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Batteries
Special Issues
Sustainable Materials and Recycling Processes for Battery Production
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Sustainable Materials and Recycling Processes for Battery Production

A special issue of Batteries (ISSN 2313-0105). This special issue belongs to the section "Battery Processing, Manufacturing and Recycling".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 September 2025) | Viewed by 10488

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Chenxu Wang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99163, USA
Interests: Li/Na/K-ion batteries; Li/Na/K-metal batteries; battery recycling; fiber-shaped batteries
Dr. Lulu Ren

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99163, USA
Interests: electrical energy storage characterization of the polymer-based nanocomposites; control of defect structures and dielectric properties of functional ceramics for high-voltage application
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Xiahui Zhang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Metallurgy and Environment, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China
Interests: lithium batteries; multi-scale modeling for batteries; energy storage materials

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Batteries are considered one of the most critical technologies in modern society, encompassing numerous fields, e.g., portable electrics, electric vehicles, and large-scale energy storage systems for renewable energy plants. Determining how high-performance batteries can be developed by applying sustainable materials and recycling used batteries is necessary to meet the requirements of the growing market. (1) Sustainable materials that are naturally abundant, environmentally benign, and low-cost are promising to accommodate the inadequate supply of raw materials or batteries. Therefore, more research on the use of sustainable materials (e.g., biomaterials) as electrodes, electrolytes, and separators in batteries is critical for the generation of "green batteries". (2) Recycling used batteries can further reduce soil/water pollution and allow for raw battery materials to be obtained. Hence, effective and environmentally friendly recycling processes, i.e., close-loop recycling,  are urgently needed for the development of reusable materials.

Sustainable technologies for both the production and recycling of batteries will greatly benefit the environment. The realization of “green” processes for recycling batteries and producing recyclable batteries can not only reduce toxic wastes but also lower energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. 

Dr. Chenxu Wang
Dr. Lulu Ren
Dr. Xiahui Zhang
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Batteries is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • sustainable
  • materials
  • batteries
  • recycling

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Published Papers (3 papers)

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Research

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19 pages, 2195 KB  
Article
Thermal Drying in the Recycling Process of Lithium-Ion Batteries—Kinetics and Selectivity Aspects for the Evaporation of Electrolyte–Solvent Mixtures
by Lukas Lödige, Thilo Heckmann, Philip Scharfer and Wilhelm Schabel
Batteries 2025, 11(12), 436; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11120436 - 25 Nov 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1914
Abstract
The removal of the electrolyte solvents in an early-stage thermal drying step is crucial for safe and efficient recycling processes for end-of-life lithium-ion batteries. A comprehensive understanding of the governing influences on the solvent volatilization during the drying step enables optimized processes. The [...] Read more.
The removal of the electrolyte solvents in an early-stage thermal drying step is crucial for safe and efficient recycling processes for end-of-life lithium-ion batteries. A comprehensive understanding of the governing influences on the solvent volatilization during the drying step enables optimized processes. The initial phase of this process is of particular interest because, due to the high spatial accessibility of the solvent, drying is determined by the mass transport in the surrounding gas phase, which can be precisely controlled through the process boundary conditions. In this study, the evaporation of representative binary and ternary electrolyte–solvent mixtures containing linear and cyclic organic carbonates is investigated under defined boundary conditions. The evaporation kinetics and selectivity are assessed by time-discrete measurement of the amount of solvent and its composition during the evaporation experiments. At the conditions applied, the vapor pressure of the solvents governs the evaporation selectivity, with the evaporation kinetics dictated by the mass transport of the solvent vapor in the gas phase. Hence, the evaporation of highly mobile but low volatile solvents, such as ethylene carbonate (EC), is the constraining aspect within this process. Moreover, molecular interactions within mixtures can further hinder the volatilization of EC. The developed simulation model describes the evaporation behavior with high accuracy and thus allows the prediction of minimum drying times. It establishes a solid foundation for designing and scaling the drying processes of end-of-life batteries, which involve complex material interactions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Materials and Recycling Processes for Battery Production)
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21 pages, 5171 KB  
Article
Sustainable Battery Lifecycle: Non-Destructive Separation of Batteries and Potential Second Life Applications
by Gernot Schlögl, Stefan Grollitsch, Christian Ellersdorfer, Florian Feist, Christoph Kirschner, Josef Ecker and Franz Haas
Batteries 2024, 10(8), 280; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10080280 - 5 Aug 2024
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5018
Abstract
Large quantities of battery systems will be discarded from electric vehicles in the future. Non-destructive separation of used electric vehicle (EV) traction batteries enables a second life of battery components, extraction of high value secondary materials, and reduces the environmental footprint of recycling [...] Read more.
Large quantities of battery systems will be discarded from electric vehicles in the future. Non-destructive separation of used electric vehicle (EV) traction batteries enables a second life of battery components, extraction of high value secondary materials, and reduces the environmental footprint of recycling and separation processes. In this study, the key performance indicators (KPIs) for the second life application of spent EV batteries are identified. Three battery packs are analyzed in terms of the joining techniques used—and possible separation techniques—considering only direct recycling methods. The components that can be recovered from these batteries are evaluated against the KPIs. This study shows that all the batteries analyzed allow a second life in stationary and semi-stationary electrical storage systems and marine applications when used at the pack and module levels. Two packs can be reused in electric vehicles such as forklifts. However, the feasibility of re-use in micro-mobility and consumer electronics is very limited. This study shows that technically feasible separation methods are dictated and constrained by the joining techniques used. As welding and adhesive bonding pose challenges to separation processes, future efforts should prioritize ‘design for disassembly’ to ensure sustainable battery life cycle management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Materials and Recycling Processes for Battery Production)
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Review

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22 pages, 8525 KB  
Review
Protein-Based Strategies for Non-Alkali Metal-Ion Batteries
by Qian Wang, Chenxu Wang and Wei-Hong Zhong
Batteries 2025, 11(9), 318; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11090318 - 26 Aug 2025
Viewed by 2179
Abstract
Batteries are a cornerstone of modern technology that supports a wide range of applications including portable electronics, electric vehicles and large-scale energy storage for renewable power systems. Despite their widespread use, commercial Li-ion batteries are limited by the mineral resources of Li. The [...] Read more.
Batteries are a cornerstone of modern technology that supports a wide range of applications including portable electronics, electric vehicles and large-scale energy storage for renewable power systems. Despite their widespread use, commercial Li-ion batteries are limited by the mineral resources of Li. The rapidly growing battery market demands alternative battery systems, such as non-alkali metal-ion batteries, that are capable of delivering comparative energy densities. In the meantime, improving the performance of the batteries via generating sustainable strategies has been broadly studied. Proteins, as re naturally evolved macromolecules that possess diverse structures and functional groups, have been demonstrated to be able to transport various metallic ions inside bio-organisms. Therefore, active studies have been carried out on the use of natural proteins (e.g., zein, soy, fibroin, bovine serum albumin, etc.) to enhance the electrochemical performance of non-alkali metal-ion batteries. This review provides a comprehensive summary of recent advances on the studies of protein-based strategies for non-alkali metal-ion batteries and outlines perspectives for future sustainable electrochemical energy storage systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Materials and Recycling Processes for Battery Production)
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