Toxins

12 pages, 3441 KB

Open AccessArticle

Molecular Identification and Recombinant Expression of a Novel Antifungal Protein from Wheat-Associated Paenibacillus polymyxa

by Xiaohong Ge, Zhikun Chen, Haoyuan Guo and Junjian Ran

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 318; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070318 - 22 Jul 2026

Viewed by 255

Abstract

Fusarium head blight (FHB) caused by Fusarium graminearum leads to huge yield losses and mycotoxin contamination in wheat globally. Paenibacillus polymyxa with strong antagonistic activity was preliminarily identified. To clarify the key antifungal component, an extracellular protein was purified via ammonium sulfate precipitation, [...] Read more.

Fusarium head blight (FHB) caused by Fusarium graminearum leads to huge yield losses and mycotoxin contamination in wheat globally. Paenibacillus polymyxa with strong antagonistic activity was preliminarily identified. To clarify the key antifungal component, an extracellular protein was purified via ammonium sulfate precipitation, DEAE-52 anion-exchange and Sephadex G-75 gel filtration chromatography. SDS-PAGE showed a single band at 76 kDa. liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis confirmed this protein belongs to glycosyl hydrolase family with 86% sequence coverage. Biochemical characterization showed that the crude protein was stable at 40–90 °C and pH 3.0–9.0, sensitive to proteinase K, trypsin and neutral protease. The purified 76 kDa protein exhibited antifungal activity against F. graminearum. The gene encoding this protein was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli. The renatured recombinant protein p76kd showed comparable antifungal activity to the native protein. This study purified and characterized a 76 kDa protein annotated as a glycosyl hydrolase via LC-MS/MS peptide matching; its antifungal function is presumed to originate from the conserved glycosyl hydrolase domain according to existing homologous research, which is distinct from previously reported lipopeptides or uncharacterized complexes. This protein provides a promising candidate for the biocontrol of FHB and related fungal diseases in cereal crops. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mycotoxins)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

13 pages, 3582 KB

Open AccessArticle

Botulinum Toxin Treatment in Musician’s Dystonia: Long-Term-Effects and Influencing Factors

by Till-Alexander Plinkert, Johanna Doll-Lee, Edoardo Passarotto, Christos I. Ioannou, Eckart Altenmüller and André Lee

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 317; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070317 - 21 Jul 2026

Viewed by 493

Abstract

Musician’s Dystonia (MD) is a task-specific movement disorder that occurs while playing an instrument and severely limits a musician’s ability to perform. While currently no causal therapies are available, symptomatic therapies, particularly the injection of botulinum toxin (BoNT), offer a therapeutic option. The [...] Read more.

Musician’s Dystonia (MD) is a task-specific movement disorder that occurs while playing an instrument and severely limits a musician’s ability to perform. While currently no causal therapies are available, symptomatic therapies, particularly the injection of botulinum toxin (BoNT), offer a therapeutic option. The present study presents a 30-year longitudinal evaluation of the clinical course of 156 patients with MD treated with BoNT at a specialist outpatient facility. The evaluation took into account known risk factors, such as family history, time to treatment, initial severity of symptoms, gender, and age at the onset of playing an instrument and the onset of symptoms. The study showed that more severe initial symptoms, which entailed a larger number of muscles requiring treatment, predicted a poorer long-term outcome. Furthermore, a longer interval between symptom onset and the commencement of BoNT treatment was also associated with a poorer outcome. These results highlight the importance of rapid diagnosis and the early initiation of BoNT therapy in MD patients. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Toxins)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 1041 KB

Open AccessReview

Fumonisin-Induced Disruptions in Sphingolipid Metabolism: Implications for Steroid Hormone Biosynthesis and Hormone Modulation

by Edward Agyarko, Omeralfaroug Ali, Lucy Ikanya, Attila Zsarnovszky, Melinda Kovács and András Szabó

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 316; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070316 - 21 Jul 2026

Viewed by 373

Abstract

Fumonisins, a class of mycotoxins produced primarily by Fusarium fungi, pose significant health risks to humans and animals through contamination of the food and feed chains. They rank among the most prevalent mycotoxins contaminating maize and maize-derived feeds worldwide, resulting in chronic dietary [...] Read more.

Fumonisins, a class of mycotoxins produced primarily by Fusarium fungi, pose significant health risks to humans and animals through contamination of the food and feed chains. They rank among the most prevalent mycotoxins contaminating maize and maize-derived feeds worldwide, resulting in chronic dietary exposure of both humans and livestock populations across many regions. Their core mechanism of action is the inhibition of ceramide synthases (CerS), which disrupts the essential balance of sphingolipid metabolism by causing an accumulation of free sphingoid bases and a depletion of complex sphingolipids. Both sphingolipids and steroidogenesis are metabolically linked to mitochondrial, membrane and kinase-cascade mechanisms; hence this metabolic disruption may consequently affect steroid hormone biosynthesis, triggering toxicity phenotypes marked by impaired gametogenesis hormonal imbalances, and compromised pregnancy outcomes across mammalian species. Despite the established link between fumonisins and sphingolipid disruption, there is a gap in the literature, as no study to date has integrated sphingolipid disruptions with steroid hormone levels in a dose-dependent manner within reproductive tissues in vivo. This review synthesizes current scientific knowledge across mammalian species to highlight the risks fumonisins pose to reproductive physiology and to identify directions for future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Effects of Mycotoxins on Reproductive Physiology and Other Health in Animals and Humans)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

16 pages, 9353 KB

Open AccessArticle

Curcumin Precisely Regulates Ochratoxin A-Induced Apoptosis in Porcine Renal Epithelial Cells via the PI3K/AKT/mTOR Signaling Pathway

by Yingyi Wu, Shuying Lin, Chuhan Shao, Cheng Zhang, Kaiyin Xie, Kaizhao Zhang, Xiaohong Huang and Hongjie Cui

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 315; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070315 - 20 Jul 2026

Viewed by 258

Abstract

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a widespread nephrotoxic mycotoxin that contaminates cereal grains and feed, posing serious threats to animal health and food safety. Although curcumin has been reported to exert protective biological activities, it remains unclear whether its protection against OTA-induced renal epithelial [...] Read more.

