Batteries

27 pages, 15381 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design Optimization of Bionic Liquid Cooling Plate Based on PSO-BP Neural Network Surrogate Model and Multi-Objective Genetic Algorithm

by Jiaming Liu, Wenlin Yuan, Yapeng Zhou and Hengyun Zhang

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040141 (registering DOI) - 5 Apr 2025

Abstract

In this study, the particle swarm optimization (PSO) and back propagation neural network (BPNN) surrogate model in combination with a multi-objective genetic algorithm are developed for the design optimization of a bionic liquid cooling plate with a spider-web channel structure. The single-factor sensitivity [...] Read more.

In this study, the particle swarm optimization (PSO) and back propagation neural network (BPNN) surrogate model in combination with a multi-objective genetic algorithm are developed for the design optimization of a bionic liquid cooling plate with a spider-web channel structure. The single-factor sensitivity analysis is first conducted based on the numerical simulation approach, identifying three key factors as design variables for optimizing design objectives such as maximum temperature (T_max), maximum temperature difference (ΔT_max), and pressure drop (ΔP). Subsequently, the PSO algorithm is used to optimize the parameters of the BPNN structure, thereby constructing the PSO-BPNN surrogate model. Next, the non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm II (NSGA-II) is employed to obtain the Pareto optimal set, and the TOPSIS with the entropy weight method is used to determine the optimal solution, eliminating subjective preferences in decision-making. The results show that the PSO-BPNN model outperforms the traditional BPNN in prediction accuracy for all three objectives. Compared to the initial structure, the T_max and ΔT_max are reduced by 1.09 °C and 0.41 °C in the optimized structure, respectively, with an increase in ΔP by 21.24 Pa. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management System for Lithium-Ion Batteries: 2nd Edition)

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37 pages, 23423 KiB

Open AccessReview

Thermally Stable Carbon Materials from Polybenzoxazines: Structure, Properties, and Supercapacitor Potential

by Thirukumaran Periyasamy, Shakila Parveen Asrafali and Jaewoong Lee

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040140 - 4 Apr 2025

Abstract

This review explores the structural and electrochemical characteristics of carbon materials derived from polybenzoxazines, emphasizing their potential in supercapacitors. A detailed analysis of thermal degradation by-products during carbonization reveals distinct competing mechanisms, underscoring the exceptional thermal stability of benzoxazines. These materials exhibit significant [...] Read more.

This review explores the structural and electrochemical characteristics of carbon materials derived from polybenzoxazines, emphasizing their potential in supercapacitors. A detailed analysis of thermal degradation by-products during carbonization reveals distinct competing mechanisms, underscoring the exceptional thermal stability of benzoxazines. These materials exhibit significant pseudocapacitive behavior and excellent charge retention, making them strong candidates for energy storage applications. The versatility of polybenzoxazine-based carbons enables the formation of diverse morphologies—nanospheres, foams, films, nanofibers, and aerogels—each tailored for specific functionalities. Advanced synthesis techniques allow for precise control over porosity at the nanoscale, optimizing performance for supercapacitors and beyond. Their exceptional thermal stability, electrical conductivity, and tunable porosity extend their utility to gas adsorption, catalysis, and electromagnetic shielding. Additionally, their intumescent properties (unique ability to expand when exposed to high heat) make them promising candidates for flame-retardant coatings. The combination of customizable architecture, superior electrochemical performance, and high thermal resistance highlights their transformative potential in sustainable energy solutions and advanced protective applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue High-Performance Supercapacitors: Advancements & Challenges)

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18 pages, 3618 KiB

Open AccessReview

Strategies to Suppress Polysulfide Dissolution and Its Effects on Lithium–Sulfur Batteries

by Grace Cheung and Chun Huang

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040139 - 3 Apr 2025

Abstract

Lithium–sulfur batteries (LSBs), with a high energy density (2600

W

h

kg⁻¹) and theoretical specific capacity (1672 mA h g⁻¹), are considered the most promising next-generation rechargeable energy storage devices. However, polysulfide dissolution and the shuttle effect cause severe [...] Read more.

