Agriculture

58 pages, 20418 KB

Open AccessReview

Microbial Inoculants as Modulators of Plant Acclimation to Drought, Salinity, and Heat Stress: Hormonal, Redox, Osmotic, Ionic, and Hydraulic Mechanisms

by José Ramón Acosta-Motos, Juan D. Franco-Navarro and Alvaro Lopez-Zaplana

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2080; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192080 - 24 Sep 2026

Abstract

Abiotic stresses such as drought, salinity, or heat restrict crop productivity by disrupting plant water relations, hormonal regulation, redox homeostasis, osmotic balance, ion transport, photosynthesis, and reproductive development. Plant-associated microorganisms offer a biologically based means of supporting crop acclimation, although their effectiveness depends [...] Read more.

Abiotic stresses such as drought, salinity, or heat restrict crop productivity by disrupting plant water relations, hormonal regulation, redox homeostasis, osmotic balance, ion transport, photosynthesis, and reproductive development. Plant-associated microorganisms offer a biologically based means of supporting crop acclimation, although their effectiveness depends on the microbial strain, inoculum formulation, host genotype, environmental conditions, interaction with the resident microbiome and capacity to colonise and persist in the target system. This review critically examines the physiological, biochemical, and molecular mechanisms through which microbial inoculants, mainly bacterial, influence plant responses to drought, salinity, and heat stress. Particular attention is given to microbial modulation of abscisic acid, auxins, cytokinins, ethylene and 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate metabolism, together with less extensively characterised interactions involving gibberellins, jasmonates, salicylic acid, brassinosteroids, and strigolactones. Microbial regulation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant systems, compatible-solute metabolism, K⁺ and Na⁺ homeostasis, root hydraulic conductivity, aquaporins, and rhizosphere hydraulic properties is also evaluated. The evidence indicates that these mechanisms operate as interconnected regulatory networks rather than as independent protective processes. Particular caution is required when interpreting changes in stress markers, hormone concentrations, antioxidant activities, osmolytes, or transporter transcripts because these responses may indicate enhanced acclimation, stress alleviation, or differences in stress intensity experienced by plant tissues. Stronger mechanistic evidence is provided by microbial biosynthetic mutants, complemented strains, hormone- or signalling-impaired plants, direct hydraulic measurements, protein localisation, ion-flux analysis, and isotopic tracing. Future research should integrate microbial colonisation with plant responses and validate findings across diverse soils, genotypes, climates, and management systems. Microbial inoculants should therefore be considered context-dependent tools within integrated crop management, not universal substitutes for good agronomic practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Production)

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23 pages, 23169 KB

Open AccessArticle

Silkworm-Smart: An AI-Powered Platform for Instance Segmentation and Precision Management in Large-Scale Factory-Based Silkworm Rearing

by Qing Gu, Kefeng Zheng, Jiayu Cheng, Linchao Zhu, Ruimin He and Xiaobin Zhang

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2079; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192079 - 24 Sep 2026

Abstract

Automated rearing of silkworms (Bombyx mori) using artificial feed in large-scale factory environments represents a crucial step toward the modernization of sericulture in China. Timely and accurate monitoring of silkworm growth and feeding conditions is critical for optimizing rearing management in [...] Read more.

Automated rearing of silkworms (Bombyx mori) using artificial feed in large-scale factory environments represents a crucial step toward the modernization of sericulture in China. Timely and accurate monitoring of silkworm growth and feeding conditions is critical for optimizing rearing management in factory-based systems. This study presents Silkworm-Smart, an integrated intelligent platform that combines machine vision and deep learning to enable automated monitoring of silkworm rearing. At its core is Silkworm-AI, an instance segmentation model specifically designed to detect and segment silkworms and residual artificial feed. Developed upon the YOLOv8s-seg framework, Silkworm-AI incorporates three enhanced modules—Large Selective Kernel Network (LSKNet), Global-to-Local Spatial Aggregation (GLSA), and Context-Guided Downsampling (CGD)—to improve feature extraction and segmentation accuracy. Silkworm-AI achieved outstanding performance, with mAP@0.5 scores of 0.971 and 0.967 for silkworm detection and segmentation, and 0.787 and 0.798 for residual feed detection and segmentation, respectively—outperforming seven state-of-the-art deep learning models. Based on model outputs, the platform automatically extracts and visualizes key rearing indicators such as silkworm count, average size, uniformity, size increment, survival rate, and residual feed area. Furthermore, a machine learning–based regression model was developed to predict cocoon yield using these image-derived indicators, achieving R² values of 0.713 and 0.835 for the 4th and 5th instars, respectively. The Silkworm-Smart platform facilitates data-driven decision-making for rearing management, feed adjustment, and production planning, and holds significant promise for advancing automation, precision control, and sustainability in intelligent factory-based sericulture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multimodal AI and Foundation Models for Agricultural Organism Sensing and Decision-Making)

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22 pages, 18427 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Experimental Evaluation of a Narrow-Strip Tillage Device for a Maize Interseeder in Wheat-Maize Relay Intercropping

by Xuejun Zhang, Jiachen Yang, Jinshan Yan, Zenglu Shi and Zhao Deng

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2078; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192078 - 24 Sep 2026

Abstract

To address the restricted operating space in reserved maize sowing strips, surface soil compaction, the poor trafficability of conventional tillage machinery, and the risk of disturbing adjacent wheat rows under wheat–maize relay intercropping in Xinjiang, a front-mounted narrow-strip tillage device for a maize [...] Read more.

To address the restricted operating space in reserved maize sowing strips, surface soil compaction, the poor trafficability of conventional tillage machinery, and the risk of disturbing adjacent wheat rows under wheat–maize relay intercropping in Xinjiang, a front-mounted narrow-strip tillage device for a maize interseeder was designed. The device comprises a rotary tillage assembly and a soil-lifting device. An IT225 rotary blade was selected, and the structures of the rotary tillage assembly and the pointed-shovel soil-lifting device were designed. Kinematic and force analyses established operating ranges of 3–5 km·h⁻¹ for forward speed, 240–360 r·min⁻¹ for blade-shaft rotational speed, and 80–120 mm for rotary tillage depth. A discrete element model of the soil–tillage device interaction was developed in EDEM. A three-factor, three-level Box–Behnken experiment was conducted with forward speed, blade-shaft rotational speed, and rotary tillage depth as factors and soil fragmentation rate and soil bulk density as responses. Quadratic regression models were developed using Design-Expert and subjected to constrained numerical optimization. Both regression models were highly significant, whereas their lack-of-fit terms were nonsignificant, indicating good predictive performance. The optimum combination comprised a forward speed of 3.88 km·h⁻¹, a blade-shaft rotational speed of 348 r·min⁻¹, and a rotary tillage depth of 120 mm; the corresponding predicted soil fragmentation rate and soil bulk density were 92.40% and 1.38 g·cm⁻³, respectively. Field validation produced a soil fragmentation rate of 93.64% and a soil bulk density of 1.35 g·cm⁻³; the corresponding relative errors were 1.34% and 2.17%, respectively, both below 5%. These findings provide a basis for the design and operating-parameter matching of tillage components for maize interseeders used in wheat–maize relay intercropping in Xinjiang. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Technology)

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18 pages, 43519 KB

Open AccessArticle

Virtual Reality-Based Active Vision Teleoperation for Sweet Pepper Inspection in Occluded Environments

by Ricard Catalá-Garfias, Jesús Arturo Escobedo Cabello, Enrico Mendez and Alfonso Gómez-Espinosa

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2077; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192077 - 24 Sep 2026

Abstract

In agricultural environments, foliage occlusions present a significant challenge for crop inspection. While fully autonomous systems often struggle to generalize across these occluded conditions, human operators possess an inherent cognitive and visual adaptability that provides a valuable alternative for navigating such complexities. This [...] Read more.

