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Batteries

Batteries is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on battery technology and materials published monthly online by MDPI. International Society for Porous Media (InterPore) is affiliated with Batteries and their members receive discounts on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Inspec, Ei Compendex, CAPlus / SciFinder, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Electrochemistry) / CiteScore - Q2 (Electrical and Electronic Engineering)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 22 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 3.7 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2024).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Sections: published in 7 topical sections.

Impact Factor: 4.6 (2023); 5-Year Impact Factor: 5.3 (2023)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2313-0105

Latest Articles

17 pages, 4486 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Data-Driven Online Prediction Model for Battery Charging Efficiency Accounting for Entropic Heat

by Xiaowei Ding, Weige Zhang, Chenyang Yuan, Chang Ge, Yan Bao, Zhenjia An, Qiang Liu, Zhenpo Wang, Jinkai Shi and Zhihao Wang

Batteries 2024, 10(10), 350; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10100350 - 2 Oct 2024

This study proposes a charging efficiency calculation model based on an equivalent internal resistance framework. A data-driven neural network model is developed to predict the charging efficiency of lithium titanate (LTO) batteries for 5% state of charge (SOC) segments under various charging conditions. [...] Read more.

This study proposes a charging efficiency calculation model based on an equivalent internal resistance framework. A data-driven neural network model is developed to predict the charging efficiency of lithium titanate (LTO) batteries for 5% state of charge (SOC) segments under various charging conditions. By considering the impact of entropy change on the open-circuit voltage (OCV) during the charging process, the accuracy of energy efficiency calculations is improved. Incorporating battery data under various charging conditions, and comparing the predictive accuracy and computational complexity of different hyperparameter configurations, we establish a backpropagation neural network model designed for implementation in embedded systems. The model predicts the energy efficiency of subsequent 5% SOC segments based on the current SOC and operating conditions. The results indicate that the model achieves a prediction error of only 0.29% under unknown charging conditions while also facilitating the deployment of the neural network model in embedded systems. In future applications, the relevant predictive data can be transmitted in real time to the cooling system for thermal generation forecasting and predictive control of battery systems, thereby enhancing temperature control precision and improving cooling system efficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)

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13 pages, 5888 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Operando Fabricated Quasi-Solid-State Electrolyte Hinders Polysulfide Shuttles in an Advanced Li-S Battery

by Sayan Das, Krish Naresh Gupta, Austin Choi and Vilas Pol

Batteries 2024, 10(10), 349; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10100349 - 1 Oct 2024

Lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries are a promising option for energy storage due to their theoretical high energy density and the use of abundant, low-cost sulfur cathodes. Nevertheless, several obstacles remain, including the dissolution of lithium polysulfides (LiPS) into the electrolyte and a restricted operational [...] Read more.

Lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries are a promising option for energy storage due to their theoretical high energy density and the use of abundant, low-cost sulfur cathodes. Nevertheless, several obstacles remain, including the dissolution of lithium polysulfides (LiPS) into the electrolyte and a restricted operational temperature range. This manuscript presents a promising approach to addressing these challenges. The manuscript describes a straightforward and scalable in situ thermal polymerization method for synthesizing a quasi-solid-state electrolyte (QSE) by gelling pentaerythritol tetraacrylate (PETEA), azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN), and a dual salt lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI) and lithium nitrate (LiNO₃)-based liquid electrolyte. The resulting freestanding quasi-solid-state electrolyte (QSE) effectively inhibits the polysulfide shuttle effect across a wider temperature range of −25 °C to 45 °C. The electrolyte’s ability to prevent LiPS migration and cluster formation has been corroborated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Raman spectroscopy analyses. The optimized QSE composition appears to act as a physical barrier, thereby significantly improving battery performance. Notably, the capacity retention has been demonstrated to reach 95% after 100 cycles at a 2C rate. Furthermore, the simple and scalable synthesis process paves the way for the potential commercialization of this technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrolytes for Solid State Batteries—2nd Edition)

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16 pages, 4071 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving the Performance of LiFePO₄ Cathodes with a Sulfur-Modified Carbon Layer

by Su-hyun Kwak and Yong Joon Park

Batteries 2024, 10(10), 348; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10100348 - 1 Oct 2024

LiFePO₄ (LFP) cathodes are popular due to their safety and cyclic performance, despite limitations in lithium-ion diffusion and conductivity. These can be improved with carbon coating, but further advancements are possible despite commercial success. In this study, we modified the carbon coating layer [...] Read more.

LiFePO₄ (LFP) cathodes are popular due to their safety and cyclic performance, despite limitations in lithium-ion diffusion and conductivity. These can be improved with carbon coating, but further advancements are possible despite commercial success. In this study, we modified the carbon coating layer using sulfur to enhance the electronic conductivity and stabilize the carbon surface layer via two methods: 1-step and 2-step processes. In the 1-step process, sulfur powder was mixed with cellulose followed by heat treatment to form a coating layer; in the 2-step process, an additional coating layer was applied on top of the carbon coating layer. Electrochemical measurements demonstrated that the 1-step sulfur-modified LFP significantly improved the discharge capacity (~152 mAh·g⁻¹ at 0.5 C rate) and rate capability compared to pristine LFP. Raman analyses indicated that sulfur mixed with a carbon source increases the graphitization of the carbon layer. Although the 2-step sulfur modification did not exceed the 1-step process in enhancing rate capability, it improved the storage characteristics of LFP at high temperatures. The residual sulfur elements apparently protected the surface. These findings confirm that sulfur modification of the carbon layer is effective for improving LFP cathode properties, offering a promising approach to enhance the performance and stability of LFP-based lithium-ion batteries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries: Design, Preparation, Reaction Mechanisms of Electrode Materials, and Battery Life Evaluation)

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28 pages, 17826 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comprehensive Flow–Mass–Thermal–Electrochemical Coupling Model for a VRFB Stack and Its Application in a Stack Temperature Control Strategy

by Chen Yin, Mengyue Lu, Qiang Ma, Huaneng Su, Weiwei Yang and Qian Xu

Batteries 2024, 10(10), 347; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10100347 - 28 Sep 2024

In this work, a comprehensive multi-physics electrochemical hybrid stack model is developed for a vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB) stack considering electrolyte flow, mass transport, electrochemical reactions, shunt currents, and as heat generation and transfer simultaneously. Compared with other VRFB stack models, this [...] Read more.

In this work, a comprehensive multi-physics electrochemical hybrid stack model is developed for a vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB) stack considering electrolyte flow, mass transport, electrochemical reactions, shunt currents, and as heat generation and transfer simultaneously. Compared with other VRFB stack models, this model is more comprehensive in considering the influence of multiple factors. Based on the established model, the electrolyte flow rate distribution across cells in the stack is investigated. The distribution and variation in shunt currents, single-cell current and single-cell voltage are analyzed. The distribution and variation in temperature and heat generation and heat transfer are also researched. It can be found that the VRFB stack temperature will exceed 40 °C when operating at 60 A and 100 mA cm⁻² at an ambient temperature of 30 °C, which will lead to electrolyte ion precipitation, affecting the performance and safety of the battery. To control the stack temperature below 40 °C, a new tank cooling control strategy is proposed, and the suitable starting cooling point and the controlled temperature are specified. Compared with the common room cooling strategy, the new tank cooling strategy reduces energy consumption by 27.18% during 20 charge–discharge cycles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redox Flow Batteries for Large-Scale and Long-Duration Energy Storage Applications)

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11 pages, 2960 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Honeycomb-like N-Doped Carbon Matrix-Encapsulated Co_1−xS/Co(PO₃)₂ Heterostructures for Advanced Lithium-Ion Capacitors

by Yutao Liu, Xiaopeng Xie, Zhaojia Wu, Tao Wen, Fang Zhao, Hao He, Junfei Duan and Wen Wang

Batteries 2024, 10(10), 346; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10100346 - 27 Sep 2024

Lithium-ion capacitors (LICs) are emerging as promising hybrid energy storage devices that combine the high energy densities of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) with high power densities of supercapacitors (SCs). Nevertheless, the development of LICs is hindered by the kinetic imbalances between battery-type anodes and [...] Read more.

Lithium-ion capacitors (LICs) are emerging as promising hybrid energy storage devices that combine the high energy densities of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) with high power densities of supercapacitors (SCs). Nevertheless, the development of LICs is hindered by the kinetic imbalances between battery-type anodes and capacitor-type cathodes. To address this issue, honeycomb-like N-doped carbon matrices encapsulating Co_1−xS/Co(PO₃)₂ heterostructures were prepared using a simple chemical blowing-vulcanization process followed by phosphorylation treatment (Co_1−xS/Co(PO₃)₂@NC). The Co_1−xS/Co(PO₃)₂@NC features a unique heterostructure engineered within carbon honeycomb structures, which efficiently promotes charge transfer at the interfaces, alleviates the volume expansion of Co-based materials, and accelerates reaction kinetics. The optimal Co_1−xS/Co(PO₃)₂@NC composite demonstrates a stable reversible capacity of 371.8 mAh g⁻¹ after 800 cycles at 1 A g⁻¹, and exhibits an excellent rate performance of 242.9 mAh g⁻¹ even at 8 A g⁻¹, alongside enhanced pseudocapacitive behavior. The assembled Co_1−xS/Co(PO₃)₂@NC//AC LIC delivers a high energy density of 90.47 Wh kg⁻¹ (at 26.28 W kg⁻¹), a high power density of 504.94 W kg⁻¹ (at 38.31 Wh kg⁻¹), and a remarkable cyclic stablitiy of 86.3% retention after 5000 cycles. This research is expected to provide valuable insights into the design of conversion-type electrode materials for future energy storage applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Studies on High-Performance Metal-Ion Capacitors: Technologies, Systems and Applications)

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18 pages, 2715 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhanced Electrochemical Performance of Lithium Iron Phosphate Cathodes Using Plasma-Assisted Reduced Graphene Oxide Additives for Lithium-Ion Batteries

by Suk Jekal, Chan-Gyo Kim, Jiwon Kim, Ha-Yeong Kim, Yeon-Ryong Chu, Yoon-Ho Ra, Zambaga Otgonbayar and Chang-Min Yoon

Batteries 2024, 10(10), 345; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10100345 - 27 Sep 2024

One-dimensional lithium-ion transport channels in lithium iron phosphate (LFP) used as a cathode in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) result in low electrical conductivity and reduced electrochemical performance. To overcome this limitation, three-dimensional plasma-treated reduced graphene oxide (rGO) was synthesized in this study and used [...] Read more.

One-dimensional lithium-ion transport channels in lithium iron phosphate (LFP) used as a cathode in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) result in low electrical conductivity and reduced electrochemical performance. To overcome this limitation, three-dimensional plasma-treated reduced graphene oxide (rGO) was synthesized in this study and used as an additive for LFP in LIB cathodes. Graphene oxide was synthesized using Hummers’ method, followed by mixing with LFP, lyophilization, and plasma treatment to obtain LFP@rGO. The plasma treatment achieved the highest degree of reduction and porosity in rGO, creating ion transfer channels. The structure of LFP@rGO was verified through scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis, which demonstrated that incorporating 10.0 wt% of rGO into LFP resulted in successful coverage by the rGO layer, forming LFP@rGO-10. In half-cell tests, LFP@rGO-10 exhibited a specific capacity of 142.7 mAh g⁻¹ at the 1.0 C-rate, which is higher than that of LFP. The full-cell exhibited 86.8% capacity retention after 200 cycles, demonstrating the effectiveness of rGO in enhancing the performance of LFP as an LIB cathode material. The outstanding efficiency and performance of the LFP@rGO-10//graphite cell highlight the promising potential of rGO-modified LFP as a cathode material for high-performance LIBs, providing both increased capacity and stability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries and Li-Ion Capacitors: From Fundamentals to Practical Applications: 2nd Edition)

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10 pages, 1009 KiB

Open AccessArticle

First Principles Study of the Phase Stability, the Li Ionic Diffusion, and the Conductivity of the Li₁₀Ge_xMo_1−xP₂S₁₂ of Superionic Conductors

by Yifang Wu, Yuanzhen Chen and Shaokun Chong

Batteries 2024, 10(10), 344; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10100344 - 27 Sep 2024

Using first-principles density functional theory (DFT) calculations and ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD) simulations, we performed this study on the phase stability, the intrinsic redox stability, and the Li⁺ conductivity of Li₁₀Ge_xMo_1−xP₂S₁₂ (x [...] Read more.

Using first-principles density functional theory (DFT) calculations and ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD) simulations, we performed this study on the phase stability, the intrinsic redox stability, and the Li⁺ conductivity of Li₁₀Ge_xMo_1−xP₂S₁₂ (x = 0~1) superionic conductors. Molybdenum (Mo) is expected to replace expensive germanium (Ge) to lower tmaterial costs, reduce sensitivity to ambient water and oxygen, and achieve acceptable Li⁺ conductivity. The ab initio first principle molecular dynamics simulations show that room-temperature Li⁺ conductivity is 1.12 mS·cm⁻¹ for the Li₁₀Ge_0.75Mo_0.25P₂S₁₂ compound, which is comparable to the theoretical value of 6.81 mS·cm⁻¹ and the experimental measured one of 12 mS·cm⁻¹ of the Li₁₀GeP₂S₁₂ (LGPS) structure. For Li₁₀Ge_xMo_1−xP₂S₁₂ (x = 0, 0.25, 0.5 and 1) compounds, the density of states and the projection fractional wave state density were calculated. It was found that when Ge atoms were partially replaced by Mo atoms, the band gap remained unchanged at 2.5 eV, but deep level defects appeared in Mo-substituted compounds. Fortunately, this deep level defect is difficult to ionize at room temperature, so it has no effect on the electronic conductivity of Mo substitute compounds, making Mo substitution a suitable solution for electrolyte materials. The projection fractional wave state density calculation shows that the covalent bond between Mo and S is stronger than that between Ge and S, which reduces the sensitivity of Mo-substituted compounds to water and oxygen contents in the air. In addition, the partial state density coincidence curve between Li and S elements disappears in the 25% Mo-substituted compound with energies of 4–5 eV, indicating that the Li₂S by-product is decreased. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries: Design, Preparation, Reaction Mechanisms of Electrode Materials, and Battery Life Evaluation)

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24 pages, 5955 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Linear Regression-Based Procedures for Extraction of Li-Ion Battery Equivalent Circuit Model Parameters

by Vicentiu-Iulian Savu, Chris Brace, Georg Engel, Nico Didcock, Peter Wilson, Emre Kural and Nic Zhang

Batteries 2024, 10(10), 343; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10100343 - 27 Sep 2024

Equivalent circuit models represent one of the most efficient virtual representations of battery systems, with numerous applications supporting the design of electric vehicles, such as powertrain evaluation, power electronics development, and model-based state estimation. Due to their popularity, their parameter extraction and model [...] Read more.

Equivalent circuit models represent one of the most efficient virtual representations of battery systems, with numerous applications supporting the design of electric vehicles, such as powertrain evaluation, power electronics development, and model-based state estimation. Due to their popularity, their parameter extraction and model parametrization procedures present high interest within the research community, with novel approaches at an elementary level still being identified. This article introduces and compares in detail two novel parameter extraction methods based on the distinct application of least squares linear regression in relation to the autoregressive exogenous as well as the state-space equations of the double polarization equivalent circuit model in an iterative optimization-type manner. Following their application using experimental data obtained from an NCA Sony VTC6 cell, the results are benchmarked against a method employing differential evolution. The results indicate the least squares linear regression applied to the state-space format of the model as the best overall solution, providing excellent accuracy similar to the results of differential evolution, but averaging only 1.32% of the computational cost. In contrast, the same linear solver applied to the autoregressive exogenous format proves complementary characteristics by being the fastest process but presenting a penalty over the accuracy of the results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Reliability and Health Management of Lithium-Ion Batteries—2nd Edition)

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28 pages, 14953 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing State of Health Prediction Accuracy in Lithium-Ion Batteries through a Simplified Health Indicator Method

by Dongxu Han, Nan Zhou and Zeyu Chen

Batteries 2024, 10(10), 342; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10100342 - 27 Sep 2024

Accurately predicting the state of health (SOH) of lithium-ion batteries is crucial for optimizing battery performance and achieving efficient energy management, especially in electric vehicle applications. However, the existing incremental capacity analysis methods, which are mostly based on curve multi-parameter analysis, still have [...] Read more.

Accurately predicting the state of health (SOH) of lithium-ion batteries is crucial for optimizing battery performance and achieving efficient energy management, especially in electric vehicle applications. However, the existing incremental capacity analysis methods, which are mostly based on curve multi-parameter analysis, still have limitations in terms of computation, prediction accuracy, and adaptability to actual operating conditions. This paper conducts an in-depth analysis of the incremental capacity (IC) curve and proposes a feature parameter based on the area under the IC curve. By incorporating charge and discharge data, a weighted health indicator sequence is constructed and three mathematical models are proposed to link health indicators with cycle number, capacity, and SOH. The feasibility of using impedance as an additional input is also explored, despite the challenges of measurement, revealing its potential applications. Validation of the models with different datasets shows that the proposed method achieves both average relative error and root mean square error within 5%, outperforming other methods in terms of minimizing error and ensuring stability. The results demonstrate that the area-weighted incremental capacity method significantly enhances battery health monitoring accuracy, contributing to the development of sustainable and efficient energy storage systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Battery Modeling: Models, Charging Strategies, Performance Estimations and Thermal Management)

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13 pages, 4393 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhanced Structural and Electrochemical Performance of LiNi_0.5Mn_1.5O₄ Cathode Material by PO₄³⁻/Fe³⁺ Co-Doping

by Yong Wang, Shaoxiong Fu, Xianzhen Du, Dong Wei, Jingpeng Zhang, Li Wang and Guangchuan Liang

Batteries 2024, 10(10), 341; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10100341 - 26 Sep 2024

Series of PO₄³⁻/Fe³⁺ co-doped samples of LiNi_0.5Mn_1.5-5/3_xFe_xP_2/3_xO₄ (x = 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.05) have been synthesized by the coprecipitation–hydrothermal method, along with high-temperature calcination using FeSO [...] Read more.

Series of PO₄³⁻/Fe³⁺ co-doped samples of LiNi_0.5Mn_1.5-5/3_xFe_xP_2/3_xO₄ (x = 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.05) have been synthesized by the coprecipitation–hydrothermal method, along with high-temperature calcination using FeSO₄ and NaH₂PO₄ as Fe³⁺ and PO₄³⁻ sources, respectively. The effects of the PO₄³⁻/Fe³⁺ co-doping amount on the crystal structure, particle morphology and electrochemical performance of LiNi_0.5Mn_1.5O₄ are intensively studied. The results show that the PO₄³⁻/Fe³⁺ co-doping amount exerts a significant influence on the crystal structure and particle morphology, including increased crystallinity, lowered Mn³⁺ content, smaller primary particle size with decreased agglomeration and the exposure of high-energy (110) and (311) crystal surfaces in primary particles. The synergy of the above factors contributes to the obviously ameliorated electrochemical performance of the co-doped samples. The LiNi_0.5Mn_1.45Fe_0.03P_0.02O₄ sample exhibits the best cycling stability, and the LiNi_0.5Mn_1.4333Fe_0.04P_0.0267O₄ sample displays the best rate performance. The electrochemical properties of LiNi_0.5Mn_1.5-5/3_xFe_xP_2/3_xO₄ can be regulated by adjusting the PO₄³⁻/Fe³⁺ co-doping amount. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries and Li-Ion Capacitors: From Fundamentals to Practical Applications)

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39 pages, 4148 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review on Design Parameters for the Full-Cell Lithium-Ion Batteries

by Faizan Ghani, Kunsik An and Dongjin Lee

Batteries 2024, 10(10), 340; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10100340 - 25 Sep 2024

The lithium-ion battery (LIB) is a promising energy storage system that has dominated the energy market due to its low cost, high specific capacity, and energy density, while still meeting the energy consumption requirements of current appliances. The simple design of LIBs in [...] Read more.

The lithium-ion battery (LIB) is a promising energy storage system that has dominated the energy market due to its low cost, high specific capacity, and energy density, while still meeting the energy consumption requirements of current appliances. The simple design of LIBs in various formats—such as coin cells, pouch cells, cylindrical cells, etc.—along with the latest scientific findings, trends, data collection, and effective research methods, has been summarized previously. These papers addressed individual design parameters as well as provided a general overview of LIBs. They also included characterization techniques, selection of new electrodes and electrolytes, their properties, analysis of electrochemical reaction mechanisms, and reviews of recent research findings. Additionally, some articles on computer simulations and mathematical modeling have examined the design of full-cell LIBs for power grid and electric vehicle applications. To fully understand LIB operation, a simple and concise report on design parameters and modification strategies is essential. This literature aims to summarize the design parameters that are often overlooked in academic research for the development of full-cell LIBs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries and Li-Ion Capacitors: From Fundamentals to Practical Applications)

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16 pages, 4223 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

One-Step Hydrothermally Synthesized Ni₁₁(HPO₃)₈(OH)₆/Co₃(HPO₄)₂(OH)₂ Heterostructure with Enhanced Rate Performance for Hybrid Supercapacitor Applications

by Mingjun Jing, Kaige Long, Rui Liu, Xingyu Wang, Tianjing Wu, Yirong Zhu, Lijie Liu, Sheng Zhang, Yang Zhang and Cheng Liu

Batteries 2024, 10(10), 339; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10100339 - 24 Sep 2024

Transition metal phosphate is the prospective electrode material for supercapacitors (SCs). It has an open frame construction with spacious cavities and wide aisles, resulting in excellent electric storage capacity. However, the inferior rate behavior and cycling stability of transition metal phosphate materials in [...] Read more.

Transition metal phosphate is the prospective electrode material for supercapacitors (SCs). It has an open frame construction with spacious cavities and wide aisles, resulting in excellent electric storage capacity. However, the inferior rate behavior and cycling stability of transition metal phosphate materials in alkaline environments pose significant barriers to their application in SCs. Herein, Ni₁₁(HPO₃)₈(OH)₆/Co₃(HPO₄)₂(OH)₂ heterostructured materials synthesized through a one-step hydrothermal process exhibiting remarkable rate capability coupled with exceptional cycling endurance. Ni₁₁(HPO₃)₈(OH)₆/Co₃(HPO₄)₂(OH)₂ samples exhibit a micron-scale structure composed of sheet-like compositions and unique pore structure. The multistage pore structure is favorable for promoting the diffusion of protons and ions, enhancing the sample’s electrochemical storage capacity. Upon conducting electrochemical tests, it was observed that Ni₁₁(HPO₃)₈(OH)₆/Co₃(HPO₄)₂(OH)₂ composite electrode surpassed both the standalone Ni₁₁(HPO₃)₈(OH)₆ and Co₃(HPO₄)₂(OH)₂ electrode, achieving a remarkable specific capacity of 163 mAh g⁻¹ with exceptional stability and efficiency at 1 A g⁻¹. Notably, this electrode also exhibits superior rate performance, maintaining 82.5% and 71% of its original full capacity even at 50 A g⁻¹ and 100 A g⁻¹, respectively. Furthermore, it demonstrates superior stability in cycling, retaining a capacity of 92.7% at 10 A g⁻¹ after 5000 cycles. Moreover, Ni₁₁(HPO₃)₈(OH)₆/Co₃(HPO₄)₂(OH)₂ and porous carbon (PC) were assembled into a hybrid supercapacitor (HSC). Electrochemical tests reveal an impressive power density of up to 36 kW kg⁻¹ and an exceptional energy density of up to 47.4 Wh kg⁻¹ for the HSC. Moreover, Ni₁₁(HPO₃)₈(OH)₆/Co₃(HPO₄)₂(OH)₂//PC HSC exhibits robust capacity retention stability of 92.9% after enduring 10,000 cycles at 3 A g⁻¹, demonstrating its remarkable durability. This work imparts viewpoints into the design of transition metal phosphate heterostructured materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Studies on High-Performance Metal-Ion Capacitors: Technologies, Systems and Applications)

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12 pages, 3488 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synchronously Stabilizing the Interphase of Cathode and Anode Enabling Lithium Metal Batteries via Multiple Electrolyte Additives

by Yi Wan, Weihang Bai, Shun Wu, Che Sun, Shuaishuai Chen, Yinping Qin, Muqin Wang, Zhenlian Chen, Mingkui Wang and Deyu Wang

Batteries 2024, 10(10), 338; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10100338 - 24 Sep 2024

As the most promising high energy density technology, lithium metal batteries are associated with serious interfacial challenges because the electrolytes employed are unable to meet the requirements of both electrodes simultaneously, namely, the systems that work for Li metal are highly likely to [...] Read more.

As the most promising high energy density technology, lithium metal batteries are associated with serious interfacial challenges because the electrolytes employed are unable to meet the requirements of both electrodes simultaneously, namely, the systems that work for Li metal are highly likely to be unsuitable for the cathode, and vice versa. In this study, we investigate the synergistic effects of lithium bis (oxalate) borate (LiBOB), fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC) and adiponitrile (ADN) to develop a formula that is compatible with both elements in the battery. The solid–electrolyte interphase (SEI) multi-layer generated from LiBOB and FEC successfully protects the electrolyte from the lithium and suppresses the decomposition of ADN on lithium, identified by the tiny amounts of isonitriles on the surface of the anode. Simultaneously, most of the ADN molecules remain and protect the cathode particles via the absorption layer of the nitrile groups, in the same way that this process works in commercial lithium-ion batteries. Benefiting from the stable interfacial films formed synchronously on the anode and cathode, the Li/LiNi_0.8Co_0.1Mn_0.1O₂ cells with an area capacity of ~3 mAh cm⁻² operate stably beyond 250 cycles and target the accumulated capacity to levels as high as ~653.4 mAh cm⁻². Our approach demonstrates that electrolyte engineering with known additives is a practical strategy for addressing the challenges of lithium batteries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Material Science and Electrochemistry in Battery Processing and Manufacturing)

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11 pages, 2117 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Recycling of Lithium-Ion Batteries via Electrochemical Recovery: A Mini-Review

by Lu Yu, Yaocai Bai and Ilias Belharouak

Batteries 2024, 10(10), 337; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10100337 - 24 Sep 2024

With the rising demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), it is crucial to develop recycling methods that minimize environmental impacts and ensure resource sustainability. The focus of this short review is on the electrochemical techniques used in LIB recycling, particularly electrochemical leaching and electrodeposition. [...] Read more.

With the rising demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), it is crucial to develop recycling methods that minimize environmental impacts and ensure resource sustainability. The focus of this short review is on the electrochemical techniques used in LIB recycling, particularly electrochemical leaching and electrodeposition. Our summary covers the latest research, highlighting the principles, progress, and challenges tied to these methods. By examining the current state of electrochemical recovery, this review intends to provide guidance for future advancements and enhance LIB recycling efficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling)

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22 pages, 4632 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Deep Learning to Optimize Gradient Porosity Profile for Improved Energy Density of Lithium-Ion Batteries

by Mahshid Nejati Amiri, Odne Stokke Burheim and Jacob Joseph Lamb

Batteries 2024, 10(9), 336; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090336 - 21 Sep 2024

Lithium-ion batteries with high active material loading can yield a high energy density at low C-rates. However, the sluggish ion transport caused by longer and more tortuous pathways hinders high energy delivery when extracting high power. This study presents the implementation of neural [...] Read more.

Lithium-ion batteries with high active material loading can yield a high energy density at low C-rates. However, the sluggish ion transport caused by longer and more tortuous pathways hinders high energy delivery when extracting high power. This study presents the implementation of neural networks to optimize the gradient active material distribution profile throughout the thickness of electrodes to enhance energy density. The profiles were randomly generated, while maintaining a constant average active material in each electrode. An electrochemical–thermal model was used to investigate the impact of different profiles. A neural network model was then developed to establish the connection between the profiles and the resulting energy density for various electrode thicknesses and C-rates, utilizing a limited amount of simulation data. The neural network model could replicate the performance of the electrochemical–thermal model, but with significantly reduced computational time. This enabled the possibility of efficiently exploring a vast number of candidate profiles to identify the most optimal one for each of the positive and negative electrodes. The results showed that the gradient profiles were mostly influenced by the average active material, rather than the thickness of the electrode. Finally, at high currents, the optimal gradient profiles increased the energy density by over four times compared to uniform electrodes. Full article

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21 pages, 3233 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sensor Fusion-Based Pulsed Controller for Low Power Solar-Charged Batteries with Experimental Tests: NiMH Battery as a Case Study

by Shyam Yadasu, Vinay Kumar Awaar, Vatsala Rani Jetti and Mohsen Eskandari

Batteries 2024, 10(9), 335; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090335 - 21 Sep 2024

Solar energy is considered the major source of clean and ubiquitous renewable energy available on various scales in electric grids. In addition, solar energy is harnessed in various electronic devices to charge the batteries and power electronic equipment. Due to its ubiquitous nature, [...] Read more.

Solar energy is considered the major source of clean and ubiquitous renewable energy available on various scales in electric grids. In addition, solar energy is harnessed in various electronic devices to charge the batteries and power electronic equipment. Due to its ubiquitous nature, the corresponding market for solar-charged small-scale batteries is growing fast. The most important part to make the technology feasible is a portable battery charger and the associated controllers to automate battery charging. The charger should consider the case of charging to be convenient for the user and minimize battery degradation. However, the issue of slow charging and premature battery life loss plagues current industry standards or innovative battery technologies. In this paper, a new pulse charging technique is proposed that obviates battery deterioration and minimizes the overall charging loss. The solar-powered battery charger is prototyped and executed as a practical, versatile, and compact photovoltaic charge controller at cut rates. With the aid of sensor fusion, the charge controller is disconnected and reconnects the battery during battery overcharging and deep discharging conditions using sensors with relays. The laboratory model is tested using a less expensive PV panel, battery, and digital signal processor (DSP) controller. The charging behavior of the solar-powered PWM charge controller is studied compared with that of the constant voltage–constant current (CV–CC) method. The proposed method is pertinent for minimizing energy issues in impoverished places at a reasonable price. Full article

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8 pages, 3228 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Tin Dioxide Anode Performance by Narrowing the Potential Range and Optimizing Electrolytes

by Jose Fernando Florez Gomez, Fernando Camacho Domenech, Songyang Chang, Valerio Dorvilien, Nischal Oli, Brad R. Weiner, Gerardo Morell and Xianyong Wu

Batteries 2024, 10(9), 334; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090334 - 21 Sep 2024

Tin dioxide (SnO₂) is a low-cost and high-capacity anode material for lithium-ion batteries, but the fast capacity fading significantly limits its practical applications. Current research efforts have focused on preparing sophisticated composite structures or optimizing functional binders, both of which increase [...] Read more.

Tin dioxide (SnO₂) is a low-cost and high-capacity anode material for lithium-ion batteries, but the fast capacity fading significantly limits its practical applications. Current research efforts have focused on preparing sophisticated composite structures or optimizing functional binders, both of which increase material manufacturing costs. Herein, we utilize pristine and commercially available SnO₂ nanopowders and enhance their cycling performance by simply narrowing the potential range and optimizing electrolytes. Specifically, a narrower potential range (0–1 V) mitigates the capacity fading associated with the conversion reaction, whereas an ether-based electrolyte further suppresses the volume expansion related to the alloy reaction. Consequently, this SnO₂ anode delivers a promising battery performance, with a high capacity of ~650 mAhg⁻¹ and stable cycling for 100 cycles. Our work provides an alternative approach to developing high-capacity and long-cycling metal oxide anode materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Materials and Interfaces: Anode, Cathode, Separators and Electrolytes or Others)

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16 pages, 3125 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantifying the Aging of Lithium-Ion Pouch Cells Using Pressure Sensors

by Yousof Nayfeh, Jon C. Vittitoe and Xianglin Li

Batteries 2024, 10(9), 333; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090333 - 21 Sep 2024

Understanding the behavior of pressure increases in lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells is essential for prolonging the lifespan of Li-ion battery cells and minimizing the safety risks associated with cell aging. This work investigates the effects of C-rates and temperature on pressure behavior in commercial [...] Read more.

Understanding the behavior of pressure increases in lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells is essential for prolonging the lifespan of Li-ion battery cells and minimizing the safety risks associated with cell aging. This work investigates the effects of C-rates and temperature on pressure behavior in commercial lithium cobalt oxide (LCO)/graphite pouch cells. The battery is volumetrically constrained, and the mechanical pressure response is measured using a force gauge as the battery is cycled. The effect of the C-rate (1C, 2C, and 3C) and ambient temperature (10 °C, 25 °C, and 40 °C) on the increase in battery pressure is investigated. By analyzing the change in the minimum, maximum, and pressure difference per cycle, we identify and discuss the effects of different factors (i.e., SEI layer damage, electrolyte decomposition, lithium plating) on the pressure behavior. Operating at high C-rates or low temperatures rapidly increases the residual pressure as the battery is cycled. The results suggest that lithium plating is predominantly responsible for battery expansion and pressure increase during the cycle aging of Li-ion cells rather than electrolyte decomposition. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements can support our conclusions. Postmortem analysis of the aged cells was performed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) to confirm the occurrence of lithium plating and film growth on the anodes of the aged cells. This study demonstrates that pressure measurements can provide insights into the aging mechanisms of Li-ion batteries and can be used as a reliable predictor of battery degradation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Performance, Ageing, Reliability and Safety)

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13 pages, 3842 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Evaluation Modeling Study of Thermal Runaway in Li-Ion Batteries Based on Operation Environments in an Energy Storage System

by Min-Haeng Lee, Sung-Moon Choi, Kyung-Hwa Kim, Hyun-Sang You, Se-Jin Kim and Dae-Seok Rho

Batteries 2024, 10(9), 332; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090332 - 19 Sep 2024

According to the green growth and carbon-neutral policy in Korea, the installation of large-capacity ESSs is rapidly being increased, but a total number of 50 ESS fire cases have occurred since the end of 2023. ESSs are typically composed of series-parallel connections with [...] Read more.

According to the green growth and carbon-neutral policy in Korea, the installation of large-capacity ESSs is rapidly being increased, but a total number of 50 ESS fire cases have occurred since the end of 2023. ESSs are typically composed of series-parallel connections with numerous Li-ion batteries, and when the temperature of a deteriorated cell increases due to thermal, electrical, and mechanical stress, thermal runaway can occur due to additional heat generated by an internal chemical reaction. Here, an internal chemical reaction in a Li-ion battery results in the different characteristics on the decomposition reaction and heat release depending on the operation conditions in the ESS, such as the rising temperature rate, convective heat transfer coefficient, and C-rate of charging and discharging. Therefore, this paper presents mathematical equations and modeling of thermal runaway, composed of the heating device section, heat release section by chemical reaction, chemical reaction section at the SEI layer, chemical reaction section between the negative and positive electrodes and solvents, and chemical reaction section at the electrolyte by itself, based on MATLAB/SIMULINK (2022), which were validated by a thermal runaway test device. From the simulation and test results based on the proposed simulation modeling and test device according to the operation conditions in ESSs, it was found that the proposed modeling is an effective and reliable tool to evaluate the processing characteristics of thermal runaway because the occurrence time intervals and maximum temperatures had almost the same values in both the test device and simulation modeling. Accordingly, it was confirmed that the rising temperature rate and the convective heat transfer coefficient were more critical in the thermal runaway than the C-rate of charging and discharging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Reliability and Health Management of Lithium-Ion Batteries—2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 4688 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Coordinated Control Strategy for Efficiency Improvement of Multistack Fuel Cell Systems in Electric–Hydrogen Hybrid Energy Storage System

by Jianlin Li, Ce Liang and Zelin Shi

Batteries 2024, 10(9), 331; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090331 - 19 Sep 2024

A two-layer coordinated control strategy is proposed to solve the power allocation problem faced by electric–hydrogen hybrid energy storage systems (HESSs) when compensating for the fluctuating power of the DC microgrid. The upper-layer control strategy is the system-level control. Considering the energy storage [...] Read more.

A two-layer coordinated control strategy is proposed to solve the power allocation problem faced by electric–hydrogen hybrid energy storage systems (HESSs) when compensating for the fluctuating power of the DC microgrid. The upper-layer control strategy is the system-level control. Considering the energy storage margin of each energy storage system, fuzzy logic control (FLC) is used to make the initial power allocation between the battery energy storage system (BESS) and the multistack fuel cell system (MFCS). The lower-layer control strategy is the device-level control. Considering the individual differences and energy-storage margin differences of the single-stack fuel cell (FC) in an MFCS, FLC is used to make the initial power allocation of the FC. To improve the hydrogen-to-electricity conversion efficiency of the MFCS, a strategy for optimization by perturbation (OP) is used to adjust the power allocation of the FC. The output difference of the MFCS before and after the adjustment is compensated for by the BESS. The simulation and experiment results show that the mentioned coordinated control strategy can enable the HESS to achieve adaptive power allocation based on the energy storage margin and obtain an improvement in the hydrogen-to-electricity conversion efficiency of the MFCS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Preparation, Storage, and Transportation of Green Hydrogen and Multi-Scenario Application Technologies)

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