Processes

24 pages, 2742 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Particle–Gel Composite Lost Circulation Control Technology for Deepwater High-Temperature and High-Pressure Fractured Formations

by Yiqiang Huang, Zhihua Rao, Yao You, Lei Chen, De Yan, Peng Xu, Lei Pu and Delong Xu

Processes 2026, 14(2), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020217 - 7 Jan 2026

Abstract

During deepwater drilling operations in the Baiyun block of the eastern South China Sea, high-temperature and high-pressure formation leakage was frequently encountered. Traditional plugging materials lacked adequate stability under these conditions and failed to establish reliable plugs. As the development of the Baiyun [...] Read more.

During deepwater drilling operations in the Baiyun block of the eastern South China Sea, high-temperature and high-pressure formation leakage was frequently encountered. Traditional plugging materials lacked adequate stability under these conditions and failed to establish reliable plugs. As the development of the Baiyun Block progressed, it was found that the formation temperature at the BY5 area well reached 182.2 °C at a depth of 4527 m. At a depth of 5206 m, the bottom-hole temperature of the well increased to 223.81 °C, and the pressure rose to 10 MPa. An urgent need has emerged to develop a plugging system capable of operating stably under high-temperature and high-pressure conditions to enhance the safety and success rate of deepwater drilling. In this study, a high-temperature-resistant polymer for controlling leakage rate, an inorganic pressure-bearing particulate material with supporting capability, and a gel that gradually solidifies under high-temperature conditions were developed. Through systematic optimization, a synergistic plugging system was established. Laboratory evaluations demonstrated that the system maintained favorable fluidity and structural integrity under high-temperature and high-pressure conditions, rapidly constructed stable plugging layers across fractures of varying widths, and withstood high differential pressures while resisting backflow-induced erosion. The results indicate that the system exhibits significant plugging performance and strong potential for engineering application, providing reliable technical support for deepwater oil and gas development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiphase Flow and Reactive Processes of CO₂ in Wellbore–Reservoir Systems During Drilling, Completion and Production)

19 pages, 4322 KB

Open AccessArticle

CO₂ Quasi-Dry Fracturing Technology and Field Application in the Lulehe Formation of the Qaidam Basin

by Hengli Zhai, Xing Yu, Xianbo Meng, Kai Sun, Xiaowei Zhang, Yaopu Xu, Haizhu Wang, Bin Wang and Yan Zheng

Processes 2026, 14(2), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020216 - 7 Jan 2026

Abstract

Sensitive reservoirs with high clay content commonly suffer from severe water/salt sensitivity and water-lock damage during conventional water-based hydraulic fracturing, which reduces fracture conductivity and post-stimulation performance. To address this issue, we propose a CO₂ quasi-dry fracturing approach that combines the low-damage [...] Read more.

Sensitive reservoirs with high clay content commonly suffer from severe water/salt sensitivity and water-lock damage during conventional water-based hydraulic fracturing, which reduces fracture conductivity and post-stimulation performance. To address this issue, we propose a CO₂ quasi-dry fracturing approach that combines the low-damage feature of CO₂ dry fracturing with the proppant-carrying capacity of a water-based system under atmospheric sand mixing conditions. Taking Well S in the Lulehe Formation (Qaidam Basin) as a case study, we conducted reservoir sensitivity evaluation, laboratory fluid/rock interaction tests, and a field trial with microseismic monitoring. The reservoir is dominated by water and salt sensitivity, indicating high risk of damage when using conventional fluids. Laboratory results show that the CO₂ quasi-dry system improves swelling inhibition and enhances core structural stability compared with fresh water. Field implementation was operationally stable and generated an effective stimulated reservoir volume on the order of 10⁵ m³; post-fracturing oil production increased relative to nearby offset wells with a high flowback ratio. The results demonstrate that CO₂ quasi-dry fracturing provides an effective low-damage stimulation option for strongly sensitive reservoirs and can be transferred to similar formations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Energy Systems)

14 pages, 939 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Ethanol–Water Ratio on the Recovery of Major Biflavonoids from Ginkgo Leaves and Sarcotesta

by Barbara Medvedec and Dunja Šamec

Processes 2026, 14(2), 215; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020215 - 7 Jan 2026

Abstract

Biflavonoids, or flavonoid dimers, are characteristic phytochemicals of ginkgo associated with various biological activities, yet they remain far less studied than monomeric flavonoids. For their effective industrial application, optimization of extraction conditions is essential. This study investigated the effect of ethanol–water ratio (0, [...] Read more.

Biflavonoids, or flavonoid dimers, are characteristic phytochemicals of ginkgo associated with various biological activities, yet they remain far less studied than monomeric flavonoids. For their effective industrial application, optimization of extraction conditions is essential. This study investigated the effect of ethanol–water ratio (0, 10, 30, 50, 70, and 96% ethanol) on the extraction efficiency of major ginkgo biflavonoids (amentoflavone, bilobetin, ginkgetin, isoginkgetin, and sciadopitysin). Three ginkgo tissue types, green leaves, yellow leaves, and sarcotesta, previously reported to accumulate biflavonoids, were analyzed. Biflavonoids were quantified by HPLC-DAD, and total polyphenol content and antioxidant activity were also determined. Biflavonoids were most abundant in yellow leaves, with sciadopitysin identified as the dominant compound. No biflavonoids were detected in water or 10% ethanol extracts, while 30% ethanol extracts contained detectable biflavonoids only in yellow leaves at low concentrations. For most biflavonoids, the highest concentrations were obtained using 70% and 96% ethanol. Considering comparable extraction efficiency and lower toxicity, 70% ethanol was identified as the most suitable solvent. These findings highlight the importance of tissue type and solvent composition for efficient biflavonoid extraction from ginkgo. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Separation and Extraction Processes for Effective Resource Utilization)

13 pages, 2740 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Isolation and Identification of a Phytotoxic Substance from Echinochloa crus-galli Infected with Leaf Blight for the Development of Bioherbicides

by Hisashi Kato-Noguchi and Kana Tanaka

Processes 2026, 14(2), 214; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020214 - 7 Jan 2026

Abstract

The infestation of Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P.Beauv. in crop fields results in significant yield loss in many agricultural systems. Currently, the most effective strategy for controlling E. crus-galli is the application of synthetic herbicides. However, biotypes of E. crus-galli that are resistant to [...] Read more.

The infestation of Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P.Beauv. in crop fields results in significant yield loss in many agricultural systems. Currently, the most effective strategy for controlling E. crus-galli is the application of synthetic herbicides. However, biotypes of E. crus-galli that are resistant to different modes of herbicide action often emerge. Thus, it is necessary to develop alternative control methods and address ecological concerns about synthetic herbicides. During the field survey, we observed diseased E. crus-galli exhibiting symptoms of leaf blight. These symptoms indicate a potential pathogen infection and subsequent phytotoxin production during the pathogenesis. Therefore, we aimed to isolate and identify the phytotoxic substances present in the diseased leaves. Aqueous extracts of the diseased leaves exhibited phytotoxicity, suppressing the growth of Echinochloa crus-galli seedlings in a concentration-dependent manner. A phytotoxic substance was isolated from the leaf extracts through a bioassay-guided separation process using the E. crus-galli bioassay. Spectrum analysis revealed that the phytotoxic substance was monocerin. Monocerin inhibited the growth of coleoptiles and roots of E. crus-galli seedlings at concentrations greater than 30 and 10 μM, respectively, and inhibited germination at concentrations greater than 100 μM. Therefore, monocerin may be involved in the phytotoxic activity exhibited by the extracts of E. crus-galli leaves with blight symptoms. Creating bioherbicides based on the monocerin structure could be an environmentally friendly approach to weed management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Separation Processes)

13 pages, 2204 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Fast Cure of Bone Cement Based on Poly(Methyl Methacrylate)/Hydroxyapatite Nanocomposite for Application in Cranioplasty

by Matheus Alves Coelho, Alexandre Malta Rossi and Marcos Lopes Dias

Processes 2026, 14(2), 213; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020213 - 7 Jan 2026

Abstract

Novel initiation systems for the production of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) bone cements based on low-toxicity tertiary amine initiators and hydroxyapatite nanoparticles were investigated. Bicomponent systems formed by a solid component containing PMMA and benzoyl peroxide (BPO) and a liquid component containing methylmethacrylate and [...] Read more.

Novel initiation systems for the production of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) bone cements based on low-toxicity tertiary amine initiators and hydroxyapatite nanoparticles were investigated. Bicomponent systems formed by a solid component containing PMMA and benzoyl peroxide (BPO) and a liquid component containing methylmethacrylate and low-toxicity aliphatic (dimethylamino-ethoxy-ethane) (DMEE) and aromatic (dimethylamino-benzaldehyde) (DMAB) tertiary amines were tested at two amine concentrations (0.75 and 3.75 wt%) and compared with the standard tertiary amine dimethyl-p-toluidine (DMT). The components were mixed in a 2:1 ratio (solid/liquid) for 60 s. Nanocomposites were prepared using nano-hydroxyapatite inserted into the PMMA-based polymer matrix at various concentrations between 1.0 and 3.75 wt%, aiming to increase the biocompatibility of bone cements applied in cranioplasty. The concentration of tertiary amines directly affects the reaction rate, and increasing the concentration accelerates the curing reaction. Thermal analyses (DSC and TGA) revealed that the produced polymers did not show significant changes in glass transition temperature (113 °C and 115 °C), nor in onset (150–158 °C) or peak degradation temperatures (353 °C and 355 °C). The reaction with the aliphatic amine proved to be slow, as no polymerization occurred within the time period stipulated in the study. However, drastic changes did take place when the cure occurred in the presence of nano-hydroxyapatite. The cure with DMAB (3.75 wt%) that presented an exothermic peak at 37 min (53 °C) showed a peak at 16 min (70 °C), and the cure with DMEE (3.75 wt%) a peak at 11 min (62.5 °C) after the addition of nano-hydroxyapatite. In conclusion, addition of nano-hydroxyapatite significantly influenced both the time and the temperature of cure reaction in all amines studied, expanding the possibility of using new initiators in polymerization systems for cranioplasty flaps. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthesis, Applications, and Optimization of Composite Materials in Industry and the Environment)

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26 pages, 2372 KB

Open AccessArticle

Development of an Innovative Technology for the Production of Yeast-Free Bakery Products with Plant-Based Ingredients Through Mechanical Aeration Methods

by Sholpan Tursunbayeva, Auyelbek Iztayev, Baurzhan Iztayev, Bayan Muldabekova, Madina Yakiyayeva, Maxat Mamyrayev and Zhuldyz Nurgozhina

Processes 2026, 14(2), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020212 - 7 Jan 2026

Abstract

This study investigates a mechanically aerated, yeast-free bread technology incorporating apple-derived plant ingredients (juice, purée, and powder) in response to the growing demand for clean-label bakery products. The global bakery sector represents one of the largest food markets worldwide, with the baking yeast [...] Read more.

This study investigates a mechanically aerated, yeast-free bread technology incorporating apple-derived plant ingredients (juice, purée, and powder) in response to the growing demand for clean-label bakery products. The global bakery sector represents one of the largest food markets worldwide, with the baking yeast segment alone accounting for several billion USD annually, while interest in yeast-free and yeastless-dough products continues to expand. To address technological limitations associated with yeast exclusion, dough aeration was achieved using a two-stage whipping protocol (1000 rpm for 4 min, followed by 500 rpm for 1 min and stabilization at 500 rpm for 1 min under 4.0 ± 0.1 MPa gauge pressure), forming a stable protein–carbohydrate foam system. Rheological evaluation using Mixolab 2 showed that formulations containing 3–5% apple purée exhibited the most favorable dough development characteristics, with stability increasing from 3.30 ± 0.15 min in the control to 8.90 ± 0.20 min. Texture profiling using a CT-2 analyzer equipped with a cylindrical probe (50% compression, 60 mm/min, slices 25 mm thick, n = 5) revealed a significant reduction in crumb firmness, from 3.01 ± 0.15 N in the control to 2.12 ± 0.10 N in the purée- and powder-enriched samples (p < 0.05). Nutritional assessment indicated improvements in vitamin C content (up to 2.23 mg/100 g) and protein quality: the amino acid score, calculated according to FAO/WHO reference patterns on a mg/g-protein basis, increased from 76.5 ± 1.8% to 89.2 ± 2.3%. Microbiological analysis showed reduced total aerobic mesophilic counts after 72 h of storage—4.7 × 10³ CFU/g in the control versus 1.8–3.4 × 10³ CFU/g in apple-enriched breads. Overall, the results demonstrate that mechanical aeration combined with apple-derived ingredients enhances the structural, nutritional, and microbiological quality of yeast-free bread, offering a promising clean-label approach for functional bakery products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Food Process Engineering)

26 pages, 5532 KB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Investigation of Horizontal Wellbore Hole Cleaning with a Flexible Drill Pipe Using the CFD–DEM

by Qizhong Tian, Yusha Fan, Yuan Lin, Peiwen Lin, Xinghui Tan, Haojie Si and Haocai Huang

Processes 2026, 14(2), 211; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020211 - 7 Jan 2026

Abstract

Efficient cutting transport is crucial in challenging drilling environments such as ultra-short-radius horizontal wells. Flexible drill pipes, designed for complex wellbore geometries, offer a potential solution. However, the cutting transport behavior within them remains poorly understood. To improve wellbore cleaning and drilling efficiency, [...] Read more.

Efficient cutting transport is crucial in challenging drilling environments such as ultra-short-radius horizontal wells. Flexible drill pipes, designed for complex wellbore geometries, offer a potential solution. However, the cutting transport behavior within them remains poorly understood. To improve wellbore cleaning and drilling efficiency, this study investigates the underlying transport mechanisms. The investigation employs a coupled CFD-DEM approach to model cutting transport in flexible drill pipes. This method combines fluid dynamics and particle motion simulations to analyze the interaction between drilling fluid and cuttings, evaluating the impact of factors such as rotational speed, flow rate, and fluid properties on cleaning efficiency. The results indicate that increasing the flow rate at a constant rotational speed significantly reduces the cutting concentration. Nevertheless, beyond a critical flow rate of 1.5 m/s, further increases yield diminishing returns in cleaning efficiency due to transport capacity saturation. In contrast, increasing the rotational speed at a fixed flow rate of 1.42 m/s has a less pronounced effect on cutting transport and increases frictional torque, thereby reducing energy efficiency. Higher rotational speeds primarily enhance the suspension of fine cuttings, with minimal impact on larger particles. Additionally, the rheological properties of the drilling fluid play a key role. A higher flow behavior index increases viscosity near the wellbore, improving transport performance. Conversely, a higher consistency index enhances the fluid’s carrying capacity but increases annular pressure drop, which imposes greater demands on pump capacity. Thus, optimal drilling performance requires balancing pressure losses and cleaning efficiency through comprehensive parameter optimization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Petroleum and Low-Carbon Energy Process Engineering)

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22 pages, 3662 KB

Open AccessArticle

Operational Optimization of Combined Heat and Power Units Participating in Electricity and Heat Markets

by Yutong Sha, Zhilong He, Shengwen Wang, Zheng Li and Pei Liu

Processes 2026, 14(2), 210; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020210 - 7 Jan 2026

Abstract

In the background of electricity market reform, combined heat and power (CHP) units must balance electricity market revenues with reliable heat supply. However, the flexibility of CHP units to confront various features of renewable outputs remains to be explored more thoroughly. In this [...] Read more.

In the background of electricity market reform, combined heat and power (CHP) units must balance electricity market revenues with reliable heat supply. However, the flexibility of CHP units to confront various features of renewable outputs remains to be explored more thoroughly. In this study, day-ahead electricity price curves are classified into four typical categories adopting k-means clustering, featured by diverse temporal trends associated with the output of renewables. An integrated model—capturing the CHP, the battery energy storage system (BESS), and heating network dynamics—supports day-ahead operational optimization. The results suggest that distinct operational strategies are to be implemented under different price profiles. Moreover, incorporating a BESS and exploiting thermal inertia of the network expands arbitrage opportunities and profit from the electricity market. Lastly, an alternation in the operational goal of CHP units is proposed, namely, from thermal-economy-guided to comprehensive-economy-oriented. Comparative results underscore the benefits of the revised strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Energy Systems)

19 pages, 5149 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comprehensive Analysis of Gypsum Mortar with Glass Waste Aggregates as a Substitute for Sand

by Mohamed Amine Ouared, Abdelkader Bougara, Ismail Yurtdas, Rodica-Mariana Ion, Said Beldjilali and Nordine Leklou

Processes 2026, 14(2), 209; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020209 - 7 Jan 2026

Abstract

Gypsum has been used as a building material for a long time due to its environmental friendliness, exceptional fire performance, and ease of use. However, it is also known to have poor moisture resistance and lower mechanical performance. Construction and demolition wastes, which [...] Read more.

Gypsum has been used as a building material for a long time due to its environmental friendliness, exceptional fire performance, and ease of use. However, it is also known to have poor moisture resistance and lower mechanical performance. Construction and demolition wastes, which can cause many environmental issues if not properly managed, are increasingly recycled as reinforcement materials in gypsum mortar. This study aims to assess the effect of incorporating fine glass waste aggregates into gypsum mortars on their physical, mechanical, and adhesive properties. The effect of replacing sand from 0% to 100% by glass waste in gypsum mortar was investigated using various tests and analyses including scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermal analysis (DTA and TGA), setting time, flexural and compressive strengths, adhesive, surface hardness, water absorption, thermal conductivity, and ultrasonic pulse velocity. The results obtained emphasize that glass waste can substitute sand in gypsum mortar, even when used at high replacement levels. Replacing all the sand in mortar with glass waste results in a 11% increase in porosity, a 9% decrease in density, and a 53% decrease in thermal conductivity, while still maintaining acceptable mechanical performances. The adhesive strength shows a great dependence on the nature of the substrate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Preparation and Application of Functional Fiber Materials)

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24 pages, 5470 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Developing New Water-Based Drilling Fluid Additives for Mitigating Filtration Loss at High Pressure and High Temperature

by Sachitha Sulakshana, Foad Faraji, Hossein Habibi, David J. Hughes, Mardin Abdalqadir and Jagar A. Ali

Processes 2026, 14(2), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020208 - 7 Jan 2026

Abstract

Sustainable oil and gas development demands eco-friendly and cost-effective drilling fluids. Water-based drilling fluids (WBDFs) are preferred over oil-based alternatives for their lower environmental impact, but they often suffer from excessive fluid loss in permeable formations, leading to thick filter cakes, reduced mud [...] Read more.

Sustainable oil and gas development demands eco-friendly and cost-effective drilling fluids. Water-based drilling fluids (WBDFs) are preferred over oil-based alternatives for their lower environmental impact, but they often suffer from excessive fluid loss in permeable formations, leading to thick filter cakes, reduced mud weight, and operational delays. Conventional chemical additives mitigate this issue but pose environmental and health risks due to their toxicity and non-biodegradability. This study explores the use of biodegradable additives extracted from avocado seed (AS), rambutan shell (RS), tamarind shell (TS) and banana trunk (BT) biomass in four particle sizes of 300, 150, 75 and 32 μm to improve filtration control in WBDFs. All four materials were crushed by ball milling and characterized by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX). In accordance with API Spec 13A recommendations, several water-based drilling fluids (WBDFs), including reference fluid and modified fluids formulated with biodegradable additives at a fixed percentage of 3 wt% and varied particle sizes, were prepared. The rheological and filtration properties of the formulated drilling fluids were investigated by conducting industry-standard rheology and filtration tests under LPLT conditions (100 psi, 25 °C) and HPHT conditions (1500 psi, 75 °C). The results show that 32 μm tamarind shell powder delivered the strongest performance, reducing fluid loss by 82.4% under HPHT conditions and producing the thinnest mud cake (0.33 mm); it also reduced fluid loss by 72.8% under LPLT conditions, outperforming the other biodegradable materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Friendly Drilling Fluids: Biodegradable Formulations and Performance Evaluation)

21 pages, 6848 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Structural and Wettability Differences Between Low-Rank Vitrain and Durain on Methane Adsorption and Desorption

by Jinbo Shi, Dongmin Ma, Yue Chen, Huaichang Wang, Changjiang Ji, Chao Zheng, Pengpeng Guan, Yuan Cao and Yaqi Ji

Processes 2026, 14(2), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020207 - 7 Jan 2026

Abstract

The wettability differences among macroscopic coal lithotypes constitute a critical issue requiring in-depth investigation in the development of low-rank coalbed methane. To elucidate the impact of wettability variation on methane adsorption/desorption, this study employed vitrain and durain samples from Jurassic low-rank coals in [...] Read more.

The wettability differences among macroscopic coal lithotypes constitute a critical issue requiring in-depth investigation in the development of low-rank coalbed methane. To elucidate the impact of wettability variation on methane adsorption/desorption, this study employed vitrain and durain samples from Jurassic low-rank coals in the Huanglong Coalfield. We analyzed changes in adsorption/desorption characteristics before and after wettability modification and conducted coal seam desorption experiments under simulated extraction conditions to explore the influence of wettability on methane adsorption/desorption behavior. The results indicate that vitrain exhibits greater full-scale pore volume (0.04073–0.07975 cm³/g) and specific surface area (132.302–170.919 m²/g) compared to durain (0.03646–0.05187 cm³/g and 114.572–122.827 m²/g, respectively). The coal–water interface contact angles of the low-rank coals are below 90°, indicating a weakly hydrophilic nature. Both cationic (CTAC) and zwitterionic (BS-12) surfactants effectively improved coal wettability. Following wettability modification, the maximum reduction in saturated adsorption capacity reached 48.24%, while the maximum increases in desorption ratio and recovery efficiency were 35.56% and 24.39%, respectively. Durain, due to its stronger inherent hydrophilicity, exhibited greater changes than vitrain. Under simulated extraction conditions, the combined effects of pore structure and wettability differences between the lithotypes led to preferential methane production along the vitrain–durain interfaces. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Low-Carbon and Efficient Extraction Technologies of Deep Unconventional Reservoirs)

29 pages, 3230 KB

Open AccessArticle

Using Artificial Intelligence to Classify IEDs’ Control Scope from SCL Files

by Arthur Kniphoff da Cruz, Ana Clara Hackenhaar Kellermann, João Vitor Meinhardt Swarowsky, Ingridy Caroliny da Silva, Marcia Elena Jochims Kniphoff da Cruz and Lorenz Däubler

Processes 2026, 14(2), 206; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020206 - 7 Jan 2026

Abstract

IEC 61850 is one of the most accepted standards worldwide for the automation of electrical substations. This standard uses Substation Configuration Language (SCL) for describing the data model and services from electrical substation components, and SCL files are used for the integration of [...] Read more.

IEC 61850 is one of the most accepted standards worldwide for the automation of electrical substations. This standard uses Substation Configuration Language (SCL) for describing the data model and services from electrical substation components, and SCL files are used for the integration of these components throughout the substation. In this context, the integration of bay level Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs) into the station level demands a detailed analysis of the IED’s control scope in SCL files and advanced know-how in IEC 61850, increasing the complexity in the engineering process. Hence, this work presents a method to automate the analysis of the control scope of IEDs using SCL files, generating their respective control system object. This is achieved via Machine-Learning (ML) concepts, such as supervised learning and classification algorithms. IEDs used for control and protection of feeder and transformer systems were analyzed, and control system objects were generated for them. The results indicate that the developed method makes it possible to classify the control scope of IEDs using the SCL files from the bay level. This method is a unique development for application in the engineering process of digital substations, reducing the complexity of a critical step towards substation automation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue AI-Driven Optimization in Intelligent Process Control for Power and Energy Systems)

15 pages, 2720 KB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling and Analysis of Key Factors Influencing Water Mist Fire Suppression Efficiency

by Juan Liu and Mingli He

Processes 2026, 14(2), 205; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020205 - 7 Jan 2026

Abstract

Existing experimental findings often prove insufficient for guiding the design of water mist fire extinguishing systems, primarily due to the multitude of interacting factors that influence extinguishing performance. This paper systematically synthesizes these factors and delineates their logical interrelationships based on the extinguishing [...] Read more.

Existing experimental findings often prove insufficient for guiding the design of water mist fire extinguishing systems, primarily due to the multitude of interacting factors that influence extinguishing performance. This paper systematically synthesizes these factors and delineates their logical interrelationships based on the extinguishing mechanisms of water mist and a review of the existing literature. The analysis focuses on direct influencing factors by modeling the motion, heat transfer and mass transfer of water mist within the flame zone. The results indicate that, when the influence of the fire flame is negligible, the required velocity and droplet diameter of water mist entering the zone can be determined based on the flame temperature differential and flame height. When plume effects are significant, water mist predominantly enters the flame zone from the top and periphery. Under such conditions, determining the mist velocity and diameter should aim to maximize the total heat absorption power of droplets entering via these two pathways. This study provides a theoretical foundation for the design of a water mist fire extinguishing system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Numerical Modeling and Simulation of Multiphase Flows in Industrial and Environmental Applications)

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19 pages, 3965 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing the Sustainability and Thermo-Economic Performance of Solar Power Technologies: Photovoltaic Power Plant and Linear Fresnel Reflector Coupled with an Organic Rankine System

by Erdal Yıldırım and Mehmet Azmi Aktacir

Processes 2026, 14(2), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020204 - 7 Jan 2026

Abstract

In this study, the technical, economic, and environmental performances of a Linear Fresnel Reflector (LFR) integrated with an Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC), designed with a non-storage approach, and a monocrystalline photovoltaic (PV) system were comparatively evaluated in meeting a building’s 10 kW electricity [...] Read more.

In this study, the technical, economic, and environmental performances of a Linear Fresnel Reflector (LFR) integrated with an Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC), designed with a non-storage approach, and a monocrystalline photovoltaic (PV) system were comparatively evaluated in meeting a building’s 10 kW electricity demand. Solar-based electricity generation systems play a critical role in reducing carbon emissions and increasing energy self-sufficiency in buildings, yet small-scale, storage-free LFR-ORC applications remain relatively underexplored compared to PV systems. The optimal areas for both systems were determined using the P₁–P₂ methodology. The electricity generation of the LFR-ORC system was calculated based on experimentally measured thermal power output and ORC efficiency, while the production of the PV system was determined using panel area, efficiency, and measured solar irradiation data. System performance was assessed through self-consumption and self-sufficiency ratios, and the economic analysis included life cycle savings (LCS), payback period, and levelized cost of electricity (LCOE). The results indicate that the PV system is more advantageous economically, with an optimal payback of 4.93 years and lower LCOE of 0.053 €/kWh when the economically optimal panel area is considered. On the other hand, the LFR-ORC system exhibits up to 35% lower life-cycle CO₂ emissions compared to grid electricity under grid-connected operation (15.86 tons CO₂-eq for the standalone LFR-ORC system versus 50.57 tons CO₂-eq for PV over 25-year lifetime), thus providing superiority in terms of environmental sustainability. In this context, the study presents an engineering-based approach for the technical, economic, and environmental assessment of small-scale, non-storage solar energy systems in line with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy and SDG 13: Climate Action) and contributes to the existing literature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Advances in Modeling, Optimization, and Control of Distributed Energy Systems)

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36 pages, 6962 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Advancing Geothermal Energy Recovery Through Reactive Transport Modelling and Horizontal Well Analysis: A Case Study of Lithuanian Reservoirs

by Abdul Rashid Abdul Nabi Memon and Mayur Pal

Processes 2026, 14(2), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020203 - 7 Jan 2026

Abstract

The study underpins the geothermal energy potential of Cambrian reservoirs in Lithuania, which utilizes the use of reactive transport modelling to examine how different reinjection temperatures and flow rates affect mineral changes. The results are then applied to design field development plans, using [...] Read more.

The study underpins the geothermal energy potential of Cambrian reservoirs in Lithuania, which utilizes the use of reactive transport modelling to examine how different reinjection temperatures and flow rates affect mineral changes. The results are then applied to design field development plans, using petroleum engineering methods such as horizontal wells and induced fracturing. The research study indicates that there are some changes in porosity and permeability over time due to mineral dissolution and precipitation because of injection rates, but no adverse effect of re-injection temperature was observed. Hence, a reinjection temperature of 40 °C is geochemically stable and suitable for long-term operation, with no significant effect on mineral behavior. Moreover, application of horizontal wells proves that there is a significant increase in water production and power (thermal) output due to improved reservoir exposure. Hydraulic fracturing further enhanced the performance and flow rates, concluding that, among all the sites studied, Nausodis demonstrated the highest thermal output, while Genciai showed the lowest potential due to limited reservoir temperature and productivity. Thus, research aims to improve power output by studying how well design, reinjection methods, and chemical reactions affect the reservoir, and it shows that using horizontal wells, fracturing, and proper reinjection temperature can help increase geothermal energy recovery in Lithuania. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Reservoir Simulation and Modelling in Oil and Gas-Related Processes)

11 pages, 3655 KB

Open AccessArticle

Silicon Carbide-Silicon Nitride Materials: Part 2—Corrosion Resistance and Oxidation in Al Reduction Cells and at Lab Testing

by Andrey Yurkov

Processes 2026, 14(2), 202; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020202 - 7 Jan 2026

Abstract

The key question for understanding the corrosion phenomena of Si₃N₄-SiC material in Al reduction cells is as follows: does the interaction with gases promote future step corrosion by molten cryolite (bath) or does cryolite interact with the Si₃ [...] Read more.

The key question for understanding the corrosion phenomena of Si₃N₄-SiC material in Al reduction cells is as follows: does the interaction with gases promote future step corrosion by molten cryolite (bath) or does cryolite interact with the Si₃N₄-SiC refractory and deteriorate the properties of the refractory material? More probably the reactions of silicon carbide and silicon nitride with gases, which result in the formation of silica, occur before the reactions of silica with molten cryolite. The corrosion of Si₃N₄-SiC material in the reduction cell may take place by “gas-solid” reaction and by “liquid-solid” reaction. There are several variants of lab corrosion tests for the evaluation of the corrosion resistance of Si₃N₄-SiC material to cryolite. The results of the investigation of Si₃N₄-SiC lab corrosion tests give no direct evidence of selective dissolution at a specific phase (Si₃N₄ or SiC, α-Si₃N₄ or β-Si₃N₄) in cryolite. The existing variants of lab corrosion testing require clarification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Processes and Systems)

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12 pages, 3129 KB

Open AccessArticle

In Situ Analysis of Surface Properties, Supersaturation, and Solution Density Effects on Aqueous KNO₃ Incrustation in a Cooling Crystallization Process

by Mohsen H. Al-Rashed, Adel F. Alenzi, Abubaker Mohammad and Khaled H. A. E. Alkhaldi

Processes 2026, 14(2), 201; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020201 - 7 Jan 2026

Abstract

The incrustation process represents a significant industrial challenge that affects various aspects of crystallization systems. It proceeds through successive stages, beginning with the induction period. This is followed by a transport phase, in which additional crystals are generated and sustained by overall supersaturation [...] Read more.

The incrustation process represents a significant industrial challenge that affects various aspects of crystallization systems. It proceeds through successive stages, beginning with the induction period. This is followed by a transport phase, in which additional crystals are generated and sustained by overall supersaturation and the presence of seed crystals, leading to further attachment to surfaces. Ultimately, the process progresses to crystal removal and aging stages. In this study, a 1.2 dm³ thermostated crystallizer was utilized to investigate the incrustation phenomenon of potassium nitrate (KNO₃). Deposits formed on three smooth and artificially roughened wall-surfaces, i.e., stainless steel (Type 316), copper, and acrylic, were examined. Contact angle measurements were conducted for all surfaces. The experiments covered a saturation temperature range of 303.15–333.15 K (±0.01 K) for various KNO₃ solution concentrations between 5.0 and 60.0% w/w. The results show that deposit adhesion is stronger on rough surfaces than on smooth ones, and that the induction period for incrustation is shorter on rougher surfaces. Moreover, the influence of surface wettability and contact angle on incrustation becomes more pronounced at higher degrees of surface roughness. This highlights the coupled role of surface properties and thermal control in governing incrustation behavior. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process Control and Intensification in Chemical Engineering)

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13 pages, 544 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Teucrium montanum Hydrolate Integration on the Functional Performance of Chitosan-Based Films

by Ljubica Živković, Kristina Cvetković, Jelena Mitrović, Dani Dordevic, Pero Sailović, Ivana Karabegović and Bojana Danilović

Processes 2026, 14(2), 200; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020200 - 6 Jan 2026

Abstract

Natural biodegradable polymers such as chitosan are gaining increasing importance due to their favorable mechanical properties. Conversely, their limited antimicrobial and antioxidant activity requires enhancement with bioactive components. This study investigated the effect of Teucrium montanum L. hydrolate on the functional properties of [...] Read more.

Natural biodegradable polymers such as chitosan are gaining increasing importance due to their favorable mechanical properties. Conversely, their limited antimicrobial and antioxidant activity requires enhancement with bioactive components. This study investigated the effect of Teucrium montanum L. hydrolate on the functional properties of chitosan films. The hydrolate was obtained as a by-product of hydrodistillation, and films were prepared with 0.6% (CH-TMh1), 0.8% (CH-TMh2), and 1.2% (CH-TMh3) hydrolate, along with a control film without hydrolate (CH). Hydrolate-enriched films exhibited greater thickness and elongation at break, with the highest values observed in CH-TMh3. The addition of hydrolate reduced moisture content (from 30.09% in CH to 12.25% in CH-TMh3), solubility, and swelling degree. Antioxidant activity increased significantly, with CH-TMh2 showing the highest free radical scavenging activity (92.9%) and total polyphenol content (38.78 mg GAE/g). Films containing hydrolate also displayed pronounced antimicrobial activity, with the largest inhibition zones against S. aureus ATCC 25923 (16.33 mm). Moderate activity was observed against B. subtilis, while there was no activity against C. albicans ATCC 2091. These results confirm that chitosan films enriched with T. montanum L. hydrolate possess improved mechanical, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties, making them promising for potential application in the packaging of specific food products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Low-Dimensional Materials: Focus on Detailed Methodologies)

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32 pages, 1123 KB

Open AccessReview

AI in Parkinson’s Disease: A Short Review of Machine Learning Approaches for Diagnosis

by Arjita Sharma, Abhishek Agarwal, Michel Kalenga Wa Kalenga, Vishal Gupta and Vishal Srivastava

Processes 2026, 14(2), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020199 - 6 Jan 2026

Abstract

Parkinson’s disease is a neurodegenerative disorder with progressive impairment in patients worldwide, featuring manifestations of both motor dysfunction and various/list-specific non-motor symptoms. Early diagnosis and personalized treatment thus remain the biggest challenges in managing the disease. Artificial intelligence (AI), especially machine learning techniques, [...] Read more.

Parkinson’s disease is a neurodegenerative disorder with progressive impairment in patients worldwide, featuring manifestations of both motor dysfunction and various/list-specific non-motor symptoms. Early diagnosis and personalized treatment thus remain the biggest challenges in managing the disease. Artificial intelligence (AI), especially machine learning techniques, has shown immense potential for countering such challenges during the past years. This short review aims to summarize recent innovations in applying Machine Learning (ML) and Deep Learning (DL) to Parkinson’s disease, explicitly directed toward developing diagnostic tools, the prediction of progression, and personalized treatment strategies. We discuss several ML and DL approaches, including supervised and unsupervised learning models that have been applied to classify symptoms and identify biomarkers. In addition, integrating clinical and imaging data into disease models continues to advance. This indicates the emerging role of DL in bypassing the limitations of standard methods. This review of the future of AI in Parkinson’s disease research outlines its possible directions for enhancing patient care and clinical outcomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section AI-Enabled Process Engineering)

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20 pages, 3754 KB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis and Characterization of Polythioamides from Elemental Sulfur for Efficient Hg(II) Adsorption

by Yue Gao, Cheng Ma, Xuan Qi, Hao Yan, Chao Yang, Wei Xia, Hanyu Du and Junfeng Zhang

Processes 2026, 14(2), 198; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020198 - 6 Jan 2026

Abstract

A metal-free multicomponent polymerization (MCP) method was developed for synthesizing sulfur-containing polythioamides, using elemental sulfur, dicarboxylic acids, and diamines as monomers. This approach offers a versatile strategy for producing polythioamides with excellent thermal stability and high mechanical strength. The synthesized polymers demonstrated a [...] Read more.

A metal-free multicomponent polymerization (MCP) method was developed for synthesizing sulfur-containing polythioamides, using elemental sulfur, dicarboxylic acids, and diamines as monomers. This approach offers a versatile strategy for producing polythioamides with excellent thermal stability and high mechanical strength. The synthesized polymers demonstrated a maximum Hg(II) adsorption capacity of 187 mg·g⁻¹, with adsorption efficiencies exceeding 90% for most polymers. Both aliphatic and aromatic polythioamides showed similar high adsorption performance, indicating the universal applicability of this synthesis method. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) confirmed the strong interaction between Hg(II) ions and the sulfur-containing thioamide groups. These results highlight the potential of MCP-based polythioamides as efficient adsorbents for mercury removal, with promising applications in environmental remediation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Environmental and Green Processes)

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21 pages, 2888 KB

Open AccessArticle

Physics-Informed Neural Network (PINNs) for Flow Simulation in Polymer-Assisted Hot Water Flooding

by Siyuan Chen, Xi Ouyang and Xiang Rao

Processes 2026, 14(2), 197; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020197 - 6 Jan 2026

Abstract

Polymer-assisted hot water flooding (PAHWF) is an important enhanced oil recovery technique involving strongly coupled thermal, chemical, and multiphase flow processes. Accurate prediction of water saturation, polymer concentration, and temperature evolution in PAHWF is challenging due to the highly nonlinear and multiscale governing [...] Read more.

Polymer-assisted hot water flooding (PAHWF) is an important enhanced oil recovery technique involving strongly coupled thermal, chemical, and multiphase flow processes. Accurate prediction of water saturation, polymer concentration, and temperature evolution in PAHWF is challenging due to the highly nonlinear and multiscale governing equations. In this study, a physics-informed neural network (PINN) framework is developed for one-dimensional PAHWF simulation as a controlled benchmark system to systematically investigate PINN behavior in multiphysics-coupled problems. The PAHWF governing equations incorporating temperature- and concentration-dependent viscosity are embedded into the PINN loss function. Three progressively designed numerical examples are conducted to examine the effects of temperature normalization, network architecture (PINN-1 versus PINN-2), and network depth on training stability and solution accuracy. The results demonstrate that temperature normalization effectively mitigates gradient-scale imbalance, significantly improving convergence stability and prediction accuracy. Furthermore, the PINN-2 architecture, which employs a dedicated network for temperature, exhibits enhanced robustness and accuracy compared with the unified PINN-1 structure. Variations in network depth show limited influence on solution quality, indicating the inherent robustness of PINNs under the proposed framework. Although conventional numerical methods remain more efficient for one-dimensional forward problems, this study establishes a methodological foundation for extending PINNs to higher-dimensional, strongly coupled PAHWF simulations and inverse reservoir problems. The proposed framework provides insights into improving PINN trainability and reliability for complex enhanced oil recovery processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Reservoir Simulation and Modelling in Oil and Gas-Related Processes)

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19 pages, 5121 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Fracturing and Hit Behavior of Shale Reservoir Parent–Child Wells

by Zupeng Liu, Zhibin Yi, Guanglong Sheng, Guang Lu, Xiangdong Xing and Chenjie Luo

Processes 2026, 14(2), 196; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020196 - 6 Jan 2026

Abstract

To enhance production efficiency, shale gas development often employs tighter well spacing and aggressive fracturing strategies. However, these approaches can result in well interference, where overlapping fracture networks between adjacent wells adversely affect gas production. This study introduces a comprehensive evaluation method for [...] Read more.

To enhance production efficiency, shale gas development often employs tighter well spacing and aggressive fracturing strategies. However, these approaches can result in well interference, where overlapping fracture networks between adjacent wells adversely affect gas production. This study introduces a comprehensive evaluation method for assessing fracture interference, with a specific focus on the role of Repeatedly Stimulated Volume (RSV). By integrating fracture network analysis with fracturing fluid migration modeling, we propose a combined static and dynamic risk assessment framework. The results demonstrate that RSV is a critical indicator of fracture interference—larger RSV values signify greater fracture overlap and intensified fluid migration between wells. Key engineering parameters influencing RSV are identified, including well spacing, fluid volume, and fracture design. Supported by real-time monitoring techniques such as microseismic events and pressure data, our dynamic assessment approach enables proactive management of interference risks. This work offers practical insights for optimizing shale gas development, allowing for improved production efficiency while mitigating interference-related drawbacks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Energy Systems)

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20 pages, 7893 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Mitigation of Cu-Induced Grain Boundary Sensitization in Steel Wire Rods Through a Desensitization Heat Treatment

by Ruthvik Gandra, Pranav Acharya, Tetiana Shyrokykh, Charlotte Mayer, Sebastien Hollinger, Narayanan Neithalath and Seetharaman Sridhar

Processes 2026, 14(2), 195; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020195 - 6 Jan 2026

Abstract

Steel wire rods are essential for manufacturing high-strength steel tire cords. Yet, the presence of residual copper (Cu) in recycled steel can cause grain-boundary sensitization, embrittlement, and deterioration of the mechanical performance of the final product. This study introduces a desensitization heat treatment [...] Read more.

Steel wire rods are essential for manufacturing high-strength steel tire cords. Yet, the presence of residual copper (Cu) in recycled steel can cause grain-boundary sensitization, embrittlement, and deterioration of the mechanical performance of the final product. This study introduces a desensitization heat treatment step designed to redistribute Cu away from austenite grain boundaries after sensitization occurs. The treatment consists of a 10 min dwell at 1000 °C in a 5%H₂-Ar reducing atmosphere followed by quench. The temperature and hold time were selected based on diffusion calculations to promote solid-state back diffusion of Cu without altering grain morphology. Experimental validation showed that the dwell step reduced the length of Cu-rich sensitized zones of steel wire rod samples containing 0.21 wt.% Cu by approximately 89% and restored the mechanical properties to nearly 95–98% relative to low-Cu baseline steel (0.01 wt.% Cu). Compared with sensitized and as-obtained samples, these results highlight the effectiveness of the proposed method in improving both the microstructure and tensile performance of recycled steel wire rods, enabling their potential application in tire manufacturing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Pathways in Chemical Process Engineering: Innovations, Optimization and Circular Strategies)

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17 pages, 2171 KB

Open AccessArticle

Robust Flow Regulation Using Orifice and J-Valve Combination in Circulating Fluidized Bed Thermal Energy Storage

by Atsushi Ishikawa, Michitaro Hashiba and Zhihong Liu

Processes 2026, 14(2), 194; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020194 - 6 Jan 2026

Abstract

With the expansion of renewable energy deployment, characterized by its variability, stabilizing power and heat supply has become a critical issue. To address this challenge, large-scale and low-cost energy storage technologies are essential, and thermal energy storage (TES) is considered one of the [...] Read more.

With the expansion of renewable energy deployment, characterized by its variability, stabilizing power and heat supply has become a critical issue. To address this challenge, large-scale and low-cost energy storage technologies are essential, and thermal energy storage (TES) is considered one of the promising solutions. Among large-scale TES systems, Circulating Fluidized Bed TES (CFB TES) is a technology that stores energy as sensible heat in high-temperature sand and utilizes it for power generation using high-temperature steam or steam turbines when needed, offering high compatibility with existing infrastructure. While the underlying circulating fluidized bed system is a well-established technology, precise control of circulating particle flow rates remains a technical challenge due to differences from conventional circulating fluidized beds. In this study, we propose a mechanically simple and thermally durable flow control system that combines an orifice for stepwise flow adjustment and a J-valve (loop seal) for on/off particle transport. In this study, the flow characteristics of the orifice, the minimum fluidization velocity (

u_{m f}

≈ 0.076 m/s), the transient stabilization behavior, and the effects of downstream pressure (back pressure) were evaluated in lab-scale experiments. The results showed that particle flow rate follows a power-law relationship with the orifice diameter, stabilizes when fluidization velocity exceeds

u_{m f}

, and decreases linearly with increasing back pressure. Based on these findings, we established design guidelines incorporating orifice sizing, fluidization control, and back pressure compensation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Thermal Energy Storage and Its Applications)

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18 pages, 14168 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Water Diversion Projects on Hydrodynamics and Water Quality in Shallow Lakes: A Case Study of Chaohu Lake, China

by Fei Du, Qing Zhu, Yujie Wang, Shiyan Wang, Huangfeng Yan, Chang Liu, Shilin Gao, Kang Chen, Chao Zhang, Zhi Jiang, Yibo Ba, Mingmei Guo and Xiaobo Liu

Processes 2026, 14(2), 193; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020193 - 6 Jan 2026

Abstract

Water diversion projects are a crucial measure for addressing eutrophication in shallow lakes worldwide. However, the impacts of different water diversion operation schemes on lake hydrodynamics and water quality can vary significantly, necessitating targeted, refined simulation assessments. This study focuses on Chaohu Lake, [...] Read more.

Water diversion projects are a crucial measure for addressing eutrophication in shallow lakes worldwide. However, the impacts of different water diversion operation schemes on lake hydrodynamics and water quality can vary significantly, necessitating targeted, refined simulation assessments. This study focuses on Chaohu Lake, one of China’s most eutrophic lakes, and uses a mesoscale meteorological model coupled with a three-dimensional hydrodynamic and water quality model to conduct detailed numerical simulations. The study evaluates the effects of three water diversion operation scenarios and three subsurface flow guide dam scenarios during the ecological water replenishment period in Chaohu Lake from September to November. The simulation results indicate that all three water diversion operation scenarios improve the hydrodynamic conditions of Chaohu Lake, but there are significant differences in their effects on pollutant reduction in the lake. The retention of chemical oxygen demand (COD) in the water ranges from −36,812.1 to 472.8 tons, total nitrogen (TN) retention ranges from −22,637.2 to 3 tons, total phosphorus (TP) retention ranges from −4974 to 10.7 tons, and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) retention ranges from −310.8 to −3.3 tons. Among the three subsurface flow guide dam schemes, all can promote the outflow of pollutants from Chaohu Lake. The combined subsurface flow guide dam scheme is the most effective, enabling an approximately 7.4% increase in pollutant export. The study demonstrates that diverting Huaihe River water through Paihe into Chaohu Lake, along with adding a combined subsurface flow guide dam in the West Lake area, can significantly improve the hydrodynamics and water quality in the West Lake area. This research provides essential technical support for the future operation of the Yangtze-to-Huaihe River Water Diversion Project and the layout of subsurface flow guide dams in Chaohu Lake, offering valuable insights for the ecological management of other shallow lakes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Hydrodynamics, Pollution and Bioavailable Transfers)

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26 pages, 1993 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Anomaly Detection and Correction Methods for Nuclear Power Plant Operation Data

by Ren Yu, Yudong Zhao, Shaoxuan Yin, Wei Mao, Chunyuan Wang and Kai Xiao

Processes 2026, 14(2), 192; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020192 - 6 Jan 2026

Abstract

The data collection and analytical capabilities of the Instrumentation and Control (I&C) system in nuclear power plants (NPPs) continue to advance, thereby enhancing operational state awareness and enabling more precise control. However, the data acquisition, transmission, and storage devices in nuclear power plant [...] Read more.

The data collection and analytical capabilities of the Instrumentation and Control (I&C) system in nuclear power plants (NPPs) continue to advance, thereby enhancing operational state awareness and enabling more precise control. However, the data acquisition, transmission, and storage devices in nuclear power plant (NPP) I&C systems typically operate in harsh environments. This exposure can lead to device failures and susceptibility to external interference, potentially resulting in data anomalies such as missing samples, signal skipping, and measurement drift. This paper presents a Gated Recurrent Unit and Multilayer Perceptron (GRU-MLP)-based method for anomaly detection and correction in NPP I&C system data. The goal is to improve operational data quality, thereby supplying more reliable input for system analysis and automatic controllers. Firstly, the short-term prediction algorithm of operation data based on the GRU model is studied to provide a reference for operation data anomaly detection. Secondly, the MLP model is connected to the GRU model to recognize the difference between the collected value and the prediction value so as to distinguish and correct the anomalies. Finally, a series of experiments were conducted using operational data from a pressurized water reactor (PWR) to evaluate the proposed method. The experiments were designed as follows: (1) These experiments assessed the model’s prediction performance across varying time horizons. Prediction steps of 1, 3, 5, 10, and 20 were configured to verify the accuracy and robustness of the data prediction capability over short and long terms. (2) The model’s effectiveness in identifying anomalies was validated using three typical patterns: random jump, fixed-value drift, and growth drift. The growth drift category was further subdivided into linear, polynomial, and logarithmic growth to comprehensively test detection performance. (3) A comparative analysis was performed to demonstrate the superiority of the proposed GRU-MLP algorithm. It was compared against the interactive window center value method and the ARIMA algorithm. The results confirm the advantages of the proposed method for anomaly detection, and the underlying reasons are analyzed. (4) Additional experiments were carried out to discuss and verify the mobility (or transferability) of the prediction algorithm, ensuring its applicability under different operational conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Petroleum and Low-Carbon Energy Process Engineering)

18 pages, 2564 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanism Study on Enhancing Fracturing Efficiency in Coalbed Methane Reservoirs Using Highly Elastic Polymers

by Penghui Bo, Qingfeng Lu, Wenfeng Wang and Wenlong Wang

Processes 2026, 14(2), 191; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020191 - 6 Jan 2026

Abstract

Coalbed methane development is constrained by reservoir characteristics including high gas adsorption, high salinity, and high closure pressure, which impose significant limitations on conventional polymer fracturing fluids regarding viscosity enhancement, proppant transport, and fracture maintenance. In this study, a novel polymer fracturing fluid [...] Read more.

Coalbed methane development is constrained by reservoir characteristics including high gas adsorption, high salinity, and high closure pressure, which impose significant limitations on conventional polymer fracturing fluids regarding viscosity enhancement, proppant transport, and fracture maintenance. In this study, a novel polymer fracturing fluid system, Z-H-PAM, was designed and synthesized to achieve strong salt tolerance, low adsorption affinity, and high elasticity to withstand closure pressure. This was accomplished through the molecular integration of a zwitterionic monomer ZM-1 and a hydrophobic associative monomer HM-2, forming a unified structure that combines rigid hydrated segments with a hydrophobic elastic network. The results indicate that ZM-1 provides a stable hydration layer and low adsorption tendency under high-salinity conditions, while HM-2 contributes to a high-storage-modulus, three-dimensional physically cross-linked network via reversible hydrophobic association. Their synergistic interaction enables Z-H-PAM to retain viscoelasticity that is significantly superior to conventional HPAM and to achieve rapid structural recovery in high-mineralization environments. Systematic evaluation shows that this system achieves a static sand-suspension rate exceeding 95% in simulated flowback fluid, produces broken gel residues below 90 mg/L, and results in a core damage rate of only 10.5%. Moreover, it maintains 88.8% of its fracture conductivity under 30 MPa closure pressure. Notably, Z-H-PAM can be prepared directly using high-salinity flowback water, maintaining high elasticity and sand-carrying capacity while enabling fluid recycling and reducing reservoir damage. This work clarifies the multi-scale mechanisms of strongly hydrated and highly elastic polymers in coalbed methane reservoirs, offering a theoretical and technical pathway for developing efficient and low-damage fracturing materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Polymer Gels for Oil Drilling and Enhanced Recovery)

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15 pages, 13784 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of the Gas Production Enhancement Effect of Boundary Sealing and Wellbore Heating for Class 1 Hydrate Reservoir Depressurization with a Novel Five-Spot Radial Wells System

by Jingli Wang, Zhibin Sha, Zhanzhao Li, Jianwen Wu and Tinghui Wan

Processes 2026, 14(2), 190; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020190 - 6 Jan 2026

Abstract

Commercialization of natural gas hydrates still faces challenges. Before large-scale production becomes feasible, efficient exploitation methods must be continuously explored. Based on field data from China’s first trial production, a novel five-spot radial wells system design, combined with boundary sealing and wellbore heating, [...] Read more.

Commercialization of natural gas hydrates still faces challenges. Before large-scale production becomes feasible, efficient exploitation methods must be continuously explored. Based on field data from China’s first trial production, a novel five-spot radial wells system design, combined with boundary sealing and wellbore heating, is proposed to improve production capacity. Simulation results indicate that boundary sealing can inhibit water invasion and concentrate energy, thereby promoting hydrate dissociation. The radial laterals significantly expand the drainage area and increase pressure propagation. Wellbore heating can accelerate the dissociation of hydrates while inhibiting secondary hydrate generation. The combined application of these technologies has significantly increased the cumulative gas production and gas-to-water ratio to 244.9% and 134.6% of the base case, respectively, providing theoretical references for the effective exploitation of Class 1 hydrate reservoirs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Gas Hydrate Development and Production for Sustainable Energy)

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18 pages, 3566 KB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of the Impact of Intensive EDM Regimes on Manufacturing Efficiency and Surface Quality of C120 Steel Parts

by Eugen Herghelegiu, Oana Ghiorghe, Maria-Crina Radu, Carol Schnakovszky, Petrica Radu, Nicolae-Catalin Tampu, Bogdan-Alexandru Chirita, Ionel Crinel Raveica and Bogdan Nita

Processes 2026, 14(2), 189; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020189 - 6 Jan 2026

Abstract

The emergence of new hard and extra-hard materials has led to the development of new technologies capable of processing them, known as unconventional technologies. Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is a very common unconventional technology in the manufacturing industry, used to process special materials. [...] Read more.

The emergence of new hard and extra-hard materials has led to the development of new technologies capable of processing them, known as unconventional technologies. Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is a very common unconventional technology in the manufacturing industry, used to process special materials. The primary benefit is the ability to machine various complex shapes at a reduced cost. This study addressed the use of intensive machining regimes that would enhance productivity while also maintaining a high quality of the resulting surface. The experimental setup was designed according to a D-optimal response surface method, and the results were statistically processed using ANOVA. The results revealed that it is possible to achieve both high productivity and good surface quality, but it was also found that increasing the processing parameters is feasible only to a certain extent. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Surface Engineering and Coating Technologies in Manufacturing Processes)

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26 pages, 934 KB

Open AccessArticle

Superstructure-Based Process and Supply Chain Optimization in Sugarcane–Microalgae Biorefineries

by Jorge Eduardo Infante Cuan, Victor Fernandes Garcia, Halima Khalid, Reynaldo Palacios, Dimas José Rua Orozco and Adriano Viana Ensinas

Processes 2026, 14(2), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14020188 - 6 Jan 2026

Abstract

The worldwide transition to renewable energy systems is motivated by diminishing fossil fuel availability and the intensifying consequences of climate change. This study presents a Mixed-Integer Linear Programming (MILP) model for designing and optimising the bio-fuel and electricity supply chain in Colombia, using [...] Read more.

The worldwide transition to renewable energy systems is motivated by diminishing fossil fuel availability and the intensifying consequences of climate change. This study presents a Mixed-Integer Linear Programming (MILP) model for designing and optimising the bio-fuel and electricity supply chain in Colombia, using sugarcane as the main feedstock and integrating microalgae cultivation in vinasse. Six alternative biorefinery configurations and four microalgae conversion pathways were evaluated to inform strategic planning. The optimisation results indicate that microalgae achieve higher energy yields per unit of land than sugarcane. Ethanol production from sugarcane could meet all of Colombia’s gasoline demand, while diesel and sustainable aviation fuel derived from microalgae could supply around 9% and 16%, respectively, of the country’s consumption. Further-more, pelletised bagasse emerges as a viable alternative to replace part of the coal used in thermoelectric plants. From an economic perspective, all scenarios achieve a positive net present value, confirming their profitability. Sensitivity analysis highlights the critical factors influencing the deployment of distilleries as ethanol price, algae productivity, and sugarcane cost. Furthermore, transportation costs play a decisive role in the geographic location of microalgae-based facilities and the distribution of their products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Bioreactor Design and Advanced Optimization Strategies for Biorefineries and Bioprocessing)

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