10th Anniversary of Batteries: Second-Life Applications and Recycling of Li-Ion Batteries

A special issue of Batteries (ISSN 2313-0105). This special issue belongs to the section "Battery Processing, Manufacturing and Recycling".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 December 2025 | Viewed by 2432

Special Issue Editor


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Guest Editor
School of Engineering, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FB, UK
Interests: hydrogen energy systems; fuel cells; Li-ion batteries; electric vehicles; battery fire and safety
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

As electric vehicle (EV) adoption continues to rise globally, the question of how to manage retired Li-ion batteries becomes increasingly pressing. While these batteries may no longer meet the rigorous demands of automotive use, they often retain a significant portion of their capacity and functionality. This has sparked growing interest in second-life applications for retired EV batteries, including stationary energy storage, grid stabilization, and other innovative uses. Moreover, recycling Li-ion batteries is crucial for recovering valuable materials and reducing the demand for critical raw materials such as lithium, cobalt, and nickel—resources that are finite and linked to significant environmental impacts during extraction. Together, second-life applications and recycling form an essential part of the circular economy for Li-ion batteries, fostering resource conservation, minimizing waste, and reducing environmental harm. However, numerous challenges remain in fully realizing the potential of these emerging sectors, including technological, economic, and logistical barriers.

This Special Issue aims to explore the latest advances and future trends in the second-life applications and recycling of Li-ion batteries, emphasizing their pivotal role in enhancing the sustainability of energy storage systems. Through this exploration, we aim to contribute to the development of more efficient, scalable solutions for managing battery waste and promoting a sustainable energy future.

Submissions from all areas related to and promoting the second-life applications and recycling of Li-ion batteries are encouraged, including but not limited to the following topics:

  • Battery management systems;
  • Thermal management solutions;
  • Battery aging and degradation;
  • Retired battery characterization, testing, standards, and certification;
  • Sustainable battery cell and pack design;
  • Battery recycling and reuse strategies;
  • Digital twin technologies for second-life applications;
  • Optimization of battery performance and lifecycle;
  • Circular economy and lifecycle assessment;
  • Advanced manufacturing techniques;
  • Safety considerations and environmental impacts of retired batteries;
  • Economic and regulatory barriers to reusing retired batteries.

Dr. Prodip K. Das
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Batteries is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • battery management systems
  • thermal management
  • aging and degradation
  • characterization, testing, standards, and certification
  • cell and pack design
  • recycling and reuse
  • digital twin
  • optimization
  • circular economy and lifecycle assessment
  • advanced manufacturing techniques
  • safety and environmental impacts
  • economic and regulatory barriers

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Published Papers (3 papers)

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Research

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12 pages, 2446 KiB  
Article
Characterization of Industrial Black Mass from End-of-Life LiFePO4-Graphite Batteries
by Nanna Bjerre-Christensen, Caroline Birksø Eriksen, Kristian Oluf Sylvester-Hvid and Dorthe Bomholdt Ravnsbæk
Batteries 2025, 11(6), 210; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11060210 - 26 May 2025
Viewed by 421
Abstract
The use of Li-ion batteries is drastically increasing, especially due to the growing sales of electric vehicles. Simultaneously, there is a shift towards exchanging the traditional Co- and Ni-rich electrode materials with more sustainable alternatives such as LiFePO4. This transition challenges [...] Read more.
The use of Li-ion batteries is drastically increasing, especially due to the growing sales of electric vehicles. Simultaneously, there is a shift towards exchanging the traditional Co- and Ni-rich electrode materials with more sustainable alternatives such as LiFePO4. This transition challenges conventional recycling practices, which typically rely on shredding batteries into a substance known as black mass, which is subsequently processed via hydrometallurgical or pyrometallurgical methods to extract valuable elements. These routes may not be economically viable for future sustainable chemistries with lower contents of high-value metal. Hence, new methods for processing the black mass, allowing, e.g., for physical separation and direct recycling, are direly needed. Such developments require that the black mass is thoroughly understood. In this study, we thoroughly characterize a commercially produced Graphite/LFP black mass sample from real battery waste using a suite of analytical techniques. Our findings reveal detailed chemical, morphological, and structural insights and show that the components in the black mass have different micro-size profiles, which may enable simple size separation. Unfortunately, our analysis also reveals that the employed processing of battery waste into black mass leads to the formation of an unknown Fe-containing compound, which may hamper direct recycling routes. Full article
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Review

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34 pages, 1734 KiB  
Review
Progress, Challenges and Opportunities in Recycling Electric Vehicle Batteries: A Systematic Review Article
by Hamid Safarzadeh and Francesco Di Maria
Batteries 2025, 11(6), 230; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11060230 - 13 Jun 2025
Viewed by 661
Abstract
Objective: The rapid growth of electric vehicle (EV) adoption has led to an unprecedented increase in lithium-ion battery (LIB) demand and end-of-life waste, underscoring the urgent need for effective recycling strategies. This review evaluates current progress in EV battery recycling and explores future [...] Read more.
Objective: The rapid growth of electric vehicle (EV) adoption has led to an unprecedented increase in lithium-ion battery (LIB) demand and end-of-life waste, underscoring the urgent need for effective recycling strategies. This review evaluates current progress in EV battery recycling and explores future prospects. Design: Review based on PRISMA 2020. Data sources: Scientific publications indexed in major databases such as Scopus, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect were searched for relevant studies published between 2020 and 15 April 2025. Inclusion criteria: Studies were included if they were published in English between 2020 and 15 April 2025, and focused on the recycling of electric vehicle batteries. Eligible studies specifically addressed (i) recycling methods, technologies, and material recovery processes for EV batteries; (ii) the impact of recycled battery systems on power generation processes and grid stability; and (iii) assessments of materials used in battery manufacturing, including efficiency and recyclability. Review articles and meta-analyses were excluded to ensure the inclusion of only original research data. Data extraction: Data were independently screened and extracted by two researchers and analyzed for recovery rates, environmental impact, and system-level energy contributions. One researcher independently screened all articles and extracted relevant data. A second researcher validated the accuracy of extracted data. The data were then organized and analyzed based on reported quantitative and qualitative indicators related to recycling methods, material recovery rates, environmental impact, and system-level energy benefits. Results: A total of 23 studies were included. Significant progress has been made in hydrometallurgical and direct recycling processes, with recovery rates of critical metals (Li, Co, Ni) improving. Second-life battery applications also show promise for grid stabilization and renewable energy storage. Furthermore, recycled batteries show potential in stabilizing power grids through second-life applications in BESS. Conclusion: EV battery recycling is a vital strategy for addressing raw material scarcity, minimizing environmental harm, and supporting energy resilience. However, challenges persist in policy harmonization, technology scaling, and economic viability. Future progress will depend on integrated efforts across sectors and regions to build a circular battery economy. Full article
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Other

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16 pages, 1987 KiB  
Perspective
A Perspective on the Challenges and Prospects of Realizing the Second Life of Retired EV Batteries
by Prodip K. Das
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 176; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050176 - 28 Apr 2025
Viewed by 1031
Abstract
As electric vehicle (EV) adoption continues to surge globally, the question of what to do with retired EV batteries looms large. While these batteries may no longer meet the rigorous demands of automotive use, they often retain a significant portion of their capacity [...] Read more.
As electric vehicle (EV) adoption continues to surge globally, the question of what to do with retired EV batteries looms large. While these batteries may no longer meet the rigorous demands of automotive use, they often retain a significant portion of their capacity and functionality. This has led to growing interest in exploring second-life applications for retired EV batteries, ranging from stationary energy storage to grid stabilization and beyond. However, numerous challenges must be addressed to unlock the full potential of this emerging sector. This paper delves into the key challenges and prospects associated with the second life of retired EV batteries. It examines technical hurdles, such as battery degradation, safety concerns, and the development of efficient repurposing methods, along with regulatory and economic barriers, including standards for battery reuse, recycling infrastructure, and market dynamics. Additionally, it highlights the potential environmental benefits, including reduced carbon emissions and resource conservation. In conclusion, the second life of retired EV batteries presents both challenges and opportunities. Addressing technical, regulatory, and economic barriers will be essential for realizing the full potential of this growing sector. However, with continued innovation and collaboration across industries, the future looks bright for leveraging retired EV batteries to create a more sustainable energy ecosystem. Full article
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