In agricultural environments, foliage occlusions present a significant challenge for crop inspection. While fully autonomous systems often struggle to generalize across these occluded conditions, human operators possess an inherent cognitive and visual adaptability that provides a valuable alternative for navigating such complexities. This work introduces an approach for crop inspection that combines Virtual Reality teleoperation with an Active Vision strategy to address occlusion limitations in agricultural environments. This specific configuration, leveraging human-driven active vision for detailed crop inspection, has not yet been widely explored. The system enables users to remotely explore a simulated crop plant through natural body and head movements, while a robot arm equipped with an RGB camera replicates these motions in real time. The proposed system was experimentally validated in a controlled laboratory setup using real sweet peppers with artificial leaves, where 30 participants without prior knowledge of the system performed peduncle localization tasks. Cycle completion time, Peduncle Detection Interaction (PDI) recall and precision, and subjective task workload (NASA-TLX) were evaluated. The results demonstrated an average cycle completion time of 12 s for each sweet pepper peduncle, a PDI recall of 96.7%, a PDI precision of 92.1%, and a mean NASA-TLX score of 32.7. Overall, the findings indicate that the proposed Virtual Reality-based Active Vision framework offers an intuitive and efficient means of viewpoint control, demonstrating its potential as a human–robot interaction solution for agricultural inspection tasks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing in Crop Protection)

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18 pages, 8979 KB

Open AccessReview

The Prospects and Challenges of Community Seed/Field Banking of Bananas, Roots and Tubers: Insights from the Literature and a Pilot Initiative in Ghana

by Ronnie Vernooy and Daniel Nyadanu

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2076; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192076 - 24 Sep 2026

Abstract

Neglected and underutilized species, also known as minor or orphan crops, are a core component of local food systems in Africa. Roots, tubers, and bananas (RTB) are a particular group of these crops characterized by vegetative propagation. This reproductive system poses challenges for [...] Read more.

Neglected and underutilized species, also known as minor or orphan crops, are a core component of local food systems in Africa. Roots, tubers, and bananas (RTB) are a particular group of these crops characterized by vegetative propagation. This reproductive system poses challenges for their conservation. Community seed banks commonly conserve seeds of grains, oil crops, pulses, and vegetables. However, little is known about whether and how community seed banks around the world include roots, tubers, and bananas, which cannot be easily stored in conventional seed-bank facilities. The objective of this review was to contribute to the design of a method that can be effectively used by community seed banks to conserve RTB while complementing the conservation method already used for other crops. We conducted a systematic literature review and assessed the initial results of a pilot study involving a new community-based conservation mechanism introduced in Ghana: the community field bank. The strengths and challenges of the two methods were compared. Field bank and seed bank can become complementary components, both conceptually and practically, of a dynamic conservation system that farmers can master through learning by doing. Initial observations from the field in Ghana suggest that farmers have grasped the concept and are now monitoring the practicalities of RTB field-bank plots, with the distribution of the first vegetatively propagated planting materials taking place toward the end of 2026. Further research, both within and beyond the pilot study sites, is warranted to refine the field-bank method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Economics, Policies and Rural Management)

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19 pages, 11845 KB

Open AccessArticle

Acetaminophen-Induced Changes in Soil–Plant Nutrient Dynamics: A Radish System Study

by Laidy Bayena, Alejandra Ayulo, Jessica I. Nieto-Juárez, Héctor Tobón, Jorge Ávila-Arias, Ricardo A. Torres-Palma and Yenny P. Ávila-Torres

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2075; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192075 - 24 Sep 2026

Abstract

Pharmaceutical residues in agricultural substrates may modify contaminant retention and nutrient dynamics, potentially affecting plant growth and nutrient allocation. This study investigated the adsorption of acetaminophen (ACE) onto washed coarse river sand and its effects on substrate physicochemical properties, elemental partitioning, root retention, [...] Read more.

Pharmaceutical residues in agricultural substrates may modify contaminant retention and nutrient dynamics, potentially affecting plant growth and nutrient allocation. This study investigated the adsorption of acetaminophen (ACE) onto washed coarse river sand and its effects on substrate physicochemical properties, elemental partitioning, root retention, plant growth, and metal–ACE interactions within the soil–plant continuum. The river sand used as substrate was characterized by a pH of 8.35, electrical conductivity of 0.117 dS m⁻¹, and cation exchange capacity of 20.4 meq 100 g⁻¹. Adsorption experiments were conducted using ACE concentrations from 5 to 180 mg L⁻¹, and kinetic behavior was evaluated using pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order, Elovich, and intraparticle-diffusion models. At an initial concentration of 150 mg L⁻¹, approximately 70% of ACE was removed after 60 min, with the pseudo-first-order model providing the best fit (R² = 0.936; q_e = 69.32 mg g⁻¹). Radish plants were subsequently exposed to 32.6 μM ACE, and elemental distributions in the substrate, roots, stems, and leaves were evaluated by XRF. Following ACE exposure, the substrate showed a decrease in pH (−6.2%) and cation exchange capacity (−21.1%), together with marked increases in electrical conductivity (+685.5%), total P₂O₅ (+42.9%), and K₂O (+304.1%). ACE exposure also altered elemental partitioning within the plant: root-to-leaf translocation factors decreased below 1.0 for Fe, K, Ca, Mn, and Zn, while the Root Retention Index increased from 0.18–0.48 under control conditions to 0.65–0.86 following exposure. The highest retention was observed for Fe (0.86) and K (0.82). ACE exposure was also associated with approximately 50% lower shoot and leaf growth over 15 days. Residual ACE analysis quantified the decrease in ACE concentration in the exposure solution during plant exposure. UV–Vis spectroscopy demonstrated interactions between ACE and Fe²⁺ and Cu²⁺, while Job’s method established a 2:1 stoichiometric ratio (ACE) for both systems, with no change in stoichiometry between pH 7.83 and 8.35. Overall, the results indicate that ACE exposure was associated with modifications of the chemical environment of the river-sand substrate, altered elemental partitioning and enhanced root retention, and reduced vegetative growth. These findings support a potential role of ACE–metal interactions and nutrient redistribution in the observed plant response, while recognizing that direct phytotoxicity and other physiological or rhizosphere-mediated mechanisms cannot be excluded. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Soils)

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25 pages, 7658 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research and Experimental Evaluation of an Electric-Drive Maize Precision Seeding System Integrating Physics-Informed Neural Networks and PID Control

by Haiyang Liu, Xianying Feng, Yongjia Sun, Qingsong Lei, Peng Zhang, Fuxin Du, Yuexin Ma and Yitian Sun

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2074; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192074 - 24 Sep 2026

Abstract

To address the problem of decreased rotational speed tracking accuracy of the seeding motor caused by system nonlinearity, time-varying parameters, and field disturbances during high-speed electric-driven precision seeding, a PINN-PID control method was proposed. First, the kinematic relationship among operating speed, target plant [...] Read more.

To address the problem of decreased rotational speed tracking accuracy of the seeding motor caused by system nonlinearity, time-varying parameters, and field disturbances during high-speed electric-driven precision seeding, a PINN-PID control method was proposed. First, the kinematic relationship among operating speed, target plant spacing, and seeding motor rotational speed was established, and a motor dynamics model was constructed. Subsequently, the data supervision error, seeding kinematic residual, motor dynamics residual, and smoothness constraint were jointly embedded into the neural network loss function, and the network prediction results were combined with PID feedback regulation. Test results showed that the RMSE and MAPE of PINN rotational speed prediction are 0.7697 ± 0.0422 r/min and 0.640 ± 0.040%, respectively, with a coefficient of determination R² of 0.99714 ± 0.00047. In simulation tests, the step response overshoot and settling time of PINN-PID were 0.17% and 0.13 s, respectively, which were 66.28% and 63.89% lower than those of BP-PID. In bench tests, PINN-PID achieved a 97.41% mean qualification index, gaining 3.56, 2.13, and 0.79 percentage points over conventional PID, fuzzy PID, and BP-PID, respectively. Constant-speed field trials yielded 95.13% qualification and 13.90% coefficient of variation; under stepped-speed conditions, the values were 95.37% and 14.05%, representing a 2.00-percentage-point qualification gain and a 6.49% coefficient of variation reduction versus BP-PID. Fusing physical constraints with data-driven learning improved motor state prediction and disturbance adaptability, offering a reliable, physically interpretable control approach for high-speed electric precision seeding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Technology)

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22 pages, 3404 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Alternate Wetting and Drying Irrigation and Microbial Fertilizer on Weed and Canopy Arthropod Diversity in Paddy Fields in Southern China

by Bo Liu, Xiang Zhang, Yulan Yan, Jiaqi Chen, Lihua Zhang, Tao Xu, Meng Liu and Cheng Li

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2073; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192073 - 24 Sep 2026

Abstract

Rice is one of the major grain crops worldwide, while intensive cultivation has caused severe loss of weed and arthropod diversity, making rice fields more susceptible to weed and pest infestations. Understanding the response of weeds and arthropod diversity to different management practices [...] Read more.

Rice is one of the major grain crops worldwide, while intensive cultivation has caused severe loss of weed and arthropod diversity, making rice fields more susceptible to weed and pest infestations. Understanding the response of weeds and arthropod diversity to different management practices is crucial for green rice production. In this study, a two-year field investigation was conducted in a typical paddy field in the Poyang Lake Basin. The community composition and diversity of weeds and arthropods under different water and fertilizer management practices were explored. The results demonstrated that alternate wetting and drying (AWD) irrigation and microbial fertilizer (MF) effectively reduced total weed density while enhancing Margalef richness (D_MG), Shannon–Wiener (H′), Simpson dominance (S), and Pielou evenness (E) indices. The most dominant weeds, namely Monochoria vaginalis, were significantly suppressed. However, AWD irrigation may increase the density of Echinochloa crus-galli. For the arthropods, AWD irrigation and MF reduced the populations of pests by suppressing hygrophytic pests, such as Chlorops oryzae and Aeschyntelus chinensis. The D_MG, H′, and S of natural enemies were greatly improved, exceeding those of pests in both years. Overall, the AWD irrigation and MF can suppress harmful weeds and pests, while enhancing weed and arthropod biodiversity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Protection, Diseases, Pests and Weeds)

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10 pages, 214 KB

Open AccessCommunication

Effects of a Blend of Glycerol Esters of Short- and Medium-Chain Fatty Acids and Saponins on Growth and Fecal Detection of Selected Enteric Pathogens in Preweaned Calves: A Pilot Study

by Petra Kubelková, Filip Jančík, Dana Kumprechtová, Tereza Faltusová, Petr Homolka, Radko Loučka, Veronika Koukolová, Renata Kučerová, Adéla Müllerová and Tomáš Kopec

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2072; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192072 - 24 Sep 2026

Abstract

Enteric pathogens can impair health and growth during the preweaning period, while non-antibiotic feed additives may support gastrointestinal resilience. This pilot study evaluated a liquid blend of glycerol esters of organic and fatty acids and saponins in 20 Holstein calves assigned at birth [...] Read more.

Enteric pathogens can impair health and growth during the preweaning period, while non-antibiotic feed additives may support gastrointestinal resilience. This pilot study evaluated a liquid blend of glycerol esters of organic and fatty acids and saponins in 20 Holstein calves assigned at birth to control group or additive groups (n = 10 per group). Calves were housed and fed individually. From the fourth milk feeding to weaning at 60 d of age, additive calves received 2.5 mL of the product/L of whole milk immediately before feeding (15 mL/calf per day), whereas control calves received the same milk without the additive. Body weight was recorded on days 1, 30, and 60; starter disappearance and the presence or absence of diarrhea were recorded daily. Fecal samples collected at 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 8 weeks of age were examined for selected protozoa and bacteria. Overall average daily gain (0.910 vs. 0.841 kg/d; p = 0.194) and cumulative starter disappearance (16.016 vs. 11.087 kg/calf; p = 0.228) were not statistically different between treated and control calves. Diarrhea was detected for 6.6 days per calf in the control group and for 7.6 days per calf in the additive group (p = 0.401). Cryptosporidium spp. scores were higher in treated calves at weeks 1 and 6 (p = 0.039 and p = 0.041, respectively), providing no evidence of inhibition. Giardia spp. detection was lower in treated calves at week 2 (p = 0.041). Campylobacter coli detection was lower at week 2 (p = 0.019) and showed a suggestive reduction at week 6 (p = 0.088). Klebsiella pneumoniae was detected only in controls at weeks 2, 3, and 6, whereas Clostridium perfringens showed no consistent treatment response. These exploratory findings do not establish efficacy, but support larger, appropriately powered studies using longitudinal models and quantitative pathogen measurements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Farm Animal Production)

2 pages, 138 KB

Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Jiang et al. Spatiotemporal Evolution Characteristics and Nonlinear Driving Mechanisms of Agricultural Climate Resilience in China. Agriculture 2026, 16, 1568

by Libin Jiang, Yanbin Liu, Yingjie Dai, Wenshuai Yang, Zhi Zhang, Liming Chen and Yanhong Feng

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2071; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192071 - 24 Sep 2026

Abstract

In the original publication [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Economics, Policies and Rural Management)

26 pages, 1068 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Farm-Level Financial Risk Assessment Framework for Dairy Farm Management Using Robust Statistical Indicators

by Elisaveta Trichkova-Kashamova, Kristina Pavlova and Stanislav Dimitrov

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2070; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192070 - 23 Sep 2026

Abstract

Dairy farms face substantial financial variability arising from production costs, debt obligations, irregular revenues, and transaction timing. This study develops a farm-level financial risk assessment framework using 36 monthly accounting and production observations from a Bulgarian dairy farm covering January 2019–December 2021. The [...] Read more.

Dairy farms face substantial financial variability arising from production costs, debt obligations, irregular revenues, and transaction timing. This study develops a farm-level financial risk assessment framework using 36 monthly accounting and production observations from a Bulgarian dairy farm covering January 2019–December 2021. The framework combines robust median-, MAD-, and IQR-based measures with classical variability statistics, correlation analysis, a scale-preserving risk-weighted economic importance indicator (RWEI), and an exploratory retrospective monitoring assessment. Scaled-MAD limits and standard 1.5 × IQR fences identify unusual monthly observations. Milk income is the dominant recurring revenue source, accounting for 81.35% of average component revenue, whereas grants contribute most to observed absolute monthly revenue variability. Among expenses, feed ranks first by RWEI (0.1627), followed by loan payments (0.0983), leasing (0.0378), and interest (0.0279). Mean recorded milk income per litre was 0.739 BGN/L, feed expenditure 0.442 BGN/L, and margin over feed cost 0.297 BGN/L. In one-month-ahead retrospective testing, the scaled-MAD rule detected two of three subsequent negative-surplus months, with 66.7% sensitivity, 22.2% precision, and a 35.0% false-alarm rate. The framework is therefore best interpreted as a data-light internal financial-monitoring and liquidity-support approach rather than as a validated predictive system or a complete decomposition of structural economic risk. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Economics, Policies and Rural Management)

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47 pages, 1594 KB

Open AccessReview

Quantum Machine Learning for Hyperspectral Soil Nutrient Estimation in Precision Agriculture: A Review and Roadmap

by Dristi Datta, Dipti Biswas, Uttam Mahapatra, Manoranjan Paul and Davina White

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2069; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192069 - 23 Sep 2026

Abstract

Accurate soil nutrient estimation underpins fertility assessment, precision agriculture, and sustainable land management, yet conventional laboratory analysis is slow, costly, and impractical at scale. Hyperspectral imaging (HSI) captures detailed spectral signatures linked to soil properties, but its high dimensionality and limited ground truth [...] Read more.

Accurate soil nutrient estimation underpins fertility assessment, precision agriculture, and sustainable land management, yet conventional laboratory analysis is slow, costly, and impractical at scale. Hyperspectral imaging (HSI) captures detailed spectral signatures linked to soil properties, but its high dimensionality and limited ground truth samples strain classical machine learning. This review examines quantum machine learning (QML) as an emerging rather than established direction for high-dimensional, low-sample hyperspectral soil analysis. We outline where classical machine learning and deep learning fall short and then assess how quantum kernel methods, variational quantum circuits, and hybrid quantum–classical architectures might improve feature representation and nonlinear modeling. Of the 150 studies reviewed, 26 report quantum machine learning results of any kind, five use soil data, and only one evaluates soil spectra directly for nutrient or property estimation. The remainder contribute transferable evidence from adjacent soil and remote sensing tasks, together with soil applications that remain proposals. Accordingly, the review weighs both the promise and the practical constraints of QML on current noisy intermediate-scale quantum hardware, including the encoding cost, measurement overhead, circuit depth, and trainability limits. Future research priorities are identified: quantum-ready hyperspectral soil datasets, reproducible benchmarking against well-tuned classical baselines, scalable hybrid pipelines, hardware-aware reporting, and field validation. Pairing QML with hyperspectral soil sensing may eventually support soil fertility assessment, variable-rate fertilization, and sustainable precision agriculture, but any such benefit must be demonstrated experimentally rather than inferred and will depend on continued progress in quantum hardware. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multi-Parameter Soil Sensors and Intelligent Monitoring Systems)

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60 pages, 4357 KB

Open AccessReview

Intelligent Harvesting Technologies for Cultivated Edible Mushrooms: A Structured Critical Review from Mechanized Equipment to Robotic Systems and Cross-Species Adaptation

by Yapeng Wu, Ruifan Tang, Junhao Cao, Qianrun Zang, Liming Zhang and Zhong Tang

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2068; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192068 - 23 Sep 2026

Abstract

Harvesting remains labor-intensive because delicate fruiting bodies, complex growing environments, selective harvesting demands, and interspecific morphological variation complicate mechanized and intelligent operation. A structured critical review of 200 publications synthesizes advances in mushroom harvesting from an agricultural-engineering perspective, focusing on harvesting mechanisms, machine [...] Read more.

Harvesting remains labor-intensive because delicate fruiting bodies, complex growing environments, selective harvesting demands, and interspecific morphological variation complicate mechanized and intelligent operation. A structured critical review of 200 publications synthesizes advances in mushroom harvesting from an agricultural-engineering perspective, focusing on harvesting mechanisms, machine vision, maturity assessment, three-dimensional localization, motion planning, end-effectors, damage reduction, and integrated robotic systems. Particular attention is given to how morphology, cultivation mode, harvesting requirements, and equipment configuration interact across representative species. On this basis, a conceptual cross-species adaptation framework links phenotypic traits with perception targets, contact constraints, separation mechanisms, and operational organization; its transferability remains to be validated through direct multi-species experiments. Key bottlenecks and evidence gaps include occlusion, clustered growth, variable maturity, mechanical damage, limited efficiency and robustness, and insufficient evidence for cross-site robustness and cross-species transfer. Future research should prioritize harvest-oriented phenotyping and multimodal perception, reconfigurable compliant modules, multi-stage perception–decision–execution coordination, cultivation–equipment co-design, interface standardization, virtual/digital validation, and long-duration production and economic evaluation. This review provides an integrated engineering framework for the transition from mechanized equipment to autonomous harvesting systems and for the development of efficient, low-damage, and adaptable mushroom-harvesting machinery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Technologies for Full-Cycle Crop Production: From Phenotyping to Machinery Design)

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17 pages, 12028 KB

Open AccessArticle

Adaptive Stem-Growth Microneedle Array Sensor for Tracking Plant Nutrient Demand

by Jiale Gao, Longlong Feng, Minghao Gong, Zhonglin Geng, Hongjing Yang and Junling Wang

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2067; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192067 - 23 Sep 2026

Abstract

Conventional soil nutrient measurement methods can only indirectly estimate plant nutritional status. They fail to accurately capture the dynamic in vivo nutrient status of plants. This study proposes a method for detecting nutrient status using stem-mounted sensors, comprising a bionic growth-accommodating structure and [...] Read more.

Conventional soil nutrient measurement methods can only indirectly estimate plant nutritional status. They fail to accurately capture the dynamic in vivo nutrient status of plants. This study proposes a method for detecting nutrient status using stem-mounted sensors, comprising a bionic growth-accommodating structure and a microneedle array. The system achieves in situ monitoring within plants through minimally invasive implantation, enabling the tracking of evolution patterns in electrophysiological parameters of tomato seedlings under varying gradients of nutrient stress. Results reveal the biomimetic structure’s adaptive preload characteristics. As stem diameter increases, clamping force increases, improving electrode stability. Meanwhile, the bionic structure did not significantly affect the growth of tomato seedlings. The microneedle’s bending force reached 1.352 × 10² N, withstanding 100 insertions with only a 5.53% wear rate, maintaining 100% array integrity and zero deformation. In addition, the changes in indicators such as Z and Zi in tomato seedlings are consistent with the changes in bound water ratio. They first increase and then decrease as nutrient stress concentration increases, and they can serve as indicators for nutrient detection. The sensor maintains stable stem attachment during plant growth, making continuous data collection possible and providing technical support for precise nutrient management in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Technology)

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22 pages, 1904 KB

Open AccessArticle

Agricultural Reuse of Phosphogypsum in Contrasting Soils: Wheat Yield, Potentially Toxic Element Uptake, and Soil Microbial Community Responses

by Andrea Balla Kovács, Evelin Kármen Juhász, Rita Kremper, Tibor József Novák, Áron Béni, Péter Makleit, Costa Gumisiriya, István Attila Kocsis, Jacob B. Lisuma, Kelvin M. Mtei, Hendrik Brink, Hamid Mazouz, Hynek Roubík, Stanisław Wacławek, Yingying Cai, Guangfei Qu and Nils Haneklaus

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2066; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192066 - 23 Sep 2026

Abstract

Phosphogypsum (PG) is a high-volume industrial by-product that is receiving increasing attention as an alternative soil amendment. This study presents a two-year pot experiment evaluating the effects of PG on spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grown on two contrasting soils: an acidic, [...] Read more.

Phosphogypsum (PG) is a high-volume industrial by-product that is receiving increasing attention as an alternative soil amendment. This study presents a two-year pot experiment evaluating the effects of PG on spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grown on two contrasting soils: an acidic, sulfur-deficient Arenosol and a sodium-affected Solonetz. Treatments comprised an untreated control and PG applications at 2 and 10 t ha⁻¹, applied once in year 1 and repeated at the same rates in year 2. In the Solonetz, PG increased grain yield by 48–73% in year 2 and 31–40% in year 1, with the lower dose (2 t ha⁻¹) providing sufficient agronomic benefits. In contrast, no yield response was observed in the Arenosol. In both soils, PG acted as a slow-release sulfur source, increasing straw sulfur concentrations in the second year. Even the repeated application of the highest PG dose (10 t ha⁻¹) did not increase Al, Cd, Cr, or Sr accumulation in wheat grain, indicating no treatment-related increase in trace-element accumulation. PG also increased soil microbial biomass and altered the microbial community structure in the Solonetz, including higher relative abundances of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and actinomycetes. Overall, these results demonstrate the dual agronomic function of PG in improving sodic soil productivity and supplying sulfur to nutrient-deficient sandy soils without increasing treatment-related trace-element accumulation, thus highlighting its potential as a soil amendment in sustainable nutrient management systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Production)

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23 pages, 3959 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Vitamin C Fermentation By-Product Enhances Chilling Tolerance in Pak Choi by Modulating Ascorbate Redox Status and Augmenting Antioxidant Defense Capacity

by Shuhui Bian, Haotian Cheng, Weina Sheng, Mingfu Gao, Hao Sun, Jian Gu, Weichao Yang and Hui Xu

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2065; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192065 - 23 Sep 2026

Abstract

Early-spring chilling disrupts redox balance and limits leafy-vegetable growth. This study aimed to determine whether residue after evaporation (RAE), a vitamin C fermentation by-product, could improve chilling tolerance in pak choi, and whether its effects varied with application route and co-application of KH [...] Read more.

Early-spring chilling disrupts redox balance and limits leafy-vegetable growth. This study aimed to determine whether residue after evaporation (RAE), a vitamin C fermentation by-product, could improve chilling tolerance in pak choi, and whether its effects varied with application route and co-application of KH₂PO₄. Treatments were control (CK), foliar 0.2% KH₂PO₄ (KP), foliar or root-zone RAE (Rf and Rr), and their RAE+KP combinations (Rf-KP and Rr-KP). Plants were assessed 24 h after treatment before chilling (T1), after 48 h at 4 °C (T2), and after 72 h of post-chilling growth (T3). At T1, RAE-containing treatments increased ascorbate (AsA) by 13.91–26.16% and the AsA/dehydroascorbate (DHA) ratio by 17.08–32.90%, before detectable growth or oxidative-injury differences. At T2, RAE-containing treatments increased AsA and AsA/DHA by 25.58–49.38% and 38.52–69.13%, enhanced antioxidant defenses, and reduced chilling injury, leaf damage, and hydrogen peroxide accumulation. Root activity increased by 25.40% (Rr) and 39.37% (Rr-KP). At T3, all treatments increased aboveground fresh weight by 22.71–109.05%, and the damaged-leaf rate decreased by 42.40–71.24%. Rf-KP and Rr-KP had the highest comprehensive chilling-tolerance scores at T2 and T3. The RAE × KH₂PO₄ interaction for this score was significant at T2 but not at T3. Both RAE routes improved chilling tolerance. Early ascorbate redox changes preceded later stress responses, while RAE × KH₂PO₄ interactions varied among traits and stages. These findings support further evaluation of RAE as a potential agricultural input for improving chilling tolerance in leafy vegetables. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Regulatory Mechanisms of Exogenous Natural Compounds in the Growth and Stress Resistance of Horticultural Crops)

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25 pages, 49089 KB

Open AccessArticle

TLD-YOLO: A Lightweight Detector with Cross-Scale Adaptive Fusion and Dual Attention for Tiny Litchi Detection and Counting in Unstructured Orchards

by Lin Liu, Haoqian Zheng, Decheng Miao, Junhao Huang, Yihan Zhang, Mingyang Liu, Sheng Yu, Wanjia Yu and Yangyi Tan

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2064; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192064 - 23 Sep 2026

Abstract

Accurate detection and counting of tiny litchi fruits in natural orchards are fundamental for approximate yield estimation and precision harvesting; however, small-target signals are easily lost during downsampling, while dense clusters, occlusion, and complex backgrounds further impair localization. Attention applied only after feature [...] Read more.

Accurate detection and counting of tiny litchi fruits in natural orchards are fundamental for approximate yield estimation and precision harvesting; however, small-target signals are easily lost during downsampling, while dense clusters, occlusion, and complex backgrounds further impair localization. Attention applied only after feature refinement cannot protect weak intermediate responses, while channel concatenation treats spatial details and semantics equally. This study proposes Tiny Litchi Detection YOLO (TLD-YOLO), a lightweight detector for tiny litchi detection and counting in unstructured orchards. First, customized Embedded Cross-Scale Attention (ECS Attention) is embedded mid-stream within the backbone refinement process and incorporates support-constrained local-contrast enhancement to protect weak fruit responses. Then, the Cross-Scale Adaptive Fusion Module (CAF Module) replaces five concatenation nodes in the main Neck pathway with scalar-weighted fusion and adds local-detail compensation at the high-resolution P4–P3 stage, reducing parameters while preserving detail. Finally, optimized Directional Spatial Attention (DS Attention) uses gated average–maximum directional descriptors to recalibrate refined features, enhancing fruit regions and suppressing backgrounds. Inner Minimum Point Distance Intersection over Union (Inner-MDPIoU) with auxiliary box scaling further improves fine localization. Together, these components form a unified lightweight pipeline tailored to dense tiny-fruit detection. TLD-YOLO achieves 88.0% mean average precision at an intersection-over-union threshold of 0.5 (mAP@0.5) and 60.2% mAP@0.5:0.95 with 7.84 M parameters. Compared with the baseline, the two mAP metrics improve by 2.0 and 2.6 percentage points with 18.3% fewer parameters. In video-based visible-fruit counting, missed detections and false positives in the respective maximum-count frames are 36.7% and 66.7% lower than for the baseline. The view-dependent maximum count does not measure the complete three-dimensional canopy fruit load but can provide a simple approximate indicator for preliminary yield estimation. TLD-YOLO therefore provides a practical reference for tiny litchi detection and counting with potential application to approximate orchard yield assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Precision Agriculture in Orchard)

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16 pages, 9358 KB

Open AccessArticle

Food-Safety-Facing Aflatoxin B₁ Detector Verification by Combining N-CQDs Fluorescence Probes and Smartphone Image Analysis in Microfluidic Channel

by Yuhang Guo, Yiyang Shi, Haoyu Yang and Jin Li

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2063; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192063 - 23 Sep 2026

Abstract

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) poses a serious threat to food safety. Current routine detection of AFB₁ mainly relies on laboratory-based methods, which, although highly accurate, suffer from long detection cycles and high costs. There is an urgent need to develop [...] Read more.

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) poses a serious threat to food safety. Current routine detection of AFB₁ mainly relies on laboratory-based methods, which, although highly accurate, suffer from long detection cycles and high costs. There is an urgent need to develop portable detection technologies suitable for rapid on-site screening. In this study, a portable AFB₁ detection device based on the fluorescence quenching effect of nitrogen-doped carbon quantum dots (N-CQDs) was developed, integrating a microfluidic chip with smartphone-based image analysis technology to achieve full integration of the entire detection process. Meanwhile, the serpentine channel structure of the microfluidic chip was optimized through numerical simulation. The results showed that arc-shaped corners outperformed right-angle and rounded corners in eliminating flow dead zones and improving velocity uniformity. Considering the effects of channel width on mixing efficiency and flow resistance, the 0.10 mm arc-shaped structure was determined as the optimal configuration. The experimental results demonstrated that the fluorescence quenching efficiency (ΔF/F₀) exhibited a good linear relationship with the logarithm of AFB₁ concentration over the range of 5–100 ng∙mL⁻¹, with a correlation coefficient R² of 0.98871. The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) were determined to be 1.2979 ng∙mL⁻¹ and 2.2035 ng∙mL⁻¹, respectively. The recoveries from spiked corn flour samples ranged from 96.15% to 103.97%, with relative standard deviations (RSD) of 2.97% to 4.92%. This study presents a promising portable detection scheme for on-site rapid screening and achieves a proof-of-concept validation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence and Management Strategies of Mycotoxins in Cereals and Cereal Products)

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36 pages, 6636 KB

Open AccessArticle

Technical Efficiency and Financial Sustainability of Farms in the EU: A Stochastic Frontier Analysis and Panel Data Regression Approach

by Ioan Prigoreanu, Daniel Costel Galeș and Gabriela Ignat

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2062; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192062 - 23 Sep 2026

Abstract

The EU agricultural policy for the period 2023–2027 assumes that improving technical efficiency strengthens the financial sustainability of farms, an assumption rarely tested rigorously at EU country level, or with an explicit distinction between solvency and profitability. Using FADN/FSDN data for 402 country-year [...] Read more.

The EU agricultural policy for the period 2023–2027 assumes that improving technical efficiency strengthens the financial sustainability of farms, an assumption rarely tested rigorously at EU country level, or with an explicit distinction between solvency and profitability. Using FADN/FSDN data for 402 country-year observations of arable farms in 28 European countries (2010–2024), technical efficiency is estimated by a fully unrestricted translog stochastic frontier, statistically preferred over the Cobb–Douglas form (χ² = 177.57, df = 10, p < 0.001), and validated by comparison with Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) and a metafrontier decomposition (EU-15 versus EU-13). The one-year lagged score is entered into panel models of solvency, profitability and regional heterogeneity, estimated with two-way fixed effects (country and year) and robust Driscoll–Kraay standard errors. Lagged technical efficiency shows no robust average effect on solvency or profitability (all p > 0.45), and its marginal effect on solvency does not differ significantly between EU-15 and EU-13 farms after correcting for multiple comparisons (p = 0.352). Farm size, on the other hand, is significantly and negatively associated with solvency, and debt ratio is the most consistent determinant of profitability, identifying capital structure as the more robust channel linking farm operations to financial performance. This divergence between channels shows that farm financial sustainability is not unidimensional: at the one-year horizon tested, efficiency gains do not reliably translate into stronger farm finances, which calls for caution in treating efficiency-oriented support as a general lever for the CAP’s financial sustainability objectives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Competitiveness, Productivity, and Efficiency in the Agricultural Market)

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16 pages, 904 KB

Open AccessArticle

Nectar Production in White Mustard Is Associated with Carbon–Water Physiology Under Contrasting Water Regimes

by Sławomir Michałek, Bożena Denisow, Monika Strzałkowska-Abramek and Ewa Muszyńska

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2061; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192061 - 23 Sep 2026

Abstract

Climate change-driven water limitation is an increasing constraint in agricultural systems. We investigated nectar traits in two white mustard (Brassica alba L.) cultivars under contrasting soil-water regimes in a two-year field experiment, examining links among water regimes, plant physiology, and nectar production. [...] Read more.

Climate change-driven water limitation is an increasing constraint in agricultural systems. We investigated nectar traits in two white mustard (Brassica alba L.) cultivars under contrasting soil-water regimes in a two-year field experiment, examining links among water regimes, plant physiology, and nectar production. Drought significantly decreased nectar mass by 40% but increased sugar concentration by 26.6% relative to the control treatment. Nectar mass nevertheless showed substantial inter-annual variability. Within individual water-regime treatments, nectar mass maintained a stable association with transpiration across all regimes, whereas its link with photosynthesis was treatment-specific, becoming significant exclusively under drought. In contrast, sugar concentration showed no direct relationships with instantaneous gas exchange parameters within water regimes, demonstrating that overall correlations were driven by collective treatment responses rather than direct physiological relationships. Overall, nectar production in B. alba is linked to the interplay between carbon assimilation and hydraulic regulation, with distinct physiological parameters associated with nectar mass and concentration. Our findings indicate that water regime effects on nectar production are largely associated with plant physiological responses, particularly limitations in photosynthetic carbon gain under drought, with potential consequences for pollinator visitation and crop yield requiring direct testing under future climate scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Production)

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18 pages, 1570 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Dietary Microencapsulated Ctx(Ile²¹)-Ha on Egg Quality and Physiological Responses in Laying Hens Subjected to Heat Stress

by Lorenza Eivazian Brandão-Neves, Silvana Gomes Gonzalez, Diogo de Lucca Sartori, Douglas D’Alessandro Salgado, Danilo Florentino Pereira and Eduardo Festozo Vicente

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2060; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192060 - 23 Sep 2026

Abstract

This exploratory proof-of-concept study evaluated the physiological tolerability and performance of laying hens fed the microencapsulated antimicrobial peptide Ctx(Ile²¹)-Ha under severe heat stress (34.5 °C; THI = 85.3). Eighteen 40-week-old hens were evaluated in a 2 × 3 factorial design comprising [...] Read more.

This exploratory proof-of-concept study evaluated the physiological tolerability and performance of laying hens fed the microencapsulated antimicrobial peptide Ctx(Ile²¹)-Ha under severe heat stress (34.5 °C; THI = 85.3). Eighteen 40-week-old hens were evaluated in a 2 × 3 factorial design comprising two thermal environments (comfort: 26 °C; heat stress: 35 °C) and three peptide doses (0.0, 2.5, and 5.0 mg/kg feed). The peptide was synthesized (>95% purity) and microencapsulated by ionotropic gelation, exhibiting controlled in vitro intestinal release. Heat stress significantly reduced feed intake and egg weight (p < 0.05) while increasing rectal temperature (p < 0.01), consistent with a biologically relevant thermal challenge. No temperature × dose interactions were observed for feed intake, egg weight, feed conversion, Haugh unit, albumen height, or blood biochemical parameters (p > 0.05). However, significant interactions were detected for eggshell quality parameters (p < 0.05). In conclusion, while dietary Ctx(Ile²¹)-Ha did not mitigate performance losses induced by heat stress, the absence of blood biochemical alterations supports its preliminary physiological tolerability under these experimental conditions. Due to the limited sample size (n = 3), these exploratory findings require cautious interpretation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Antimicrobial Peptides and Natural Products as Feed Additives in Animal Production)

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15 pages, 5591 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Effects of Nitrogen Fertilizer on Wheat Yield and Quality Under Late-Sowing Conditions

by Hui Wang, Xiangyu Liao, Dongmei Zhu, Zhifu Gao, Man Li, Wei Jiang, Dongsheng Li, Xiao Zhang, Tao Liu, Derong Gao and Datong Liu

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2059; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192059 - 23 Sep 2026

Abstract

Climate change and cropping-system adjustments have caused widespread delayed sowing, limiting wheat growth and yield. Although optimized nitrogen management can partially mitigate late-sowing stress, the optimal nitrogen rate and basal–topdressing ratio for late-sown high-quality wheat remain undefined, limiting the development of targeted cultivation [...] Read more.

Climate change and cropping-system adjustments have caused widespread delayed sowing, limiting wheat growth and yield. Although optimized nitrogen management can partially mitigate late-sowing stress, the optimal nitrogen rate and basal–topdressing ratio for late-sown high-quality wheat remain undefined, limiting the development of targeted cultivation strategies. To solve the above scientific problems and clarify the regulatory effects of nitrogen fertilizer application regimes on the yield and quality of late-sown wheat, a two-year fixed-field experiment was carried out in this study. The late-sowing-tolerant wheat cultivar Yangmai 25 was used as the material. With a sowing date of 25 November (delayed by 20 days compared to the optimal sowing period), a split-plot field experiment was carried out with two factors: nitrogen application rate (225 and 300 kg N·ha⁻¹) assigned to the main plots, and basal–topdressing ratio among the basal-, tillering-, and jointing-stage fertilizer applications (7:1:2, 5:1:4, and 3:3:4) arranged in the sub-plots. The results showed that both the nitrogen application rate and basal–topdressing ratio comparison had highly significant effects on the grain yield of Yangmai 25. Under the same basal–topdressing ratio, increasing the nitrogen application rate from 225 to 300 kg·ha⁻¹ improved the spike number and grains per spike, but reduced the 1000-grain weight and grain yield. Under the same nitrogen application rate, increasing the topdressing proportion improved the grain number per spike, 1000-grain weight, and yield, while the spike number decreased. Specifically, the 3:3:4 management strategy resulted in an average yield increase of 3.11% and 8.94% over two years compared to the 5:1:4 and 7:1:2 strategies, respectively. Both the nitrogen application rate and basal–topdressing ratio had highly significant effects on quality indicators, such as protein content, wet gluten content, sedimentation value, dough formation time, sodium carbonate solvent retention capacity (SRC), sucrose SRC, and other quality indicators, but had minimal impact on grain hardness, water absorption, and water SRC. Under the same nitrogen application rate, the basal–topdressing ratio of 3:3:4 significantly increased grain protein content, wet gluten content, sedimentation value, dough development time, and dough stability time compared to the 7:1:2 treatment. In addition, under the experimental conditions of this study, the 225 kg·ha⁻¹ nitrogen application rate combined with the 3:3:4 basal–topdressing ratio achieved better comprehensive performance in the yield and quality of Yangmai 25 compared with that of the 300 kg·ha⁻¹ treatment. Further experiments are required to determine the optimal nitrogen application rate for this cultivar under late-sowing conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Responses of Food Crops to Fertilization and Conservation Tillage—2nd Edition)

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25 pages, 29748 KB

Open AccessArticle

Linking Leaf Structure to Function in Olive (Olea europaea L.): Implications for Cultivar Selection and Resource-Use Strategies

by Cristiana Giordano, Elena Buonafede, Federico Stefani, Francesca Ugolini, Cecilia Faraloni, Tommaso Ganino, Deborah Beghè and Raffaella Petruccelli

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2058; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192058 - 23 Sep 2026

Abstract

The olive tree (Olea europaea L.) holds a prominent place in Mediterranean cultural and agricultural landscapes, including Italy, which hosts a vast germplasm of almost 600 cultivars. Characterising this biodiversity is important for conservation, sustainable use, and breeding programmes. This study provides [...] Read more.

The olive tree (Olea europaea L.) holds a prominent place in Mediterranean cultural and agricultural landscapes, including Italy, which hosts a vast germplasm of almost 600 cultivars. Characterising this biodiversity is important for conservation, sustainable use, and breeding programmes. This study provides a characterisation of leaf morpho-anatomical and physiological traits in 24 Mediterranean olive cultivars grown under uniform agronomic conditions, allowing the assessment of genotype-driven variability. The research investigates leaf morpho-anatomical characteristics, from macroscopic traits (leaf size, shape, and colour) to anatomical traits of tissues, trichomes (including the trichome area index, TAI), and stomata, together with physiological parameters (gas exchange and chlorophyll a fluorescence). Significant differences were observed among cultivars in almost all measured traits. The main results include substantial variation in leaf area (339–872 mm²), lamina thickness (331–489 µm), and ratio of palisade to spongy tissue. Trichome density had a wide range of variation (a threefold increase from the lowest to the highest value, 71–206 mm⁻²), and TAI values revealed that some cultivars possess up to three overlapping trichome layers. This multifunctional phenotypic approach proves to be a useful tool for discriminating cultivars and understanding their functional strategies. Multivariate analysis (PCA) showed patterns of association among structural and physiological traits, highlighting different trait combinations across the germplasm. These results indicate a linkage between leaf structure and function and help to interpret differences in gas exchange and water-use efficiency among cultivars. Overall, the results highlight the value of germplasm collections and provide useful insights for cultivar selection and the sustainable management of olive germplasms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Genetics, Genomics and Breeding)

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14 pages, 2292 KB

Open AccessArticle

Disease-Tolerant Grape Varieties as a Sustainable Viticultural Strategy: Evaluation of Oenological Potential by GC×GC-TOFMS Volatile Analysis

by Daniela Fonseca, Nuno Martins, Raquel Garcia and Maria João Cabrita

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2057; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192057 - 23 Sep 2026

Abstract

Viticulture currently faces major environmental challenges, mainly due to the intensive use of plant protection products to control downy and powdery mildew diseases, which are being intensified by climate change. To promote more sustainable production, cryptogamic disease-tolerant grape varieties have been developed through [...] Read more.

Viticulture currently faces major environmental challenges, mainly due to the intensive use of plant protection products to control downy and powdery mildew diseases, which are being intensified by climate change. To promote more sustainable production, cryptogamic disease-tolerant grape varieties have been developed through crosses between fungus-resistant Vitis varieties and traditional Vitis vinifera varieties. The cryptogamic disease-tolerant grape varieties can reduce the use of plant protection products by up to eighty percent, lowering both the carbon footprint and environmental impact. Nevertheless, knowledge of their oenological potential, especially regarding volatile composition, remains limited. This study aims to characterise and compare the volatile composition of cryptogamic disease-tolerant grape varieties with their progenitor varieties from the 2024 and 2025 vintages, using headspace solid-phase microextraction coupled with comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography and time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HS-SPME–GC×GC–TOFMS). The results show that cryptogamic disease-tolerant grape varieties showed a volatile composition more closely aligned with that of traditional Vitis vinifera varieties than with those of fungus-resistant Vitis varieties. Additionally, cryptogamic disease-tolerant grapes contain a large amount of varietal compounds. These findings expand current knowledge of the volatile composition of disease-tolerant grapevines and may inform future research on their potential suitability for sustainable viticulture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Product Quality and Safety)

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19 pages, 312 KB

Open AccessArticle

Climate Change and Maize Prices in Global Producing Countries: Impact Assessment and Mitigation Strategies

by Xinyi Zhang, Yu Jing, Chunhui Ma, Ying Zhang and Junguo Hua

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2056; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192056 - 23 Sep 2026

Abstract

Climate change poses a growing threat to global food security, with staple crop prices serving as a key transmission channel. This study systematically assesses the impacts of climate change on real maize price levels across 39 major producing countries over 1992–2023, using a [...] Read more.

Climate change poses a growing threat to global food security, with staple crop prices serving as a key transmission channel. This study systematically assesses the impacts of climate change on real maize price levels across 39 major producing countries over 1992–2023, using a two-way fixed-effects model with country-specific trends. Climate conditions are captured by growing-season mean temperature, accumulated precipitation, the share of extreme heat days (above 30 °C), and a drought indicator based on the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI). The benchmark results show a significant U-shaped relationship between growing-season temperature and maize price levels, with a turning point near 15.3 °C, implying that further warming raises prices in most producing countries. Extreme events emerge as the dominant driver: a one-standard-deviation increase in the share of extreme heat days is associated with approximately 11.9% (β = 0.610, p < 0.01) increase in real maize prices, and drier growing seasons are associated with modestly higher price. The heterogeneity analysis reveals that development level buffers the price effects of gradual temperature changes, whereas production capacity does not systematically moderate gradual climate shifts; extreme-heat effects are not moderated by either dimension; and drought effects strengthen with production scale. Extreme-heat price impacts are concentrated in net-exporting countries and thus propagate to world markets. These findings imply three policy pathways: coordinated global climate governance, multi-level price stabilization mechanisms, and country-specific support systems to contain climate-induced increases in maize price levels and safeguard global food security. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Economics, Policies and Rural Management)

12 pages, 3970 KB

Open AccessArticle

Quantifying Carryover of Animal Feed Additives in Feed Mill Bucket Elevators Using Magnetic Iron Tracers as a Screening Method

by Esther Yeboah Akoto and Dirk Maier

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2055; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192055 - 23 Sep 2026

Abstract

Carryover or cross-contamination can occur when medicated and non-medicated feeds are produced in the same equipment, potentially contaminating subsequent feeds with drug residues or other unwanted additives. United States Food and Drug Administration Guidance 272 recommends sequencing, flushing, and equipment cleanout to minimize [...] Read more.

Carryover or cross-contamination can occur when medicated and non-medicated feeds are produced in the same equipment, potentially contaminating subsequent feeds with drug residues or other unwanted additives. United States Food and Drug Administration Guidance 272 recommends sequencing, flushing, and equipment cleanout to minimize carryover, with flushing validation helping ensure residues remain below detectable levels. No published studies were identified that have used magnetic iron tracers for cross-contamination assessment. This study aimed to quantify cross-contamination in feed mill bucket elevators using Microtracer^® F-blue and to determine the influence of flush amount, feed composition and physical properties on carryover. Two bucket elevators (4.3 m³/h, 1.9 m/s, 5.97 rad/s) with 410 vented buckets (0.3 × 0.2 m, 0.2 m spacing) retaining about 0.49 kg mash per boot were evaluated in three tracer carrier, flush and carryover trials using 0.45 kg or 0.34 kg Microtracer^® F-blue (3.54:1) in 1814 or 1361 kg mash batches. Three samples were collected from each feed type, tracer particles were magnetically recovered and counted, and carryover (%) was calculated from carryover tracer counts relative to unrecovered tracer, with controls yielding zero particles. The particle size of flush feed ranged from 0.0015 m to 0.0028 m. Using Microtracer^® F-blue, cross-contamination remained well below 1% across all flush levels, although a significant difference was observed (p = 0.0004), with 1814 kg of flush feed producing the highest carryover (0.11 ± 0.11%). The effect of flush feed on carryover was influenced by ingredient type, but not by particle size or bulk density. Results were validated with a marker additive (Calsporin^®). Mean cross-contamination remained well below the 1% threshold recommended by European agencies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antibiotic Detection in Animal-Derived Agricultural Products)

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20 pages, 15477 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on Integrated Control of Tractor Speed and Tillage Depth for Power-Shift Tractors Based on Workload Adjustment

by Changhai Luo, Jianhui Nie, Xinhe Shan, Zhijun Meng, Guangwei Wu, Za Kan, Yue Cong and Chunjiang Zhao

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2054; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192054 - 23 Sep 2026

Abstract

Complex unstructured factors, such as the spatial heterogeneity of soil mechanical properties and random variations in farmland topography, cause fluctuations in working load, resulting in low efficiency and poor quality of subsoiling operations. To address this, this study developed a combined speed–tillage depth [...] Read more.

Complex unstructured factors, such as the spatial heterogeneity of soil mechanical properties and random variations in farmland topography, cause fluctuations in working load, resulting in low efficiency and poor quality of subsoiling operations. To address this, this study developed a combined speed–tillage depth control system for power-shift tractors based on working load adjustment. Based on dynamics theory, a six-degree-of-freedom dynamic model of the tractor subsoiling unit was established. Through simulation experiments, the working quality of the combined speed–tillage depth control system was evaluated under different working speeds, tractor gear positions, and traction resistance conditions. Simulation results indicated that under stable working conditions, the speed control error was <0.03 km/h; when the increase in traction resistance was less than 4000 N, the speed control error was less than 0.19 km/h; and when the increase in traction resistance exceeded 4000 N, the speed control error was <0.53 km/h. Field test results indicated that the speed control error was less than 0.6 km/h, the tillage depth control error was less than 4 cm, and the slip was less than 0.25. The coordinated speed–tillage depth control system developed in this study enables precise control of speed and tilling depth under dynamic operating conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Agricultural Seeding Equipment)

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27 pages, 2059 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Location Evaluation of GWAS-Derived PACE Markers for Yield-Related Traits in Spring Barley

by Yuliya Genievskaya, Vladimir Chudinov, Timur Savin, Alexandr Gulin, Saule Abugalieva and Yerlan Turuspekov

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2053; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192053 - 22 Sep 2026

Abstract

Barley productivity is controlled by complex quantitative traits that are strongly influenced by genotype-by-environment interactions, requiring validation of candidate markers across representative target locations before their use in marker-assisted selection. A panel of 83 two-rowed spring barley accessions was evaluated for 11 agronomic [...] Read more.

Barley productivity is controlled by complex quantitative traits that are strongly influenced by genotype-by-environment interactions, requiring validation of candidate markers across representative target locations before their use in marker-assisted selection. A panel of 83 two-rowed spring barley accessions was evaluated for 11 agronomic traits at three contrasting locations in Kazakhstan during the 2025 growing season. The panel was genotyped using 103 PACE assays targeting previously reported QTLs. Location-specific and across-location phenotypes were analyzed using BLUPs, ANOVA, PCA, population-structure-corrected linear regression, marker-assisted breeding value analysis, and positional candidate-gene annotation. Of 70 polymorphic markers with minor allele frequency above 0.05, 27 were associated with eight traits, producing 51 marker–trait associations at FDR < 0.05. Twenty-six associations involving 17 markers were retained for preliminary breeding-utility assessment. Two associations involving ipbb_hv50K_046 were supported at two or more locations, 19 were detected at one location and in the BLUP analysis, and five were BLUP-specific. Fourteen markers reproduced previously reported GWAS associations at the trait or trait-group level. Marker ipbb_hv50K_046 showed the strongest spatially reproducible effects and was associated with an 81.1% increase in the number of kernels per spike, a 31.4% increase in kernel weight per spike, and a 58.3% reduction in spike rachis internode length. Positional analysis of the Morex v3 reference genome identified candidate genes for all 17 retained markers, with 12 SNPs located within high-confidence gene models. These markers represent promising candidates for marker-assisted selection in barley breeding programs across diverse agro-climatic conditions in Kazakhstan and comparable environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Breeding and Agronomic Traits Improvement of Triticeae Crops)

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20 pages, 5094 KB

Open AccessArticle

Carboxymethyl Cellulose Ammonium (CMC-NH₄)-Based Soil Film Mulching Modulates Crop Yield by Altering Soil Hydrothermal Dynamics and Microbial Community

by Yu Han, Xin Yan, Qinghan Wu, Xiantong Huang and Shiqi Yang

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2052; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192052 - 22 Sep 2026

Abstract

Soil film mulching can improve crop productivity, yet the relative importance of hydrothermal, nutrient, and microbial pathways remains unclear. In this spring wheat–summer maize rotation field experiment conducted in the Yellow River Irrigation District, we evaluated the effects of a soil film formed [...] Read more.

Soil film mulching can improve crop productivity, yet the relative importance of hydrothermal, nutrient, and microbial pathways remains unclear. In this spring wheat–summer maize rotation field experiment conducted in the Yellow River Irrigation District, we evaluated the effects of a soil film formed from carboxymethyl cellulose ammonium (CMC-NH₄) solution on crop yield, soil properties, and microbial communities. The results showed that soil film mulching enhanced soil temperature and moisture retention, with greater CMC-NH₄ application rates intensifying these hydrothermal improvements. Soil moisture played a more important role than soil temperature in promoting yield in both crop seasons. Bacterial community structure shifted markedly, with α diversity initially increasing before declining and β diversity showing a decreasing trend over time. PLS-PM further revealed contrasting pathways between the two crops, with hydrothermal conditions dominating spring wheat yield and hydrothermal and chemical pathways contributing comparably to summer maize yield. These findings indicate that soil film mulching enhances crop yield, with the dominant pathway differing between spring wheat and summer maize. This suggests that film application should be managed according to crop season and local water and nutrient conditions, offering a practical option for sustainable crop production in irrigated regions of the Yellow River Irrigation District. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mulching Tillage for Soil Health and Crop Productivity in Farmland)

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Open AccessArticle

Graphene Oxide Accelerates Corn Stover Degradation by Promoting Colony Growth, Cellulase Activity, and Lignin Peroxidase Activity of Trichoderma harzianum

by Xiaokang Chen, Jianxin Hao, Bo Li, Suhui Feng, Jiasheng Yang, Jiao Sun, Lulu Zhao, Dongwei Zhang, Jingwei Li, Jun Qiao and Jianguo Zhao

Agriculture 2026, 16(19), 2051; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16192051 (registering DOI) - 22 Sep 2026

Abstract

China produces abundant corn stover annually, and direct incorporation into farmland offers a cost-effective route. However, this practice suffers from slow decomposition, poor seedling growth, high disease incidence, and limited carbon sequestration. In this study, we investigated the effects of graphene oxide (GO) [...] Read more.

China produces abundant corn stover annually, and direct incorporation into farmland offers a cost-effective route. However, this practice suffers from slow decomposition, poor seedling growth, high disease incidence, and limited carbon sequestration. In this study, we investigated the effects of graphene oxide (GO) on straw degradation by Trichoderma harzianum (BJ9) and the underlying mechanisms. Our results demonstrated that GO at concentrations of 5, 25, and 50 mg/L significantly promoted the mycelial growth of BJ9, with promotion rates of 32.04%, 40.74%, and 39.51%, respectively, whereas GO at 100 mg/L inhibited colony development. A litterbag assay showed that 25 mg/L GO significantly enhanced straw degradation, increasing mass loss after 60 days compared to BJ9 alone. Enzymatic assays revealed that GO elevated cellulase and lignin peroxidase activities of BJ9: at 5, 25, and 50 mg/L, cellulase increased by 20.71%, 59.02%, and 48.57%, and lignin peroxidase by 18.31%, 39.13%, and 31.6%, respectively. Soil analyses demonstrated that GO + BJ9 co-application raised soil organic matter, total nitrogen, ammonium nitrogen, available potassium, available phosphorus, and humic acid relative to BJ9 alone. RNA-seq further corroborated these results, showing upregulation of multiple glycoside hydrolase family genes, indicating that GO induces key lignocellulose degrading enzyme expression in BJ9. Consequently, GO-supplemented treatments improved corn stover degradation efficiency and shortened decomposition time compared with the strain control. Collectively, these findings highlight GO as a functional nanomaterial that enhances fungal lignocellulose degradation, providing a basis for developing nano-enabled inoculants to optimize straw incorporation and promote resource utilization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ecosystem, Environment and Climate Change in Agriculture)

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Agriculture, Volume 16, Issue 19 (October-1 2026) – 41 articles

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