Agriculture

18 pages, 4276 KB

Open AccessArticle

Establishment of a Breakable Layered Bonding Model for Peanut Pods Based on the DEM and Research on the Shelling Process

by Tianyue Xu, Xiaoman Tang, Yajun Yu, Xinming Jiang and Chunrong Li

Agriculture 2026, 16(4), 440; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16040440 - 13 Feb 2026

Abstract

The peanut, a globally important oil and economic crop, has thin, brittle pods that are prone to breakage under external forces during mechanical harvesting, transportation, and processing. To minimize this loss and reduce production costs, we conducted an in-depth study of the pod-breaking [...] Read more.

The peanut, a globally important oil and economic crop, has thin, brittle pods that are prone to breakage under external forces during mechanical harvesting, transportation, and processing. To minimize this loss and reduce production costs, we conducted an in-depth study of the pod-breaking process by integrating manual and automatic filling approaches within the discrete element method (DEM) with the Hertz–Mindlin with bonding model. A breakable layered bonding model for peanut pods was developed, which is capable of precisely characterizing the disparities in the mechanical properties of peanut pod shells and kernels. Physical tests were performed to obtain the relevant contact parameters of peanut pods. Compression tests combined with calibration approaches were employed to identify the bonding parameters of peanut pods, which are not easily accessible via direct experimental measurements. The optimal combination of simulation parameters for the model was determined via a Plackett–Burman test, steepest ascent test, and Box–Behnken test. The results indicated that the critical normal stress between pod shells is the most significant influencing factor. The optimal parameter combination for the proposed model is as follows: the normal stiffness per unit area between pod shells is 7.81 × 10¹⁰ N/m³, the shear stiffness per unit area between pod shells is 9.00 × 10⁸ N/m³, the critical normal stress between pod shells is 2.17 × 10⁵ N/m³, and the critical shear stress between pod shells is 2.25 × 10⁵ N/m³. The established layered bonding model for breakable peanut pods was validated using both cylinder-lifting simulation tests and physical shelling experiments. The relative error in the angle of repose between the cylinder-lifting simulation and physical tests was 1.6%, while the deviation in the shelling experiment was only 0.7%. This model provides a theoretical foundation for the design and optimization of machinery used in peanut pod harvesting, transportation, and processing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Technology)

17 pages, 944 KB

Open AccessArticle

Quantifying the Spread and Economic Consequences of the Codling Moth (Cydia pomonella) in China Using Biomod2 and Monte Carlo Synergy

by Shengkang Zou, Zhongxiang Sun, Hongkun Huang, Xiaoqing Xian and Guifen Zhang

Agriculture 2026, 16(4), 439; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16040439 - 13 Feb 2026

Abstract

The codling moth, Cydia pomonella (Linnaeus, 1758) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), was first detected in Xinjiang, China, in 1953 and has since spread to nine provinces, with its distribution continuing to expand into other apple- and pear-producing regions. In this study, we combined the Biomod2 [...] Read more.

The codling moth, Cydia pomonella (Linnaeus, 1758) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), was first detected in Xinjiang, China, in 1953 and has since spread to nine provinces, with its distribution continuing to expand into other apple- and pear-producing regions. In this study, we combined the Biomod2 model with Monte Carlo simulations to perform a spatially explicit, pixel-level assessment of the moth’s potential habitat suitability and associated economic impacts in China’s major fruit-producing areas. Results indicate that temperature is the primary factor limiting its distribution, followed by human activities, while topography plays a regulatory role at local scales. The Loess Plateau and Bohai Rim regions were identified as core suitable areas, with moderate suitability in the Northern Cold region and Xinjiang and lower suitability in the Southwest and Yangtze River Basin. Pearson correlation analysis revealed weak spatial coupling between suitable habitats and fruit yields. Monte Carlo simulations showed that potential economic losses vary spatially across regions and crop types. These findings suggest that the codling moth’s suitability differs among regions; high-yield areas do not necessarily face higher invasion risk, but once an invasion occurs, economic losses tend to be concentrated and severe. Accordingly, early warning and region-specific, differentiated management should be prioritized in key areas to mitigate damage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Protection, Diseases, Pests and Weeds)

21 pages, 661 KB

Open AccessArticle

Farmers’ Willingness to Adopt Smart Agriculture Practices: Evidence from a Discrete Choice Experiment on the Visualization System in China

by Siqi Tang, Takeshi Sato, Kentaro Kawasaki and Nobuhiro Suzuki

Agriculture 2026, 16(4), 438; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16040438 - 13 Feb 2026

Abstract

This study examines Chinese farmers’ stated preferences and the compensation they would be willing to accept (willingness to accept; WTA) in return after adopting the Visualization System (VS), a promising method of smart agricultural technology. Using discrete choice experiments and a mixed logit [...] Read more.

This study examines Chinese farmers’ stated preferences and the compensation they would be willing to accept (willingness to accept; WTA) in return after adopting the Visualization System (VS), a promising method of smart agricultural technology. Using discrete choice experiments and a mixed logit model, we investigate farmers’ preferences under uncertain price premiums. Specifically, premium is defined as the additional price increment associated with VS adoption, reflecting the potential market reward for improved transparency, traceability, and other benefits. Uncertainty is measured by different fluctuation levels of this premium. We also assess the impacts of farmers’ individual characteristics on their WTA. Results (n = 348) show that farmers prefer higher premiums and lower fluctuations. Better VS knowledge reduces farmers’ WTA by 0.439 CNY/kg, and younger farmers tend to be more tolerant of fluctuations. Among younger farmers, those without off-farm income are more sensitive to fluctuations than those with off-farm income. Importantly, enhancing farmers’ VS knowledge leads to a 50.3% decrease in the implied price relative to the reference price, suggesting it may be more effective than mitigating fluctuations or targeting younger farmers. Overall, our findings highlight the potential of smart agriculture in China and suggest that enhancing farmers’ awareness and understanding of the VS is key to accelerating adoption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Economics, Policies and Rural Management)

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28 pages, 6112 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanism and Optimization of Adhesion and Resistance Reduction by Bionic Microtextured Rotary Tillage Blades in Soil–Straw Environment

by Zeng Wang, Yang Zhang, Huajun Xu, He Du, Zhongqing Yang, Junqian Yang, Zhiqiang Mao and Huizheng Wang

Agriculture 2026, 16(4), 437; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16040437 - 13 Feb 2026

Abstract

Rotary tillage blades are critical soil-engaging components in conservation tillage systems but are prone to adhesion of soil particles under cohesive soil conditions, which increases tillage resistance, degrades tillage quality, and lowers operational efficiency. To address these issues, this study proposed a collaborative [...] Read more.

Rotary tillage blades are critical soil-engaging components in conservation tillage systems but are prone to adhesion of soil particles under cohesive soil conditions, which increases tillage resistance, degrades tillage quality, and lowers operational efficiency. To address these issues, this study proposed a collaborative strategy that combines parameter optimization of rotary tillage blades with a bionic microtexture design to reduce adhesion and resistance and improve operation performance. A coupled soil–wheat straw–rotary tillage blade model based on the Discrete Element Method (DEM) and Multibody Dynamics (MBD) was established in loessial soil environment. The structure and working parameters of the rotary tillage blade were optimized using a Box–Behnken experimental design. On this basis, a bionic microtexture design was introduced on regions prone to adhesion of the rotary tillage blade, inspired by the non-smooth convex hull microstructure on the head surface of the dung beetle. The results indicated that the optimal parameter combination (rotational speed 244 r·min⁻¹, tillage depth 110 mm, and bending angle 122°) reduced soil adhesion mass and tillage resistance by 74.47% and 23.44%, respectively. After applying the bionic microtexture, the corresponding reductions further increased to 82.93% and 28.35%. Moreover, the bionic-optimized rotary tillage blade outperformed the original design in disturbance depth and range and exhibited improved energy consumption performance. Overall, the results demonstrated that coupling parameter optimization with bionic microtexture design substantially enhanced adhesion and resistance reduction and improved soil-disturbance performance, thereby providing theoretical support for the development of high-performance rotary tillage blades. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Technology)

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16 pages, 994 KB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Evaluation of a Negative Pressure Ventilation System for Ammonia Emission from a Solid-Covered Manure Storage Tank

by Wenqi Zhang and Xiaoshuai Wang

Agriculture 2026, 16(4), 436; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16040436 - 13 Feb 2026

Abstract

Ammonia (NH₃) emissions from temporary manure storage tanks represent a significant environmental concern in livestock production systems. While combining solid covers with negative pressure ventilation is a promising strategy to mitigate these emissions, there is currently a lack of systematic research [...] Read more.

Ammonia (NH₃) emissions from temporary manure storage tanks represent a significant environmental concern in livestock production systems. While combining solid covers with negative pressure ventilation is a promising strategy to mitigate these emissions, there is currently a lack of systematic research on its design optimization and performance. This study employs Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) to evaluate the effectiveness of a solid-covered manure storage tank combined with negative pressure ventilation for controlling NH₃ emissions. A validated CFD model was developed to simulate airflow and ammonia transport under open-field and covered conditions. The influences of tank headspace depth, slot type (top and side), and slot location on outlet ammonia concentration were investigated. Results show that headspace depth is one of the important parameters affecting ammonia transport, with deeper headspaces consistently reducing outlet NH₃ concentrations. Compared with no-slot scenarios, top slots could increase ammonia emissions by inducing impinging-jet effects, whereas side slots exhibited depth-dependent impacts, reducing emissions at 1.0 and 1.6 m depths but increasing them at 0.4 m depth. All the differences in ammonia emission across the simulations can be attributed to the difference in the near-wall velocity. The findings provide useful guidance for the design and optimization of ammonia mitigation strategies in manure storage systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring and Optimization of Livestock and Poultry Housing Environments)

14 pages, 3773 KB

Open AccessArticle

Potato-Based Cropping Systems Improve Soil Quality by Increasing the Content of Available Nutrients and Aggregate Structure

by Wei Zhou, Wen-Wen Song, Chun-Lian Jin, Feng-Jun Yan, Yi-Hong Kuang, Zhen-Dong Chen, Hao-Tian Yao, Yong Chen and You-Feng Tao

Agriculture 2026, 16(4), 435; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16040435 - 13 Feb 2026

Abstract

Crop rotation plays a critical role in enhancing cropping intensity and ensuring food security. To evaluate its long-term effects on soil quality, a fixed-site field experiment established in 2014 including four cropping systems—winter fallow–rice (Oryza sativa L.) (FR), potato (Solanum tuberosum [...] Read more.

Crop rotation plays a critical role in enhancing cropping intensity and ensuring food security. To evaluate its long-term effects on soil quality, a fixed-site field experiment established in 2014 including four cropping systems—winter fallow–rice (Oryza sativa L.) (FR), potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) –maize (Zea mays L.) (PM), potato–rice (PR), and potato–rice → rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) –rice (RRPR)—was conducted. A minimum data set (MDS) was screened from 21 soil indicators via principal component analysis (PCA), and the soil quality index (SQI) was calculated by integrating membership functions and indicator weights to comprehensively evaluate the impact of different patterns on soil quality. Results showed that paddy–upland rotations (PR and RRPR) significantly improved soil physical properties, increasing soil moisture content, porosity, and macro-aggregate proportion by 2.27–10.17%, while reducing bulk density by 10.32–13.38%, compared to FR and PM. PR and RRPR rotations also increased total nitrogen (TN), available phosphorus (AP), and available potassium contents (AK) by 5.19–114.00% (p < 0.01). PM rotation notably enhanced available nutrients, with NH₄⁺-N, AP, and AK rising by 3.65–243.50% (p < 0.05), compared to FR. The MDS-based SQI, comprising NH₄⁺-N, AP, mean weight diameter, and soil porosity, showed a highly significant positive correlation with the total data set-based SQI (p < 0.0001). PM exhibited the highest and most stable SQI, exceeding other systems by 8.15–19.30%, while PR and RRPR increased SQI by 9.04–10.30%, compared to FR. In conclusion, potato-based cropping systems enhance soil quality by improving soil structure and increasing nutrient content and availability. The results of this study provide a theoretical basis for nutrient management and sustainable production in cropping systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Health Solutions for Sustainable Agriculture)

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27 pages, 4058 KB

Open AccessArticle

Functional Screening of Rhizobacterial Isolates of Bacillus subtilis from Cacao Agroecosystems for Plant Growth-Promotion and Antagonism Against Moniliophthora roreri

by Narmer Galeano-Vanegas, Gloria M. Restrepo, Luz Stella Ramirez, Edwin David Morales-Alvarez, Leonora Rodriguez, Jhon Fredy Betancur-Pérez and Octávio Luiz Franco

Agriculture 2026, 16(4), 434; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16040434 - 13 Feb 2026

Abstract

The application of plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) offers a sustainable alternative for improving cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) health and productivity. This study evaluated the relative growth rate (RGR) of cacao fruits under four field treatments for 30 days: PGPB alone, PGPB plus [...] Read more.

The application of plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) offers a sustainable alternative for improving cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) health and productivity. This study evaluated the relative growth rate (RGR) of cacao fruits under four field treatments for 30 days: PGPB alone, PGPB plus the pathogen Moniliophthora roreri, the pathogen alone, and an untreated control. Fruits inoculated only with M. roreri exhibited the highest RGR (0.0055 ± 0.002 day

^{- 1}

), significantly higher than the control (0.0030 ± 0.001 day

^{- 1}

;

p \leq 0.05

). The combined treatment (PGPB + pathogen) showed intermediate values (0.0050 ± 0.0018 day

^{- 1}

), while PGPB alone presented the lowest RGR (0.0037 ± 0.0014 day

^{- 1}

). These results indicate that pathogen inoculation may lead to transient fruit hypertrophy, while bacterial inoculation alone or in combination moderates this effect. The observed variability among treatments likely reflects the influence of uncontrolled environmental factors (e.g., humidity, temperature, and soil heterogeneity) and natural pathogen presence in the field, which may have masked or modulated the physiological effects of PGPB during the short 30-day observation period. Overall, this work highlights the complexity of plant–microbe–pathogen interactions under field conditions and underscores the need for longer-term, multi-season trials to validate the effectiveness of PGPB-based strategies in cacao agroecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Protection, Diseases, Pests and Weeds)

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22 pages, 3548 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of Biochar Application Duration on N₂O Emissions and the Species and Functions of Nitrifying and Denitrifying Microorganisms in Paddy Soils

by Zhongcheng Zhang, Xue Lan, Kai Zhang, Jinrui Zhao, Yanghui Sui, Xinyue Bing, Zhongcheng Sun, Jialing Wang, Wenzhong Zhang and Jiping Gao

Agriculture 2026, 16(4), 433; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16040433 - 13 Feb 2026

Abstract

Further understanding is needed regarding how biochar, over the long term, influences N₂O release and the associated communities of nitrifiers and denitrifiers in paddy soils. This field study examined the responses of these microbial communities to biochar applied for different durations [...] Read more.

Further understanding is needed regarding how biochar, over the long term, influences N₂O release and the associated communities of nitrifiers and denitrifiers in paddy soils. This field study examined the responses of these microbial communities to biochar applied for different durations (2016 or 2023) and at different doses (15 or 45 t·ha⁻¹), alongside a control (CK) without biochar addition. Relative to the control (CK), all biochar amendments led to a comprehensive enhancement of soil physicochemical properties. However, their impacts on N₂O fluxes diverged: cumulative emissions rose by 18.44% under the high-rate (45 t·ha⁻¹), first-year application (NB45) in 2023, but were suppressed across all other biochar treatments. Microbial community composition diverged markedly between treatment chambers, with the abundances of Nitrospira and Chloroflexota showing distinct patterns. In 2016, the two bacterial species exhibited significantly high abundance proportions, with maximum shares of 23.55% (2016, 45 t·ha⁻¹) and 12.16% (2016, 45 t·ha⁻¹), the most abundant in nitrification and denitrification, respectively, which influenced the certainty of changes in the microbial community structure. Biochar enhances nitrogen metabolism in nitrifying microorganisms but inhibits denitrification processes, with the biochar applied in 2023 having a remarkable effect. Overall, biochar application effectively enhances soil physicochemical properties, mitigates N₂O emissions over the long term, and modulates the community structure and functional traits of nitrifying and denitrifying microorganisms. These combined effects contribute to promoting environmental security for sustainable development within agricultural production systems while reducing the carbon footprint. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Soils)

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26 pages, 1369 KB

Open AccessArticle

Response of Soil Nematode Communities and Trophic Structure to Trichoderma atroviride P. Karst., in Olive Groves of Mediterranean Croatia

by Ana Gašparović Pinto, Tomislav Kos, Šime Marcelić, Karolina Vrandečić, Tomislav Filipović and Mirjana Brmež

Agriculture 2026, 16(4), 432; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16040432 - 13 Feb 2026

Abstract

Regenerative agriculture is oriented around restoring soil health through natural processes. In this context, soil biota plays a central role, and bioinoculation represents a potentially effective approach for targeted modification of microbial communities. Among beneficial microorganisms, Trichoderma atroviride is prominent for its biocontrol [...] Read more.

Regenerative agriculture is oriented around restoring soil health through natural processes. In this context, soil biota plays a central role, and bioinoculation represents a potentially effective approach for targeted modification of microbial communities. Among beneficial microorganisms, Trichoderma atroviride is prominent for its biocontrol agent (BCA) activity against plant-parasitic nematodes (PPNs), whereas its effects on free-living nematodes (FLNs) under in vivo conditions remain insufficiently explored. The aim of this study was to assess the response of nematode communities to bioinoculation with T. atroviride as an indicator of soil functional status. A three-year field study was conducted in organic olive orchards at Vodnjan and Nadin on four autochthonous olive cultivars, applying two inoculum doses of T. atroviride: 1 × 10⁶ spores mL⁻¹ (LD) and 1 × 10⁸ spores mL⁻¹ (HD). Bioinoculation increased the diversity of the soil nematode communities at both locations. However, the responses differed between the two inoculum doses. Both doses were associated with an increased abundance of FLNs and a reduced abundance of herbivorous nematodes relative to the control, with LD showing a more consistent and ecologically favourable effect. In combination with biotic and abiotic factors, the LD dose was associated with greater trophic diversity and a more structured soil food web, whereas increasing the inoculum concentration (HD) did not result in additional functional improvement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Application of Trichoderma in Crop Production)

27 pages, 8086 KB

Open AccessArticle

Induced Mutagenesis in Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) Uncovers High-Oleic Acid Mutants Genetically Distinct from the Canonical CtFAD2-1 Allele

by Jitendra Premchand Khatod, Santosh Janardhan Gahukar, Palchamy Kadirvel, Vinod Janardan Dhole, Amrapali Atul Akhare, Praduman Yadav, Pravin Vishwanathrao Jadhav, Pramod Ramchandra Sargar, Krishnananda Pralhad Ingle, Niranjan Ravindra Thakur and Stanislaus Antony Ceasar

Agriculture 2026, 16(4), 431; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16040431 - 13 Feb 2026

Abstract

The high-oleic acid content of the safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) oil, regulated by the fatty acid desaturase 2-1 (CtFAD2-1) gene, provides superior oxidative stability for applications. To explore alternative genetic sources for this trait, we employed induced mutagenesis with gamma [...] Read more.

The high-oleic acid content of the safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) oil, regulated by the fatty acid desaturase 2-1 (CtFAD2-1) gene, provides superior oxidative stability for applications. To explore alternative genetic sources for this trait, we employed induced mutagenesis with gamma irradiation and ethyl methane sulfonate (EMS) for two safflower cultivars, AKS 207 and PKV Pink. Screening of M₂ populations identified several mutants with significantly higher oleic acid content, reaching up to 36.86%. The mutagenized populations also exhibited a wide spectrum of variation for other agronomically important traits, including increased oil content (up to 35.19%), enhanced seed protein (up to 22.51%), and seed size and weight. Correlation and principal component analyses confirmed the antagonistic relationship between oleic and polyunsaturated fatty acids and the positive association among seed size parameters. Molecular profiling using an allele-specific PCR assay targeting the CtFAD2-1 locus revealed that high-oleic mutants did not carry known mutations, suggesting the involvement of alternative alleles, micro-mutations, or other genes regulating oleic acid accumulation. This study provides valuable pre-breeding germplasm with improved agronomic and quality traits and identifies novel genetic sources for high-oleic acid in safflower. These mutants form a new genetic basis for understanding fatty acid biosynthesis and developing next-generation high-stability oil cultivars. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Genetics, Genomics and Breeding)

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25 pages, 2043 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimising Nitrogen Fertiliser Management in a Goji Berry–Alfalfa Intercropping System for Dual Benefits of Emissions Reduction and Yield Enhancement in Arid Regions

by Huile Lv, Guangping Qi, Jianxin Yin, Yanxia Kang, Yanlin Ma, Chungang Jing, Bojie Xie, Haiyan Li, Yuanbo Jiang, Boda Li, Jiapeng Zhu, Chongqin Luo, Mingzhu Wang and Yuqing Yang

Agriculture 2026, 16(4), 430; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16040430 - 13 Feb 2026

Abstract

Background: Amidst the pressing need to balance global food security and climate governance, achieving synergistic optimisation between crop yield enhancement and agricultural greenhouse gas reduction has become the central imperative for advancing the transition to green agriculture. Purpose: To investigate the effects of [...] Read more.

Background: Amidst the pressing need to balance global food security and climate governance, achieving synergistic optimisation between crop yield enhancement and agricultural greenhouse gas reduction has become the central imperative for advancing the transition to green agriculture. Purpose: To investigate the effects of cropping systems and nitrogen fertiliser application on goji berry production systems in arid regions. Method: This study employed two cropping systems (goji berry–alfalfa intercropping (I), goji berry monocropping (M)), and four nitrogen application rates (N0 (0 kg ha⁻¹), N1 (150 kg ha⁻¹), N2 (300 kg ha⁻¹), N3 (450 kg ha⁻¹)). The effects of planting patterns and nitrogen fertiliser regulation on the physicochemical properties of goji berry farmland soil, greenhouse gas emissions, and yield were analysed. Result: (1) Soil temperatures under I were significantly lower than under M, and nitrogen application levels, cropping systems, and the interaction between nitrogen application and cropping systems significantly influenced soil nutrients; (2) Cultivation patterns and nitrogen application levels exerted a highly significant influence on soil greenhouse gas emission fluxes in goji berry fields. CO₂ emission flux peaked under IN3 treatment (annual average: 342.45 mg m⁻² h⁻¹), while N₂O emissions peaked under MN3 (annual average 0.23 mg m⁻² h⁻¹). CH₄ absorption was highest under MN0 (annual average −0.25 mg m⁻² h⁻¹); (3) Cropping systems and nitrogen application rates significantly influence greenhouse gas indicators including cumulative CO₂ emissions, cumulative N₂O emissions, and GWP. At the same nitrogen application level, GWP decreased by 5.63% on average in M compared to I, while under the same cropping system, N3 increased by 62.45% on average in N3 compared to N0; (4) Cropping systems and nitrogen application levels significantly influenced goji berry yield and economic returns. Under the same cropping system, N2 yielded the highest goji berry production and return on investment, with I and M yielding 2768.99 kg ha⁻¹ and 4.06 and 3067.78 kg ha⁻¹ and 3.15, respectively. Conclusions: The IN2 reduced soil greenhouse gas emission fluxes, cumulative emissions, and global warming potential while simultaneously increasing goji berry yield, net revenue, and return on investment. This approach minimises land resource wastage and represents a management model for achieving high yields with reduced emissions in goji berry fields within the Yellow River diversion irrigation districts of Gansu Province and similar ecological zones. Full article

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23 pages, 1785 KB

Open AccessReview

Plant–Soil Microbe Interactions’ Effects on CO₂ Emissions, Soil Organic Carbon and Nutrients Under Different Tillage Systems

by Erastus Wasikoyo, Jozsef Zsembeli, Njomza Gashi, Costa Gumisiriya and Juhasz Csaba

Agriculture 2026, 16(4), 429; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16040429 - 13 Feb 2026

Abstract

Soil microbes are central to carbon and nutrient cycling; however, the influence of tillage practices on plant–soil microbe interactions, particularly their contribution to carbon stabilization under increasing atmospheric CO₂, remains insufficiently understood. This systematic review evaluated 238 studies published between 2010 [...] Read more.

Soil microbes are central to carbon and nutrient cycling; however, the influence of tillage practices on plant–soil microbe interactions, particularly their contribution to carbon stabilization under increasing atmospheric CO₂, remains insufficiently understood. This systematic review evaluated 238 studies published between 2010 and 2025 from Scopus, Web of Science (WoS), and Google Scholar, of which 113 met the inclusion criteria related to carbon dynamics, agro-climatic conditions, and soil–microbial processes. Evidence indicates that conventional plowing (CP) disrupts microbial structure, habitat, and function, resulting in lower soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks and elevated CO₂ emissions. Conversely, conservation tillage promotes rhizodeposition, microbial biomass carbon (MBC) accumulation, and enhanced nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) availability, thereby increasing SOC sequestration and reducing CO₂ emissions. Overall, insights from this study will enhance our understanding of beneficial microbes that enhance carbon stabilization and root exudate compounds, which trigger specifically needed nutrients in the rhizosphere. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Soils)

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26 pages, 13770 KB

Open AccessArticle

Thermodynamic Simulation Analysis and Optimization Design of Potato Harvester Hydraulic System for Hilly–Mountainous Areas

by Mingxing Han, Taiyu Hu, Qi Liu, Kaixiong Hu and Yun Chen

Agriculture 2026, 16(4), 428; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16040428 - 13 Feb 2026

Abstract

Potato harvesters operating in hilly and mountainous areas are often subjected to harsh working conditions such as high temperature, sun exposure, and high torque excavation. Due to the fluid sealing characteristics, closed loop hydraulic systems are prone to high temperatures during long-term continuous [...] Read more.

Potato harvesters operating in hilly and mountainous areas are often subjected to harsh working conditions such as high temperature, sun exposure, and high torque excavation. Due to the fluid sealing characteristics, closed loop hydraulic systems are prone to high temperatures during long-term continuous operation, resulting in a decrease in fluid viscosity, poor lubrication, severe wear, and power attenuation. This study investigates the hydraulic system of potato harvesters in hilly terrain, systematically analyzing its energy transfer process and identifying key heat-generating components. Based on an optimization strategy that extends the flow path of high-temperature fluid within the tank, four distinct tank designs were proposed. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and thermodynamic simulations were conducted to evaluate their heat dissipation performance, followed by full-machine validation testing. Results indicate that the walking and lifting systems are the primary heat sources. The dual pump contributes the highest proportion of heat (52.07%), followed by the walking motor (20.54%). The heat exchanger dissipates 72.91% of the heat, while the hydraulic oil tank accounts for 14.93%. Among the four tank designs, Tank 0 exhibited the fastest temperature rise, reaching a thermal equilibrium of 83.27 °C, whereas Tank 1 had the lowest equilibrium temperature (78.62 °C). Heat dissipation efficiencies for the tanks were 7.8%, 12.9%, 10.1%, and 11.6%, respectively. The residual gas volume fraction decreases significantly as the bubble diameter increases, due to the higher buoyancy and faster rise velocity of larger bubbles, which leads to shorter residence times and more effective precipitation. Tank 1 achieved the lowest equilibrium temperature, indicating the best thermal efficiency. Tank 3 showed the best overall degassing performance, particularly for medium-to-large bubbles. Tank 1 was selected as the optimal final design because it could offer an excellent balance, with very good cooling and competitive degassing (especially for small bubbles). Field tests confirmed a 14.8% reduction in thermal equilibrium temperature for Tank 1 (75.6 °C) compared to Tank 0 (88.7 °C). Simulation and experimental data showed strong agreement, with maximum errors of 9.2% for return fluid temperature, 12.7% for cooling return fluid temperature, 9.7% for pressure, and 8.5% for flow rate. Average errors remained below 8.4% for pressure and 7.6% for flow rate. These results validate the accuracy of the simulation model and the effectiveness of the tank optimization method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Technology)

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21 pages, 9834 KB

Open AccessArticle

Physical Properties and Experimental Study of Cotton Stalks from Typical Arid Regions of Southern Xinjiang Based on DEM

by Guansan Zhu, Xiaowei He, Xufeng Wang, Ji Shi, Jianfei Xing and Long Wang

Agriculture 2026, 16(4), 427; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16040427 - 13 Feb 2026

Abstract

Using the discrete element method to simulate the interaction between cotton stalks and machinery is an effective approach for analyzing the cotton stalk defibration mechanism and optimizing the structural parameters of cotton stalk defibration equipment. To further improve the accuracy of studies on [...] Read more.

Using the discrete element method to simulate the interaction between cotton stalks and machinery is an effective approach for analyzing the cotton stalk defibration mechanism and optimizing the structural parameters of cotton stalk defibration equipment. To further improve the accuracy of studies on the interaction between cotton stalk defibration devices and cotton stalks, cotton stalks from typical arid regions in southern Xinjiang were selected as the research object, and a discrete element parameter calibration study was conducted based on the discrete element method. Considering the differences in cotton stalk diameters, two discrete element models of cotton stalks with diameters of 8.5 mm and 10.5 mm were established. Plackett–Burman screening tests and Box–Behnken tests were employed to calibrate and optimize the discrete element contact parameters for cotton stalk models with different diameters. Optimization was carried out using the load responses obtained from mechanical tests of cotton stalks as the target values, and the optimal parameter combinations of the cotton stalk discrete element models were determined. Finally, the calibrated parameters were validated through tensile tests, uniaxial compression tests, and bending tests of cotton stalks. The simulation results show that the relative errors between the simulated and measured maximum loads for the 8.5 mm- and 10.5 mm-diameter cotton stalk models were 1.21% and 0.08%, respectively, indicating good agreement. These results verify the accuracy and reliability of the established cotton stalk discrete element models and provide data support and a theoretical basis for numerical simulation of the defibration process of cotton stalks with different diameters and for the structural optimization of cotton stalk defibration devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Technology)

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21 pages, 18082 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Dietary Glycerol Fatty Acid Esters on Growth and Nutrient Digestion in Hu sheep: Insights from Jejunum Transcriptome and Microbiome Analysis

by Xinye Li, Xiaokang Lv, Enhong Lu, Junjie Nie, Hongxian Li, Zhanhong Qiao, Fenglou He, Yongchang Luo and Jinling Hua

Agriculture 2026, 16(4), 426; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16040426 - 13 Feb 2026

Abstract

This study evaluated the effects of dietary glycerol fatty acid esters (GFAs) on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, nitrogen metabolism, jejunal microbiota, and intestinal transcriptome in Hu sheep. Thirty-six 4–5-month-old male Hu sheep were randomly assigned to three groups receiving a basal diet [...] Read more.

This study evaluated the effects of dietary glycerol fatty acid esters (GFAs) on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, nitrogen metabolism, jejunal microbiota, and intestinal transcriptome in Hu sheep. Thirty-six 4–5-month-old male Hu sheep were randomly assigned to three groups receiving a basal diet (GFA0%) or diets supplemented with 0.15% (GFA0.15%) or 0.20% (GFA0.20%) GFA for 52 days following a 7-day adaptation period. Growth performance parameters were unaffected (p > 0.05); however, feed-to-gain ratio decreased linearly and quadratically with increasing GFA levels (p < 0.001). GFA supplementation improved ether extract (EE) and neutral detergent fiber (NDF) digestibility (p < 0.05), neutral detergent fiber ADF digestibility showed a linear increase(linear = 0.025), significantly reduced fecal and urinary nitrogen excretion, and enhanced nitrogen utilization (p < 0.05). Jejunal microbiota analysis revealed significant genus-level separation among groups, with increased Bacillota abundance and the enrichment of Acetitomaculum and [Ruminococcus]_gauvreauii_group in the GFA0.20% group. Functional prediction indicated enhanced fiber degradation, nitrogen metabolism, and host interaction functions. Transcriptomic analysis showed dose-dependent gene regulation, with GFA0.15% primarily enriching immune-related pathways, while GFA0.20% additionally activated lipid and steroid metabolism pathways. Integrated microbiome-host analyses demonstrated coordinated regulation of nutrient metabolism and immune responses. Overall, dietary inclusion of 0.20% GFAs optimized feed efficiency, nutrient utilization, and intestinal metabolic-immune function in Hu sheep. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Farm Animal Production)

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1 pages, 127 KB

Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Xu et al. Distinct Pathways of Cadmium Immobilization as Affected by Wheat Straw- and Soybean Meal-Mediated Reductive Soil Disinfestation. Agriculture 2026, 16, 242

by Tengqi Xu, Jingyi Mei, Cui Li, Lijun Hou, Kun Wang, Risheng Xu, Xiaomeng Wei, Jingwei Zhang, Jianxiao Song, Zuoqiang Yuan, Xiaohong Tian and Yanlong Chen

Agriculture 2026, 16(4), 425; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16040425 - 13 Feb 2026

Abstract

In the original publication [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Soils)

31 pages, 7886 KB

Open AccessArticle

Detection and Precision Application Path Planning for Cotton Spider Mite Based on UAV Multispectral Remote Sensing

by Hua Zhuo, Mei Yang, Bei Wu, Yuqin Xiao, Jungang Ma, Yanhong Chen, Manxian Yang, Yuqing Li, Yikun Zhao and Pengfei Shi

Agriculture 2026, 16(4), 424; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16040424 - 12 Feb 2026

Abstract

Cotton spider mites pose a significant threat to cotton production, while traditional manual investigation and blanket pesticide application are inefficient for precision pest management in large-scale cotton fields. To address this challenge, this study developed an integrated UAV multispectral remote sensing system for [...] Read more.

Cotton spider mites pose a significant threat to cotton production, while traditional manual investigation and blanket pesticide application are inefficient for precision pest management in large-scale cotton fields. To address this challenge, this study developed an integrated UAV multispectral remote sensing system for spider mite monitoring and precision spraying. Multispectral imagery was acquired from cotton fields in Shaya County, Xinjiang using UAV-mounted cameras, and vegetation indices including RDVI, MSAVI, SAVI, and OSAVI were selected through feature optimization. Comparative evaluation of three machine learning models (Logistic Regression, Random Forest, and Support Vector Machine) and two deep learning models (1D-CNN and MobileNetV2) was conducted. Considering classification performance and computational efficiency for real-time UAV deployment, Random Forest was identified as optimal, achieving 85.47% accuracy, an 85.24% F1-score, and an AUC of 0.912. The model generated centimeter-level spatial distribution maps for precise spray zone delineation. An improved NSGA-III multi-objective path optimization algorithm was proposed, incorporating PCA-based heuristic initialization, differential evolution operators, and co-evolutionary dual population strategies to optimize deadheading distance, energy consumption, operation time, turning frequency, and load balancing. Ablation study validated the effectiveness of each component, with the fully improved algorithm reducing IGD by 59.94% and increasing HV by 5.90% compared to standard NSGA-III. Field validation showed 98.5% coverage of infested areas with only 3.6% path repetition, effectively minimizing pesticide waste and phytotoxicity risks. This study established a complete technical pipeline from monitoring to application, providing a valuable reference for precision pest control in large-scale cotton production systems. The framework demonstrated robust performance across multiple field sites, though its generalization is currently limited to one geographic region and growth stage. Future work will extend its application to additional cotton varieties, growth stages, and geographic regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Advances in Smart Agriculture with Remote Sensing as the Core and Its Applications in Crops Field)

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32 pages, 4917 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Cultivation Strategies Through Crop Yield Prediction for Rice and Maize Using a Hybrid CatBoost-NSGA-II Model

by Yuyang Zhang, Amir Abdullah Khan, Wei Zhao and Xufeng Xiao

Agriculture 2026, 16(4), 423; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16040423 - 12 Feb 2026

Abstract

In light of the dual challenges of global climate change and the pressure on agricultural resources, increasing crop yields and resource utilization efficiency has become the key to ensuring food security and sustainable agricultural development. This study takes environmental factors and cultivation measures [...] Read more.

In light of the dual challenges of global climate change and the pressure on agricultural resources, increasing crop yields and resource utilization efficiency has become the key to ensuring food security and sustainable agricultural development. This study takes environmental factors and cultivation measures as input and crop yield as output; systematically compares five ensemble learning models: RF, LightGBM, GBDT, XGBoost, and CatBoost; and then screens out the CatBoost algorithm with the best performance. The CatBoost-Nondominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II (NSGA-II) hybrid model was constructed. This model provides data-driven solutions and strategies for cultivating rice and maize through precise yield prediction and multi-objective optimization. To enhance the interpretability of the model, we used the SHAP method to parse the predicted behavior to ensure that the results conform to common agricultural knowledge. Based on this, we constructed a constrained multi-objective optimization problem and solved it using the NSGA-II algorithm to obtain a Pareto frontier that strikes a balance among yield, resource consumption and growth cycle. Case studies showed that CatBoost performs best in the selected datasets. SHAP identified precipitation, fertilization/irrigation intensity and temperature as the main influencing factors; NSGA-II generated a well-distributed Pareto solution set, allowing for the flexible selection of representative cultivation schemes based on different management objectives. This modeling paradigm showed good generalization ability and can be extended to other crop cultivation strategy optimization scenarios based on tabular data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Artificial Intelligence and Digital Agriculture)

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14 pages, 946 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimal Plot Size in Experimentation with Clonal Cacao Seedlings

by Letícia Galvão Morais, Vinicius de Souza Oliveira, Jasmyn Tognere, Carla da Silva Dias, Enilton Nascimento de Santana, Karin Tesch Kuhlcamp, Lúcio de Oliveira Arantes, Carlos Alberto Spaggiari Souza, Sara Dousseau-Arantes and Edilson Romais Schmildt

Agriculture 2026, 16(4), 422; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16040422 - 12 Feb 2026

Abstract

The cacao tree (Theobroma cacao L.) is a crop of great economic importance to Brazil and has undergone several breeding processes that, among other things, have made it possible to obtain several self-compatible genotypes, ensuring that there is no genotypic variation in [...] Read more.

The cacao tree (Theobroma cacao L.) is a crop of great economic importance to Brazil and has undergone several breeding processes that, among other things, have made it possible to obtain several self-compatible genotypes, ensuring that there is no genotypic variation in the crop, with the differences observed in the plants being caused only by the environment. For this to continue, the proper and reliable execution of scientific experiments is essential, and quantifying the material needed to carry out these experiments, i.e., the plot size, is an important step. This requires a scientific justification for choosing the plot size. In the literature, various plot sizes are adopted in experiments with seedlings. Therefore, the objective was to determine the optimal plot size for experiments with clonal cacao seedlings. The method adopted was the modified maximum curvature method using a bootstrap resampling simulation with 2000 replacements. The genotypes CCN10, CCN51, CP2204, CP2176, PS1319, and PH16 were evaluated based on 13 morphological characteristics and three quality indices used in morphological characterization studies of seedlings. The optimal plot size for experimentation with cocoa seedlings is nine plants per experimental plot. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Production)

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