Batteries

19 pages, 4869 KiB

Open AccessArticle

New BMS Topology with Active Cell Balancing Between Electric Vehicles’ Traction and Auxiliary Batteries

by José Gabriel O. Pinto, Manuel Freitas Silva, Luis A. M. Barros and José A. Afonso

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 175; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050175 - 27 Apr 2025

This paper proposes a new topology for a battery management system (BMS) with active cell balancing capable of exchanging energy between an electric vehicle’s traction and auxiliary batteries. This topology facilitates energy exchange between any cell in the traction battery pack and with [...] Read more.

This paper proposes a new topology for a battery management system (BMS) with active cell balancing capable of exchanging energy between an electric vehicle’s traction and auxiliary batteries. This topology facilitates energy exchange between any cell in the traction battery pack and with the auxiliary battery. The proposed topology allows both the selection of the cells involved in the balancing process and the charging of the auxiliary battery, eliminating the need for a dedicated dc-dc isolated power converter. The flexibility of this topology allows the adoption of different balancing strategies, which can be used to improve balancing efficiency. The proposed topology was first analyzed through computer simulations, and a laboratory BMS prototype was developed. The results from the simulation and experimental tests validate the topology operation and its performance in transferring energy between the cells and the auxiliary battery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Management in Electric Vehicles: Current Status and Future Trends: 2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 13103 KiB

Open AccessArticle

State-of-Health Estimation for Lithium-Ion Batteries Based on Lightweight DimConv-GFNet

by Kehao Huang, Jianqiang Kang, Jing V. Wang, Qian Wang and Oukai Wu

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 174; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050174 - 26 Apr 2025

Abstract

The accurate estimation of the state of health (SOH) is crucial for effective battery management systems. This paper proposes a deep learning model dimension-wise convolutions-globalfilter networks (DimConv-GFNet) for lithium-ion battery SOH estimation. Particularly, the DimConv-GFNet comprises the dimension-wise convolutions (DimConv), which collect the [...] Read more.

The accurate estimation of the state of health (SOH) is crucial for effective battery management systems. This paper proposes a deep learning model dimension-wise convolutions-globalfilter networks (DimConv-GFNet) for lithium-ion battery SOH estimation. Particularly, the DimConv-GFNet comprises the dimension-wise convolutions (DimConv), which collect the multi-scale local features from different sensor signals, and lightweight global filter networks (GFNet) to capture long-range dependencies in the Fourier frequency domain. Unlike Transformer attention architectures, GFNet utilizes spectral properties to facilitate global information exchange with a lower computational complexity. Experiments on two datasets with a total of 167 commercial LFP/graphite cells validate the effectiveness of DimConv-GFNet. Although the model shows slightly lower accuracy compared to the DimConv-Transformer baseline, it delivers competitive performance with a root mean squared error (RMSE) of 0.335%, mean absolute error (MAE) of 0.233% and a mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) of 0.230%. Remarkably, the DimConv-GFNet substantially reduces computational demands, requiring fewer than one-third of the Floating Point Operations (FLOPs) and parameters of DimConv-Transformer. These results demonstrate DimConv-GFNet strikes a good balance between accuracy and efficiency, positioning it as a promising solution for efficient and accurate SOH estimation in battery management applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence-Based State-of-Health Estimation of Lithium-Ion Batteries—2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 5921 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Mechanical Properties and Microstructural Evolution of Composite Copper Foils Following Long-Term Storage

by Yujie Yan, Haibo Chen, Hang Li, Jing Hu, Ziye Xue, Jianli Zhang, Qiang Chen, Guangya Hou and Yiping Tang

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050173 - 25 Apr 2025

Abstract

Composite copper foil, a novel negative electrode current collector developed in recent years, can significantly enhance battery safety and energy density while also conserving metallic resources. It is found that after 9 months of long-term storage, the tensile strength of the composite copper [...] Read more.

Composite copper foil, a novel negative electrode current collector developed in recent years, can significantly enhance battery safety and energy density while also conserving metallic resources. It is found that after 9 months of long-term storage, the tensile strength of the composite copper foil decreases by 9.76%, and the elongation rate drops by 26.32%. The internal texture of the composite copper foil shifts from a highly oriented (111) plane to a more random crystal plane orientation and the bonding strength is significantly improved. The study reveals that the residual stress within the copper layer provides the driving force for the changes in the microstructure; the intermediate PET layer plays a buffering and absorbing role in the stress-release process. It regulates the redistribution of stress, promoting the alteration of the copper layer’s texture and the refinement of grains. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue High-Performance Secondary Batteries: Recent Processes and Future Challenges)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

27 pages, 7505 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modular Multifunctional Composite Structure for CubeSat Applications: Embedded Battery Prototype Thermal Analysis

by Giorgio Capovilla, Enrico Cestino, Leonardo Reyneri and Federico Valpiani

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 172; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050172 - 23 Apr 2025

Abstract

The present work aims to develop the current CubeSats architecture. Starting from the framework of project ARAMIS (an Italian acronym for a highly modular architecture for satellite infrastructures), a new concept of smart tiles has been developed, employing multifunctional structures and lightweight, composite [...] Read more.

The present work aims to develop the current CubeSats architecture. Starting from the framework of project ARAMIS (an Italian acronym for a highly modular architecture for satellite infrastructures), a new concept of smart tiles has been developed, employing multifunctional structures and lightweight, composite materials. This enables increased CubeSat mass efficiency and payload volume. An embedded battery tile has been designed, built, and tested from a vibration point of view. In the present work, the LiPo batteries selected for the prototype have been tested with the HPPC testing procedure, to extract their equivalent Randles circuit parameters. Thus, the thermal power dissipation from the batteries can be estimated. With these data, Thermal Desktop simulations of a representative ARAMIS CubeSat are performed, considering LEO orbit and hot/cold cases. Firstly, a parametric analysis was conducted to evaluate the thermal behaviors of various design alternatives. A suitable configuration for the CubeSat was then found, enabling the validation of the embedded battery tile from a thermal point of view. The final configuration includes heaters for the LiPo batteries, a commercial CubeSat skeleton made in aluminum alloy, and a top coating for smart tiles with proper solar absorptivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rechargeable Batteries)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 10702 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent Progress in Cathode-Free Zinc Electrolytic MnO₂ Batteries: Electrolytes and Electrodes

by Shiwei Liu, Zhongqi Liang, Hang Zhou, Weizheng Cai, Jiazhen Wu, Qianhui Zhang, Guoshen Yang, Walid A. Daoud, Zanxiang Nie, Pritesh Hiralal, Shiqiang Luo and Gehan A. J. Amaratunga

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050171 - 23 Apr 2025

Abstract

Zinc–manganese dioxide (Zn–MnO₂) batteries, pivotal in primary energy storage, face challenges in rechargeability due to cathode dissolution and anode corrosion. This review summarizes cathode-free designs using pH-optimized electrolytes and modified electrodes/current collectors. For electrolytes, while acidic systems with additives (PVP, HAc) [...] Read more.

Zinc–manganese dioxide (Zn–MnO₂) batteries, pivotal in primary energy storage, face challenges in rechargeability due to cathode dissolution and anode corrosion. This review summarizes cathode-free designs using pH-optimized electrolytes and modified electrodes/current collectors. For electrolytes, while acidic systems with additives (PVP, HAc) enhance ion transport, dual-electrolyte configurations (ion-selective membranes/hydrogels) reduce Zn corrosion. Near-neutral strategies utilize nanomicelles/complexing agents to regulate MnO₂ deposition. Moreover, mediators (I⁻, Br⁻, Cr³⁺) reactivate MnO₂ but require shuttle-effect control. For the electrodes/current collectors, electrode innovations including SEI/CEI layers and surfactant-driven phase tuning are introduced. Electrode-free designs and integrated “supercapattery” systems combining supercapacitors with Zn–MnO₂/I₂ chemistries are also discussed. This review highlights electrolyte–electrode synergy and hybrid device potential, paving the way for sustainable, high-performance Zn–MnO₂ systems. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

9 pages, 1696 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interactions Between Trivalent Elements Enable Ultrastable LDH Cathode for High-Performance Zinc Battery

by Junhua Zeng, Jinlei Gao, Wenyao Lu, Jiashuo Feng and Ting Deng

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 170; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050170 - 23 Apr 2025

Abstract

Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) are one class of two-dimensional materials, with tunable chemical composition and large interlayer spacing, that is a potential cathode material candidate for aqueous zinc-ion batteries (AZIBs). Nevertheless, the low conductivity and fragile structure of LDH have impeded their practical [...] Read more.

Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) are one class of two-dimensional materials, with tunable chemical composition and large interlayer spacing, that is a potential cathode material candidate for aqueous zinc-ion batteries (AZIBs). Nevertheless, the low conductivity and fragile structure of LDH have impeded their practical application in AZIBs. Herein, a ternary CoMnAl LDH is synthesized via the facile coprecipitation method as the cathode material for AZIB. The interaction between trivalent Al³⁺ and Mn³⁺ not only lowers the redox energy barrier but also enhances the electronic structure, as proved by EIS analysis and DFT simulation. As a result, the synthesized CoMnAl LDH displays a high specific capacity of 238.9 mAh g⁻¹ at 0.5 A g⁻¹, an outstanding rate performance (138.8 mAh g⁻¹ at 5 A g⁻¹), and a stable cyclability (92% capacity retention after 2000 cycles). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Breakthrough of Traditional Electrochemical Energy Storage Systems)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

22 pages, 3518 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microgrid Energy Management Considering Energy Storage Degradation Cost

by Yiming Zhao, Hongrui Li, Changsheng Wan, Dong Du and Bo Chen

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 169; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050169 - 23 Apr 2025

Abstract

There are many challenges in incorporating the attenuation cost of energy storage into the optimization of microgrid operations due to the randomness of renewable energy supply, the high cost of controlled power generation, and the complexity associated with calculating the cost of battery [...] Read more.

There are many challenges in incorporating the attenuation cost of energy storage into the optimization of microgrid operations due to the randomness of renewable energy supply, the high cost of controlled power generation, and the complexity associated with calculating the cost of battery attenuation. Therefore, this paper proposes a microgrid energy management scheme considering the attenuation cost of energy storage. This scheme analyzes the power generation mode and uncertainty factors of distributed generators in detail. The influence of charge and discharge depth on the cycle life and residual value of the energy storage system was analyzed, and the energy storage attenuation cost model was established. Finally, considering the cost of power generation, environmental treatment, and the deterioration cost of energy storage systems, the objective function of the comprehensive operation cost of microgrids is formulated. The improved sine cosine algorithm (SCA) is used to simulate the energy output optimization of various distributed generators in the microgrid. The results show that the algorithm can effectively reduce the comprehensive operation cost of microgrids and improve their energy utilization efficiency, which proves the practical significance and reference value of the method for microgrid energy management. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 5165 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Modular Cell Balancing Circuit and Strategy Based on Bidirectional Flyback Converter

by Yipei Wang, Jun-Hyeong Kwon, Seong-Cheol Choi, Guangxu Zhou and Sung-Jun Park

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 168; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050168 - 23 Apr 2025

Abstract

In this paper, a modular cell balancing circuit based on a bidirectional flyback converter (BFC) is designed, which is equipped with a symmetrical BFC for each cell. The primary side of all BFCs is in parallel with the battery pack, and the secondary [...] Read more.

In this paper, a modular cell balancing circuit based on a bidirectional flyback converter (BFC) is designed, which is equipped with a symmetrical BFC for each cell. The primary side of all BFCs is in parallel with the battery pack, and the secondary side is connected to the individual cells. Such an input-parallel output-series structure allows for bidirectional and controllable energy transfer among the cells. The control of the charging/discharging for a specific cell can be realized by adjusting the PWM signal on the primary or secondary side of the corresponding BFC. Based on this, three cell balancing strategies are proposed: maximum voltage discharge (MXVD), minimum voltage charge (MNVC), and maximum and minimum voltage balancing (MX&MNB). For MX&MNB, which is essentially a combination of MXVD and MNVC, it controls the maximum voltage cell discharging and minimum voltage cell charging simultaneously, where the energy is transferred directly between the two cells with the largest voltage difference. A cell balancing prototype is built and tested to verify the feasibility and stability of the proposed strategy. All three proposed methods can implement cell balancing simply and effectively, while the MX&MNB provides a faster speed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Control and Optimization of Battery Energy Storage Systems—2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 9495 KiB

Open AccessArticle

SOH Estimation Method for Lithium-Ion Batteries Using Partial Discharge Curves Based on CGKAN

by Shengfeng He, Wenhu Qin, Zhonghua Yun, Chao Wu and Chongbin Sun

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 167; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050167 - 23 Apr 2025

Abstract

Accurate estimation of the state of health (SOH) of lithium-ion batteries is essential to ensure the safe and stable operation of equipment such as electric vehicles. To address the limitations in the accuracy and robustness of existing methods under complex operating conditions, a [...] Read more.

Accurate estimation of the state of health (SOH) of lithium-ion batteries is essential to ensure the safe and stable operation of equipment such as electric vehicles. To address the limitations in the accuracy and robustness of existing methods under complex operating conditions, a CNN-BiGRU-KAN (CGKAN) method for SOH estimation based on partial discharge curves is proposed. Firstly, random forest analysis is applied to extract features highly correlated with battery health from the partial discharge curve data. Next, a SOH estimation framework based on the CGKAN model is developed, where 1-Dimensional-Convolutional Neural Networks (1D-CNN) are used to extract deep features from the original data, Bidirectional Gated Recurrent Unit (BiGRU) captures the bidirectional dependencies of the time series, and Kolmogorov–Arnold Networks (KAN) enhances the modeling of complex nonlinear features through its nonlinear mapping capabilities, thereby improving the accuracy of SOH estimation. Finally, multiple experiments under different conditions are conducted, and the results demonstrate that the proposed CGKAN method, by integrating the individual advantages of 1D-CNN, BiGRU, and KAN, efficiently captures complex nonlinear patterns in battery health features and maintains stable performance across various operating conditions. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 4221 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Flow and Mass Transfer Characteristics of an All-Iron Semi-Solid Redox Flow Battery

by Heyao Li, Zhuqian Zhang, Haojie Zhang and Yuchen Zhou

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 166; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040166 - 21 Apr 2025

Abstract

To improve the flow mass transfer inside the electrodes and the efficiency of an all-iron redox flow battery, a semi-solid all-iron redox flow battery is presented experimentally. A slurry electrode is designed to replace the traditional porous electrode. Moreover, the effects of an [...] Read more.

To improve the flow mass transfer inside the electrodes and the efficiency of an all-iron redox flow battery, a semi-solid all-iron redox flow battery is presented experimentally. A slurry electrode is designed to replace the traditional porous electrode. Moreover, the effects of an additional external magnetic field are further investigated in the semi-solid battery experiment. The results show that the mass transfer of the slurry in the battery flow channel and the prolonged discharge time are significantly affected by the additional external magnetic fields. In addition, a three-dimensional model of the semi-solid all-iron redox flow battery is presented in detail, and it is verified to be reliable by experimental data. The simulation results show that the ion concentration distributions in the battery become more uniform with the increase in the flow rate and the initial concentration. Furthermore, it is also found that the size of the flow channel influences the mass transfer efficiency of the slurry. After optimizing the flow channel, it is found that when the flow channel length of the slurry inlet and outlet section is 2 cm, the operating efficiency of the semi-solid battery shows an increasing trend. This work provides comprehensive insight into the improvement of the performances of flow batteries, which will be conducive to the practical application of flow batteries. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 3885 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Pathway to Circular Economy-Converting Li-Ion Battery Recycling Waste into Graphite/rGO Composite Electrocatalysts for Zinc–Air Batteries

by Reio Praats, Jani Sainio, Milla Vikberg, Lassi Klemettinen, Benjamin P. Wilson, Mari Lundström, Ivar Kruusenberg and Kerli Liivand

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040165 - 21 Apr 2025

Abstract

Li-ion batteries (LIBs) are one of the most deployed energy storage technologies worldwide, providing power for a wide range of applications—from portable electronic devices to electric vehicles (EVs). The growing demand for LIBs, coupled with a shortage of critical battery materials, has prompted [...] Read more.

Li-ion batteries (LIBs) are one of the most deployed energy storage technologies worldwide, providing power for a wide range of applications—from portable electronic devices to electric vehicles (EVs). The growing demand for LIBs, coupled with a shortage of critical battery materials, has prompted the scientific community to seek ways to improve material utilization through the recycling of end-of-life LIBs. While valuable battery metals are already being recycled on an industrial scale, graphite—a material classified as a critical resource—continues to be discarded. In this study, graphite waste recovered from the recycling of LIBs was successfully upcycled into an active graphite/rGO (reduced graphene oxide) composite oxygen electrocatalyst. The precursor graphite for rGO synthesis was also extracted from LIBs. Incorporating rGO into the graphite significantly enhanced the specific surface area and porosity of the resulting composite, facilitating effective doping with residual metals during subsequent nitrogen doping via pyrolysis. These composite catalysts enhanced both the oxygen reduction and oxygen evolution reactions, enabling their use as air electrode catalyst materials in zinc–air batteries (ZABs). The best-performing composite catalyst demonstrated an impressive power density of 100 mW cm⁻² and exceptional cycling stability for 137 h. This research further demonstrates the utilization of waste fractions from LIB recycling to drive advancements in energy conversion technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Two-Dimensional Materials for Battery Applications)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

29 pages, 9382 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Heat Pipe Embedded Battery Cooling System for Future Electric Vehicle

by Su-Jong Kim, Ji-Su Lee and Seok-Ho Rhi

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 164; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040164 - 20 Apr 2025

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to examine the performance of a new cooling system whose mechanism is integrated with an immersion cooling system and a heat pipe mechanism. The study comprises an experimental test and a numerical analysis using the 1-D model. [...] Read more.

The purpose of this study is to examine the performance of a new cooling system whose mechanism is integrated with an immersion cooling system and a heat pipe mechanism. The study comprises an experimental test and a numerical analysis using the 1-D model. In the experiment, a metal heating block that simulated the pouch-type cell was used. It was composed of multiple heaters and thermal sensors, working as a heating model of the battery while observing the thermal behavior of the cell at the same time. The temperature of the heating block was influenced by the types of working fluid and wick structure, which are the key points of this system. Their role is to promote the heat exchange process by facilitating the evaporation and condensation processes. Their performance was evaluated based on different types of shapes and materials of wicks. The simulation model was designed and its feasibility verified with the experiment results. Furthermore, different types of dielectric working fluids and variations in porosities were examined through the simulation model, which are crucial to determining the characteristics of the wick structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Thermal Management for Batteries: 2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

31 pages, 1468 KiB

Open AccessReview

Critical and Strategic Raw Materials for Energy Storage Devices

by Maham Mahnoor, Rabia Chandio, Anum Inam and Inam Ul Ahad

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 163; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040163 - 19 Apr 2025

Abstract

The performance and scalability of energy storage systems play a key role in the transition toward intermittent renewable energy systems and the achievement of decarbonization targets through means of resilient electrical grids. Despite significant research and technology advancements, the scalability of innovative energy [...] Read more.

The performance and scalability of energy storage systems play a key role in the transition toward intermittent renewable energy systems and the achievement of decarbonization targets through means of resilient electrical grids. Despite significant research and technology advancements, the scalability of innovative energy storage systems remains challenging due to the scarcity of raw materials (used for the production of energy storage media, cathodes, anodes, separators, conductive agents, and electrolytes). The European Commission has identified certain raw materials as both economically important and subject to supply risks, designating them as critical and strategic raw materials. In this review, a comprehensive analysis is conducted regarding 28 raw materials and rare earth elements which are essential for the production of batteries, supercapacitors, and other storage systems, emphasizing their criticality, strategic importance, supply chain vulnerabilities, and associated environmental and social impacts. This study also addresses potential substitute materials for energy storage devices and innovations that make these devices recyclable. Future trends are briefly discussed, including advancements in alternative chemistries and innovations to improve energy density in advanced batteries and supercapacitors, paving the way for hybrid energy solutions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rechargeable Batteries)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 3925 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Capacity and State-of-Health Prediction of Lithium-Ion Batteries Using Reduced Equivalent Circuit Models

by Hakeem Thomas and Mark H. Weatherspoon

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 162; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040162 - 19 Apr 2025

Abstract

Knowledge of battery health and its degradation has been a research focus since it enables users to use batteries optimally. The dynamic electrochemical properties within a cell can be represented by an equivalent circuit to observe the impedance over a range of frequencies, [...] Read more.

Knowledge of battery health and its degradation has been a research focus since it enables users to use batteries optimally. The dynamic electrochemical properties within a cell can be represented by an equivalent circuit to observe the impedance over a range of frequencies, which is an indicator of the cell’s degradation buildup from an electrical framework. This process provides information on the different electrochemical processes observed at different frequency ranges, which can be used to optimally predict the capacity fade of a cell. With the increasing demand for batteries, faster and less computationally intensive means are being explored to predict the capacity degradation of batteries. The proposed method in this article introduces an effective reduced equivalent circuit model (ER-ECM) for battery prognosis studies. The ER-ECM measures the parameters of impedance spectra from the high- to mid-frequency regions for data input. These parameters are then used to accurately predict the capacity of the battery and its state of health. The results show that the overarching charge transfer resistance provides the most salient data for capacity predictions, having an average capacity error of 1.4%, which is a 40% reduction compared to using all the parameters of the ER-ECM. The ECMs used in this study also provide faster model training and testing by 6% compared to using global impedance spectra. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Battery Modeling: Models, Charging Strategies, Performance Estimations and Thermal Management)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 553 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Kalman Filter and H-Infinity Filter for Battery State of Charge Estimation with a Detailed Validation Method

by Waleri Milde and Laurin Kerle

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 161; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040161 - 18 Apr 2025

Abstract

Accurate and reliable estimation of the state of charge (SOC) of lithium-ion batteries is essential for the performance and safety of battery management systems (BMS) in applications such as electric vehicles and energy storage systems. However, there is a lack of comprehensive comparative [...] Read more.

Accurate and reliable estimation of the state of charge (SOC) of lithium-ion batteries is essential for the performance and safety of battery management systems (BMS) in applications such as electric vehicles and energy storage systems. However, there is a lack of comprehensive comparative studies evaluating different SOC estimation methods under standardized conditions. In this paper, we address this gap by providing a comprehensive, objective comparison of various Kalman and H-Infinity filter variants for battery SOC estimation, utilizing a detailed validation method based on well-defined criteria. The main contributions of this work are: (1) Implementation of multiple filter variants using a consistent equivalent circuit battery model; (2) Development of a standardized validation method for objective performance evaluation; (3) Detailed mathematical formulations enhancing reproducibility; (4) Evaluation of computational efficiency on a digital signal processor (DSP) to provide practical insights for real-time applications. Our findings reveal that while neither filter type is universally superior, the Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) and H-Infinity Filter (HIF) offer a solid balance between estimation accuracy and computational load, making them reliable choices for general applications. This work advances the understanding of SOC estimation methods and aids practitioners in balancing accuracy and computational efficiency for real-world applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Advances in Battery Energy Storage and Applications)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 3739 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Online Core Temperature Estimation for Lithium-Ion Batteries via an Aging-Integrated ECM-1D Coupled Model-Based Algorithm

by Yiqi Jia, Lorenzo Brancato, Marco Giglio and Francesco Cadini

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 160; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040160 - 18 Apr 2025

Abstract

Thermal management is pivotal for ensuring the safe and efficient operation of LIBs under dynamic conditions. Accurate core temperature monitoring remains a key BTMS challenge for predicting thermal distributions and mitigating TR risks. This study proposes a real-time core temperature estimation framework integrating [...] Read more.

Thermal management is pivotal for ensuring the safe and efficient operation of LIBs under dynamic conditions. Accurate core temperature monitoring remains a key BTMS challenge for predicting thermal distributions and mitigating TR risks. This study proposes a real-time core temperature estimation framework integrating joint EKF with an electro-thermal-aging model (ECM-1D). Using only surface temperature and voltage measurements, it simultaneously estimates core temperature, SOC, and capacity with bidirectional electro-thermal coupling. The hybrid approach pre-calibrates temperature/SOC/SOH-dependent parameters offline while updating capacity online. Validation under extreme conditions (high-rate cycling, aging, and ISCs) demonstrates 60% lower core temperature RMSE during high-rate cycling, a maximum estimation error below 0.9 K, and 58.9% reduction in SOC estimation error under aging conditions versus existing methods. The framework reliably tracks core temperature trends despite parasitic heat and signal noise, enabling earlier critical temperature warnings. This provides a foundation for TR prevention, advancing battery safety for EV and grid storage applications. Future extensions could integrate physical aging mechanisms and enhance fault detection capabilities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management in Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 15674 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Binder-Free Fe-N-C-O Bifunctional Electrocatalyst in Nickel Foam for Aqueous Zinc–Air Batteries

by Jorge González-Morales, Jadra Mosa and Mario Aparicio

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 159; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040159 - 17 Apr 2025

Abstract

The development of efficient, sustainable, and cost-effective catalysts is crucial for energy storage technologies, such as zinc–air batteries (ZABs). These batteries require bifunctional catalysts capable of efficiently and selectively catalyzing oxygen redox reactions. However, the high cost and low selectivity of conventional catalysts [...] Read more.

The development of efficient, sustainable, and cost-effective catalysts is crucial for energy storage technologies, such as zinc–air batteries (ZABs). These batteries require bifunctional catalysts capable of efficiently and selectively catalyzing oxygen redox reactions. However, the high cost and low selectivity of conventional catalysts hinder the large-scale integration of ZABs into the electric grid. This study presents binder-free Fe-based bifunctional electrocatalysts synthesized via a sol–gel method, followed by thermal treatment under ammonia flow. Supported on nickel foam, the catalyst exhibits enhanced activity for both the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER), essential for ZAB operation. This work addresses two critical challenges in the development of ZABs: first, the replacement of costly cobalt or platinum-group-metal (PGM)-based catalysts with an efficient alternative; second, the achievement of prolonged battery performance under real conditions without passivation. Structural analysis confirms the integration of iron nitrides, oxides, and carbon, resulting in high conductivity and catalytic stability without relying on precious or cobalt-based metals. Electrochemical tests reveal that the catalyst calcined at 800 °C delivers superior performance, achieving a four-electron ORR mechanism and prolonged operational life compared to its 900 °C counterpart. Both catalysts outperform conventional Pt/C-RuO₂ systems in stability and selective bifunctionality, offering a more sustainable and cost-effective alternative. The innovative combination of nitrogen, carbon, and iron compounds overcomes limitations associated with traditional materials, paving the way for scalable, high-performance applications in renewable energy storage. This work underscores the potential of transition metal-based catalysts in advancing the commercial viability of ZABs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Materials and Technologies for Post-Lithium-Ion Batteries—2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 2332 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation of Mesoporous Boron-Doped Porous Carbon Derived from Coffee Grounds via Hybrid Activation for Carbon Capture and Storage

by Hyeon Hye Kim, Kay-Hyeok An and Byung-Joo Kim

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 158; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040158 - 17 Apr 2025

Abstract

The increasing concentration of carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the atmosphere necessitates the development of efficient carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies. Among these, adsorption-based methods using porous carbon (PC) have attracted considerable attention due to their low energy requirements and cost-effectiveness. [...] Read more.

The increasing concentration of carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the atmosphere necessitates the development of efficient carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies. Among these, adsorption-based methods using porous carbon (PC) have attracted considerable attention due to their low energy requirements and cost-effectiveness. Biomass waste-derived porous carbon is particularly attractive as a sustainable alternative, offering environmental benefits and high-value applications with low costs. In this study, coffee grounds (CGs) were selected as a precursor due to their abundance and cost-effectiveness compared with other biomass wastes. To improve the pore characteristics of CG-derived carbon (CCG), boric acid treatment was applied during carbonization followed by steam activation to prepare boron-doped CG-derived porous carbon (B-PCG). The N₂/77K adsorption–desorption isotherms revealed a significant increase in the specific surface area and total pore volume of B-PCG from 1590 m²/g and 0.71 cm³/g to 2060 m²/g and 1.01 cm³/g, respectively, compared with PCG. Furthermore, high pressure CO₂ adsorption analysis at 298 K up to 50 bar showed an approximately 50% improvement in CO₂ adsorption capacity for B-PCG compared with PCG. These results suggest that boron doping is an effective strategy to optimize the pore structure and adsorption performance of biomass-derived porous carbon materials for CCS application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Carbon-Based Materials for Next-Generation Batteries and Supercapacitors)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

19 pages, 257 KiB

Open AccessReview

Advances in Standardised Battery Testing for Enhanced Safety and Innovation in Electric Vehicles: A Comprehensive Review

by Márton Pepó, Soma Fullér, Tibor Cseke and Zoltán Weltsch

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 157; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040157 - 16 Apr 2025

Abstract

Standardised battery tests are essential for evaluating the safety, reliability, and performance of modern battery technologies, especially with the rapid emergence of innovations such as solid-state and lithium–sulphur batteries. This review reveals critical shortcomings in current international standards (e.g., IEC, IEEE, SAE), which [...] Read more.

Standardised battery tests are essential for evaluating the safety, reliability, and performance of modern battery technologies, especially with the rapid emergence of innovations such as solid-state and lithium–sulphur batteries. This review reveals critical shortcomings in current international standards (e.g., IEC, IEEE, SAE), which often do not keep pace with technological developments and are not harmonised across regions, limiting their effectiveness in real-world applications. The paper stresses the need for the continuous review of test protocols through collaboration between researchers, manufacturers, and regulators. A detailed case study of the BYD Dolphin battery demonstrates the practical importance of comprehensive testing in real-world conditions, spanning electrical, thermal, and mechanical ranges. The review concludes that up-to-date, harmonised, and scenario-specific test methods are needed to ensure accurate battery assessment, support global comparability, and enable the safe introduction of next-generation batteries for electric mobility and energy storage. Future work should prioritise operational monitoring, open access data sharing, and the development of sustainability-focused practices such as recycling and reclamation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Performance, Ageing, Reliability and Safety)

Journal Description

Batteries

Latest Articles

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Highly Accessed Articles

Latest Books

E-Mail Alert

News

Topics

Conferences

Special Issues

Topical Collections

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI