, Modelling, and Management of Batteries)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 8145 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

State of Health Estimation of Lithium Cobalt Oxide Batteries Based on ARX Identification Across Different Temperatures

by Simone Barcellona, Mattia Ribera, Emanuele Fedele, Pasquale Franzese, Luigi Piegari, Lorenzo Codecasa and Diego Iannuzzi

Batteries 2026, 12(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12010002 - 20 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 890

Abstract

Lithium-ion batteries (LiBs) undergo degradation influenced by storage and cycling conditions. Accurate state of health (SOH) assessment is crucial for predicting battery aging, which is generally marked by a decline in capacity (energy fade) or an increase in internal resistance (power fade). This [...] Read more.

Lithium-ion batteries (LiBs) undergo degradation influenced by storage and cycling conditions. Accurate state of health (SOH) assessment is crucial for predicting battery aging, which is generally marked by a decline in capacity (energy fade) or an increase in internal resistance (power fade). This study investigates the impulse response (IR) technique for assessing the SOH of lithium cobalt oxide batteries, addressing both capacity fade and rising internal resistance. The IR method relies on a predefined dataset that records the voltage response of the LiB to pulse current inputs across various states of charge (SOC), temperatures, and aging conditions to train a series of linear auto-regressive exogenous (ARX) models. This dataset is then used as a look-up table for subsequent SOH estimation under new operating conditions. The results demonstrate that the method can capture trends in capacity fade and resistance increase only when multiple battery temperatures are incorporated into the look-up table. In contrast, estimations based on ARX models trained at a single fixed temperature fail to provide reliable predictions of battery SOH. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards a Smarter Battery Management System: 3rd Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 1484 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Insights into Chemo-Mechanical Yielding and Eigenstrains in Lithium-Ion Battery Degradation

by Fatih Uzun

Batteries 2025, 11(12), 465; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11120465 - 18 Dec 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1073

Abstract

In lithium-ion battery electrodes, repeated lithium insertion and extraction generate compositional gradients and volumetric changes that produce evolving stress fields and eigenstrains, accelerating mechanical degradation. While existing diffusion-induced stress models often capture only elastic behavior, they rarely provide a closed-form analytical treatment of [...] Read more.

In lithium-ion battery electrodes, repeated lithium insertion and extraction generate compositional gradients and volumetric changes that produce evolving stress fields and eigenstrains, accelerating mechanical degradation. While existing diffusion-induced stress models often capture only elastic behavior, they rarely provide a closed-form analytical treatment of irreversible deformation or its connection to cyclic degradation. In this work, a transparent analytical framework is developed for a planar electrode that explicitly couples lithium diffusion with elastic-plastic deformation, eigenstrain formation, and fracture-aware stress relaxation. The framework provides a means to quantitatively model the evolution of residual stress gradients, revealing the formation of a damaging tensile state at the electrode surface after delithiation and demonstrating how path-dependent irreversible deformation establishes a degradation memory. A parametric study is used to demonstrate the framework’s capability to clarify the influence of diffusivity and yield strength on residual stress development. This framework, which unifies diffusion, plasticity, and fracture in closed-form mechanical relations, provides new physical insight into the origins of chemo-mechanical degradation and offers a computationally efficient tool for guiding the design of durable next-generation electrode materials where chemo-mechanical strains are moderate. Full article

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

12 pages, 2912 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

KI-Assisted MnO₂ Electrocatalysis Enables Low-Charging Voltage, Long-Life Rechargeable Zinc–Air Batteries

by Francesco Biscaglia, Sabrina Di Masi, Marco Milanese, Claudio Mele, Giuseppe Gigli, Arturo De Risi and Luisa De Marco

Batteries 2025, 11(12), 463; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11120463 - 16 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1884

Abstract

Rechargeable zinc–air batteries (ZABs) are promising candidates for sustainable energy storage owing to their high theoretical energy density, safety, and environmental compatibility. However, their practical application is hindered by sluggish oxygen evolution reaction (OER) kinetics and the high charging voltage required, which reduce [...] Read more.

Rechargeable zinc–air batteries (ZABs) are promising candidates for sustainable energy storage owing to their high theoretical energy density, safety, and environmental compatibility. However, their practical application is hindered by sluggish oxygen evolution reaction (OER) kinetics and the high charging voltage required, which reduce energy efficiency and accelerate electrode degradation. Here, we report for the first time the beneficial role of potassium iodide (KI) as a reaction modifier in ZABs employing manganese dioxide (MnO₂) as a bifunctional catalyst. MnO₂ not only exhibits remarkable electrocatalytic activity toward the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) but also catalyzes the iodide oxidation reaction (IOR), which proceeds at significantly lower potentials than the OER. As a result, KI-modified MnO₂ ZABs achieve a remarkably low charging voltage of ≈1.8 V and an energy efficiency of 69.9% at 5 mA/cm². Although the IOR is not fully reversible in alkaline media and its effectiveness depends on the iodide concentration in the electrolyte—which may decrease upon repeated discharge–charge cycling—the suppression of electrode degradation enables stable operation for more than 200 charge–discharge cycles. These findings demonstrate the synergistic effect of KI and MnO₂ in enabling an efficient ORR/IOR pathway, providing a sustainable and cost-effective alternative to noble metal catalysts and opening new perspectives for the practical development of high-performance ZABs. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

41 pages, 1635 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Photoresponsive TiO₂/Graphene Hybrid Electrodes for Dual-Function Supercapacitors with Integrated Environmental Sensing Capabilities

by María C. Cotto, José Ducongé, Francisco Díaz, Iro García, Carlos Neira, Carmen Morant and Francisco Márquez

Batteries 2025, 11(12), 460; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11120460 - 15 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1064

Abstract

This review critically examines photoresponsive supercapacitors based on TiO₂/graphene hybrids, with a particular focus on their emerging dual role as energy-storage devices and environmental sensors. We first provide a concise overview of the electronic structure of TiO₂ and the key [...] Read more.

This review critically examines photoresponsive supercapacitors based on TiO₂/graphene hybrids, with a particular focus on their emerging dual role as energy-storage devices and environmental sensors. We first provide a concise overview of the electronic structure of TiO₂ and the key attributes of graphene and related nanocarbons that enable efficient charge separation, transport, and interfacial engineering. We then summarize and compare reported device architectures and electrode designs, highlighting how morphology, graphene integration strategies, and illumination conditions govern specific capacitance, cycling stability, rate capability, and light-induced enhancement in performance. Particular attention is given to the underlying mechanisms of photo-induced capacitance enhancement—including photocarrier generation, interfacial polarization, and photodoping—and to how these processes can be exploited to embed sensing functionality in working supercapacitors. We review representative studies in which TiO₂/graphene systems operate as capacitive sensors for humidity, gases, and volatile organic compounds, emphasizing quantitative figures of merit such as sensitivity, response/recovery times, and stability under repeated cycling. Finally, we outline current challenges in materials integration, device reliability, and benchmarking, and propose future research directions toward scalable, multifunctional TiO₂/graphene platforms for self-powered and environmentally aware electronics. This work is intended as a state-of-the-art summary and critical guide for researchers developing next-generation photoresponsive supercapacitors with integrated sensing capability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue High Energy Density Supercapacitors: Acquisition, Characterization, and Application: 2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 2340 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Macro Economic and Ecological Aspects of Cell Production in Europe 2030

by Tim Wicke, Lukas Weymann, Christoph Neef and Jens Tübke

Batteries 2025, 11(12), 457; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11120457 - 12 Dec 2025

Viewed by 1359

Abstract

Factory announcements for battery production are increasing in number as European demand for battery cells grows. Using a Monte Carlo simulation (108 projects as of October 2025) with risk factors for individual projects, the predicted theoretical production capacity for lithium-ion batteries in Europe [...] Read more.

Factory announcements for battery production are increasing in number as European demand for battery cells grows. Using a Monte Carlo simulation (108 projects as of October 2025) with risk factors for individual projects, the predicted theoretical production capacity for lithium-ion batteries in Europe will rise to 1.1–1.5 TWh, enabling a real production output of 0.8–1.0 TWh by 2030. Our analysis suggests necessary cumulative investments in battery cell gigafactories of 36–139 billion euros by 2030. The industrial output of LIB cells in 2030 will have a value of 35–99 billion euros, of which the market size of battery production is around 6–17 billion euros. Furthermore, 43,000–174,000 direct jobs could be created, with the strongest impacts seen in Eastern Europe by the end of the decade. The raw material demand generated by this industry rises steeply: lithium will rise from 14 kt in 2025 to 47–133 kt, and nickel from 83 kt to 226–640 kt by 2030, implying continued import dependencies. The energy demand of European cell production will be 8.4–19.9 TWh in 2030. Furthermore, CO₂ emissions of cell production will be 1.6 to 3.7 Mt CO₂-eq in 2030. The volume of production scrap is estimated at 160–398 kt in 2030, creating near-term demand for recycling capacities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Processing, Manufacturing and Recycling)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 3215 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Thick LiMn₂O₄ Electrode with Polymer Electrolyte for Electrochemical Extraction of Lithium from Brines

by Daiwei Yao, Jing Qin, Hongtan Liu, Mert Akin and Xiangyang Zhou

Batteries 2025, 11(12), 454; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11120454 - 10 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1190

Abstract

Thick (900–1500 µm), crack-free lithium manganese oxide (LMO) electrodes with a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)-based polymer electrolyte were prepared using an innovated slurry casting method. The selectivity and intercalation capacity of the thick electrodes of 900–1500 μm were evaluated in aqueous chloride solutions containing [...] Read more.

Thick (900–1500 µm), crack-free lithium manganese oxide (LMO) electrodes with a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)-based polymer electrolyte were prepared using an innovated slurry casting method. The selectivity and intercalation capacity of the thick electrodes of 900–1500 μm were evaluated in aqueous chloride solutions containing main cations in synthetic Salar de Atacama brine using cyclic voltammetry (CV) measurements. The CV data indicated that a high Li⁺ selectivity of Li/Na = 152.7 could be achieved under potentiostatic conditions. With the thickest electrode, while the mass specific intercalation capacity was 6.234 mg per gram of LMO, the area specific capacity was increased by 3–11 folds compared to that for conventional thin electrodes to 0.282 mg per square centimeter. In addition, 82% of capacity was retained over 30 intercalation/dis-intercalation cycles. XRD and electrochemical analyses revealed that both Faradaic diffusion-controlled or battery-like intercalation and Faradaic non-diffusion controlled or pseudocapacitive intercalation contributed to the capacity and selectivity. This work demonstrates a practical technology for thick electrode fabrication that promises to result in a significant reduction in manufacturing and operational costs for lithium extraction from brines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solid Polymer Electrolytes for Lithium Batteries and Beyond)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

43 pages, 9359 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Design and Implementation of an Intelligent Reconfigurable High-Voltage Battery System for Next-Generation Electric Vehicles

by Stefan Schwertner, Tobias Buchberger, Simon Diehl, Rebekka Ferg, Christian Hanzl, Christoph Hartmann, Markus Hölzle, Jan Kleiner, Lidiya Komsiyska, Meinert Lewerenz, Bernhard Liebhart, Michael Schmid, Dominik Schneider, Florian Scholz, Sascha Speer, Julia Stöttner, Christoph Terbrack, Michael Hinterberger and Christian Endisch

Batteries 2025, 11(11), 424; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11110424 - 18 Nov 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3399

Abstract

Battery system engineers face the challenge of balancing competing requirements regarding performance, maintainability, sustainability, safety, and cost—especially in the automotive industry. Intelligent battery systems potentially offer a solution with fewer trade-offs. They feature a battery management system with advanced sensing and data analysis [...] Read more.

Battery system engineers face the challenge of balancing competing requirements regarding performance, maintainability, sustainability, safety, and cost—especially in the automotive industry. Intelligent battery systems potentially offer a solution with fewer trade-offs. They feature a battery management system with advanced sensing and data analysis capabilities that facilitate improved battery monitoring and operation. Reconfigurable energy storage units enable sophisticated operating strategies, including complete cell state control, full energy content utilization, and a measured response to faults. This article presents the design, development, and operation of a full-scale intelligent battery system prototype comprising 324 automotive lithium-ion cells with a nominal voltage of 400

V

. The system exhibits a modular single cell architecture and an advanced centralized battery management system. We detail the system architecture, hardware and software component design, and system integration. Initial tests demonstrate the battery’s operability, extended functionality, and enhanced safety. Our analysis shows that the additional losses introduced by reconfigurability are more than offset by the benefits of full energy utilization—even for new cells, with increasing advantage as aging progresses. The results underscore the potential of intelligent battery systems and motivate further research and development toward economic assessment and industrial adoption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Feature Papers in Batteries)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 8752 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Development of Modular BMS Topology with Active Cell Balancing

by José Gabriel O. Pinto, João P. D. Miranda, Luis A. M. Barros and José A. Afonso

Batteries 2025, 11(11), 421; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11110421 - 14 Nov 2025

Viewed by 2357

Abstract

This paper presents the design, implementation and experimental validation of a modular battery management system (BMS) featuring active cell balancing. The proposed BMS consists of a master module and multiple slave submodules responsible for monitoring and balancing 22 cells connected in series. The [...] Read more.

This paper presents the design, implementation and experimental validation of a modular battery management system (BMS) featuring active cell balancing. The proposed BMS consists of a master module and multiple slave submodules responsible for monitoring and balancing 22 cells connected in series. The master module collects voltage and temperature data from the slave submodules and measures the battery current to estimate the cells’ state of charge (SoC). Each slave module performs cell voltage and temperature measurements and controls a balancing circuit based on dc-dc converters. This work describes in detail the development and validation of the dc-dc converter based in the switched inductor topology, presenting the converter’s operational principles, a theoretical and simulation-based analysis of its performance, the implementation of the MOSFETs driver circuits based on PNP transistors and experimental results obtained from a submodule prototype. The results demonstrate the capability of the switched inductor converter to achieve effective voltage equalization by transferring energy from the cells with higher voltages to cells with lower voltages. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Management in Electric Vehicles: Current Status and Future Trends: 2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

27 pages, 1702 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Comparative Study of the DEKF and DUKF for Battery SOC and SOH Estimation

by Arash Seifoddini, Federico Miretti and Daniela Anna Misul

Batteries 2025, 11(11), 410; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11110410 - 5 Nov 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1633

Abstract

The accurate estimation of the state of charge (SOC) and state of health (SOH) is essential for the safety and reliability of electric vehicle batteries. Conventional single-state Kalman filters are prone to parameter drift caused by cell aging, which leads to persistent SOC [...] Read more.

The accurate estimation of the state of charge (SOC) and state of health (SOH) is essential for the safety and reliability of electric vehicle batteries. Conventional single-state Kalman filters are prone to parameter drift caused by cell aging, which leads to persistent SOC estimation errors. This study compares two dual-estimator methods, the Dual Extended Kalman Filter (DEKF) and the Dual Unscented Kalman Filter (DUKF), for simultaneous SOC and SOH estimation using a second-order equivalent-circuit model. The process and measurement covariance matrices were tuned through a structured optimization procedure to ensure consistent performance under different drive cycles and initialization errors. To mitigate the weak voltage sensitivity to capacity, synthetic SOC–capacity coupling was introduced to enhance SOH observability and accelerate convergence. Simulations conducted under the Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule (UDDS) and a real-world CLUST7 profile demonstrated SOC root-mean-square errors near 2% for both filters. The DUKF achieved faster and smoother convergence than the DEKF but required roughly fivefold higher computational cost. These findings provide quantitative evidence supporting dual Kalman filtering as an effective framework for accurate and robust SOC/SOH estimation in production battery management systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence and Batteries: AI-Powered Innovations in Battery Technology)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 2807 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

One-Step Electrospun LTO Anode for Flexible Li-Ion Batteries

by Edi Edna Mados, Roni Amit, Noy Kluska, Diana Golodnitsky and Amit Sitt

Batteries 2025, 11(11), 405; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11110405 - 4 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1331

Abstract

Fiber-based and fabric batteries signify a groundbreaking development in energy storage, allowing for the straightforward incorporation of power sources into wearable fabrics, intelligent apparel, and adaptable electronics. In this study, we introduce a novel strategy for one-step fabrication of a flexible lithium titanate [...] Read more.

Fiber-based and fabric batteries signify a groundbreaking development in energy storage, allowing for the straightforward incorporation of power sources into wearable fabrics, intelligent apparel, and adaptable electronics. In this study, we introduce a novel strategy for one-step fabrication of a flexible lithium titanate oxide (Li₄Ti₅O₁₂, LTO) anode directly on a copper current collector via electrospinning, eliminating the need for high-temperature post-processing. Based on our previous work with electrospun nanofiber cathodes and carbon-based current collector, we prepared the LTO electrode using polyethylene oxide (PEO) as a binder and carbon additives to enhance mechanical integrity and conductivity. LTO fiber mats detached from the current collector were found to endure multiple instances of bending, twisting, and folding without any structural damage. LTO/Li cells incorporating electrospun fiber LTO electrodes with 72 wt% active material loading deliver a high capacity of 170 mAh g⁻¹ at 0.05 C. In addition, they demonstrate excellent cycling stability with a capacity loss of only 0.01% per cycle over 200 cycles and maintain a capacity of 160 mAh g⁻¹ at 0.1 C. The scalability of the heat-treatment-free method for fabricating flexible LTO anodes, together with the improved mechanical durability and electrochemical performance, offers a promising route toward the development of next-generation flexible and wearable energy storage devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Materials and Interfaces: Anode, Cathode, Separators and Electrolytes or Others)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 4314 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Condition-Dependent Rate Capability of Laser-Structured Hard Carbon Anodes in Sodium-Based Batteries

by Viktoria Falkowski and Wilhelm Pfleging

Batteries 2025, 11(11), 403; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11110403 - 1 Nov 2025

Viewed by 2066

Abstract

Changing the topography of electrodes by ultrafast laser ablation has shown great potential in enhancing electrochemical performance in lithium-ion batteries. The generation of microstructured channels within the electrodes creates shorter pathways for lithium-ion diffusion and mitigates strain from volume expansion during electrochemical cycling. [...] Read more.

Changing the topography of electrodes by ultrafast laser ablation has shown great potential in enhancing electrochemical performance in lithium-ion batteries. The generation of microstructured channels within the electrodes creates shorter pathways for lithium-ion diffusion and mitigates strain from volume expansion during electrochemical cycling. The topography modification enables faster charging, improved rate capability, and the potential to combine high-power and high-energy properties. In this study, we present a preliminary exploration of this approach for sodium-ion battery technology, focusing on the impact of laser-generated channels on hard carbon electrodes in sodium-metal half-cells. The performance was analyzed by employing different conditions, including different electrolytes, separators, and electrodes with varying compaction degrees. To identify key factors contributing to rate capability improvements, we conducted a comparative analysis of laser-structured and unstructured electrodes using methods including scanning electron microscopy, laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, and electrochemical cycling. Despite being based on a limited sample size, the data reveal promising trends and serve as a basis for further optimization. Our findings suggest that laser structuring can enhance rate capability, particularly under conditions of limited electrolyte wetting or increased electrode density. This highlights the potential of laser structuring to optimize electrode design for next-generation sodium-ion batteries and other post-lithium technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Batteries: 10th Anniversary)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 14796 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Thermal Runaway Propagation in Pouch-Type Lithium-Ion Battery Modules: Effects of State of Charge and Initiation Location

by So-Jin Kim, Yeong-Seok Yu, Chan-Seok Jeong, Sang-Bum Lee and Yong-Un Na

Batteries 2025, 11(11), 398; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11110398 - 28 Oct 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2955

Abstract

The widespread adoption of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in electric vehicles (EVs) and energy-storage systems (ESSs) has raised growing concern about fire hazards caused by thermal runaway (TR). While many studies have examined cell-level TR mechanisms, investigations at the module level remain limited despite [...] Read more.

The widespread adoption of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in electric vehicles (EVs) and energy-storage systems (ESSs) has raised growing concern about fire hazards caused by thermal runaway (TR). While many studies have examined cell-level TR mechanisms, investigations at the module level remain limited despite their importance for safety design. In this study, TR propagation was experimentally analyzed in a 12-cell (2p6s) pouch-type LIB module with EV-grade cells. The state of charge (SOC) and initiation location were the main variables. TR was initiated by a surface-mounted Kapton heating film, with power increased stepwise from 63 W to 141 W at 5-min intervals. Temperature, voltage, and heat release rate (HRR) were continuously monitored. Results showed that higher SOC led to earlier TR onset, shorter vent-to-ignition delay, and stronger combustion with jet flames. Center initiation produced rapid bidirectional propagation with a peak heat release rate (PHRR) of 590 kW and a propagation time of 107 s, whereas edge initiation caused slower unidirectional spread with a PHRR of 105 kW and a propagation time of 338 s. These results demonstrate that both SOC and initiation location critically control TR severity and propagation, providing essential data for EV fire safety evaluation and module design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Battery Safety Technologies: From Materials to Systems)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 5609 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Modelling of Thermal Runaway Propagation in Li-Ion Battery Cells Considering Variations in Thermal Property Measurements

by Hayato Kitagawa, Yoichi Takagishi, Masato Nishiuchi, Koichi Saeki, Ryohei Baba and Tatsuya Yamaue

Batteries 2025, 11(10), 386; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11100386 - 21 Oct 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3036

Abstract

Physics-based simulations of lithium-ion battery thermal runaway (TR) and thermal propagation (TP) enable the assessment of diverse temperature behaviors among individual cells. These behaviors are primarily driven by variations in thermal properties and the amount of heat released during thermal decomposition. However, given [...] Read more.

Physics-based simulations of lithium-ion battery thermal runaway (TR) and thermal propagation (TP) enable the assessment of diverse temperature behaviors among individual cells. These behaviors are primarily driven by variations in thermal properties and the amount of heat released during thermal decomposition. However, given the inherent variability in thermal property measurements, the specific values adopted can lead to substantial differences in predicted temperature behavior. In this study, we developed a 1-dimensional TP model for an array of three prismatic lithium-ion battery cells, in consideration of the uncertainty of key thermal parameters including specific heat, thermal conductivity, activation energy, and the latent heat of the thermal decomposition reaction. The validity of the model and the identification of calibration parameters are ensured through comparison with experimentally measured temperatures. We evaluated the influence of these parameter variations on the temperature and thermal runaway behavior of each cell. Our findings indicate that the variation in thermal runaway timing increases with distance from the trigger cell, and the probability of thermal runaway in the end cell was significantly higher than in the center cell. A sensitivity analysis using a surrogate model revealed that cell temperature is more sensitive to variations in thermal conductivity and latent heat than to variations in specific heat and activation energy. Full article

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

20 pages, 5178 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Unveiling the Thermal Behavior of SnS₂ Anodes Across Delithiation Stages

by Mahmoud Reda, Jana Kupka, Yuri Surace, Damian M. Cupid and Hans Flandorfer

Batteries 2025, 11(10), 378; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11100378 - 16 Oct 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1405

Abstract

This study investigates the thermal behavior of SnS₂ anodes for lithium-ion batteries at seven different states of charge (fully discharged (lithiated) at 0 mAh/g, partially charged at 100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 mAh/g, and fully charged (delithiated) at 550 mAh/g) using [...] Read more.

This study investigates the thermal behavior of SnS₂ anodes for lithium-ion batteries at seven different states of charge (fully discharged (lithiated) at 0 mAh/g, partially charged at 100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 mAh/g, and fully charged (delithiated) at 550 mAh/g) using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). To better understand the observed thermal behavior, complementary XRD and XPS analyses were performed. Generally, in all electrodes, the thermal decomposition of the electrode material is initiated by the exothermic decomposition of the SEI followed by a binder decomposition reaction around 265 °C. Interestingly, with increased states of delithiation from 400 mAh/g, endothermic peaks in the heat-flow signal of the DSC measurements are observed, which can be correlated with the structural and compositional changes in the electrode material as determined by XRD and XPS, respectively. These analyses confirmed the progressive formation of metallic tin on advanced delithiation. Additionally, the total heat generation from the electrodes decreased with increased delithiation. The results of this study serve as the basis for better understanding the thermal decomposition of SnS₂-based anodes, which are considered promising for advanced lithium-ion battery chemistries. Full article

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

23 pages, 1147 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Understanding Heat Generation of LNMO Cathodes in Lithium-Ion Batteries via Entropy and Resistance

by Kevin Böhm, Aleksandr Kondrakov, Torsten Markus and David Henriques

Batteries 2025, 11(10), 357; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11100357 - 28 Sep 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2495

Abstract

The heat generation of lithium-ion batteries is a critical parameter, as it significantly affects cell temperature. Poor thermal management can lead to elevated cell temperatures, accelerating side reactions, reducing cell lifetime, and, in extreme cases, causing thermal runaway. Therefore, understanding heat generation is [...] Read more.

The heat generation of lithium-ion batteries is a critical parameter, as it significantly affects cell temperature. Poor thermal management can lead to elevated cell temperatures, accelerating side reactions, reducing cell lifetime, and, in extreme cases, causing thermal runaway. Therefore, understanding heat generation is crucial for the commercialization of emerging battery materials. Due to its high energy density, lithium–nickel–manganese–oxide (LNMO) is an attractive candidate for next-generation cathode materials; however, the composition of its heat generation is not yet fully understood. To address this, the state-of-charge (SoC)-dependent entropy coefficient and resistance of disordered LNMO cathodes are determined using the potentiometric method. The results show that both values are strongly influenced by the redox reactions of Ni and Mn. The entropy coefficient varies between 5.2 and −32.4 J

{mol}^{- 1} K^{- 1}

, depending on the SoC. Furthermore, the resistance exhibits a switching dependence on kinetics and mass transfer. The resulting heat flux calculations indicate that, at SoC < 20%, heat generation is dominated by the kinetic behavior of LNMO, leading to two exothermal peaks during discharge and one exothermal peak during charge. This behavior is validated through a comparison with a low-current calorimetric measurement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Materials and Interfaces: Anode, Cathode, Separators and Electrolytes or Others)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

18 pages, 10787 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Experimental Investigations into the Ignitability of Real Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) Battery Vent Gas at Concentrations Below the Theoretical Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)

by Jason Gill, Jonathan E. H. Buston, Gemma E. Howard, Steven L. Goddard, Philip A. P. Reeve and Jack W. Mellor

Batteries 2025, 11(10), 352; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11100352 - 27 Sep 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2328

Abstract

Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries have become a popular choice for energy storage, electrified mobility, and plants. All lithium-based batteries produce flammable vent gas as a result of failure through thermal runaway. LFP cells produce less gas by volume than nickel-based cells, but [...] Read more.

Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries have become a popular choice for energy storage, electrified mobility, and plants. All lithium-based batteries produce flammable vent gas as a result of failure through thermal runaway. LFP cells produce less gas by volume than nickel-based cells, but the composition of this gas most often contains less carbon dioxide and more hydrogen. However, when LFP cells fail, they generate lower temperatures, so the vent gas is rarely ignited. Therefore, the hazard presented by a LFP cell in thermal runaway is less of a direct battery fire hazard but more of a flammable gas source hazard. This research identified the constituents and components of the vent gas for different sized LFP prismatic cells when overcharged to failure. This data was used to calculate the maximum homogenous concentration of gas that would be released into a 1.73 m³ test rig and the percentage of the lower explosive limit (LEL). Overcharge experiments were conducted using the same type of cells in the test rig in the presence of remote ignition sources. Ignition and deflagration of the vent gas were possible at concentrations below the theoretical LEL of the vent gas if it was homogeneously mixed. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

25 pages, 6367 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Multiphysics Optimization of Graphite-Buffered Bilayer Anodes with Diverse Inner Materials for High-Energy Lithium-Ion Batteries

by Juan C. Rubio and Martin Bolduc

Batteries 2025, 11(10), 350; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11100350 - 25 Sep 2025

Viewed by 2868

Abstract

This study presents a multiphysics simulation approach to optimize graphite-buffered bilayer anodes for enhanced energy density in lithium-ion batteries, assessing the electrochemical impact of diverse inner-layer materials, including silicon, hard carbon, lithium titanate (LTO), and metallic lithium, in pure and graphite-composite forms. A [...] Read more.

This study presents a multiphysics simulation approach to optimize graphite-buffered bilayer anodes for enhanced energy density in lithium-ion batteries, assessing the electrochemical impact of diverse inner-layer materials, including silicon, hard carbon, lithium titanate (LTO), and metallic lithium, in pure and graphite-composite forms. A coupled finite-element model implemented in COMSOL Multiphysics 6.2 was used to integrate spherical lithium diffusion, charge conservation, and the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) formation kinetics. The evaluated anode structure consisted of a 60 µm-thick bilayer: a 30 µm graphite surface layer coupled with a 30 µm inner layer of alternative active materials. Simulations were performed using an NMC622 cathode, LiPF₆ in EC:EMC electrolyte, at room temperature, under a charge rate of 1 C, considering realistic particle sizes (graphite: 2.5 µm; Si: 0.1 µm; hard carbon: 2.5 µm; LTO: 0.2 µm; Li metal: 0.5 µm), and evaluated over 2000 cycles. The hard carbon/graphite configuration exhibited a capacity fade of 5.8% compared with 7.1% in pure graphite. Additionally, the SEI thickness decreased to 0.20 µm (from 0.25 µm), the overpotential dropped to −17 mV (from −59 mV), and the electrolyte consumption was reduced to 20.8% (from 42.9%). The analysis highlights hard carbon and LTO inner layers as optimal trade-offs between capacity and cycle stability, whereas silicon and lithium metal significantly increased the initial capacity but accelerated SEI formation and impedance growth. These findings demonstrate the graphite-buffered bilayer’s potential to decouple interfacial degradation from high-capacity materials, providing valuable guidelines for the design of advanced lithium-ion battery anodes. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 3881 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Influence of Lithium Plating on the Thermal Properties of Automotive High Energy Pouch Batteries

by Syed Muhammad Abbas, Gregor Gstrein, Andrey W. Golubkov, Oliver Korak, Simon Erker and Christian Ellersdorfer

Batteries 2025, 11(9), 338; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11090338 - 10 Sep 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1359

Abstract

In this study, the effect of lithium plating (LP) on the thermal properties of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) was investigated. A large-format pouch 64.6 Ah cell with a graphite-SiO_x/NMC chemistry was artificially aged (AA_LP) in the laboratory under specific conditions to induce [...] Read more.

In this study, the effect of lithium plating (LP) on the thermal properties of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) was investigated. A large-format pouch 64.6 Ah cell with a graphite-SiO_x/NMC chemistry was artificially aged (AA_LP) in the laboratory under specific conditions to induce LP on the anode. For thermal behavior analysis, temperature ramp experiments were conducted in a nitrogen-filled steel container on the cycled cell, as well as on fresh and real-life aged cells with the same specifications. Characteristic temperatures, such as first venting and safety critical temperatures, were monitored; additionally, the exhaust gas composition was analyzed using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and gas chromatography. It was revealed that the voltage decay of the cells started well before any safety-critical temperature, and the first venting of the AA_LP cell was significantly reduced to 112 °C in comparison to the fresh and real-life aged cells, in which it occurred at 130 °C and 134 °C, respectively. The earlier venting of the AA_LP cell was attributed to the reaction of the plated metallic lithium and the electrolyte. The safety-critical temperature rate (>10 °C/min) occurred at 160.9 °C for AA_LP and at around 159.1 °C for the fresh and real-life aged cells. The maximum temperatures reached were 616 °C, 553 °C, and 566 °C for the fresh, real-life aged, and AA_LP cells, respectively. No significant difference was observed in the exhaust gas after the thermal runaway for the tested cells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Feature Papers in Batteries)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

21 pages, 4773 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effect of Short-Chain Polymer Binders on the Mechanical and Electrochemical Performance of Silicon Anodes

by Fei Sun, L. Zurita-Garcia and Dean R. Wheeler

Batteries 2025, 11(9), 329; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11090329 - 1 Sep 2025

Viewed by 2588

Abstract

Polymer binders are crucial components in providing both mechanical support and chemical stability to the structure of porous Li-ion electrodes. Particularly in silicon anodes, the active material undergoes substantial volume expansion of up to 275%. Due to the mechanical constraint of the current [...] Read more.

Polymer binders are crucial components in providing both mechanical support and chemical stability to the structure of porous Li-ion electrodes. Particularly in silicon anodes, the active material undergoes substantial volume expansion of up to 275%. Due to the mechanical constraint of the current collector, these silicon materials tend to expand in the normal direction while exhibiting substantial particle rearrangement and plastic deformation. Conventional rigid binders such as polyacrylic acid (PAA) and polyimide (PI), while providing satisfactory initial capacity, do not eliminate diminished long-term performance. Our research attempts to develop binder formulations that can accommodate sufficient flexibility for the substantial volume changes of silicon particles. Specifically, we explore the use of short-chain polymer binders and a strategic blend of binders with different molecular weights. Experiments have demonstrated that cells combining both long- and short-chain PAA binders delivered an initial capacity of 2200 mAh/g at a 0.1C rate, compared to 1700 mAh/g for pristine PAA cells. Initial work indicated that shorter polymer chains might compromise the adhesion to the current collector, so we developed a multilayer anode (MLA) structure to mitigate this issue. Nevertheless, at this early stage of development, there was no observed increase in cycling performance for the MLA electrodes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Electrode Materials and Electrolytes for Next-Generation Rechargeable Batteries)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 6368 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Electro-Thermal Modeling and Parameter Identification of an EV Battery Pack Using Drive Cycle Data

by Vinura Mannapperuma, Lalith Chandra Gaddala, Ruixin Zheng, Doohyun Kim, Youngki Kim, Ankith Ullal, Shengrong Zhu and Kyoung Pyo Ha

Batteries 2025, 11(9), 319; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11090319 - 27 Aug 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4170

Abstract

This paper presents a novel electro-thermal modeling approach for a lithium-ion battery pack in an electric vehicle (EV), along with parameter identification using controller area network (CAN) data collected from chassis dynamometer and real-world driving tests. The proposed electro-thermal model consists of a [...] Read more.

This paper presents a novel electro-thermal modeling approach for a lithium-ion battery pack in an electric vehicle (EV), along with parameter identification using controller area network (CAN) data collected from chassis dynamometer and real-world driving tests. The proposed electro-thermal model consists of a first-order equivalent circuit model (ECM) and a lumped-parameter thermal network in considering a simplified cooling circuit layout and temperature distributions across four distinct zones within the battery pack. This model captures the nonuniform heat transfer between the pack modules and the coolant, as well as variations in coolant temperature and flow rates. Model parameters are identified directly from vehicle-level test data without relying on laboratory-level measurements. Validation results demonstrate that the model can predict terminal voltage with an RMSE of less than 6 V (normalized root mean square error of less than 2%), and battery module surface temperatures with root mean square errors of less than 2 °C for over 90% of the test cases. The proposed approach provides a cost-effective and accurate solution for predicting electro-thermal behavior of EV battery systems, making it a valuable tool for battery design and management to optimize performance and ensure the safety of EVs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Battery Modeling: Models, Charging Strategies, Performance Estimations and Thermal Management)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 3686 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Effects of Cell Chemistry, State of Charge, and Abuse Method on Gas Generation in Li-Ion Cell Failure

by Gemma E. Howard, Jonathan E. H. Buston, Jason Gill, Steven L. Goddard, Jack W. Mellor and Philip A. P. Reeve

Batteries 2025, 11(9), 320; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11090320 - 27 Aug 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2624

Abstract

We report on the effect state of charge (SoC), cell format, and chemistry have on the volume and composition (H₂, CO₂, CO, CH₄, C₂H₄, C₂H₆, C₃H₆ [...] Read more.

We report on the effect state of charge (SoC), cell format, and chemistry have on the volume and composition (H₂, CO₂, CO, CH₄, C₂H₄, C₂H₆, C₃H₆, and C₃H₈) of cell failure gas from Li-ion cells. Nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) 21700 cells with a 5 Ah capacity were externally heated to failure at a 5–100% SoC under an inert atmosphere. This showed that the volume of gas increased with cell SoC (1.8 L at 5% SoC vs. 8.3 L at 100% SoC). The effect of the cell chemistry format and abuse method was also investigated using 18650, pouch, and prismatic cells (2.3–50 Ah) with Ni-based or lithium cobalt oxide (LCO) cathodes or lithium titanium oxide (LTO) anodes. The results showed that at higher SoCs, larger quantities of gas were generated; however, there was no correlation between the cell SoC and the composition of gases produced. Tests on the other cells found that the Ni-based cell generated 1.29–1.89 L/Ah of gas. The main constituents of this were H₂, CO, and CO₂; however, all other hydrocarbons were identified in varying quantities. The LTO cells generated lower volumes of gas, 0.8 L/Ah compared to Ni-based cells, and the gas was found to contain lower H₂ concentrations but higher concentrations of CO₂. The LCO cell was found to generate a gas volume of 1.2 L/Ah. This forms the final of four papers which cover a total of 213 tests on 29 cell types with six different chemistries, all tested using a single robust testing method. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

35 pages, 3497 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Recent Advances in Dendrite Suppression Strategies for Solid-State Lithium Batteries: From Interface Engineering to Material Innovations

by Abniel Machín, Francisco Díaz, María C. Cotto, José Ducongé and Francisco Márquez

Batteries 2025, 11(8), 304; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11080304 - 8 Aug 2025

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 14170

Abstract

Solid-state lithium batteries (SSLBs) have emerged as a promising alternative to conventional lithium-ion systems due to their superior safety profile, higher energy density, and potential compatibility with lithium metal anodes. However, a major challenge hindering their widespread deployment is the formation and growth [...] Read more.

Solid-state lithium batteries (SSLBs) have emerged as a promising alternative to conventional lithium-ion systems due to their superior safety profile, higher energy density, and potential compatibility with lithium metal anodes. However, a major challenge hindering their widespread deployment is the formation and growth of lithium dendrites, which compromise both performance and safety. This review provides a comprehensive and structured overview of recent advances in dendrite suppression strategies, with special emphasis on the role played by the nature of the solid electrolyte. In particular, we examine suppression mechanisms and material innovations within the three main classes of solid electrolytes: sulfide-based, oxide-based, and polymer-based systems. Each electrolyte class presents distinct advantages and challenges in relation to dendrite behavior. Sulfide electrolytes, known for their high ionic conductivity and good interfacial wettability, suffer from poor mechanical strength and chemical instability. Oxide electrolytes exhibit excellent electrochemical stability and mechanical rigidity but often face high interfacial resistance. Polymer electrolytes, while mechanically flexible and easy to process, generally have lower ionic conductivity and limited thermal stability. This review discusses how these intrinsic properties influence dendrite nucleation and propagation, including the role of interfacial stress, grain boundaries, void formation, and electrochemical heterogeneity. To mitigate dendrite formation, we explore a variety of strategies including interfacial engineering (e.g., the use of artificial interlayers, surface coatings, and chemical additives), mechanical reinforcement (e.g., incorporation of nanostructured or gradient architectures, pressure modulation, and self-healing materials), and modifications of the solid electrolyte and electrode structure. Additionally, we highlight the critical role of advanced characterization techniques—such as in situ electron microscopy, synchrotron-based X-ray diffraction, vibrational spectroscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)—for elucidating dendrite formation mechanisms and evaluating the effectiveness of suppression strategies in real time. By integrating recent experimental and theoretical insights across multiple disciplines, this review identifies key limitations in current approaches and outlines emerging research directions. These include the design of multifunctional interphases, hybrid electrolytes, and real-time diagnostic tools aimed at enabling the development of reliable, scalable, and dendrite-free SSLBs suitable for practical applications in next-generation energy storage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Solid Electrolytes and Solid-State Batteries)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

18 pages, 5066 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Influence of Pulse Duration on Cutting-Edge Quality and Electrochemical Performance of Lithium Metal Anodes

by Lars O. Schmidt, Houssin Wehbe, Sven Hartwig and Maja W. Kandula

Batteries 2025, 11(8), 286; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11080286 - 26 Jul 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1673

Abstract

Lithium metal is a promising anode material for next-generation batteries due to its high specific capacity and low density. However, conventional mechanical processing methods are unsuitable due to lithium’s high reactivity and adhesion. Laser cutting offers a non-contact alternative, but photothermal effects can [...] Read more.

Lithium metal is a promising anode material for next-generation batteries due to its high specific capacity and low density. However, conventional mechanical processing methods are unsuitable due to lithium’s high reactivity and adhesion. Laser cutting offers a non-contact alternative, but photothermal effects can negatively impact the cutting quality and electrochemical performance. This study investigates the influence of pulse duration on the cutting-edge characteristics and electrochemical behavior of laser-cut 20 µm lithium metal on 10 µm copper foils using nanosecond and picosecond laser systems. It was demonstrated that shorter pulse durations significantly reduce the heat-affected zone (HAZ), resulting in improved cutting quality. Electrochemical tests in symmetric Li|Li cells revealed that laser-cut electrodes exhibit enhanced cycling stability compared with mechanically separated anodes, despite the presence of localized dead lithium “reservoirs”. While the overall pulse duration did not show a direct impact on ionic resistance, the characteristics of the cutting edge, particularly the extent of the HAZ, were found to influence the electrochemical performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Processing, Manufacturing and Recycling)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

28 pages, 47946 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Artificial Neural Networks for Residual Capacity Estimation of Cycle-Aged Cylindric LFP Batteries

by Pasquale Franzese, Diego Iannuzzi, Roberta Merolla, Mattia Ribera and Ivan Spina

Batteries 2025, 11(7), 260; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11070260 - 10 Jul 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1908

Abstract

This paper introduces a data-driven methodology for accurately estimating the residual capacity (RC) of lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries through a tailored artificial neural network (ANN) architecture. The proposed model integrates a long short-term memory (LSTM) layer with a fully connected layer, leveraging [...] Read more.

This paper introduces a data-driven methodology for accurately estimating the residual capacity (RC) of lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries through a tailored artificial neural network (ANN) architecture. The proposed model integrates a long short-term memory (LSTM) layer with a fully connected layer, leveraging their combined strengths to achieve precise RC predictions. A distinguishing feature of this study is its ability to deliver highly accurate estimates using a limited dataset that was derived from a single cylindrical LFP battery with a 40 Ah capacity and collected during a controlled experimental campaign. Despite the constraints imposed by the dataset size, the ANN demonstrates remarkable performance, underscoring the model’s capability to operate effectively with minimal data. The dataset is partitioned into the training and testing subsets to ensure a rigorous evaluation. Additionally, the robustness of the approach is validated by testing the trained ANN on data from a second battery cell subjected to a distinct aging process, which was entirely unseen during training. This critical aspect underscores the method’s applicability in estimating RC for batteries with varying aging profiles, a key requirement for real-world deployment. The proposed LSTM-based architecture was also benchmarked against a GRU-based model, yielding significantly lower prediction errors. Furthermore, beyond LFP chemistry, the method was tested on a broader NMC dataset comprising seven cells aged under different C-rates and temperatures, where it maintained high accuracy, confirming its scalability and robustness across chemistries and usage conditions. These results advance battery management systems by offering a robust, efficient modeling framework that optimizes battery utilization across diverse applications, even under data-constrained conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence and Batteries: AI-Powered Innovations in Battery Technology)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

117 pages, 10736 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Design Principles and Engineering Strategies for Stabilizing Ni-Rich Layered Oxides in Lithium-Ion Batteries

by Alain Mauger and Christian M. Julien

Batteries 2025, 11(7), 254; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11070254 - 4 Jul 2025

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 11892

Abstract

Nickel-rich layered oxides such as LiNi_xMn_yCo_zO₂ (NMC), LiNi_xCo_yAl_zO₂ (NCA), and LiNi_xMn_yCo_zAl_{(1–x–y–z)}O₂ (NMCA), where x [...] Read more.

Nickel-rich layered oxides such as LiNi_xMn_yCo_zO₂ (NMC), LiNi_xCo_yAl_zO₂ (NCA), and LiNi_xMn_yCo_zAl_{(1–x–y–z)}O₂ (NMCA), where x ≥ 0.6, have emerged as key cathode materials in lithium-ion batteries due to their high operating voltage and superior energy density. These materials, characterized by low cobalt content, offer a promising path toward sustainable and cost-effective energy storage solutions. However, their electrochemical performance remains below theoretical expectations, primarily due to challenges related to structural instability, limited thermal safety, and suboptimal cycle life. Intensive research efforts have been devoted to addressing these issues, resulting in substantial performance improvements and enabling the development of next-generation lithium-ion batteries with higher nickel content and reduced cobalt dependency. In this review, we present recent advances in material design and engineering strategies to overcome the problems limiting their electrochemical performance (cation mixing, phase stability, oxygen release, microcracks during cycling). These strategies include synthesis methods to optimize the morphology (size of the particles, core–shell and gradient structures), surface modifications of the Ni-rich particles, and doping. A detailed comparison between these strategies and the synergetic effects of their combination is presented. We also highlight the synergistic role of compatible lithium salts and electrolytes in achieving state-of-the-art nickel-rich lithium-ion batteries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Batteries: 10th Anniversary)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

18 pages, 1972 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Lithium Growth on Alloying Substrates and Effect on Volumetric Expansion

by Laura C. Merrill, Robert L. Craig, Damion P. Cummings and Julia I. Deitz

Batteries 2025, 11(7), 249; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11070249 - 29 Jun 2025

Viewed by 1878

Abstract

The widespread implementation of next-generation Li metal anodes is limited, in part, due to the formation of dendritic and/or mossy electrodeposits during cycling. These morphologies can lead to battery failure due to the formation of short circuits and significant volumetric expansion at the [...] Read more.

The widespread implementation of next-generation Li metal anodes is limited, in part, due to the formation of dendritic and/or mossy electrodeposits during cycling. These morphologies can lead to battery failure due to the formation of short circuits and significant volumetric expansion at the anode. One strategy to control the electrodeposition of Li metal is to use lithiophilic materials at the anode. Here, we evaluate the impact of Ag and Au on the early stages of Li metal electrodeposition and cycling. The alloying substrates decrease the voltage for Li reduction and improve Li wetting/adhesion. We probe volumetric expansion directly through dilatometry measurements and find that the degree of volumetric expansion is less when lithium is cycled on an alloying substrate compared to a non-alloying substrate (Cu). Dilatometry experiments reveal that Au has the least amount of volumetric expansion and coin cell cycling experiments indicate that Ag yields more stable cycling compared to Au or Cu. The evaluation of in situ cross-sectional images of cycled coin cells shows that Ag has the lowest volumetric expansion in a coin cell format. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Batteries: 10th Anniversary)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

59 pages, 11235 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Review of EV Adoption, Charging Standards, and Charging Infrastructure Growth in Europe and Italy

by Mahwish Memon and Claudio Rossi

Batteries 2025, 11(6), 229; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11060229 - 12 Jun 2025

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 15357

Abstract

This work analyzes the electric vehicle (EV) sales trends of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and trends in the growth of Alternating Current (AC) and Direct Current (DC) charging infrastructure station scenarios in Europe and Italy. It offers [...] Read more.

This work analyzes the electric vehicle (EV) sales trends of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and trends in the growth of Alternating Current (AC) and Direct Current (DC) charging infrastructure station scenarios in Europe and Italy. It offers a comprehensive view of market trends, technical developments, infrastructure development, and worldwide standardization initiatives for policymakers, researchers, and industry. A detailed classification of the charging technologies of EVs, i.e., conductive, wireless power transfer (WPT), battery swapping (BS), and different EV types, is presented. Finally, this work provides a comparative overview of charging standards and protocols, including the ones established by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), and Standardization Administration of China (SAC), emphasizing interoperability and cross-border integration to accelerate the transition to clean transportation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Electric Vehicles Smart Charging: Strategies, Technologies, and Challenges)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

28 pages, 5473 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Advances in the Battery Thermal Management Systems of Electric Vehicles for Thermal Runaway Prevention and Suppression

by Le Duc Tai and Moo-Yeon Lee

Batteries 2025, 11(6), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11060216 - 1 Jun 2025

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 14726

Abstract

In response to the global imperative to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and fossil fuel dependency, electric vehicles (EVs) have emerged as a sustainable transportation alternative, primarily utilizing lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) due to their high energy density and efficiency. However, LIBs are highly sensitive [...] Read more.

In response to the global imperative to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and fossil fuel dependency, electric vehicles (EVs) have emerged as a sustainable transportation alternative, primarily utilizing lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) due to their high energy density and efficiency. However, LIBs are highly sensitive to temperature fluctuations, significantly affecting their performance, lifespan, and safety. One of the most critical threats to the safe operation of LIBs is thermal runaway (TR), an uncontrollable exothermic process that can lead to catastrophic failure under abusive conditions. Moreover, thermal runaway propagation (TRP) can rapidly spread failures across battery cells, intensifying safety threats. To address these challenges, developing advanced battery thermal management systems (BTMS) is essential to ensure optimal temperature control and suppress TR and TRP within LIB modules. This review systematically evaluates advanced cooling strategies, including indirect liquid cooling, water mist cooling, immersion cooling, phase change material (PCM) cooling, and hybrid cooling based on the latest studies published between 2020 and 2025. The review highlights their mechanisms, effectiveness, and practical considerations for preventing TR initiation and suppressing TRP in battery modules. Finally, key findings and future directions for designing next-generation BTMS are proposed, contributing valuable insights for enhancing the safety and reliability of LIB applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management in Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 2446 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Characterization of Industrial Black Mass from End-of-Life LiFePO₄-Graphite Batteries

by Nanna Bjerre-Christensen, Caroline Birksø Eriksen, Kristian Oluf Sylvester-Hvid and Dorthe Bomholdt Ravnsbæk

Batteries 2025, 11(6), 210; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11060210 - 26 May 2025

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5019

Abstract

The use of Li-ion batteries is drastically increasing, especially due to the growing sales of electric vehicles. Simultaneously, there is a shift towards exchanging the traditional Co- and Ni-rich electrode materials with more sustainable alternatives such as LiFePO₄. This transition challenges [...] Read more.

The use of Li-ion batteries is drastically increasing, especially due to the growing sales of electric vehicles. Simultaneously, there is a shift towards exchanging the traditional Co- and Ni-rich electrode materials with more sustainable alternatives such as LiFePO₄. This transition challenges conventional recycling practices, which typically rely on shredding batteries into a substance known as black mass, which is subsequently processed via hydrometallurgical or pyrometallurgical methods to extract valuable elements. These routes may not be economically viable for future sustainable chemistries with lower contents of high-value metal. Hence, new methods for processing the black mass, allowing, e.g., for physical separation and direct recycling, are direly needed. Such developments require that the black mass is thoroughly understood. In this study, we thoroughly characterize a commercially produced Graphite/LFP black mass sample from real battery waste using a suite of analytical techniques. Our findings reveal detailed chemical, morphological, and structural insights and show that the components in the black mass have different micro-size profiles, which may enable simple size separation. Unfortunately, our analysis also reveals that the employed processing of battery waste into black mass leads to the formation of an unknown Fe-containing compound, which may hamper direct recycling routes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Batteries: Second-Life Applications and Recycling of Li-Ion Batteries)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

19 pages, 1500 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Comprehensive Study of the Gas Volume and Composition Generated by 5 Ah Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC) Li-Ion Pouch Cells Through Different Failure Mechanisms at Varying States of Charge

by Gemma E. Howard, Katie C. Abbott, Jonathan E. H. Buston, Jason Gill, Steven L. Goddard and Daniel Howard

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 197; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050197 - 17 May 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3310

Abstract

Lithium-ion batteries risk failing when subjected to different abuse tests, resulting in gas and flames. In this study, 5 Ah nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) pouch cells were subjected to external heating; overcharge at rates of 2.5, 5 and 10 A; and nail [...] Read more.

Lithium-ion batteries risk failing when subjected to different abuse tests, resulting in gas and flames. In this study, 5 Ah nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) pouch cells were subjected to external heating; overcharge at rates of 2.5, 5 and 10 A; and nail penetration. Tests were conducted in air and N₂ atmospheres. Additional external heat tests were performed on cells at 5, 25, 50, and 75% SoC and on two, three, and four cell blocks. Gas volumes were calculated, and the gas composition was given for H₂, CO, CO₂, C₂H₄, C₂H₆, CH₄, C₃H₆, and C₃H₈. For tests under an air atmosphere at 100% SoC, the volume of gas varied between abuse methods: 3.9 L (external heat), 6.4 L (overcharge), and 8.9 L (nail penetration). The gas composition was found to predominantly contain H₂, CO₂, and CO for all abuse methods; however, higher concentrations of H₂ and CO were present in tests performed under N₂. External heat tests at different SoCs showed that the gas volume decreased with SoC. Overall, the type of abuse method can have a large effect on the gas volume and composition produced by cell failure. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 1112 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Domain Generalization Using Maximum Mean Discrepancy Loss for Remaining Useful Life Prediction of Lithium-Ion Batteries

by Wenbin Li, Yue Yang and Stefan Pischinger

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 194; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050194 - 14 May 2025

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2670

Abstract

The capacity of Lithium-ion batteries degrades over the time, making accurate prediction of their Remaining Useful Life (RUL) crucial for maintenance and product lifespan design. However, diverse aging mechanisms, changing working conditions and cell-to-cell variation lead to the inhomogeneous cell lifespan and complicated [...] Read more.

The capacity of Lithium-ion batteries degrades over the time, making accurate prediction of their Remaining Useful Life (RUL) crucial for maintenance and product lifespan design. However, diverse aging mechanisms, changing working conditions and cell-to-cell variation lead to the inhomogeneous cell lifespan and complicated life prediction. In this work, a data-driven algorithm based on stacked Long Short Term Memory (LSTM) encoder–decoders is proposed for RUL prediction. The encoder and upstream decoder form an autoencoder framework for feature extraction. The encoder and the downstream decoder form the encoder–decoder framework for RUL prediction. To enhance generalization during training, the Maximum Mean Discrepancy (MMD) loss is included in the autoencoder framework. The similarity of aging patterns is analyzed during splitting source and target datasets through k-means and Density-Based Spatial Clustering of Applications with Noise (DBSCAN). The Euclidean metric with accumulated Equivalent Cycle Number (ECN) sequence during aging shows better performance for similarity-based data splitting than the Dynamic Time Wrapping (DTW) distance metric based on capacity fading trajectory. The experimental results indicate that the proposed algorithm can provide accurate RUL prediction using 5% fading data and shows good generalization with Coefficient of Determination (R²) score of 0.98. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Data-Driven Modeling, Degradation, Control, and Advanced Management Systems for Batteries)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

25 pages, 3739 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Electrochemical–Thermal Modeling of Lithium-Ion Batteries: An Analysis of Thermal Runaway with Observation on Aging Effects

by Milad Tulabi and Roberto Bubbico

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 178; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050178 - 2 May 2025

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 8641

Abstract

The increasing demand for energy storage solutions, particularly in electric vehicles and renewable energy systems, has intensified research on lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery safety and performance. A critical challenge is thermal runaway (TR), a highly exothermic sequence of reactions triggered by mechanical, electrical, or [...] Read more.

The increasing demand for energy storage solutions, particularly in electric vehicles and renewable energy systems, has intensified research on lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery safety and performance. A critical challenge is thermal runaway (TR), a highly exothermic sequence of reactions triggered by mechanical, electrical, or thermal abuse, which can lead to catastrophic failures. While most TR models focus on fresh cells, aging significantly impacts battery behavior and safety. This study develops an electrochemical–thermal coupled model that incorporates aging effects to better predict thermal behavior and TR initiation in cylindrical Li-ion batteries. The model is validated against experimental data for fresh NMC and aged NCA cells, and statistical analysis is conducted to identify key factors influencing TR (p < 0.05). A full factorial design evaluates the effects of internal resistance (10, 20, 30, and 40 mΩ), capacity (1, 2, 3, and 5 Ah), and current rate (1C, 3C, 6C, and 8C) on temperature evolution. Additionally, a machine learning algorithm (logistic regression) is employed to identify an internal resistance threshold, beyond which thermal runaway (TR) becomes highly probable, and to predict TR probability based on key battery parameters. The model achieved a high prediction accuracy of 95% on the test dataset. Results indicate that aging affects thermal stability in complex ways. The increased internal resistance exacerbates heating rates, while capacity fade reduces stored energy, mitigating TR risk. These findings provide a validated framework for enhancing battery thermal management and predictive safety mechanisms, which contributed to the development of safer, more reliable Li-ion energy storage systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Breakthrough of Traditional Electrochemical Energy Storage Systems)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

52 pages, 1276 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Review of Battery Energy Storage Optimization in the Built Environment

by Simone Coccato, Khadija Barhmi, Ioannis Lampropoulos, Sara Golroodbari and Wilfried van Sark

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 179; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050179 - 2 May 2025

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 15624

Abstract

The increasing adoption of renewable energy sources necessitates efficient energy storage solutions, with buildings emerging as critical nodes in residential energy systems. This review synthesizes state-of-the-art research on the role of batteries in residential settings, emphasizing their diverse applications, such as energy storage [...] Read more.

The increasing adoption of renewable energy sources necessitates efficient energy storage solutions, with buildings emerging as critical nodes in residential energy systems. This review synthesizes state-of-the-art research on the role of batteries in residential settings, emphasizing their diverse applications, such as energy storage for photovoltaic systems, peak shaving, load shifting, demand response, and backup power. Distinct from prior review studies, our work provides a structured framework categorizing battery applications, spanning individual use, shared systems, and energy communities, and examines modeling techniques like State of Charge estimation and degradation analysis. Highlighting the integration of batteries with renewable infrastructures, we explore multi-objective optimization strategies and hierarchical decomposition methods for effective battery utilization. The findings underscore that advanced battery management systems and technological innovations are aimed at extending battery life and enhancing efficiency. Finally, we identify critical knowledge gaps and propose directions for future research, with a focus on scaling battery applications to meet operational, economic, and environmental objectives. By bridging theoretical insights with practical applications, this review contributes to advancing the understanding and optimization of residential energy storage systems within the energy transition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 257 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Advances in Standardised Battery Testing for Enhanced Safety and Innovation in Electric Vehicles: A Comprehensive Review

by Márton Pepó, Soma Fullér, Tibor Cseke and Zoltán Weltsch

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 157; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040157 - 16 Apr 2025

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 7903

Abstract

Standardised battery tests are essential for evaluating the safety, reliability, and performance of modern battery technologies, especially with the rapid emergence of innovations such as solid-state and lithium–sulphur batteries. This review reveals critical shortcomings in current international standards (e.g., IEC, IEEE, SAE), which [...] Read more.

Standardised battery tests are essential for evaluating the safety, reliability, and performance of modern battery technologies, especially with the rapid emergence of innovations such as solid-state and lithium–sulphur batteries. This review reveals critical shortcomings in current international standards (e.g., IEC, IEEE, SAE), which often do not keep pace with technological developments and are not harmonised across regions, limiting their effectiveness in real-world applications. The paper stresses the need for the continuous review of test protocols through collaboration between researchers, manufacturers, and regulators. A detailed case study of the BYD Dolphin battery demonstrates the practical importance of comprehensive testing in real-world conditions, spanning electrical, thermal, and mechanical ranges. The review concludes that up-to-date, harmonised, and scenario-specific test methods are needed to ensure accurate battery assessment, support global comparability, and enable the safe introduction of next-generation batteries for electric mobility and energy storage. Future work should prioritise operational monitoring, open access data sharing, and the development of sustainability-focused practices such as recycling and reclamation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Energy Storage System Aging, Diagnosis and Safety)

32 pages, 1077 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Optimizing Multi-Microgrid Operations with Battery Energy Storage and Electric Vehicle Integration: A Comparative Analysis of Strategies

by Syed Muhammad Ahsan and Petr Musilek

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040129 - 27 Mar 2025

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4314

Abstract

This study presents a comprehensive comparative analysis of the operational strategies for multi-microgrid systems that integrate battery energy storage systems and electric vehicles. The analyzed strategies include individual operation, community-based operation, a cooperative game-theoretic method, and the alternating direction method of multipliers for [...] Read more.

This study presents a comprehensive comparative analysis of the operational strategies for multi-microgrid systems that integrate battery energy storage systems and electric vehicles. The analyzed strategies include individual operation, community-based operation, a cooperative game-theoretic method, and the alternating direction method of multipliers for multi-microgrid systems. The operation of multi-microgrid systems that incorporate electric vehicles presents challenges related to coordination, privacy, and fairness. Mathematical models for each strategy are developed and evaluated using annual simulations with real-world data. Individual operation offers simplicity but incurs higher costs due to the absence of power sharing among microgrids and limited optimization of battery usage. However, individual optimization reduces the multi-microgrid system cost by 47.5% when compared to the base case with no solar PV or BESS and without optimization. Community-based operation enables power sharing, reducing the net cost of the multi-microgrid system by approximately 7%, as compared to individual operation, but requires full data transparency, raising privacy concerns. Game theory ensures fair benefit allocation, allowing some microgrids to achieve cost reductions of up to 13% through enhanced cooperation and shared use of energy storage assets. The alternating direction method of multipliers achieves a reduction in the electricity costs of each microgrid by 6–7%. It balances privacy and performance without extensive data sharing while effectively utilizing energy storage. The findings highlight the trade-offs between cost efficiency, fairness, privacy, and computational efficiency, offering insights into optimizing multi-microgrid operations that incorporate advanced energy storage solutions. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Editor’s Choice Articles

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI