Batteries

20 pages, 5711 KB

Open AccessArticle

User-Demand-Oriented Healthy Charging Control Strategy for EVs Based on Football Team Training Algorithm

by Haoyi Liu, Lianghui Huang, Quan Ouyang, Yujia Li and Yong Wan

Batteries 2025, 11(9), 344; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11090344 - 19 Sep 2025

With the rapid development of the electric vehicle (EV) market, effective charging control is essential for enhancing user experience and preserving battery health. Across various scenarios, this work proposes a user-demand-oriented healthy charging control strategy that balances charging efficiency and battery lifespan using [...] Read more.

With the rapid development of the electric vehicle (EV) market, effective charging control is essential for enhancing user experience and preserving battery health. Across various scenarios, this work proposes a user-demand-oriented healthy charging control strategy that balances charging efficiency and battery lifespan using the football team training algorithm (FTTA). Firstly, an enhanced hybrid stacking–boosting ensemble (EHSBE) model is designed to predict user charging duration through different feature selections and a hybrid framework. Secondly, a healthy charging control strategy based on the FTTA is developed. This strategy addresses a multi-objective optimization problem, considering two charging objectives: completing the charging task and reducing energy loss, as well as three safety-related constraints. The algorithm achieves a healthy strategy through interaction and iterative refinement among potential solutions. Simulation and experimental results show that the proposed strategy significantly reduces energy loss, generating only 5.8% and 24% of the energy loss generated by the fast charging approach under two different durations. With user expectations and maintenance of battery health, the charging process is optimized so that battery life is extended by 25.7% and user demand is satisfied. Full article

11 pages, 2071 KB

Open AccessArticle

Composite Electroforming of a Binder-Free Porous Ni/S-PTh Electrode for Li–S Batteries by Combining 3D Printing, Pulse Plating, and Composite Electrodeposition

by Wassima El Mofid, Robin Arnet, Oliver Kesten and Timo Sörgel

Batteries 2025, 11(9), 343; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11090343 - 19 Sep 2025

Abstract

A novel process for the synthesis of binder-free, porous nickel/polythiophene-functionalized sulfur (Ni/S-PTh) composite cathodes for lithium–sulfur (Li–S) batteries is introduced in this paper. Initially, a polyvinyl butyl polymer scaffold is 3D printed, then coated with a graphite-based conducting layer, and, finally, it is [...] Read more.

A novel process for the synthesis of binder-free, porous nickel/polythiophene-functionalized sulfur (Ni/S-PTh) composite cathodes for lithium–sulfur (Li–S) batteries is introduced in this paper. Initially, a polyvinyl butyl polymer scaffold is 3D printed, then coated with a graphite-based conducting layer, and, finally, it is pulse-plated for nickel deposition to produce a high-surface-area, mechanically stable current collector. S-PTh particles are afterwards co-deposited into the Ni matrix through composite electrodeposition. After the dissolution of the polymer template, the resulting self-standing electrodes still maintain porous structure with uniform sulfur distribution and a distinct transition between the dense Ni layer and the Ni/S-PTh composite layer. Electrochemical characterization of the Ni/S-PTh composite cathodes by galvanostatic cycling at C/10 rate results in an initial specific discharge capacity of ~1120 mAh·g⁻¹ and a specific capacity of ~910 mAh·g⁻¹ after 200 cycles, resulting in a high capacity retention of ~81 %. For our novel approach, no steps at high temperatures or toxic solvents are involved and the need for polymer binders and conductive additives is avoided. These results demonstrate the potential of composite electrodeposition in combination with 3D printing for producing sustainable, high-performance sulfur cathodes with tunable architecture. Full article

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15 pages, 3746 KB

Open AccessArticle

Enhanced Electrochemical Performance of Carbon-Coated Nano-ZnO as an Anode Material for High-Rate Ni-Zn Batteries

by Wei Cao, Chenhan Xiong, Yanqiu Yu, Xiang Ji, Hao Xu, Ziwei Chen, Jun Chen and Rui Wang

Batteries 2025, 11(9), 342; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11090342 - 17 Sep 2025

Abstract

Nickel–zinc batteries are promising candidates for safe, cost-effective, and high-power energy storage. However, the poor cycling stability of zinc anodes, mainly caused by dendrite growth and dissolution, remains a major challenge for their practical application. Herein, carbon-coated nano-ZnO (ZnO@C) composites were synthesized via [...] Read more.

Nickel–zinc batteries are promising candidates for safe, cost-effective, and high-power energy storage. However, the poor cycling stability of zinc anodes, mainly caused by dendrite growth and dissolution, remains a major challenge for their practical application. Herein, carbon-coated nano-ZnO (ZnO@C) composites were synthesized via a sol–gel method using polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and zinc acetate as precursors. By systematically tuning the carbon content, the ZnO@C-6 sample with a carbon-to-ZnO mass ratio of 1:6 exhibited the best structural and electrochemical performance. Characterization confirmed a uniform amorphous carbon layer that enhanced conductivity and inhibited ZnO dissolution. Electrochemical tests demonstrated that ZnO@C-6 exhibited high reversible capacity (500 mAh g⁻¹ at 12 C after 1000 cycles), coulombic efficiency (>80%), and superior rate capability up to 30 C. Post-cycling SEM confirmed that the carbon coating effectively inhibits dendrite formation and preserves electrode morphology. These findings highlight the critical role of carbon coatings in stabilizing ZnO-based anodes and offer a viable pathway toward high-performance Ni-Zn batteries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Electrode Materials and Electrolytes for Next-Generation Rechargeable Batteries)

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46 pages, 3434 KB

Open AccessReview

System-Level Compact Review of On-Board Charging Technologies for Electrified Vehicles: Architectures, Components, and Industrial Trends

by Pierpaolo Dini, Sergio Saponara, Sajib Chakraborty and Omar Hegazy

Batteries 2025, 11(9), 341; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11090341 - 17 Sep 2025

Abstract

The increasing penetration of electrified vehicles is accelerating the evolution of on-board and off-board charging systems, which must deliver higher efficiency, power density, safety, and bidirectionality under increasingly demanding constraints. This article presents a system-level review of state-of-the-art charging architectures, with a focus [...] Read more.

The increasing penetration of electrified vehicles is accelerating the evolution of on-board and off-board charging systems, which must deliver higher efficiency, power density, safety, and bidirectionality under increasingly demanding constraints. This article presents a system-level review of state-of-the-art charging architectures, with a focus on galvanically isolated power conversion stages, wide-bandgap-based switching devices, battery pack design, and real-world implementation trends. The analysis spans the full energy path—from grid interface to battery terminals—highlighting key aspects such as AC/DC front-end topologies (Boost, Totem-Pole, Vienna, T-Type), high-frequency isolated DC/DC converters (LLC, PSFB, DAB), transformer modeling and optimization, and the functional integration of the Battery Management System (BMS). Attention is also given to electrochemical cell characteristics, pack architecture, and their impact on OBC design constraints, including voltage range, ripple sensitivity, and control bandwidth. Commercial solutions are examined across Tier 1–3 suppliers, illustrating how technical enablers such as SiC/GaN semiconductors, planar magnetics, and high-resolution BMS coordination are shaping production-grade OBCs. A system perspective is maintained throughout, emphasizing co-design approaches across hardware, firmware, and vehicle-level integration. The review concludes with a discussion of emerging trends in multi-functional power stages, V2G-enabled interfaces, predictive control, and platform-level convergence, positioning the on-board charger as a key node in the energy and information architecture of future electric vehicles. Full article

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17 pages, 2017 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable Recovery of Critical Metals from Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries Using Deep Eutectic Solvents

by Jafar Goudarzi, Zhi Chen, Gaixia Zhang, Jinguang Hu, Karim Zaghib, Sixu Deng, Afzal Ahmed Dar, Xiaolei Wang, Fariborz Haghighat, Catherine N. Mulligan, Chunjiang An and Antonio Avalos Ramirez

Batteries 2025, 11(9), 340; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11090340 - 14 Sep 2025

Abstract

The surging demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has intensified the need for sustainable recovery of critical metals such as lithium, manganese, cobalt, and nickel from spent cathodes. While conventional hydrometallurgical and pyrometallurgical methods are widely used, they involve high energy consumption, hazardous waste [...] Read more.

The surging demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has intensified the need for sustainable recovery of critical metals such as lithium, manganese, cobalt, and nickel from spent cathodes. While conventional hydrometallurgical and pyrometallurgical methods are widely used, they involve high energy consumption, hazardous waste generation, and complex processing steps, underscoring the urgency of developing eco-friendly alternatives. This study presents a novel, water-enhanced deep eutectic solvent (DES) system composed of choline chloride and D-glucose for the efficient leaching of valuable metals from spent LiMn-based battery cathodes. The DES was synthesized under mild conditions and applied to dissolve cathode powder, with leaching performance optimized by varying temperature and duration. Under optimal conditions (100 °C, 24 h), exceptional recovery efficiencies were achieved: 98.9% for lithium, 98.4% for manganese, and 71.7% for nickel. Material characterization using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (ICP-MS) confirm effective phase dissolution and metal release. Although this DES system requires relatively higher temperature and longer reaction time compared to traditional acid leaching, it offers clear advantages in terms of non-toxicity, biodegradability, and elimination of strong oxidizing agents. These results demonstrate the potential of water-enhanced choline chloride–glucose DES as a green alternative for future development in sustainable battery recycling, supporting circular economy objectives. Full article

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16 pages, 3149 KB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Runaway Hazards of Ternary Lithium-Ion Batteries Under Different Ambient Pressure Environments

by Huajian Cui, Maoyong Zhi, Qiang Sun, Mingge Zhang and Kenan Zhang

Batteries 2025, 11(9), 339; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11090339 - 12 Sep 2025

Abstract

Aiming for the safety requirements of aviation transportation of lithium-ion batteries, the thermal runaway characteristics of ternary lithium-ion batteries in a low ambient pressure environment were systematically explored. The results showed that the low ambient pressure significantly reduced the peak temperature of battery [...] Read more.

Aiming for the safety requirements of aviation transportation of lithium-ion batteries, the thermal runaway characteristics of ternary lithium-ion batteries in a low ambient pressure environment were systematically explored. The results showed that the low ambient pressure significantly reduced the peak temperature of battery thermal runaway. The critical trigger temperature was increased by about 30 °C because of the suppression of convective heat transfer and side reactions inside the battery by the low ambient pressure. At 50 kPa ambient pressure, the injection stage of batteries with 100% SOC and 50% SOC were delayed by 16 s and 99 s, respectively, and the combustion intensity was also significantly weakened. The violent eruption of the battery with 100% SOC caused the rupture of the aluminum–plastic film, and the battery with 0% SOC only expanded inward. Constant ambient pressure (96 kPa) and high SOCs (≥50%) are a high-risk combination, and fire monitoring needs to be strengthened. Low ambient pressure (≤50 kPa) and low SOCs (≤30%) are less dangerous for thermal runaway. It is suggested that the SOC should not be higher than 50% in aviation transportation. This work provides an important reference for the safety of lithium-ion batteries in aviation transportation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Performance, Ageing, Reliability and Safety)

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17 pages, 3881 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Lithium Plating on the Thermal Properties of Automotive High Energy Pouch Batteries

by Syed Muhammad Abbas, Gregor Gstrein, Andrey W. Golubkov, Oliver Korak, Simon Erker and Christian Ellersdorfer

Batteries 2025, 11(9), 338; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11090338 - 10 Sep 2025

Abstract

In this study, the effect of lithium plating (LP) on the thermal properties of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) was investigated. A large-format pouch 64.6 Ah cell with a graphite-SiO_x/NMC chemistry was artificially aged (AA_LP) in the laboratory under specific conditions to induce [...] Read more.

In this study, the effect of lithium plating (LP) on the thermal properties of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) was investigated. A large-format pouch 64.6 Ah cell with a graphite-SiO_x/NMC chemistry was artificially aged (AA_LP) in the laboratory under specific conditions to induce LP on the anode. For thermal behavior analysis, temperature ramp experiments were conducted in a nitrogen-filled steel container on the cycled cell, as well as on fresh and real-life aged cells with the same specifications. Characteristic temperatures, such as first venting and safety critical temperatures, were monitored; additionally, the exhaust gas composition was analyzed using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and gas chromatography. It was revealed that the voltage decay of the cells started well before any safety-critical temperature, and the first venting of the AA_LP cell was significantly reduced to 112 °C in comparison to the fresh and real-life aged cells, in which it occurred at 130 °C and 134 °C, respectively. The earlier venting of the AA_LP cell was attributed to the reaction of the plated metallic lithium and the electrolyte. The safety-critical temperature rate (>10 °C/min) occurred at 160.9 °C for AA_LP and at around 159.1 °C for the fresh and real-life aged cells. The maximum temperatures reached were 616 °C, 553 °C, and 566 °C for the fresh, real-life aged, and AA_LP cells, respectively. No significant difference was observed in the exhaust gas after the thermal runaway for the tested cells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Feature Papers in Batteries)

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17 pages, 2856 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Adaptive Grid-Forming Control Strategy Based on Capacitor Energy State Estimation

by Xinghu Liu, Yingying Chen and Yongfeng Fu

Batteries 2025, 11(9), 337; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11090337 - 9 Sep 2025

Abstract

Conventional grid-forming (GFM) inverter control strategies often rely on fixed parameters and overlook the dynamic variation in energy stored in the DC link capacitor. This limitation can degrade transient performance and stability, particularly under power fluctuations and grid disturbances in renewable energy systems. [...] Read more.

Conventional grid-forming (GFM) inverter control strategies often rely on fixed parameters and overlook the dynamic variation in energy stored in the DC link capacitor. This limitation can degrade transient performance and stability, particularly under power fluctuations and grid disturbances in renewable energy systems. To address this issue, this paper proposes an adaptive GFM control method that integrates real-time estimation of the DC link capacitor energy into the control loop. A Kalman filter-based observer is designed to estimate the capacitor energy state accurately and robustly using only local voltage and current measurements. The estimated energy deviation is then used to dynamically adjust key control parameters, including the virtual inertia and droop coefficients in the virtual synchronous generator (VSG) framework. These adaptive adjustments enhance the inverter’s damping and inertial behavior according to the internal energy buffer, improving performance under variable operating conditions. Simulation results in MATLAB/Simulink R2023b demonstrate that the proposed method significantly reduces power and voltage overshoots, shortens settling time, and improves DC link voltage regulation compared to conventional fixed-parameter control. Full article

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15 pages, 3176 KB

Open AccessArticle

SoC Fusion Estimation Based on Neural Network Long and Short Time Series

by Bosong Zou, Wang Fu, Chunxia Yan, Qingshuang Zeng, Zheng Wang, Rong Wang, Wenlong Ding, Xianglong Chen and Qiuju Gao

Batteries 2025, 11(9), 336; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11090336 - 9 Sep 2025

Abstract

Accurate prediction of state-of-charge (SoC) is critical to ensure battery performance, extend lifetime and ensure safety. Data-driven methods for SoC prediction are highly adaptable and generalizable. However, the current method of estimating SoC using a single model suffers from the difficulty of accommodating [...] Read more.

Accurate prediction of state-of-charge (SoC) is critical to ensure battery performance, extend lifetime and ensure safety. Data-driven methods for SoC prediction are highly adaptable and generalizable. However, the current method of estimating SoC using a single model suffers from the difficulty of accommodating both global variations in the long time domain and local variations in the short time domain, which in turn leads to limited accuracy. Therefore, this paper proposes a dual-model fusion of Transformer and long short-term memory (LSTM) network for SoC estimation. Transformer and LSTM are used to capture the global change features of the battery in the long time domain and the local change features in the short time domain, respectively. First, we employ a single model to obtain separate SoC estimations for the long-term and short-term domains. Then, we fuse these long-term and short-term estimations using a neural network. Finally, we apply Kalman filtering to process the fused data and obtain the final SoC estimation. The proposed method is finally validated under different operating conditions and different temperatures, respectively. The results show that the root mean square error of the fused model is as low as 1.69%. This method can fully combine the advantages of LSTM for short-time sequences and Transformer for long-time sequence capture. The fused model is able to achieve satisfactory estimation accuracy under different temperatures and different working conditions with high accuracy and adaptability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Management and Sustainable Development of Lithium-Ion Batteries in Automotive Applications)

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3 pages, 133 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Thermal Management in Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects

by Xianglin Li, Chuanbo Yang and Prahit Dubey

Batteries 2025, 11(9), 335; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11090335 - 7 Sep 2025

Abstract

We are excited to present a Special Issue (SI) for Batteries on battery thermal management systems (BTMS) [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management in Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects)

14 pages, 6680 KB

Open AccessArticle

In Situ Engineered Plastic–Crystal Interlayers Enable Li-Rich Cathodes in PVDF-HFP-Based All-Solid-State Polymer Batteries

by Fei Zhou, Jinwei Tan, Feixiang Wang and Meiling Sun

Batteries 2025, 11(9), 334; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11090334 - 6 Sep 2025

Abstract

All-solid-state lithium batteries (ASSLBs) employing Li-rich layered oxide (LLO) cathodes are regarded as promising next-generation energy storage systems owing to their outstanding energy density and intrinsic safety. Polymer-in-salt solid electrolytes (PISSEs) offer advantages such as high room-temperature ionic conductivity, enhanced Li anode interfacial [...] Read more.

All-solid-state lithium batteries (ASSLBs) employing Li-rich layered oxide (LLO) cathodes are regarded as promising next-generation energy storage systems owing to their outstanding energy density and intrinsic safety. Polymer-in-salt solid electrolytes (PISSEs) offer advantages such as high room-temperature ionic conductivity, enhanced Li anode interfacial compatibility, and low processing costs; however, their practical deployment is hindered by poor oxidative stability especially under high-voltage conditions. In this study, we report the rational design of a bilayer electrolyte architecture featuring an in situ solidified LiClO₄-doped succinonitrile (LiClO₄–SN) plastic–crystal interlayer between a Li_1.2Mn_0.6Ni_0.2O₂ (LMNO) cathode and a poly (vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene) (PVDF-HFP)-based PISSE. This PISSE/SN–LiClO₄ configuration exhibits a wide electrochemical stability window up to 4.7 V vs. Li⁺/Li and delivers a high ionic conductivity of 5.68 × 10⁻⁴ S cm⁻¹ at 25 °C. The solidified LiClO₄-SN layer serves as an effective physical barrier, shielding the PVDF-HFP matrix from direct interfacial contact with LMNO and thereby suppressing its oxidative decomposition at elevated potentials. As a result, the bilayer polymer-based cells with the LMNO cathode demonstrate an initial discharge capacity of ∼206 mAh g⁻¹ at 0.05 C and exhibit good cycling stability with 85.7% capacity retention after 100 cycles at 0.5 C under a high cut-off voltage of 4.6 V. This work not only provides a promising strategy to enhance the compatibility of PVDF-HFP-based electrolytes with high-voltage cathodes through the facile in situ solidification of plastic interlayers but also promotes the application of LMNO cathode material in high-energy ASSLBs. Full article

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28 pages, 3620 KB

Open AccessReview

Transition Metal-Based Catalysts Powering Practical Room-Temperature Na-S Batteries: From Advances to Further Perspectives

by Junsheng Li, Yongli Wang, Yuanyuan Yang, Peng Lei, Huatang Cao and Yinyu Xiang

Batteries 2025, 11(9), 333; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11090333 - 5 Sep 2025

Abstract

Room-temperature sodium–sulfur (RT Na-S) batteries hold great potential in the field of large-scale energy storage due to their high theoretical energy density and low cost of raw materials. However, the inherent low conductivity, notorious shuttling, and sluggish kinetics of cathode materials cause the [...] Read more.

Room-temperature sodium–sulfur (RT Na-S) batteries hold great potential in the field of large-scale energy storage due to their high theoretical energy density and low cost of raw materials. However, the inherent low conductivity, notorious shuttling, and sluggish kinetics of cathode materials cause the loss of active substances and capacity delay, hindering the practical application of RT Na-S batteries. Owing to their low cost, variable oxidation states, and unsaturated d orbitals, transition metal (TM)-based catalysts have been extensively studied in circumventing the above shortcomings. Herein, the review first elaborates on the reaction mechanisms and current challenges of RT Na-S batteries. Subsequently, the role and function mechanism of TM-based catalysts (including single/dual atoms, nanoparticles, compounds, and heterostructures) in RT Na-S batteries are described. Specifically, based on the theories of electronic transfer and atomic orbital hybridization, the interaction mechanism between TM-based catalysts and polysulfides, as well as the catalytic performance, are systematically discussed and summarized. Finally, a discussion on the challenges and future research perspectives associated with TM-based catalysts for RT Na-S batteries is provided. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Batteries: Interface Science in Batteries)

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22 pages, 4693 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experience-Driven NeuroSymbolic System for Efficient Robotic Bolt Disassembly

by Pengxu Chang, Zhigang Wang, Yanlong Peng, Ziwen He and Ming Chen

Batteries 2025, 11(9), 332; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11090332 - 5 Sep 2025

Abstract

With the rapid growth of electric vehicles, the efficient and safe recycling of high-energy battery packs, particularly the removal of structural bolts, has become a critical challenge. This study presents a NeuroSymbolic robotic system for battery disassembly, driven by autonomous learning capabilities. The [...] Read more.

With the rapid growth of electric vehicles, the efficient and safe recycling of high-energy battery packs, particularly the removal of structural bolts, has become a critical challenge. This study presents a NeuroSymbolic robotic system for battery disassembly, driven by autonomous learning capabilities. The system integrates deep perception modules, symbolic reasoning, and action primitives to achieve interpretable and efficient disassembly. To improve adaptability, we introduce an offline learning framework driven by a large language model (LLM), which analyzes historical disassembly trajectories and generates optimized action sequences via prompt-based reasoning. This enables the synthesis of new action primitives tailored to familiar scenarios. The system is validated on a real-world UR10e robotic platform across various battery configurations. Experimental results show a 17 s reduction in average disassembly time per bolt and a 154.4% improvement in overall efficiency compared with traditional approaches. These findings demonstrate that combining neural perception, symbolic reasoning, and LLM-guided learning significantly enhances robotic disassembly performance and offers strong potential for generalization in future battery recycling applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Batteries: 10th Anniversary)

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37 pages, 12841 KB

Open AccessReview

Designing Highly Reversible and Stable Zn Anodes for Next-Generation Aqueous Batteries

by Xinzu Yue, Weibao Wang, Zhongqi Liang, Dongping Wang, Jie Deng, Yachao Zhu, Hang Zhou, Jun Yu and Guoshen Yang

Batteries 2025, 11(9), 331; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11090331 - 4 Sep 2025

Abstract

The global imperative for sustainable energy has catalyzed the pursuit of next-generation energy storage technologies that are intrinsically safe, economically viable, and scalable. Aqueous zinc-ion batteries (AZIBs) present a promising solution to meet these demands. However, the metallic Zn anode, the heart of [...] Read more.

The global imperative for sustainable energy has catalyzed the pursuit of next-generation energy storage technologies that are intrinsically safe, economically viable, and scalable. Aqueous zinc-ion batteries (AZIBs) present a promising solution to meet these demands. However, the metallic Zn anode, the heart of this technology, suffers from fundamental electrochemical instabilities—manifesting as dendrite growth and rampant parasitic reactions (e.g., corrosion and passivation)—that critically curtail battery lifespan and impede practical application. This review offers a comprehensive overview of the latest strategies designed to achieve a highly reversible and stable Zn anode. We meticulously categorize and analyze these innovations through the three integral components of the AZIBs: (i) intrinsic anode engineering, (ii) interfacial electrolyte chemistry regulation, and (iii) separator-induced transport modulation. By delving into the core scientific mechanisms and critically evaluating each approach, this work synthesizes a holistic understanding of the structure-property-performance relationships. We conclude by identifying the persistent challenges and, more importantly, proposing visionary perspectives on future research directions. This review aims to serve as a scientific guide for the rational design of highly reversible Zn anodes, paving the way for the next generation of high-performance, commercially viable aqueous batteries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rechargeable Aqueous Zn-Ion Batteries)

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17 pages, 5236 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Lithium Plating on the Mechanical Properties of Automotive High-Energy Pouch Batteries

by Syed Muhammad Abbas, Gregor Gstrein, Alois David Jauernig, Alexander Schmid, Emanuele Michelini, Michael Hinterberger and Christian Ellersdorfer

Batteries 2025, 11(9), 330; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11090330 - 3 Sep 2025

Cited by 1

Abstract

Lithium plating (LP), as a specific degradation mechanism in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), has been thoroughly investigated regarding formation conditions and potential safety hazards, but it is yet unknown how this effect influences the mechanical properties of batteries in the case of mechanical deformation. [...] Read more.

Lithium plating (LP), as a specific degradation mechanism in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), has been thoroughly investigated regarding formation conditions and potential safety hazards, but it is yet unknown how this effect influences the mechanical properties of batteries in the case of mechanical deformation. To address this issue, pouch cells used in EVs were artificially aged (AA) to a state of health of 80–82% in conditions that predominantly cause the formation of LP. These cells were subjected to a mechanical abuse load, and safety-relevant parameters, such as tolerated deformation level, failure force, and the process of thermal runaway (TR), were analyzed and compared with respective fresh (F) and aged cells of the same type. Complementary microscopy analyses were carried out to compare the found changed mechanical response with the different layer morphology caused by LP. The tests did exhibit a significantly different mechanical response of cells in the three states but also clearly altered short-circuiting behavior. The tolerated peak force at discharge state dropped by −28% and at charge state by −37% compared to fresh cells, while the deformation at failure slightly increased by +6% for the AA cells. A clear reduction in stiffness (−16%) of the LP cells was attributed to the formed layer, identified as mossy LP. The significantly stronger voltage drop at failure, seen for the LP cells, was associated with severe exothermal reactions of LP in contact with air and moisture during TR. This study revealed the strong influence of LP on the mechanical properties of LIBs. However, the transferability of the findings to other cell chemistries or formats is unclear, emphasizing the need for further investigations in this research field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Feature Papers in Batteries)

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21 pages, 4773 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Short-Chain Polymer Binders on the Mechanical and Electrochemical Performance of Silicon Anodes

by Fei Sun, L. Zurita-Garcia and Dean R. Wheeler

Batteries 2025, 11(9), 329; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11090329 - 1 Sep 2025

Abstract

Polymer binders are crucial components in providing both mechanical support and chemical stability to the structure of porous Li-ion electrodes. Particularly in silicon anodes, the active material undergoes substantial volume expansion of up to 275%. Due to the mechanical constraint of the current [...] Read more.

Polymer binders are crucial components in providing both mechanical support and chemical stability to the structure of porous Li-ion electrodes. Particularly in silicon anodes, the active material undergoes substantial volume expansion of up to 275%. Due to the mechanical constraint of the current collector, these silicon materials tend to expand in the normal direction while exhibiting substantial particle rearrangement and plastic deformation. Conventional rigid binders such as polyacrylic acid (PAA) and polyimide (PI), while providing satisfactory initial capacity, do not eliminate diminished long-term performance. Our research attempts to develop binder formulations that can accommodate sufficient flexibility for the substantial volume changes of silicon particles. Specifically, we explore the use of short-chain polymer binders and a strategic blend of binders with different molecular weights. Experiments have demonstrated that cells combining both long- and short-chain PAA binders delivered an initial capacity of 2200 mAh/g at a 0.1C rate, compared to 1700 mAh/g for pristine PAA cells. Initial work indicated that shorter polymer chains might compromise the adhesion to the current collector, so we developed a multilayer anode (MLA) structure to mitigate this issue. Nevertheless, at this early stage of development, there was no observed increase in cycling performance for the MLA electrodes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Electrode Materials and Electrolytes for Next-Generation Rechargeable Batteries)

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13 pages, 3249 KB

Open AccessArticle

Stable Manganese-Based High-Entropy Prussian Blue for Enhanced Sodium-Ion Storage

by Congcong Li, Yang Xiao, Dingyi Zhang, Xinyao Yuan, Jun Xiao, Yufei Zhao, Hong Gao and Hao Liu

Batteries 2025, 11(9), 328; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11090328 - 1 Sep 2025

Abstract

Prussian blue (PB) and its analogs (PBAs) are considered ideal cathode materials for sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) due to the following merits, including high redox potential, simple synthesis methods, and excellent structural stability. Herein, we synthesized a high-entropy PB cathode material, Na_1.20Mn [...] Read more.

Prussian blue (PB) and its analogs (PBAs) are considered ideal cathode materials for sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) due to the following merits, including high redox potential, simple synthesis methods, and excellent structural stability. Herein, we synthesized a high-entropy PB cathode material, Na_1.20Mn_0.38Fe_0.15Ni_0.14Co_0.15Cu_0.16[Fe(CN)₆]_0.82□_0.18·0.38H₂O (HE-HCF), through a facile co-precipitation method. The five transition metals in HE-HCF have similar atomic sizes and electronegativity, collectively occupying the high-spin Fe-HS sites. The manganese-based system design reduces the preparation cost, and the high-entropy doping approach further decreases the content of crystalline water in the structure. Benefiting from the synergistic effects of the multiple component elements, HE-HCF demonstrates a capacity retention rate of 72.7% at 0.1 A g⁻¹. Moreover, it even maintains 85.3% of its initial capacity after 1000 cycles at 1 A g⁻¹. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and galvanostatic intermittent titration technique (GITT) analyses further confirm that HE-HCF exhibits low charge transfer resistance and a small reaction activation energy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Interface: Analysis & Design)

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26 pages, 4652 KB

Open AccessReview

A Comprehensive Review of Equalization Techniques for Reconfigured Second-Life Battery Systems

by Jiajin Qi, Yuefei Xu, Shizhe Chen, Jinggui Shen, Ranchen Yang and Huajun Xu

Batteries 2025, 11(9), 327; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11090327 - 30 Aug 2025

Abstract

As the demand for second-life lithium-ion battery applications continues to grow, efficient cell equalization has become essential to mitigate parameter inconsistencies and extend system longevity. Owing to their diverse origins and varying aging paths, second-life batteries exhibit significant parameter dispersion, which poses distinct [...] Read more.

As the demand for second-life lithium-ion battery applications continues to grow, efficient cell equalization has become essential to mitigate parameter inconsistencies and extend system longevity. Owing to their diverse origins and varying aging paths, second-life batteries exhibit significant parameter dispersion, which poses distinct challenges. In light of these issues, this paper presents a comprehensive review of passive, active, and dynamic equalization technologies. It analyzes the circuit topologies and control strategies associated with each method, with a particular focus on their applicability to second-life battery systems. Furthermore, emerging trends toward intelligent, modular, and adaptive equalization are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Processing, Manufacturing and Recycling)

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31 pages, 5394 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Thermal Characteristics and Algorithm Prediction Analysis of Liquid Cooling System for Leaf Vein Structure Power Battery

by Mingfei Yang, Shanhua Zhang, Han Tian, Li Lv and Jiqing Han

Batteries 2025, 11(9), 326; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11090326 - 29 Aug 2025

Abstract

With the increase in energy density of power batteries, the risk of thermal runaway significantly increases under extreme working conditions. Therefore, this article proposes a biomimetic liquid cooling plate design based on the fractal structure of fir needle leaf veins, combined with Murray’s [...] Read more.

With the increase in energy density of power batteries, the risk of thermal runaway significantly increases under extreme working conditions. Therefore, this article proposes a biomimetic liquid cooling plate design based on the fractal structure of fir needle leaf veins, combined with Murray’s mass transfer law, which has significantly improved the heat dissipation performance under extreme working conditions. A multi-field coupling model of electrochemistry fluid heat transfer was established using ANSYS 2022 Fluent, and the synergistic mechanism of environmental temperature, coolant parameters, and heating power was systematically analyzed. Research has found that compared to traditional serpentine channels, leaf vein biomimetic structures can reduce the maximum temperature of batteries by 11.78 °C at a flow rate of 4 m/s and 5000 W/m³. Further analysis reveals that there is a critical flow rate threshold of 2.5 m/s for cooling efficiency (beyond which the effectiveness of temperature reduction decreases by 86%), as well as a thermal saturation temperature of 28 °C (with a sudden increase in temperature rise slope by 284%). Under low-load conditions of 2600 W/m ³, the system exhibits a thermal hysteresis plateau of 40.29 °C. To predict the battery temperature in advance and actively intervene in cooling the battery pack, based on the experimental data and thermodynamic laws of the biomimetic liquid cooling system mentioned above, this study further constructed a support vector machine (SVM) prediction model to achieve real-time and accurate prediction of the highest temperature of the battery pack (validation set average relative error 1.57%), providing new ideas for intelligent optimization of biomimetic liquid cooling systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)

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