Advances in the Battery Thermal Management Systems of Electric Vehicles for Thermal Runaway Prevention and Suppression
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. TR Characterization
2.1. TR Mechanism
2.2. TRP
2.3. Heat Generation During TR
2.4. Comparison Between Traditional and Advanced Cooling Strategies
3. Advanced Cooling Strategies for TR Prevention and Suppression in LIBs
3.1. Liquid Cooling
3.1.1. Indirect Liquid Cooling
3.1.2. Water Mist
3.1.3. Immersion Cooling
3.2. PCM Cooling
3.3. Hybrid Cooling
4. Summary and Recommendations
- (a)
- Indirect liquid cooling is a widely adopted thermal management technique that offers superior heat dissipation compared to traditional air-cooled methods, primarily due to the higher thermal conductivity and specific heat capacity of liquid coolants such as water or water–glycol mixtures. This approach enables more effective temperature regulation and improved thermal uniformity across the battery module. However, the presence of multiple thermal interfaces between the battery cells and cold plates introduces significant thermal resistance, limiting the cooling effectiveness during critical (TR) events. Additionally, indirect liquid cooling systems often involve complex structural designs, increasing the risks related to coolant leakage, corrosion, and higher parasitic energy consumption. These factors contribute to increased system weight, maintenance demands, and overall cost, posing challenges for scaling to next-generation high-power LIB applications. Therefore, while indirect liquid cooling remains effective under standard operating conditions, its application for TR prevention and suppression in future high-capacity systems requires further optimization in terms of system design, coolant management, and safety validation.
- (b)
- Water mist cooling has emerged as a promising strategy to mitigate TR and its propagation in LIBs due to its high latent heat of vaporization and rapid heat absorption through droplet evaporation. By cooling both the ambient environment and the battery surface, water mist can significantly reduce the temperature rise during TR events. Furthermore, water mist systems offer environmental advantages, being non-toxic, readily available and cost-effective. However, their effectiveness can be compromised in dense battery modules where flame-induced buoyancy and gas ejection limit mist penetration to inner cells. Additionally, large water volumes are often required to sustain sufficient cooling performance, which increases system complexity and weight. Despite these limitations, water mist cooling demonstrates strong potential for TR suppression, and further improvements in delivery methods, droplet sizing, hybrid agent use, and real-time thermal control are needed to enable its broader application in advanced battery thermal management systems.
- (c)
- Immersion cooling, also known as direct liquid cooling, offers a highly effective approach for preventing and suppressing TR and TRP in high-energy LIB systems. By directly submerging battery cells in dielectric fluids, immersion cooling eliminates thermal interface resistance and achieves rapid, uniform heat dissipation. Single-phase immersion cooling provides flexible system design options, while two-phase immersion cooling leverages latent heat for enhanced cooling performance. However, challenges such as the high cost, environmental sensitivity, and chemical stability requirements of dielectric fluids, along with concerns over leakage, material compatibility, and system complexity restricted widespread adoption. Additionally, ensuring robust structural sealing is critical, particularly in two-phase systems where boiling-induced pressure variations occur. Despite these issues, innovative designs such as tab-assisted cooling, optimized coolant flows, and improved immersion architectures show strong potential to make immersion cooling a reliable and scalable solution for enhancing LIB safety against TR and TRP events.
- (d)
- PCM cooling presents a promising passive thermal management strategy for LIBs, particularly in compact and safety-critical applications. PCMs absorb substantial amounts of heat through latent heat during phase transitions, effectively delaying or suppressing rapid temperature rises without external energy input. Paraffin- and hydrated salt-based PCMs have demonstrated significant benefits in retarding TRP by maintaining temperature uniformity within battery packs. Enhancements through composite formulations, such as adding expanded graphite or metallic fillers, further improve thermal conductivity and structural stability. However, the inherently low thermal conductivity of pure PCMs limits their standalone performance, especially under severe abuse conditions. Moreover, PCM systems lack active heat dissipation mechanisms, making them more suitable for low to moderate power densities or as supplementary layers in hybrid cooling architectures. Future developments in high-conductivity composite PCMs and integration with active cooling systems are critical to overcoming current limitations and unlocking the full potential of PCM cooling for advanced battery thermal management.
- (e)
- Hybrid cooling systems that integrate passive and active thermal management techniques have emerged as highly effective solutions for mitigating TR and TRP risks in LIB modules. By combining the latent heat absorption of PCMs with the continuous heat dissipation of liquid cooling, hybrid systems achieve superior control over both peak temperatures and temperature uniformity. Studies have demonstrated that hybrid configurations can significantly delay TRP events and prevent adjacent cells from reaching critical failure conditions. However, the complexity of integrating active and passive components increases design difficulty, system volume, and cost. Inefficient thermal coupling between PCM layers and liquid cooling structures can limit overall system performance, particularly during rapid TR events. Additionally, PCM saturation over prolonged abuse conditions may reduce cooling effectiveness. Therefore, future research must focus on optimizing composite materials, refining liquid channel geometries, and developing modular, lightweight, hybrid architectures to fully realize the potential of hybrid cooling in next-generation BTMS designs.
- (f)
- In addition, thermal insulation layers have shown substantial potential as a passive mitigation strategy for TRP in LIB systems. By introducing low thermal conductivity materials such as aerogels or glass fiber composites between adjacent cells, insulation layers act as thermal barriers, effectively delaying or even preventing the spread of heat generated during a TR event. Moreover, when combined with active cooling systems such as cold plates or immersion cooling setups, insulation layers allow for the cooling system to have more time to remove heat before it reaches critical levels. Despite their advantages, insulation layers can accumulate heat over prolonged operation and reduce energy density due to added volume, necessitating careful thermal design and material selection. Nonetheless, their simplicity, reliability, and proven efficacy make them a valuable component in next-generation BTMS aimed at enhancing safety and suppressing TRP in high-energy-density LIB packs.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Jiang et al. (2022) [32] |
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Shahid et al. (2022) [19] |
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Chavan et al. (2023) [20] |
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Zhi et al. (2024) [33] |
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Yang et al. (2024) [34] |
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TR Reactions | Temperature Range for the Initiation of Reaction | Reaction Rate Equation | Heat Generation Equation |
---|---|---|---|
SEI decomposition reaction | 60–130 °C | ||
negative-electrolyte reaction | 100–130 °C | ||
positive-electrolyte reaction | 150–300 °C | ||
electrolyte decomposition | Around 200 °C | ||
ISC | Around 130 °C |
Parameters | Description | Unit |
---|---|---|
Frequency factor of the reaction | ||
Activation energy of the reaction | J/mol | |
Initial dimensionless content | - | |
Conversion degree of the positive electrode material | - | |
Initial dimensionless SEI layer thickness | - | |
Heat of reaction | J/kg | |
Material content | kg/m3 | |
Battery nominal voltage | V | |
Battery capacity | Ah | |
Efficiency factor | - | |
Parameter to control heat generation by ISC: | - |
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Tai, L.D.; Lee, M.-Y. Advances in the Battery Thermal Management Systems of Electric Vehicles for Thermal Runaway Prevention and Suppression. Batteries 2025, 11, 216. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11060216
Tai LD, Lee M-Y. Advances in the Battery Thermal Management Systems of Electric Vehicles for Thermal Runaway Prevention and Suppression. Batteries. 2025; 11(6):216. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11060216
Chicago/Turabian StyleTai, Le Duc, and Moo-Yeon Lee. 2025. "Advances in the Battery Thermal Management Systems of Electric Vehicles for Thermal Runaway Prevention and Suppression" Batteries 11, no. 6: 216. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11060216
APA StyleTai, L. D., & Lee, M.-Y. (2025). Advances in the Battery Thermal Management Systems of Electric Vehicles for Thermal Runaway Prevention and Suppression. Batteries, 11(6), 216. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11060216