Lithium–sulfur batteries (LSBs), with a high energy density (2600

W

h

kg⁻¹) and theoretical specific capacity (1672 mA h g⁻¹), are considered the most promising next-generation rechargeable energy storage devices. However, polysulfide dissolution and the shuttle effect cause severe capacity fading and the rapid loss of the active material; hence, these must be addressed first. This review provides an overview of various strategies employed to immobilise polysulfides via polysulfide trapping and physical and chemical adsorption using porous cathode designs, heterostructures, functionalised separators, and polymer binders. The working mechanism of each strategy is reviewed and discussed, highlighting their advantages and disadvantages, and they are analysed through comparisons of the battery performance and limitations in terms of practical applications. Finally, the future prospects for the design and synthesis of LSBs to limit polysulfide dissolution are discussed. Full article

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10 pages, 2095 KiB

Open AccessArticle

One-Step Synthesis of Zirconium Sulfide Nanoparticles on Flexible Carbon Cloth for Supercapacitor Application

by Yu-Xuan Wang, Dung-Sheng Tsai, Chu-Jung Huang, Zi-Yu Chen and Chuan-Pei Lee

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040138 - 31 Mar 2025

Abstract

Zirconium sulfide nanoparticles (Zr_xS_y) are prepared on a flexible substrate of carbon cloth (CC) via a one-step synthesis approach using the low-pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD) technique. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image reveals that the particle sizes are [...] Read more.

Zirconium sulfide nanoparticles (Zr_xS_y) are prepared on a flexible substrate of carbon cloth (CC) via a one-step synthesis approach using the low-pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD) technique. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image reveals that the particle sizes are in the range of ca. 3~23 nm with an average value of ~13.02 nm. The synthesized Zr_xS_y nanoparticles are composed of ZrS₃ and Zr₉S₂ phases, which is verified by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM). By using the Zr_xS_y/CC as a supercapacitor flexible electrode, the capacitance extracted from the cyclic voltammetry measurement is 406 C g⁻¹ at a scan rate of 5 mV s⁻¹; the capacitance values obtained from GCD curves at a current density of 0.5 A g⁻¹ and 1 A g⁻¹ are 151 and 134 C g⁻¹, respectively. These results highlight the promising potential of Zr_xS_y as a supercapacitor material for future energy-storage technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue High Energy Density Supercapacitors: Acquisition, Characterization, and Application)

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25 pages, 7892 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study of the Operation of Lead–Acid Battery Electrodes Under Hybrid Battery–Electrolyzer Cycling Profiles

by Elisabeth Lemaire, Lionel Serra, Catherine Arnal, Florence Ardiaca, Daniel Monchal, Nicolas Guillet and Angel Kirchev

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040137 - 31 Mar 2025

Abstract

Flooded lead–acid batteries start producing oxygen and hydrogen during the final stages of charge and subsequent overcharge. The collection of the hydrogen produced allows for an increase in overall energy efficiency and transforms the system into a hybrid device typically referred to as [...] Read more.

Flooded lead–acid batteries start producing oxygen and hydrogen during the final stages of charge and subsequent overcharge. The collection of the hydrogen produced allows for an increase in overall energy efficiency and transforms the system into a hybrid device typically referred to as a “Battolyzer” (battery electrolyzer). The present work explores the feasibility of the above approach through a detailed study of the long-term ageing process of flooded tubular lead–acid cells subjected to various rates of discharge and overcharge, emulating four different scenarios of Battolyzer use, starting from 70% depth of discharge cycling to nearly continuous water electrolysis. The combined results from the electrochemical and corrosion studies showed that the Battolyzer cells’ degradation was driven by the corrosion of the positive current collectors. The progress of the corrosion process was strongly correlated with the amount of hydrogen produced. The increase in the depth of discharge resulted in minor decreases in the corrosion current, indicating that the battery functionality of the Battolyzer was more advantageous than the continuous water electrolysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemistry of Lead-Acid Batteries)

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25 pages, 1563 KiB

Open AccessReview

Lithium Iron Phosphate Battery Regeneration and Recycling: Techniques and Efficiency

by Alexandra Kosenko, Antonina Bolotova, Konstantin Pushnitsa, Pavel Novikov and Anatoliy A. Popovich

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040136 - 31 Mar 2025

Abstract

This study investigates advanced strategies for r regenerating and recycling lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO₄, LFP) materials from spent lithium-ion batteries. Recovery techniques are categorized into direct regeneration, which restores positive electrode materials with high electrochemical performance, and recycling, which produces intermediate [...] Read more.

This study investigates advanced strategies for r regenerating and recycling lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO₄, LFP) materials from spent lithium-ion batteries. Recovery techniques are categorized into direct regeneration, which restores positive electrode materials with high electrochemical performance, and recycling, which produces intermediate compounds such as lithium carbonate and iron phosphate. Additionally, resynthesis methods are explored to convert recovered precursors into high-quality LFP materials, ensuring their reuse in battery production. Innovative approaches, including carbothermic reduction, doping, and hydrothermal resynthesis, are highlighted for their ability to enhance material properties, improve energy efficiency, and maintain the olivine structure of LFP. Key advancements include the use of eco-friendly reagents, automation, and optimization strategies to reduce environmental impacts and costs. Regenerated and resynthesized positive electrodes demonstrated performance metrics comparable to or exceeding commercial LFP, showcasing their potential for widespread application. This work underscores the importance of closed-loop recycling systems and identifies pathways for scaling, improving economic feasibility, and minimizing the ecological footprint of the lithium-ion battery lifecycle. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Second Life and Recycling: Perspectives for High-Performance Batteries)

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16 pages, 4022 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Super-Fast Sodium Storage Properties of Nitrogen-Doped Graphene-Based Material Synthesized via Arc-Discharge Method

by Injun Jeon, Chunghun Kim, Minseung Kang, Hyun Woo Kim, Hong Chen, Hye Seon Youn, Myung Jong Kim and Chae-Ryong Cho

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040135 - 29 Mar 2025

Abstract

We investigated the electrochemical performance of undoped artificial graphene-based material (UAG) and N-doped graphene-based material (NAG, ~3.5% nitrogen doping), synthesized by the arc-discharge method, for sodium-ion battery anodes. The NAG demonstrated slightly superior fast-charging capability compared to UAG, achieving a specific capacity of [...] Read more.

We investigated the electrochemical performance of undoped artificial graphene-based material (UAG) and N-doped graphene-based material (NAG, ~3.5% nitrogen doping), synthesized by the arc-discharge method, for sodium-ion battery anodes. The NAG demonstrated slightly superior fast-charging capability compared to UAG, achieving a specific capacity of 46.8 mAh g⁻¹ at 30 A g⁻¹, compared to UAG’s capacity of 36.7 mAh g⁻¹, representing an enhancement of approximately 28%. It also showed high cycle stability, retaining a capacity of 100 mAh g⁻¹ (retention ratio ~99.9%) after 2500 cycles at 5 A g⁻¹, compared to UAG’s retention of 90 mAh g⁻¹ (retention ratio ~95%). The diffusion behavior of the UAG and NAG samples was significantly higher than that of graphite. The improvement in electrochemical properties is attributed to the successful doping of nitrogen in NAG, which results in enhanced electrical conductivity and structural disordering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Materials and Interfaces: Anode, Cathode, Separators and Electrolytes or Others)

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27 pages, 3909 KiB

Open AccessReview

Styrene and Its Derivatives Used in Proton Exchange Membranes and Anion Exchange Membranes for Fuel Cell Applications: A Review

by Muhammad Rehman Asghar, Ayesha Zahid, Huaneng Su, Kumar Divya, Muhammad Tuoqeer Anwar and Qian Xu

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040134 - 29 Mar 2025

Abstract

The proton exchange membrane (PEM) is a critical component of fuel cells, responsible for controlling the flow of protons while minimizing fuel crossover through its channels. The commercial membrane commonly used in fuel cells is made of Nafion, which is expensive and prone [...] Read more.

The proton exchange membrane (PEM) is a critical component of fuel cells, responsible for controlling the flow of protons while minimizing fuel crossover through its channels. The commercial membrane commonly used in fuel cells is made of Nafion, which is expensive and prone to swelling when in contact with water. To address these limitations, various polymers have been explored as alternatives to replace the costly Nafion membrane. Styrene, a versatile and cost-effective material, has emerged as a promising candidate. It can be modified into different forms to meet the requirements of a fuel cell membrane. The aromatic rings in styrene can copolymerize with hydrophilic functional groups, enhancing water (H₂O) uptake, proton conductivity, and ion exchange capacity (IEC) of the membrane. Additionally, the hydrophobic nature of styrene helps maintain the structural integrity of the membrane’s channels, reducing excessive swelling and minimizing fuel crossover. The flexible aromatic chains in styrene facilitate the attachment of hydrophilic functional groups, such as sulfonic groups, further improving the membrane’s ion conductivity, IEC, thermal stability, mechanical strength, and oxidative stability. This review article explores the application of styrene and its derivatives in fuel cell membranes, with a focus on proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs), direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs), and anion exchange membrane fuel cells (AEMFCs). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Polymer Electrolyte Membranes for Fuel Cells)

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17 pages, 3586 KiB

Open AccessArticle

State of Health Estimation for Lithium-Ion Batteries Based on Transition Frequency’s Impedance and Other Impedance Features with Correlation Analysis

by Mohammad K. Al-Smadi and Jaber A. Abu Qahouq

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040133 - 29 Mar 2025

Abstract

This paper presents data-driven impedance-based state of health (SOH) estimation for commercial lithium-ion batteries across an SOH range of ~96% to ~60%. Battery health indicators at the transition frequency of the battery impedance Nyquist plot are utilized to develop an SOH estimator based [...] Read more.

This paper presents data-driven impedance-based state of health (SOH) estimation for commercial lithium-ion batteries across an SOH range of ~96% to ~60%. Battery health indicators at the transition frequency of the battery impedance Nyquist plot are utilized to develop an SOH estimator based on an artificial neural network (ANN). In addition, two more ANN-based SOH estimators utilizing some impedance magnitude and phase values are developed. Spearman correlation analysis is utilized to identify the frequency points at which the impedance magnitude and phase values show strong correlations with SOH values and are thus utilized as SOH indicators. The performance evaluation of the developed SOH estimators shows that the maximum root mean square error (RMSE) is equal to 1.39%, the maximum mean absolute error (MAE) is equal to 1.25%, the maximum mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) is equal to 1.55%, and the minimum coefficient of determination (R²) is equal to 0.983. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence-Based State-of-Health Estimation of Lithium-Ion Batteries—2nd Edition)

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14 pages, 6555 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis and Investigation of Diffusion-Induced Stress in Lithium-Ion Particle Through Elastic-Viscoplastic Model of Binder

by Juanhua Cao and Yafang Zhang

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040132 - 29 Mar 2025

Abstract

During the charging and discharging process of lithium-ion batteries, lithium-ions are embedded and removed from the active particles, leading to volume expansion and contraction of the active particles, and hence diffusion-induced stress (DIS) is generated. DIS leads to fatigue damage of the active [...] Read more.

During the charging and discharging process of lithium-ion batteries, lithium-ions are embedded and removed from the active particles, leading to volume expansion and contraction of the active particles, and hence diffusion-induced stress (DIS) is generated. DIS leads to fatigue damage of the active particles during periodic cycling, causing battery aging and capacity degradation. This article establishes a two-dimensional particle-binder system model in which a linear elastic model is used for the active particle, and an elastic-viscoplastic model is used for the binder. The state of charge, stress, and strain of the particle-binder system under different charge rates are investigated. The simulation results show that the location of particle crack excitation is related to two factors: the concentration gradient of lithium-ion and the binder confinement effect. Under a lower charge rate, the crack excitation position of the particle located at the edge of the particle-binder interfacial (PBI) is mainly attributed to the binder confinement effect, while under a higher charge rate, the crack excitation position occurs at the center of the particle due to the dominance of concentration gradient effect. Furthermore, analysis reveals that the binder undergoes plastic deformation due to the traction force caused by particle expansion, which weakens the constraint on the particle and prevents PBI debonding. Finally, a binder with lower stiffness and higher yield strength behavior is recommended for rapid stress release of particles and could reduce plastic deformation of the binder. Full article

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14 pages, 620 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Novel Test Procedure for Assessing Lead–Acid Batteries for Partial-State-of-Charge Duty Using Internal Resistance Charge Acceptance Technique

by Max Parker and Richard McMahon

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040131 - 28 Mar 2025

Abstract

Battery energy storage systems (BESSs) are often used in partial-state-of-charge (PSOC) operation due to the desire for flexibility of charge and discharge. Lead–acid batteries are a good candidate to be used in battery energy storage due to their safety, recyclability, and long cycle [...] Read more.

Battery energy storage systems (BESSs) are often used in partial-state-of-charge (PSOC) operation due to the desire for flexibility of charge and discharge. Lead–acid batteries are a good candidate to be used in battery energy storage due to their safety, recyclability, and long cycle life; however, the correct battery, cell, and regime should be chosen to ensure effective use. Manufacturers rarely publish data on PSOC performance of their batteries. During PSOC use, the charge acceptance of lead–acid batteries reduces both reversibly and, sometimes, irreversibly as the battery is cycled. Typical dynamic charge acceptance tests target the performance required in car batteries and do not adequately demonstrate the charge acceptance expected in BESS use. This paper demonstrates a representative charge acceptance degradation test which far more closely replicates the charge acceptance degradation seen in real-world PSOC BESS use using partial state of charge, coulomb control, and a charge-factor-controlled full charge. Full charges are shown to reverse the internal resistance associated with partial-state-of-charge operation. This is the case in the Leoch lead–carbon cells and 12 V battery tested. This shows that partial-state-of-charge operation degrades the charge acceptance and increases the internal resistance of a lead–acid battery, although with a charge-factor-based full-charge approach, the charge acceptance could be reset to baseline. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aqueous Batteries)

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22 pages, 5425 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Joint Adaptive Assessment of the State of Charge of Lithium Batteries at Varying Temperatures

by Xuejuan Zhao, Zhigang Zhang, Xinyang Liu and Yuanxiao Cai

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040130 - 27 Mar 2025

Abstract

The fixed battery model parameters result in poor real-time state of charge (SOC) estimation, and the model-based estimation method of lithium battery SOC ignores the consequences of various working conditions and temperatures with the battery, resulting in low estimation accuracy. Based on multi-new [...] Read more.

The fixed battery model parameters result in poor real-time state of charge (SOC) estimation, and the model-based estimation method of lithium battery SOC ignores the consequences of various working conditions and temperatures with the battery, resulting in low estimation accuracy. Based on multi-new information theories, this work proposes a joint evaluation method for lithium battery state of charge using adaptive extended Kalman filtering (AEKF) and variable forgetting factor recursive least squares (VFFRLS). Through testing at various temperatures and working conditions and a comparison with the conventional joint method, the efficacy of the algorithm presented in this study is confirmed. The findings demonstrate that the maximum root mean square error is kept at 1.57% and that the joint VFFRLS-AEKF technique suggested in this paper can effectively predict the lithium battery SOC. In contrast, the algorithm in this paper takes an average of less than 151 s to converge to within the 2% error range of the true value under various working conditions when the initial SOC value is set incorrectly. It also has good robustness and adaptability to adjust well to complex working conditions, which enhances the ability to predict energy consumption and the battery’s efficiency. Full article

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32 pages, 1077 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing Multi-Microgrid Operations with Battery Energy Storage and Electric Vehicle Integration: A Comparative Analysis of Strategies

by Syed Muhammad Ahsan and Petr Musilek

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040129 - 27 Mar 2025

Abstract

This study presents a comprehensive comparative analysis of the operational strategies for multi-microgrid systems that integrate battery energy storage systems and electric vehicles. The analyzed strategies include individual operation, community-based operation, a cooperative game-theoretic method, and the alternating direction method of multipliers for [...] Read more.

This study presents a comprehensive comparative analysis of the operational strategies for multi-microgrid systems that integrate battery energy storage systems and electric vehicles. The analyzed strategies include individual operation, community-based operation, a cooperative game-theoretic method, and the alternating direction method of multipliers for multi-microgrid systems. The operation of multi-microgrid systems that incorporate electric vehicles presents challenges related to coordination, privacy, and fairness. Mathematical models for each strategy are developed and evaluated using annual simulations with real-world data. Individual operation offers simplicity but incurs higher costs due to the absence of power sharing among microgrids and limited optimization of battery usage. However, individual optimization reduces the multi-microgrid system cost by 47.5% when compared to the base case with no solar PV or BESS and without optimization. Community-based operation enables power sharing, reducing the net cost of the multi-microgrid system by approximately 7%, as compared to individual operation, but requires full data transparency, raising privacy concerns. Game theory ensures fair benefit allocation, allowing some microgrids to achieve cost reductions of up to 13% through enhanced cooperation and shared use of energy storage assets. The alternating direction method of multipliers achieves a reduction in the electricity costs of each microgrid by 6–7%. It balances privacy and performance without extensive data sharing while effectively utilizing energy storage. The findings highlight the trade-offs between cost efficiency, fairness, privacy, and computational efficiency, offering insights into optimizing multi-microgrid operations that incorporate advanced energy storage solutions. Full article

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32 pages, 7914 KiB

Open AccessReview

Applications of Laser Material Processing for Solid-State Lithium Batteries

by Dongfang Yang

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040128 - 26 Mar 2025

Abstract

Laser material processing is emerging as a critical manufacturing technology in the advancement of solid-state lithium batteries (SSLBs), offering numerous advantages in precision, efficiency, and versatility. This mini-review explores the applications and benefits of laser material-processing techniques, such as laser sintering, laser cutting, [...] Read more.

Laser material processing is emerging as a critical manufacturing technology in the advancement of solid-state lithium batteries (SSLBs), offering numerous advantages in precision, efficiency, and versatility. This mini-review explores the applications and benefits of laser material-processing techniques, such as laser sintering, laser cutting, laser surface cleaning, laser ablation for nanoparticle generation, and pulsed laser deposition, in the fabrication and performance enhancement of SSLBs’ materials and components. It will demonstrate that laser material processing can enhance material properties such as density and surface morphology, improve ionic conductivity and reduce interfacial resistance. Laser material-processing techniques are adaptable to a variety of materials, including polymers, metal oxides, metal sulfides, and metals, making them suitable for processing various SSLB components like electrolytes, electrodes, and current collectors. In addition, the use of laser material-processing technologies reduces manufacturing costs by minimizing material waste and streamlining production processes. Looking forward, integrating laser material processing with other advanced manufacturing technologies, such as roll-to-roll (R2R) manufacturing, for SSLBs holds promise for further scalability and efficiency. It is expected that laser material processing will be positioned to significantly contribute to the development of safer, more efficient, and cost-effective SSLBs, supporting their broader adoption across industries and paving the way for future innovations in energy storage technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Processing, Manufacturing and Recycling)

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68 pages, 5915 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Comprehensive Review on Lithium-Ion Battery Lifetime Prediction and Aging Mechanism Analysis

by Seyed Saeed Madani, Yasmin Shabeer, François Allard, Michael Fowler, Carlos Ziebert, Zuolu Wang, Satyam Panchal, Hicham Chaoui, Saad Mekhilef, Shi Xue Dou, Khay See and Kaveh Khalilpour

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040127 - 26 Mar 2025

Abstract

Lithium-ion batteries experience degradation with each cycle, and while aging-related deterioration cannot be entirely prevented, understanding its underlying mechanisms is crucial to slowing it down. The aging processes in these batteries are complex and influenced by factors such as battery chemistry, electrochemical reactions, [...] Read more.

Lithium-ion batteries experience degradation with each cycle, and while aging-related deterioration cannot be entirely prevented, understanding its underlying mechanisms is crucial to slowing it down. The aging processes in these batteries are complex and influenced by factors such as battery chemistry, electrochemical reactions, and operational conditions. Key stressors including depth of discharge, charge/discharge rates, cycle count, and temperature fluctuations or extreme temperature conditions play a significant role in accelerating degradation, making them central to aging analysis. Battery aging directly impacts power, energy density, and reliability, presenting a substantial challenge to extending battery lifespan across diverse applications. This paper provides a comprehensive review of methods for modeling and analyzing battery aging, focusing on essential indicators for assessing the health status of lithium-ion batteries. It examines the principles of battery lifespan modeling, which are vital for applications such as portable electronics, electric vehicles, and grid energy storage systems. This work aims to advance battery technology and promote sustainable resource use by understanding the variables influencing battery durability. Synthesizing a wide array of studies on battery aging, the review identifies gaps in current methodologies and highlights innovative approaches for accurate remaining useful life (RUL) estimation. It introduces emerging strategies that leverage advanced algorithms to improve predictive model precision, ultimately driving enhancements in battery performance and supporting their integration into various systems, from electric vehicles to renewable energy infrastructures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Performance, Ageing, Reliability and Safety)

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14 pages, 4803 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ion and Water Transports in Double Gyroid Nanochannels Formed by Block Copolymer Anion Exchange Membranes

by Karim Aissou, Maximilien Coronas, Jason Richard, Erwan Ponsin, Sambhav Vishwakarma, Eddy Petit, Bertrand Rebiere, Camille Bakkali-Hassani, Stéphanie Roualdes and Damien Quemener

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040126 - 26 Mar 2025

Abstract

Mechanically improved polymeric membranes with high ionic conductivity (IC) and good permeability are highly desired for next-generation anion exchange membranes (AEMs) in order to reduce Ohmic losses and enhance water management in alkaline membrane fuel cells. To move towards the fabrication of such [...] Read more.

Mechanically improved polymeric membranes with high ionic conductivity (IC) and good permeability are highly desired for next-generation anion exchange membranes (AEMs) in order to reduce Ohmic losses and enhance water management in alkaline membrane fuel cells. To move towards the fabrication of such high-performance membranes, the creation of hydrophilic ion-conducting double gyroid (DG) nanochannels within block copolymer (BCP) AEMs is a promising approach. However, this attractive solution remains difficult to implement due to the complexity of constructing a well-developed ion-conducting DG morphology across the entire membrane thickness. To deal with this issue, water permeable polystyrene-block-poly(2-vinylpyridine)-block-poly(ethylene oxide) membranes with ion-conducting DG nanochannels were produced by combining a solvent vapor annealing (SVA) treatment with a methylation process. Here, the SVA treatment enabled the manufacture of DG-forming BCP AEMs while the methylation process allowed for the conversion of pyridine sites to N-methylpyridinium (NMP⁺) cations via a Menshutkin reaction. Following this SVA-methylation method, the IC value of water-permeable (~384 L h⁻¹ m⁻² bar⁻¹) DG-structured BCP AEMs in their OH⁻counter anion form was measured to be of ~2.8 mS.cm⁻¹ at 20 °C while a lower IC value was probed, under the same experimental conditions, from as-cast NMP⁺-containing analogs with a non-permeable disordered phase (~1.2 mS.cm⁻¹). Full article

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19 pages, 10422 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Post-Fault Energy Usage Optimization for Multilevel Inverter with Integrated Battery

by Rok Friš, Jure Domajnko, Nataša Prosen and Mitja Truntič

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040125 - 26 Mar 2025

Abstract

This paper presents a novel sorting algorithm for modular multilevel inverters (MMCs) with integrated batteries, designed to ensure the uninterrupted operation of electric vehicles (EVs) under post-fault conditions. The proposed system structure consists of an MMC with four full-bridge modules per phase, where [...] Read more.

This paper presents a novel sorting algorithm for modular multilevel inverters (MMCs) with integrated batteries, designed to ensure the uninterrupted operation of electric vehicles (EVs) under post-fault conditions. The proposed system structure consists of an MMC with four full-bridge modules per phase, where one module acts as a spinning reserve during normal operation. The algorithm addresses a single switch fault per phase by operating the faulted module in half-bridge mode, ensuring all batteries remain operational and maintaining full power output and battery capacity without any noticeable changes for the vehicle operator. Unlike conventional fault-tolerant strategies that often reduce power output or disable affected modules, the proposed algorithm isolates the faulty switch while preserving system output. This approach avoids derating and eliminates the need for immediate maintenance, enabling the EV to continue operating under fault conditions. Simulation and experimental results validate the effectiveness of the algorithm under a single switch fault scenario, demonstrating its ability to maintain autonomy and consistent power delivery. This work demonstrates a fault-tolerant MMC principle, offering a robust and scalable solution for enhancing reliability and user satisfaction in EV power systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)

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17 pages, 6090 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimising the Selective Leaching and Recovery of Cobalt, Lanthanum, and Strontium for Recycling End-of-Life Solid Oxide Cells

by Martina Bruno, Sofia Saffirio, Federico Smeacetto, Sonia Fiorilli and Silvia Fiore

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040124 - 25 Mar 2025

Abstract

This study explored the selective recovery of Co, La, and Sr from end-of-life solid oxide cells (SOCs) using ultrasound-assisted leaching in HCl. HCl concentration (1, 5, and 10 M) and solid-to-liquid ratio (S/L, 100 and 200 g/L) were varied to optimize the efficiency [...] Read more.

This study explored the selective recovery of Co, La, and Sr from end-of-life solid oxide cells (SOCs) using ultrasound-assisted leaching in HCl. HCl concentration (1, 5, and 10 M) and solid-to-liquid ratio (S/L, 100 and 200 g/L) were varied to optimize the efficiency and the selectivity of Co, La, and Sr leaching. Then, they were recovered as oxalates at pH 0.7, 1, and 4. Using 10 M HCl and an S/L ratio of 100 g/L on ball-milled samples achieved 96–99% leaching efficiency but led to Ni impurities from the underneath layers. Thermal pre-treatment at 800 °C decreased Ni leaching by 90% but decreased target metals’ recovery by 9%. Direct leaching (without pre-treatments) with 1 M HCl and an S/L ratio of 200 g/L achieved up to 91% leaching efficiency, recovering 42% of Co, 93% of La, and 33% of Sr with minimal Ni impurities. A preliminary economic analysis indicated that avoiding pre-treatments can cut expenses by 96%. An economic analysis indicated that direct leaching is the most cost effective, reducing expenses by up to 96% compared to thermal pre-treatment and high HCl concentrations. This study highlights the potential for an efficient and cost-effective method for recycling Co, La, and Sr from EoL SOCs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycling and Reuse of End-of-Life Lithium-Ion Batteries: Challenges and Strategies–2nd Edition)

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41 pages, 7831 KiB

Open AccessReview

Carbonaceous Materials as Anodes for Lithium-Ion and Sodium-Ion Batteries

by Koorosh Nikgoftar, Anil Kumar Madikere Raghunatha Reddy, Mogalahalli Venkatashamy Reddy and Karim Zaghib

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040123 - 25 Mar 2025

Abstract

The increasing global population and, thus, energy demand have made research into renewable energy sources more critical. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) have been recognized as the most promising technologies for storing energy and effectively addressing this demand. Carbonaceous materials are [...] Read more.

The increasing global population and, thus, energy demand have made research into renewable energy sources more critical. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) have been recognized as the most promising technologies for storing energy and effectively addressing this demand. Carbonaceous materials are the most widespread anode material due to their fascinating features, such as high theoretical capacity, high electrical conductivity, and excellent structural stability. Additionally, these materials’ abundance, cost-effectiveness, and environmental friendliness have emphasized the need for further investigation and development. Among these carbon-based materials, graphite (both artificial and natural) stands out as the most ubiquitous anode material due to its layered crystal structure, high mechanical strength, long cycle life, and excellent safety profile, making it ideal for intercalation with lithium and sodium. In recent years, extensive research has been conducted to enhance the efficiency of anodes and, ultimately, the overall performance of batteries. In this review, the role of carbonaceous materials in anodes for lithium-ion and sodium-ion batteries was comprehensively investigated, focusing on advancements in synthesizing and optimizing artificial graphite. Furthermore, the intercalation mechanism and the factors influencing the electrochemical properties of both LIBs and SIBs were extensively discussed. This work also provides a holistic perspective on the differences between these two types of batteries, highlighting their cost, safety applications, and future potential advancement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Materials and Interfaces: Anode, Cathode, Separators and Electrolytes or Others)

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