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a widespread nephrotoxic mycotoxin that contaminates cereal grains and feed, posing serious threats to animal health and food safety. Although curcumin has been reported to exert protective biological activities, it remains unclear whether its protection against OTA-induced renal epithelial injury is mediated by broad transcriptomic reversal or by selective regulation of key survival pathways. This study investigated the protective effect of curcumin against OTA-induced apoptosis in porcine renal epithelial (PK-15) cells and explored the underlying molecular mechanism using transcriptome sequencing combined with molecular validation. PK-15 cells were treated with 8 μg/mL OTA (approximately 19.8 μmol/L), 10 μmol/L curcumin, or their combination. Cell viability, LDH release, apoptotic morphology, mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm), and apoptosis rate were assessed by CCK-8, LDH assay, Hoechst 33342 staining, JC-1 staining, and flow cytometry. Transcriptome sequencing was performed to identify global gene expression changes and key signaling pathways, followed by qRT-PCR and Western blot validation of apoptosis-related factors and the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway. OTA markedly reduced cell viability, increased LDH release, induced nuclear condensation and apoptotic body formation, and decreased ΔΨm. Transcriptome analysis revealed that OTA caused extensive transcriptional dysregulation (11,707 differentially expressed genes), whereas curcumin selectively modulated 498 genes, of which 380 overlapped with OTA-responsive genes. KEGG enrichment identified the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway as a key regulatory target. At the mRNA level, OTA upregulated Bax and Caspase-3 and downregulated Bcl-2; corresponding changes were observed at the protein level, and curcumin reversed these effects. Furthermore, OTA reduced the mRNA levels of PI3K, AKT, and mTOR and the protein abundance of PI3K, p-AKT, and mTOR, whereas curcumin partially restored these changes. In conclusion, curcumin alleviates OTA-induced mitochondrial apoptosis in PK-15 cells mainly by restoring PI3K/AKT/mTOR-associated survival signaling and Bcl-2/Bax/Caspase-3 balance rather than by broadly reversing the entire transcriptomic disturbance. These findings provide mechanistic insight into curcumin-mediated protection against OTA-induced renal epithelial toxicity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mycotoxins)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

15 pages, 292 KB

Open AccessArticle

Biomarkers, Neurophysiological and Clinical Correlates Following Botulinum Toxin Treatment in Various Clinical Presentations of Cervical Dystonia: A Controlled Study Across Peak and Waning Response Phases

by Artur Drużdż, Małgorzata Dudzic, Joanna Poszwa, Igor Bednarski, Katarzyna Hojan and Jolanta Dorszewska

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 314; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070314 - 19 Jul 2026

Viewed by 363

Abstract

Cervical dystonia (CD) is a focal dystonia typically treated with botulinum toxin type A (BoNT-A), but objective biomarkers of disease state and treatment response are limited. In a prospective controlled observational study with within-subject phase comparison, we evaluated clinical, neurophysiological, and biochemical markers [...] Read more.

Cervical dystonia (CD) is a focal dystonia typically treated with botulinum toxin type A (BoNT-A), but objective biomarkers of disease state and treatment response are limited. In a prospective controlled observational study with within-subject phase comparison, we evaluated clinical, neurophysiological, and biochemical markers at two time points (waning and peak response phases) within the BoNT-A injection interval in 30 CD individuals (with caput, collis and mixed patterns) and 25 healthy controls. We measured clinical status (TWSTRS and VAS pain), neurophysiology (F-wave minimal latency (F-min) and cutaneous silent period (CSP) indices) and plasma biochemical markers (neurofilament light chain (NfL) and zonulin). Compared with controls, CD patients showed lower NfL levels, higher zonulin, shorter CSP end duration and shorter CSP-derived central conduction time (CSP-CCT); nerve conduction velocity and CSP onset were similar. From waning to peak, TWSTRS (all subscales) and VAS improved, zonulin decreased, NfL increased, CSP end duration and CSP-CCT increased, and Fmin slightly prolonged. Changes in CSP measures correlated with pain (VAS and TWSTRS pain), while zonulin changes showed no significant correlations and NfL changes correlated weakly/negatively with CSP end time. Phase-dependent changes in biochemical and neurophysiological markers were observed alongside clinical measures across the BoNT-A treatment cycle in CD, suggesting potential associations between peripheral biochemical markers, central inhibitory measures, and treatment phase. These findings may warrant further investigation of multimodal biomarker approaches in CD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Botulinum Toxins: Past Successes and New Goals)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

27 pages, 1167 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Biological Detoxification of Aflatoxin B1: A Systematic Review of Microbial and Enzymatic Strategies, Mechanisms, and Applications in Food and Feed Systems

by Sarra Rafai, Lara Manyes, Ana Moreno, Alessandra Cimbalo, Giuseppe Meca and Victor Dopazo

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 313; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070313 - 18 Jul 2026

Viewed by 489

Abstract

Contamination of food and feed by aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) remains a major global concern due to its toxicity, carcinogenicity, and persistence in the food chain. Environmental and climatic pressures continue to favor aflatoxigenic fungal contamination, highlighting the need for effective and sustainable detoxification [...] Read more.

Contamination of food and feed by aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) remains a major global concern due to its toxicity, carcinogenicity, and persistence in the food chain. Environmental and climatic pressures continue to favor aflatoxigenic fungal contamination, highlighting the need for effective and sustainable detoxification strategies. Biological detoxification has emerged as a promising alternative to conventional physical and chemical treatments. This systematic review, conducted following PRISMA guidelines, summarizes microbial and enzymatic approaches for AFB1 detoxification, focusing on bacteria, yeasts, and microbial enzymes. The literature shows a predominance of bacterial systems, especially lactic acid bacteria and Bacillus species, mainly acting through adsorption, fungal growth inhibition, and suppression of aflatoxin biosynthesis. Yeasts, although less represented, also showed promising detoxification capacities through adsorption and biodegradation-related mechanisms. Enzymatic systems achieved the highest efficiencies, particularly oxidative enzymes such as laccases and dye-decolorizing peroxidases, often exceeding 90% detoxification under optimized conditions. However, industrial application remains limited by laboratory-scale validation, variability among protocols, incomplete toxicological assessment of degradation products, and limited evidence in complex food and feed matrices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradation and Biodetoxification of Mycotoxins)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

26 pages, 1519 KB

Open AccessReview

Uremic Toxins and Hemodiafiltration: From Molecular Mechanisms to Clinical Outcomes

by Stefano Stuard, Charles Hugh-Jones, Dinesh Chatoth, Michael Anger, Alfred Gagel and Bernard Canaud

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 312; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070312 - 17 Jul 2026

Viewed by 747

Abstract

Uremic syndrome results from the accumulation of biologically active solutes that contribute to inflammation, oxidative stress, endothelial dysfunction, cardiovascular disease, anemia, CKD–mineral and bone disorder, and protein-energy wasting in patients with end-stage kidney disease. While conventional hemodialysis efficiently removes small water-soluble compounds, clearance [...] Read more.

Uremic syndrome results from the accumulation of biologically active solutes that contribute to inflammation, oxidative stress, endothelial dysfunction, cardiovascular disease, anemia, CKD–mineral and bone disorder, and protein-energy wasting in patients with end-stage kidney disease. While conventional hemodialysis efficiently removes small water-soluble compounds, clearance of middle molecules and protein-bound uremic toxins remains limited. Post-dilution hemodiafiltration (HDF) combines diffusion and convection to enhance removal across a broader molecular-weight spectrum. This review summarizes the mechanisms of uremic toxin accumulation, the biologic and clinical relevance of major retained solutes, and current evidence supporting improved toxin removal with HDF. Randomized trials, meta-analyses, and observational studies have associated HDF with reduced inflammatory burden, improved hemodynamic tolerance, and favorable clinical outcomes, supporting its role as an advanced strategy for targeting the broader spectrum of uremic toxicity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights in Uremic Toxins and Toxin-Related Outcomes in Chronic Kidney Disease)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 3792 KB

Open AccessReview

Targeting Uremic Toxins in Chronic Kidney Disease: Current Challenges and Emerging Therapeutic Strategies

by Regiane Stafim da Cunha, Paulo Cézar Gregório, Amanda Carina Coelho Morais, Fellype Carvalho Barreto and Andréa Emilia Marques Stinghen

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 311; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070311 - 17 Jul 2026

Viewed by 592

Abstract

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) represents a significant public health problem. Patients with CKD have high morbidity and mortality, mainly due to cardiovascular diseases. As CKD progresses, impaired renal clearance leads to the progressive accumulation of uremic toxins, culminating in deleterious effects on multiple [...] Read more.

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) represents a significant public health problem. Patients with CKD have high morbidity and mortality, mainly due to cardiovascular diseases. As CKD progresses, impaired renal clearance leads to the progressive accumulation of uremic toxins, culminating in deleterious effects on multiple organ systems. Uremic toxins contribute to cardiovascular disease by inducing inflammation, oxidative stress, and endothelial barrier dysfunction, thereby promoting atherosclerotic processes. They are also potentially implicated in neurological impairment, bone disorders, and sarcopenia. Some uremic toxins originate from dietary components and gut microbiota metabolism, which are key mechanisms and pathways in uremic toxicity. Current dialysis therapies only partially mitigate uremic toxicity, highlighting the need for strategies that reduce uremic toxin generation as well as more efficient dialysis modalities. Given the importance of uremic toxins in CKD progression, this review provides a comprehensive overview of uremic toxicity, focusing on its pathophysiological mechanisms, its relationship with the gut microbiota, and emerging interventions to mitigate its deleterious effects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Treatment and Management of Uremic Toxins in Chronic Kidney Disease Patients)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

16 pages, 505 KB

Open AccessReview

Masseter Muscle in Somatosensory Tinnitus and Potential Therapeutic Role for Botulinum Toxin Type A: A Scoping Review

by Jacopo Gardellin, Marta D’Angelo, Lorenzo Spadotto, Giacomo Checchin, Giovanni Gaetti, Luca Gambolò, Giuseppe Stirparo and Nicola Merli

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 310; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070310 - 17 Jul 2026

Viewed by 589

Abstract

Background: Increasing evidence supports the existence of a somatosensory subtype of tinnitus, in which craniocervical–craniomandibular structures can modulate tinnitus perception also through central auditory pathways. Despite growing mechanistic evidence, no targeted pharmacological intervention has been validated for this subtype. Objectives: This [...] Read more.

Background: Increasing evidence supports the existence of a somatosensory subtype of tinnitus, in which craniocervical–craniomandibular structures can modulate tinnitus perception also through central auditory pathways. Despite growing mechanistic evidence, no targeted pharmacological intervention has been validated for this subtype. Objectives: This study aimed to synthesize the anatomical and neurophysiological rationale linking masseter hyperactivity to somatosensory tinnitus and to discuss BoNT/A as a hypothesis-generating therapeutic option requiring clinical validation. Methods: A PRISMA-ScR-guided scoping review was conducted in MEDLINE and EMBASE, using three complementary search lines (last search: 31 May 2026). Results: Of 284 records screened, four studies met eligibility criteria: three from the search strategy on BoNT/A and tinnitus and one from the search strategy on tinnitus and masticatory dysfunction. One additional record (Ranoux and Levine, 2024) was identified through manual search, describing tinnitus improvement following periauricular and splenius capitis BoNT/A injections, with masseter/temporalis injection proposed as an alternative site in the same protocol. Conclusions: Current anatomical and neurophysiological evidence supports a plausible link between masseter hyperactivity and somatosensory tinnitus in selected patients. BoNT/A is established for reducing masseter hyperactivity and may theoretically reduce abnormal somatosensory input; however, direct clinical evidence for tinnitus improvement remains insufficient. Its use should be considered experimental or hypothesis-based, within a multidisciplinary framework and with standardized outcome assessment. Prospective controlled trials are needed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study on Botulinum Toxin in Facial Diseases and Aesthetics)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 917 KB

Open AccessArticle

Developing Tools to Assess Airborne Cyanobacterial Toxins in Southwest Florida, USA

by James S. Metcalf, Manuel Aparicio, Sandra A. Banack, Jason Pim, John R. Cassani and Paul A. Cox

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 309; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070309 - 16 Jul 2026

Viewed by 1103

Abstract

Cyanobacterial and harmful algal blooms are common components of the waters in and around Southwest Florida and are sufficiently frequent to be of concern with respect to adverse effects on short- and long-term human and animal health. Currently, the contribution of airborne exposure [...] Read more.

Cyanobacterial and harmful algal blooms are common components of the waters in and around Southwest Florida and are sufficiently frequent to be of concern with respect to adverse effects on short- and long-term human and animal health. Currently, the contribution of airborne exposure to cyanobacterial toxins is not as advanced as for the other known human exposure routes such as consumption of contaminated water or fish. An airborne monitoring device named Airborne Detection for Algae Monitoring (ADAM) was developed to collect air samples in the proximity of algal and/or cyanobacterial blooms to examine the relationship between naturally occurring toxins in the air and those in proximal Floridian waters. Twenty-one air and water samplings were performed between July and December 2021 using a filter and impinger system for airborne components, along with a water sample from the same location. Samples were assessed for microcystins, anatoxin-a, cylindrospermopsin, saxitoxin and BMAA and isomers. Furthermore, as Karenia brevis is common in this area, brevetoxins were also assessed in air samples. Although very few large-scale cyanobacterial bloom events were observed at sampling locations, cyanobacterial and algal toxins were present in the majority of samples at low concentration. Data obtained from ADAM indicate that people may be chronically exposed to low concentrations of cyanobacterial toxins and that further assessment is required to help protect human health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Study of Harmful Microalgae and Biotoxins: In Vitro and In Vivo Approaches)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

15 pages, 21135 KB

Open AccessArticle

Feasibility of Hyperspectral Imaging and Machine Learning for Rapid Prescreening of Aflatoxin B₁ in Maize Kernels

by Yongping Jiang, Bowen Tai, Yufan Yang, Xinyue Zhang, Jing Jin and Fuguo Xing

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 308; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070308 - 15 Jul 2026

Viewed by 339

Abstract

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) contamination in maize poses serious risks to food and feed safety; however, conventional laboratory-based assays are often constrained by time and throughput for large-scale screening. This study proposes a hyperspectral imaging (HSI) workflow for rapid, non-destructive prediction [...] Read more.

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) contamination in maize poses serious risks to food and feed safety; however, conventional laboratory-based assays are often constrained by time and throughput for large-scale screening. This study proposes a hyperspectral imaging (HSI) workflow for rapid, non-destructive prediction of AFB₁. A total of 236 hyperspectral images were acquired in the 400–1000 nm range (256 bands) from maize samples covering a broad gradient of AFB₁ contamination, and spectral features were extracted from regions of interest (ROI) for model development. The results demonstrate that appropriate spectral preprocessing and wavelength selection play a critical role in improving model robustness, with the SNV–CARS–KNN model achieving the best prediction performance (test R² = 0.9341, RMSE = 4.8938). Based on the predicted AFB₁ values, contamination grading was further explored to enable rapid screening and risk management in agricultural applications. Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) contamination in maize poses substantial risks to food and feed safety, creating a need for rapid screening tools that can support high-throughput prescreening. In this study, hyperspectral imaging (HSI) was explored as a non-destructive approach for the preliminary assessment of AFB₁ contamination in maize kernels. A total of 236 hyperspectral images were collected in the 400–1000 nm range, and region-of-interest spectra were extracted for model development. Spectral preprocessing and wavelength selection strategies were compared in combination with several conventional regression models to examine their influence on predictive performance using the current dataset. Among the tested combinations, the SNV–CARS–KNN model showed the most favorable performance on the held-out test set (R² = 0.9341; RMSE = 4.8938). In addition, a grade-based classification derived from predicted values was explored as an application-oriented extension for rapid risk sorting. However, the study was conducted on artificially contaminated samples and relied on rapid-test-derived reference values, so the findings should be interpreted as a proof of concept rather than a fully validated quantitative method. Overall, the results support the potential of HSI for rapid prescreening of AFB₁ in maize and provide a basis for further validation using more rigorous reference analysis and independent sample sets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Analytical Technologies in Mycotoxins Detection for the One Health)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

12 pages, 1033 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Venom Gland Transcriptomic and Venom Proteomic Analyses of the Digger Wasp Cerceris japonica

by Kohei Kazuma, Naoki Tani, Katsuhiro Konno, Migaku Kawaguchi and Hidetoshi Inagaki

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 307; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070307 - 15 Jul 2026

Viewed by 367

Abstract

Digger wasps are solitary apoid wasps that excavate ground nests and use venom to paralyze insect prey. Recent phylogenetic analyses suggest that digger wasps belong to an ancient lineage of aculeate Hymenoptera and share an evolutionary ancestry with other venomous hymenopterans, including bees [...] Read more.

Digger wasps are solitary apoid wasps that excavate ground nests and use venom to paralyze insect prey. Recent phylogenetic analyses suggest that digger wasps belong to an ancient lineage of aculeate Hymenoptera and share an evolutionary ancestry with other venomous hymenopterans, including bees and ants. Although the venoms of ants, bees, and social wasps have been extensively studied, those of digger wasps remain poorly characterized in terms of their composition, molecular diversity, and biological activity. In this study, we investigated the venom of the digger wasp Cerceris japonica using integrated transcriptomic and proteomic analyses. We identified 19 toxin-like proteins and peptides, 14 non-toxin-associated components, and 11 novel peptides and proteins with no detectable similarity to known peptides and proteins. Among these, peptide Cj 2 exhibited insecticidal activity but showed no antimicrobial, hemolytic, or nicotinic acetylcholine receptor-modulating activities. These findings provide new insights into the molecular diversity and biological activities of digger wasp venom, expand our understanding of venom evolution in venomous hymenopterans, and serve as a framework for elucidating the conserved and lineage-specific features of hymenopteran venoms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Venomics Insights into the Evolutionary Biology of Peptide Toxins in Marine and Terrestrial Organisms)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

14 pages, 741 KB

Open AccessArticle

Masseter Muscle Morphometric Changes After Botulinum Toxin Type A Injection: A Prospective 3-Month Study

by Matteo Val, Ludovica Zucchini, Matteo Pollis, Luca Guarda-Nardini, Luca Lombardo, Daniele Manfredini and Anna Colonna

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 306; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070306 - 15 Jul 2026

Viewed by 655

Abstract

Myofascial pain of the masticatory muscles, frequently associated with bruxism, is a prevalent condition with substantial impact on quality of life. Botulinum toxin type A (BoNT-A) is used as an adjunctive treatment for refractory cases, but the temporal pattern of masseter morphometric change [...] Read more.

Myofascial pain of the masticatory muscles, frequently associated with bruxism, is a prevalent condition with substantial impact on quality of life. Botulinum toxin type A (BoNT-A) is used as an adjunctive treatment for refractory cases, but the temporal pattern of masseter morphometric change after injection remained incompletely characterised. This prospective observational pilot study was designed and reported strictly as a 3D imaging and morphometric methodology study; clinical pain and patient-reported outcomes were outside its scope and were not assessed. Eleven adults with myofascial pain and bruxism received BoNT-A (100 U total: 30 U per masseter side, 20 U per anterior temporalis side). Structured-light 3D facial scans (EinScan H, Shining 3D) were acquired at baseline (T0), one month (T1), and three months (T2). A standardised masseter region of interest (“TGL area”) was defined using cutaneous landmarks (tragus, gonion, labial commissure). Measurement precision was confirmed by intra-session repeatability (0.083 ± 0.020 mm), registration accuracy (RMS error 0.189–0.200 mm), and excellent landmark reliability (mean ICC [3, 1] = 0.955, 95% CI: 0.843–0.991). Repeated-measures ANOVA showed a significant effect of time on bilateral surface displacement (F(1.85,18.52) = 14.39, p < 0.001, η²G = 0.44), with significant reductions at T1 (–0.716 ± 0.480 mm; p = 0.002, Hedges’ g = 2.03) and T2 (–0.847 ± 0.588 mm; p = 0.002, g = 1.96) relative to baseline, and no significant change between T1 and T2 (p = 1.000). Changes were bilaterally symmetric (symmetry index at T1: 0.231 ± 0.154 mm). These findings indicate that 3D structured-light scanning reliably detects subtle facial contour changes after BoNT-A injection and may complement clinical and patient-reported assessments; the pilot design and small sample preclude definitive conclusions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Efficacy of Botulinum Toxin in Orofacial Pain)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

17 pages, 519 KB

Open AccessArticle

Dietary Inclusion of an Anti-Mycotoxin Additive for Breeder Hens and Roosters Alleviates the Toxic Effects of Zearalenone on Fertility Rates and Chick Quality

by Vinícius Moura, Mário Lopes, Lucas Butturi, Barbara Doupovec, Giovana Longhini, Marcelo Viviani, Fabricia Roque, Vitor Pais, Lúcio Araújo and Cristiane Araujo

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 305; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070305 - 14 Jul 2026

Viewed by 425

Abstract

Mycotoxins are a worldwide hazard to animal feed and capable of deleterious effects on poultry. The present study aimed to evaluate the effects of an anti-mycotoxin feed additive on productive and reproductive parameters of breeder hens and roosters fed diets experimentally contaminated with [...] Read more.

Mycotoxins are a worldwide hazard to animal feed and capable of deleterious effects on poultry. The present study aimed to evaluate the effects of an anti-mycotoxin feed additive on productive and reproductive parameters of breeder hens and roosters fed diets experimentally contaminated with zearalenone (ZEN). A total of 288 hens and 32 roosters (Cobb 500) were randomly distributed in one of four dietary treatments, with nine hens and a rooster per pen and eight pens per treatment: control (C); C + anti-mycotoxin (AM) additive; C + ZEN; and C + AM + ZEN. The trial lasted from 28 to 65 weeks of age. Egg production, egg quality, fertility, hatchability, and hatch rates of fertile eggs were evaluated, as were sperm morphology and abnormalities, and chick quality. ZEN inclusion did not affect egg production but had harmful effects on albumen, egg quality and weight, eggshell thickness, egg fertility and hatchability, and chick length and quality, compared to C, with this negative effect partially alleviated by AM inclusion. Both AM and ZEN, however, decreased spermatic concentration, without affecting sperm morphology or abnormality. The anti-mycotoxin additive effectively mitigated the deleterious effects of ZEN on reproductive parameters and egg quality indexes when fed to breeder hens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Effects of Mycotoxins on Reproductive Physiology and Other Health in Animals and Humans)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

23 pages, 2310 KB

Open AccessReview

Anatomical Rationale for Motor Endplate Zone-Targeted Botulinum Toxin Injection in the Masseter Muscle: A Hypothesis-Generating Review

by Kazuya Yoshida

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 304; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070304 - 14 Jul 2026

Viewed by 459

Abstract

Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) injection into the masseter muscle is used in selected conditions associated with excessive or painful masseter activity, including oromandibular dystonia, masseter-related myalgia, and bruxism-associated masticatory muscle pain. However, clinical outcomes and adverse-event profiles vary widely, partly because injection technique, dose, [...] Read more.

Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) injection into the masseter muscle is used in selected conditions associated with excessive or painful masseter activity, including oromandibular dystonia, masseter-related myalgia, and bruxism-associated masticatory muscle pain. However, clinical outcomes and adverse-event profiles vary widely, partly because injection technique, dose, dilution, injection depth, anatomical targeting, patient selection, and injector experience have not been consistently standardized. This review examines the anatomical and pharmacological rationale for motor endplate zone (MEZ)-targeted BoNT injection into the masseter muscle. MEZ-targeted injection is not presented as an established clinical guideline or as a proven superior technique but as a hypothesis-generating framework for future controlled studies. Anatomical and electrophysiological studies indicate that neuromuscular junctions in the masseter muscle are concentrated within relatively restricted MEZs. From a pharmacological perspective, delivery of BoNT close to these zones may allow more efficient neuromuscular blockade with lower doses, although direct clinical evidence demonstrating superiority over conventional techniques remains insufficient. Reported adverse events may be influenced by excessive dosing, inaccurate injection depth, diffusion into adjacent structures, or repeated high-dose injections. Future studies should evaluate anatomically informed, dose-minimized injection strategies using clearly defined clinical populations, standardized diagnostic criteria, detailed reporting of injection technique, objective functional outcomes, and systematic adverse-event assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Efficacy of Botulinum Toxin in Orofacial Pain)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 1078 KB

Open AccessArticle

Presence, Quantification, and Health Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins in Polyfloral Bee-Collected Pollen from Serbia

by Slobodan Dolašević, Nikola Rokvić, Marko Jauković, Maja Petričević, Tanja Keškić, Marija Gogić and Aleksandar Ž. Kostić

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 303; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070303 - 14 Jul 2026

Viewed by 444

Abstract

Bee-collected pollen (BCP), due to its valuable nutrient content, is considered a natural food suitable for human consumption. On the other hand, it should be noted that the rich nutritional value of BCP is also relevant in the context of potential contamination with [...] Read more.

Bee-collected pollen (BCP), due to its valuable nutrient content, is considered a natural food suitable for human consumption. On the other hand, it should be noted that the rich nutritional value of BCP is also relevant in the context of potential contamination with fungal secondary metabolites, such as mycotoxins. In this study, a total of 26 pollen samples were collected from different locations in order to investigate the potential presence of mycotoxins. All BCP samples were obtained from beekeepers who produce pollen for further commercialization. The analyzed mycotoxins included ochratoxin A (OTA), aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), zearalenone (ZEN), T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, deoxynivalenol (DON), and fumonisins (FUMs), which were measured by direct competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. The obtained results indicated the presence of at least three toxins in all samples. AFB1, OTA, and ZEN were detected above the limit of quantification (LOQ) in all samples, whereas T-2 and HT-2 were below the LOQ in five samples and DON in four samples. FUMs were below LOQ in all samples. Due to the significant content of AFB1 determined in all samples, there is a potential risk for future consumers, demanding constant monitoring as well as improvement of BCP production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mycotoxins)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

10 pages, 6299 KB

Open AccessArticle

Anatomy-Based Botulinum Toxin Injection of the Posterior Belly of Digastric Muscle

by Hyun Jin Park and You-Jin Choi

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 302; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070302 - 12 Jul 2026

Viewed by 355

Abstract

The posterior belly of the digastric muscle (PBDM) has recently been suggested as a target for botulinum toxin (BoNT) treatment in facial synkinesis. However, anatomically based injection sites for the PBDM have not been established. This study aimed to identify an ideal BoNT [...] Read more.

The posterior belly of the digastric muscle (PBDM) has recently been suggested as a target for botulinum toxin (BoNT) treatment in facial synkinesis. However, anatomically based injection sites for the PBDM have not been established. This study aimed to identify an ideal BoNT injection site by analyzing the intramuscular nerve distribution of the PBDM and its anatomical relationships with surrounding structures. Twelve PBDM specimens were obtained bilaterally from six embalmed cadavers. Modified Sihler’s staining was performed to visualize intramuscular nerve distribution. The PBDM was divided into anterior, middle, and posterior thirds, and the course and terminal branches of the facial nerve were analyzed. In all specimens, the PBDM was innervated by a single branch of the facial nerve. Nerve entry points were located in the middle third in 75% of cases and in the posterior third in 25%. Intramuscular nerve endings were most densely distributed in both the anterior and middle thirds in all specimens, whereas the posterior third showed a lower distribution (25%). The anterior and middle thirds of the PBDM appear to be the most appropriate targets for BoNT injection. The area 1 cm posterior to the angle of the mandible may serve as a practical landmark-guided injection site in clinical practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Anatomical, Experimental, and Clinical Studies of Botulinum Neurotoxin in Cosmetic Medicine)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 1182 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

The Benefits of Advanced Botulinum Neurotoxin Injection Training from a Spasticity Management Fellowship

by John McGuire, Karin Goodfriend, Sarah Golus, Whitney Morelli, Mary Elizabeth S. Nelson-Biersach and Nicholas Ketchum

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 301; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070301 - 11 Jul 2026

Viewed by 379

Abstract

Objective: Residency programs in the United States lack the necessary training for physicians to confidently and competently inject botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) and manage complex spasticity patients. This creates an unmet need for spasticity patients who could benefit from BoNT injections. This study measured [...] Read more.

Objective: Residency programs in the United States lack the necessary training for physicians to confidently and competently inject botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) and manage complex spasticity patients. This creates an unmet need for spasticity patients who could benefit from BoNT injections. This study measured the impact of additional BoNT injection and spasticity management training on post-residency medical practice. Design: Graduates from our Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation residency from 2008 to 2024 were surveyed. Responses were collected from physicians who had residency BoNT injection and spasticity management training (RT) and compared to fellowship BoNT injection and comprehensive spasticity management training (FT). Results: 15 RT and 14 FT physicians completed the survey and were evaluated using descriptive statistics. Spasticity and dystonia treatments comprised an average of 10% of the RT and 62% of the FT clinical practice. BoNT injections involved 5% of the RT practice and 52% of the FT practice. Conclusion: Disabling spasticity is undertreated in this country, partly due to a shortage of training programs for physicians to become skilled and confident at injecting BoNT and comprehensive spasticity management. FT programs can help meet this unmet need by increasing the number of physicians who can provide specialized BoNT injections and spasticity management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Botulinum Toxin: Advancing Treatments for Spasticity)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

25 pages, 7249 KB

Open AccessArticle

Environment-Dependent Dimerization as a Functional Switch in Leech Cystatin CysHv

by Melissa Regina Fessel, Ana Marisa Chudzinski-Tavassi and Fernanda Faria

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 300; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070300 - 10 Jul 2026

Viewed by 315

Abstract

Cystatins from hematophagous organisms modulate host proteases and are promising biotechnological tools. CysHv, a secreted cystatin from the Brazilian leech Haementeria vizottoi, was previously characterized as a potent inhibitor of papain and cathepsin L. In this work, it is shown that its [...] Read more.

Cystatins from hematophagous organisms modulate host proteases and are promising biotechnological tools. CysHv, a secreted cystatin from the Brazilian leech Haementeria vizottoi, was previously characterized as a potent inhibitor of papain and cathepsin L. In this work, it is shown that its inhibitory activity is tightly linked to conformational state. CysHv is purified as an active monomer but forms inactive dimers in a time-, temperature-, and concentration-dependent manner. A domain-swapping-like mechanism was hypothesized, and a disulfide-engineered mutant restricting local flexibility remained predominantly monomeric, supporting the role of conformational plasticity. Dimer formation correlates with loss of inhibitory activity and is accelerated at acidic pH, suggesting that pH modulates the kinetics rather than triggering dimerization. Comparative structural analysis of cystatins from hematophagous organisms revealed recurrent pairs of oppositely charged residues in β-strands flanking the inhibitory loop in secreted cystatins, but these pairs are generally absent in intracellular homologs. Although causality cannot be established and additional determinants likely contribute to dimerization, this pattern is consistent with pH-sensitive modulation of conformational behavior. Together, these findings identify CysHv as a dimer-prone cystatin for which oligomerization, potentially via a domain-swapping-like mechanism, could act as an environment-dependent regulator of inhibitory activity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Animal Venoms)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

18 pages, 10499 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Protective Effects of Mycotoxin Biodegradation Agents on Pigeon Health and Gut Microbiota

by Hanke Zhao, Changfeng Xiao, Hui Jiang, Lihui Zhu, Junhua Yang and Fang Gan

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 299; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070299 - 10 Jul 2026

Viewed by 811

Abstract

Mycotoxin contamination in feed poses a major threat to animal health and productivity, particularly in pigeons. This study evaluated the protective effects of three mycotoxin biodegradation agents (MBAs) in pigeons subchronically co-exposed to a mycotoxin-contaminated (MYC) diet for 60 days. The MYC diet [...] Read more.

Mycotoxin contamination in feed poses a major threat to animal health and productivity, particularly in pigeons. This study evaluated the protective effects of three mycotoxin biodegradation agents (MBAs) in pigeons subchronically co-exposed to a mycotoxin-contaminated (MYC) diet for 60 days. The MYC diet was prepared by mixing 3% naturally mold-contaminated corn with 97% basal diet, yielding final dietary concentrations of fumonisin B1 (7829.41 µg/kg), aflatoxin B1 (201.16 µg/kg), zearalenone (1675.46 µg/kg), T-2 toxin (7721.41 µg/kg), and deoxynivalenol (1211.77 µg/kg). Birds were allocated to five groups (n = 18/group): CON (basal diet); MYC (MYC diet alone); and TRT1–TRT3 fed the MYC diet supplemented with 1.5 g/kg of MBA I (Bacillus subtilis + Bacillus licheniformis + Devosia sp.), MBA II (Bacillus licheniformis + Saccharomyces cerevisiae), or MBA III (Bacillus subtilis + glucose oxidase), respectively. Subchronic co-exposure to the MYC diet significantly increased serum pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6), whereas all three MBAs effectively attenuated these elevations. Histopathological examination revealed inflammatory infiltration and tissue damage in the jejunum and liver of MYC birds, which were markedly alleviated by MBA supplementation. Gut microbiota analysis showed that mycotoxins decreased Firmicutes and Lactobacillus and increased Proteobacteria and Streptococcus, whereas MBAs partially restored microbial balance. Among the three MBAs, MBA II exhibited the strongest protective effect, as reflected by the greatest improvements in serum biochemistry, intestinal morphology, and microbial composition. Liver transcriptome analysis showed that mycotoxin mainly affected pathways related to cell cycle and DNA replication, whereas MBA II enhanced pathways associated with intestinal immune function and antigen processing and presentation. Collectively, these findings suggest that MBA II offers effective protection against combined mycotoxin-induced toxicity in pigeons and may serve as a promising feed additive for mitigating mycotoxin contamination in poultry production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins and Spoilage Fungi in Agricultural Products and Foods: Current Status and Future Perspectives)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 4529 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Dietary Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Ligands on Indoxyl Sulfate-Induced Endothelial Activation

by Flora Lefevre, Rania Chermiti, Julien Cebile, Nathalie McKay, Stanislas Bataille, Stéphane Burtey and Laetitia Dou

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 298; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070298 - 10 Jul 2026

Viewed by 358

Abstract

Patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) are exposed to high levels of uremic toxins and have an increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Among these toxins, indolic compounds such as indoxyl sulfate (IS) are predictors of cardiovascular events and mortality in CKD patients and [...] Read more.

Patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) are exposed to high levels of uremic toxins and have an increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Among these toxins, indolic compounds such as indoxyl sulfate (IS) are predictors of cardiovascular events and mortality in CKD patients and induce a procoagulant and proinflammatory vascular phenotype through activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). Targeting AhR activation by indolic toxins may therefore help prevent cardiovascular complications in CKD. To this end, we investigated in vitro whether natural dietary AhR ligands (galangin, quercetin, curcumin and indole-3-carbinol) could antagonize IS-induced AhR activation and the associated inflammatory response in endothelial cells. The activation of the AhR genomic pathway was assessed by measuring the expression of AhR target genes (CYP1A1, CYP1B1, and AHRR) in endothelial cells and by evaluating AhR-dependent transcriptional activity using a CALUX-AHRE luciferase reporter assay in HG40/6 cells. In parallel, endothelial inflammation was evaluated by analyzing the expression of AhR-related inflammatory genes: F3/tissue factor, PTGS2/COX-2, CCL2/MCP-1, and CXCL8/IL-8. Quercetin was the only ligand capable of antagonizing IS-induced AhR transcriptional activity, as well as the upregulation of the endothelial AhR target genes CYP1A1 and CYP1B1. In contrast, galangin, curcumin, and I3C exhibited no inhibitory effects. Moreover, none of the tested dietary AhR ligands suppressed the IS-induced upregulation of endothelial inflammatory genes; instead, they tended to potentiate IS-induced inflammatory responses at high concentrations. In conclusion, among the AhR ligands tested, quercetin was the only one that attenuated IS-induced activation of the AhR genomic pathway in endothelial cells. However, it may also enhance IS-mediated endothelial inflammation, an effect also observed at specific concentrations of galangin, curcumin, and I3C. These findings suggest that the potential beneficial effects of natural dietary AhR ligands should be carefully considered in the context of CKD patients exhibiting high levels of indolic uremic toxins. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Uremic Toxins and Hemodialysis: Mechanisms, Challenges, and Therapeutic Advances)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

3 pages, 160 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Mycotoxins in Food and Feeds: Human Health and Animal Nutrition

by María Agustina Pavicich and Andrea Patriarca

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 297; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070297 - 10 Jul 2026

Viewed by 374

Abstract

The landscape of mycotoxin research is evolving rapidly [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Food and Feeds: Human Health and Animal Nutrition)

16 pages, 3716 KB

Open AccessReview

IncobotulinumtoxinA Injection to Balance Eyebrows and Facial Shapes: A Review with Illustrative Clinical Examples

by Carla de Sanctis Pecora, Birgit Blessmann-Gurk and Bianca Viscomi

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 296; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070296 - 9 Jul 2026

Viewed by 465

Abstract

The eyebrows are a central element of facial harmony, influenced by individual and external factors such as gender, ethnicity, facial shape, age, culture, and fashion trends. Traditional methods for esthetically enhancing eyebrows include plucking, highlighting, and surgical interventions. Another minimally invasive option for [...] Read more.

The eyebrows are a central element of facial harmony, influenced by individual and external factors such as gender, ethnicity, facial shape, age, culture, and fashion trends. Traditional methods for esthetically enhancing eyebrows include plucking, highlighting, and surgical interventions. Another minimally invasive option for altering, thus enhancing eyebrow positioning, is botulinum toxin type A (BoNT-A) injection. The objective was to demonstrate a systematic, customizable approach for BoNT-A injections to reshape and reposition eyebrows according to individual facial shape enhancing balance. To determine optimal BoNT-A dose and injection points, an individualized assessment of facial and eyebrow shape and position was performed, leading to a customized protocol of neurotoxin injections according to each patient’s needs. The assessment method aims for the best match between the individual facial shape and eyebrow form and position. This technique enables individualized modulation of eyebrow position and shape, improving facial balance while addressing dynamic upper facial rhytides, thereby promoting harmonious outcomes that preserve individual facial characteristics and providing an additional approach to conventional eyebrow enhancement techniques. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study on Botulinum Toxin in Facial Diseases and Aesthetics)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

16 pages, 490 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fusarium Mycotoxins Are Frequently Detected in Oat Grains and Oat Foods and T-2, HT-2 and HT-2-Glucoside Are Highly Bioaccessible in Oat Porridge

by Margaret-Jane Gordon, Noshin Daud, Louise Cantlay and Silvia W. Gratz

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 295; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070295 - 7 Jul 2026

Viewed by 432

Abstract

The presence of Fusarium mycotoxins is an intractable problem in cereal production, with T-2 and HT-2 posing a particular issue in oats. This study assesses the prevalence of Fusarium mycotoxins in unprocessed and de-hulled oats and oat food products and quantifies the bioaccessibility [...] Read more.

The presence of Fusarium mycotoxins is an intractable problem in cereal production, with T-2 and HT-2 posing a particular issue in oats. This study assesses the prevalence of Fusarium mycotoxins in unprocessed and de-hulled oats and oat food products and quantifies the bioaccessibility of T-2, HT-2 and HT-2-glucoside from oat porridge in vitro. Twenty unprocessed food oat samples were de-hulled and mycotoxins quantified in unprocessed grains, hulls and groats using LC-MS/MS. Seventy-seven oat food products (40 porridge samples, 10 granola and muesli samples, 11 oat biscuits, 11 oatcakes, 5 infant cereals) were analysed for mycotoxins. Two oat porridge samples were tested for bioaccessibility using Infogest 2.0 method followed by faecal microbiota incubations. T-2/HT-2 and their glucosides were the most prevalent mycotoxins in unprocessed food oats (85–100%). DON was also highly prevalent (70%) while DON-glucoside, NIV, ZEN and their glucoside were less frequently detected. Reduction of 89–100% was achieved by de-hulling oats for most mycotoxins except DON-glucoside (77% reduction). Oat food samples were also frequently contaminated with T-2+HT-2 (prevalence porridge 90%, granola and muesli 40%, oat biscuits 36%, oatcakes 73%) while no mycotoxins were detectable in infant cereal foods. Upon in vitro digestion, 73–82% of free and glucosylated T-2/HT-2 were readily bioaccessible, underlining their importance for human dietary exposure. The study highlights that T-2/HT-2 contamination is prevalent in oats and carry-over into food products cannot be completely avoided, potentially leading to mycotoxin exposure in oat food consumers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins: Challenges and Emerging Threats)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 363 KB

Open AccessReview

Overview of Current Regulatory and Methodological Approaches for the Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins

by Bozidar Udovicki, Dragan Milicevic and Andreja Rajkovic

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 294; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070294 - 5 Jul 2026

Viewed by 444

Abstract

Risk assessment is a dynamic and continuously evolving process aimed at characterizing the potential adverse effects on life and health arising from exposure to hazards. Among these hazards, mycotoxins represent one of the most significant and widely investigated contaminants in food and feed. [...] Read more.

Risk assessment is a dynamic and continuously evolving process aimed at characterizing the potential adverse effects on life and health arising from exposure to hazards. Among these hazards, mycotoxins represent one of the most significant and widely investigated contaminants in food and feed. This review aims to summarize current knowledge on mycotoxin risk assessment practice, both for single substances and for cumulative risk assessment, and to provide practical guidance for future researchers. As individual substances, mycotoxins are well characterized from a toxicological perspective, and numerous risk assessments have been conducted globally across a wide range of food products. Although well-established methodological frameworks exist to support the cumulative risk assessment of mycotoxins, further efforts are needed to define common assessment groups, especially considering the pleiotropic nature of these compounds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Contamination, Detection and Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

27 pages, 7238 KB

Open AccessReview

SELEX-Based Aptamer Technologies for Toxin Analysis: Screening, Optimization, and Computational Assisted Design

by Xinrui Shang, Chengming Yang, Huiyun Deng, Lianghua Wang and Mingjuan Sun

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 293; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070293 - 3 Jul 2026

Viewed by 740

Abstract

The accurate and sensitive detection of toxin contamination remains a pressing challenge for food safety, environmental integrity, and public health, because conventional analytical methods suffer from high costs, poor field stability, and inadequate sensitivity for trace-level emerging contaminants. In this review, we provide [...] Read more.

The accurate and sensitive detection of toxin contamination remains a pressing challenge for food safety, environmental integrity, and public health, because conventional analytical methods suffer from high costs, poor field stability, and inadequate sensitivity for trace-level emerging contaminants. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of biosensor technologies for toxin detection, with a dedicated focus on nucleic acid aptamers and SELEX (Systematic Evolution of Ligands by Exponential Enrichment) technology. We systematically categorize nine SELEX variants developed for toxin detection, covering target-immobilized, library-immobilized, non-immobilized, cell-based, and high-throughput platforms, with an emphasis on their selection principles, applicability, and limitations. This review discusses computationally assisted aptamer discovery (e.g., AI-based sequence generation and molecular docking) as well as experimental post-SELEX optimization strategies such as cyclization, multivalent assembly, and structure-switching design. We then discuss key challenges and future perspectives, highlighting the shift from method-oriented to demand-oriented aptamer development through integrated SELEX strategies and AI-assisted design. Overall, this review covers mainstream SELEX technologies, aptamer selection, computational design, experimental optimization, and sensor integration to serve as a reference for next-generation toxin detection applications. Full article

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

3 pages, 189 KB

Open AccessReply

Reply to Ståhl et al. Comment on “Honndorf et al. Comparative Analytics and Pharmacodynamics of the Complex Protein-Free Botulinum Toxin Type A Formulations DaxibotulinumtoxinA, IncobotulinumtoxinA and RelabotulinumtoxinA. Toxins 2026, 18, 142”

by Stefanie Honndorf, Katja Kühbach, Karl-Heinz Eisele, Alina Shokurova, Philipp Buch, Claudia Jatzke, Harold Victor Taylor and Klaus Fink

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 292; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070292 - 3 Jul 2026

Viewed by 362

Abstract

We appreciate the comment [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Toxins)

11 pages, 2552 KB

Open AccessArticle

Benefits of Incobotulinumtoxin A in Pain, Spasticity and Functionality—A 5 Years Review

by André Cruz

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 291; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070291 - 3 Jul 2026

Viewed by 413

Abstract

Introduction: Pain is a major contributor to functional impairment in neurological patients. Botulinum toxin type A (BT-A) is well-established for focal spasticity and has shown some benefits in pain reduction. Long-term data from large cohorts remain limited. Material and Methods: This retrospective study [...] Read more.

Introduction: Pain is a major contributor to functional impairment in neurological patients. Botulinum toxin type A (BT-A) is well-established for focal spasticity and has shown some benefits in pain reduction. Long-term data from large cohorts remain limited. Material and Methods: This retrospective study (2017–2022) analyzed 20 variables from spastic patients treated with Incobotulinumtoxin A (INCO) for pain and spasticity. Functional analysis was classified into 5 major domains: Pain, Spasticity spectrum, Mobility, Activities of daily living, and Gait. Results: A total of 1575 records from 67 patients were collected. The mean age was 57.7 years, mostly female (n = 35), and stroke was the leading etiology (n = 40). The most typical patterns were wrist flexion (80%) and ankle flexion (94.9%). It was injected with 50 to 400 units of INCO, targeting an average of 3.47 upper-limb and 2.34 lower-limb muscles per session. Functional improvement was observed across all domains (GAS change 27.4), with the greatest effects in pain (GAS change 26.9; 5.16 VAS reduction). Discussion: The findings, derived from one of the largest datasets, support that INCO, and probably BT-A, should be indicated for the pain of spastic patients, regardless of etiology. Conclusions: Promising functionality outcomes, especially in this group, warrant further, more comprehensive studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Botulinum Toxin: Advancing Treatments for Spasticity)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

3 pages, 159 KB

Open AccessComment

Comment on Honndorf et al. Comparative Analytics and Pharmacodynamics of the Complex Protein-Free Botulinum Toxin Type A Formulations DaxibotulinumtoxinA, IncobotulinumtoxinA and RelabotulinumtoxinA. Toxins 2026, 18, 142

by Ulf Ståhl, Emil Hamnevik, Åsa Liljegren Sundberg, Cecilia Persson and Inna Prygova

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 290; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070290 - 3 Jul 2026

Viewed by 359

Abstract

In their recent paper comparing three complexing protein-free botulinum toxin A products available on the market [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Toxins)

19 pages, 1781 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mycotoxin Contamination in Smallholder Maize Production: Farmers’ Perceptions, Control Practices, and Influencing Factors in South Africa

by Steven Sifiso Shange, Temitope Oluwaseun Olorunfemi and Oluwasogo David Olorunfemi

Toxins 2026, 18(7), 289; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070289 - 30 Jun 2026

Viewed by 315

Abstract

Globally, mycotoxin contamination of maize is a fundamental concern due to significant economic losses and toxic health effects on humans and animals. This study analyses the perceived effects of mycotoxin contamination and the use of control measures among smallholder maize farmers in South [...] Read more.

Globally, mycotoxin contamination of maize is a fundamental concern due to significant economic losses and toxic health effects on humans and animals. This study analyses the perceived effects of mycotoxin contamination and the use of control measures among smallholder maize farmers in South Africa using Mbombela as a case study. A two-stage sampling procedure was used to select 152 registered smallholder maize farmers in Mbombela, South Africa. Data was collected with a structured questionnaire administered by trained enumerators. Descriptive and multiple linear regression analyses were carried out using SPSS (Version 28). The findings revealed that many farmers had a high perception of the effects of mycotoxin contamination, and the most prominent prevention and control practices were good field management, storage of maize in clean, well-ventilated stores, and proper sorting of harvested grains. Multiple linear regression results revealed that farming experience, media exposure, extension visit, mycotoxin-related training, mycotoxin awareness, and perception index significantly influenced farmers’ utilization of mycotoxin prevention and control practices. The study recommended that agricultural professionals develop robust mycotoxin-related training and advisory services to enhance and strengthen farmers’ awareness and perceptions, and to promote the sustained use of effective agricultural practices to combat mycotoxin contamination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mycotoxins)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Toxins, Volume 18, Issue 7 (July 2026) – 45 articles

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI