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Toxins
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Advances in Contamination, Detection and Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins
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Advances in Contamination, Detection and Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins

A special issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651). This special issue belongs to the section "Mycotoxins".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 25 June 2025 | Viewed by 9168

Special Issue Editors

Dr. José Diana Di Mavungu

E-Mail Website1 Website2
Guest Editor
Department of Bioanalysis, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
Interests: mycotoxins; fungal secondary metabolism; fungal metabolomics; Aspergillus flavus; aflatoxins; pharmaceutics; deoxynivalenol; food; mass spectrometry
Prof. Dr. Xuhui Geng

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, China
Interests: fluorescence detector; miniaturized analytical instruments; deep sea/deep space detection
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Mycotoxins, toxic secondary fungal metabolites, are contaminants of global concern. Due to their prevalence and adverse effects in living organisms, mycotoxins are considered a threat to the agricultural industry, the food and feed chain, and the health of humans and animals. As a consequence, effective approaches, strategies and methods dealing with the detection, monitoring and evaluation of the contamination profiles, and exposure and risk assessment of mycotoxins have become a matter of great importance.

This Special Issue aims outline the latest updates on developments and applications in the above-mentioned research domains. It is of great importance to demonstrate the present status of the recently applied and/or innovative approaches, methods and techniques to account for the new trends in food consumption and agricultural practices, embrace of the green chemistry principles, and the alteration in the occurrence and distribution of mycotoxins due to changing environmental conditions.

This Special Issue invites original research and review articles addressing the advances and trends in the detection, contamination, exposure and risk assessment of mycotoxins.

Dr. José Diana Di Mavungu
Prof. Dr. Xuhui Geng
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Toxins is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • mycotoxins
  • detection methods
  • occurrence
  • contamination
  • exposure assessment
  • risk assessment
  • recent developments and applications
  • new challenges and trends

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

13 pages, 1396 KiB  
Article
Detection of Ochratoxin A in Tissues of Wild Boars (Sus scrofa) from Southern Italy
by Sara Damiano, Consiglia Longobardi, Lucia De Marchi, Nadia Piscopo, Valentina Meucci, Alessio Lenzi and Roberto Ciarcia
Toxins 2025, 17(2), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17020074 - 6 Feb 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 656
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a secondary metabolite produced by fungi of the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium, known to contaminate various food substrates. Its toxic effects include direct nephrotoxicity, as well as observed teratogenic, immunogenic, and carcinogenic effects. Climate change may contribute to [...] Read more.
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a secondary metabolite produced by fungi of the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium, known to contaminate various food substrates. Its toxic effects include direct nephrotoxicity, as well as observed teratogenic, immunogenic, and carcinogenic effects. Climate change may contribute to increased humidity and temperature, favouring fungal growth and, consequently, OTA spreading. Recent increases in wild boar populations, along with their omnivorous nature and their varied diet, define them as environmental bioindicators for contaminants like mycotoxins. This study aimed to assess the concentrations of OTA in kidney, liver, and muscle tissue samples from 74 wild boars that were hunted in different areas of Avellino, Campania region, between 2021 and 2022. Tissue samples underwent extraction, purification, and analysis using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with a fluorescence detector. Results revealed OTA presence in 35.1% of tested wild boars. The highest OTA concentration was observed in the kidney and liver, with less in the muscle, indicating the presence of this mycotoxin in the wild boars and their surrounding environment. Consequently, there is a need to formulate rules for edible wildlife products. These findings emphasize the significant risk of OTA contamination in wild boar tissues, suggesting their potential as reliable environmental markers for mycotoxin prevalence and as a toxicological concern for human health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Contamination, Detection and Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins)
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10 pages, 290 KiB  
Article
Ochratoxin A and AFM1 in Cheese and Cheese Substitutes: LC-MS/MS Method Validation, Natural Occurrence, and Risk Assessment
by María Agustina Pavicich, Stefano Compagnoni, Celine Meerpoel, Katleen Raes and Sarah De Saeger
Toxins 2024, 16(12), 547; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16120547 - 18 Dec 2024
Viewed by 1023
Abstract
Cheese is vulnerable to contamination with mycotoxins, particularly ochratoxin A (OTA) and aflatoxin M1 (AFM1). This study aims to develop and validate an analytical method for the detection and quantification of OTA and AFM1 in cheese and to assess their prevalence and associated [...] Read more.
Cheese is vulnerable to contamination with mycotoxins, particularly ochratoxin A (OTA) and aflatoxin M1 (AFM1). This study aims to develop and validate an analytical method for the detection and quantification of OTA and AFM1 in cheese and to assess their prevalence and associated risks. A liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method was validated for detecting these mycotoxins in 41 cheese samples, including firm-ripened, spreadable, and plant-based alternatives. The results showed that OTA was detected exclusively in grated Parmigiano Reggiano cheese, while AFM1 was found in both Parmigiano Reggiano and Pecorino cheeses. This study goes beyond analytical method development by providing a preliminary exposure assessment and risk characterization for OTA and AFM1 in cheese, bridging the gap between analytical chemistry and public health implications. This study identified potential health risks associated with OTA, particularly for children and adolescents categorized as high consumers of Parmigiano Reggiano cheese. The findings underscore the need for monitoring of OTA and AFM1 in cheese and further research to establish regulatory limits for these contaminants. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Contamination, Detection and Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins)
26 pages, 3881 KiB  
Article
An Investigation of the Spatial Arrangement of Mycotoxin Build-Up in Corn Stored Under Different Environmental Conditions
by Ruth Kerry, Ben Ingram, Hamed K. Abbas and Gene Ahlborn
Toxins 2024, 16(12), 508; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16120508 - 25 Nov 2024
Viewed by 1009
Abstract
Mycotoxins are toxins produced by fungi that contaminate many key food crops as they grow in the field and during storage. Specific mycotoxins are produced by different fungi. Each type of fungus and mycotoxin have their own optimal temperatures and water activities for [...] Read more.
Mycotoxins are toxins produced by fungi that contaminate many key food crops as they grow in the field and during storage. Specific mycotoxins are produced by different fungi. Each type of fungus and mycotoxin have their own optimal temperatures and water activities for growth and production. The legislative limits for various mycotoxins in foodstuffs to protect human health vary between countries but all commodities have their levels evaluated based on the concentrations from one aggregated grain sample. This approach assumes that the variation in toxin levels is uniform and random without spatial trends. This study investigates the spatial distribution of four mycotoxins (aflatoxin, deoxynivalenol, fumonisin and zearalenone) in bins of clean and dirty corn when stored in an environmental cabinet for two months under different temperature and humidity conditions. The bins of clean and dirty corn each had 12 CO2/humidity/temperature sensors installed in three layers, and samples were extracted for mycotoxin analysis from locations close to each sensor following storage. Using Mann–Whitney U and Kruskal–Wallis H statistical tests, significant differences were found between mycotoxin levels attributable to the different environmental conditions and spatial locations of samples. Variations in aflatoxin and zearalenone concentrations were most pronounced for the range of temperature and humidity conditions chosen. By understanding the patterns of spatial variability in mycotoxin concentrations and identifying zones at high risk of contamination, as well as what conditions are favorable, targeted interventions could be implemented to reduce food waste. This work also has implications for how levels of mycotoxins in foodstuffs are sampled and measured. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Contamination, Detection and Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins)
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17 pages, 1701 KiB  
Article
Effect of Bioactive Ingredients on Urinary Excretion of Aflatoxin B1 and Ochratoxin A in Rats, as Measured by Liquid Chromatography with Fluorescence Detection
by Pilar Vila-Donat, Dora Sánchez, Alessandra Cimbalo, Jordi Mañes and Lara Manyes
Toxins 2024, 16(8), 363; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16080363 - 16 Aug 2024
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1407
Abstract
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and ochratoxin A (OTA) are highly toxic mycotoxins present in food and feed, posing serious health risks to humans and animals. This study aimed to validate an efficient and cost-effective analytical method for quantifying AFB1 and OTA in rat urine [...] Read more.
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and ochratoxin A (OTA) are highly toxic mycotoxins present in food and feed, posing serious health risks to humans and animals. This study aimed to validate an efficient and cost-effective analytical method for quantifying AFB1 and OTA in rat urine using immunoaffinity column extraction and liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (IAC-LC-FD). Additionally, the study evaluated the effect of incorporating fermented whey and pumpkin into the feed on the urinary excretion of these mycotoxins. The limits of detection and quantification were determined to be 0.1 µg/kg and 0.3 µg/kg, respectively, for both mycotoxins in feed, and 0.2 ng/mL and 0.6 ng/mL, respectively, in urine. The method demonstrated robust recovery rates ranging from 74% to 119% for both AFB1 and OTA in both matrices. In feed samples, the levels of AFB1 and OTA ranged from 4.3 to 5.2 µg/g and from 5.4 to 8.8 µg/g, respectively. This validated method was successfully applied to analyze 116 urine samples from rats collected during the fourth week of an in vivo trial. The results indicated that the addition of fermented whey and pumpkin to the feed influenced mycotoxin excretion in urine, with variations observed based on the sex of the rats, type of mycotoxin, and exposure dosage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Contamination, Detection and Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins)
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15 pages, 3020 KiB  
Article
The Possible Role of Mycotoxins in the Pathogenesis of Endometrial Cancer
by Márkó Unicsovics, Zsófia Molnár, Miklós Mézes, Katalin Posta, György Nagyéri, Szabolcs Várbíró, Nándor Ács, Levente Sára and Zsuzsanna Szőke
Toxins 2024, 16(6), 236; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16060236 - 23 May 2024
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2863
Abstract
Endometrial cancer is one of the most common cancer types among women. Many factors can contribute to the development of this disease, including environmental factors and, thus, eating habits. Our study aims to determine the levels of various mycotoxins and their metabolites in [...] Read more.
Endometrial cancer is one of the most common cancer types among women. Many factors can contribute to the development of this disease, including environmental factors and, thus, eating habits. Our study aims to determine the levels of various mycotoxins and their metabolites in the blood serum and endometrial tissue samples of participants with previously proven endometrial cancer and to find possible contributions to cancer development. In the cohort clinical trial, 52 participants aged between 44 and 86 were studied. The participants were divided into two groups: patients or matched controls. All patients had previously histologically diagnosed endometrial cancer. The cancer patients were divided into low-grade endometrioid and low- plus high-grade endometrioid groups. Controls had no history of endometrial malignancy or premalignancy. Blood serum and endometrial tissue samples were obtained from all study patients. We compared the concentrations of total Aflatoxins (Afs), Deoxynivalenol (DON), Ochratoxin-A (OTA), T2-toxin and HT2 toxin (T2/HT2 toxin), Zearalenone (ZEN), alpha-Zearalenol (α-ZOL), and Fumonisin B1 (FB1) in the serum and endometrium between the different study groups. As a result, we can see a significant correlation between the higher levels of Afs and zearalenone and the presence of endometrial cancer. In the case of Afs, DON, OTA, T2/HT2 toxins, ZEN, and alpha-ZOL, we measured higher endometrial concentrations than in serum. Considering the effect of mycotoxins and eating habits on cancer development, our results might lead to further research exploring the relationship between certain mycotoxins and endometrium cancer. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Contamination, Detection and Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins)
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13 pages, 801 KiB  
Article
Monoclonal-Antibody-Based Immunoassays for the Mycotoxins NX-2 and NX-3 in Wheat
by Chris M. Maragos, Martha M. Vaughan and Susan P. McCormick
Toxins 2024, 16(5), 231; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16050231 - 18 May 2024
Viewed by 1444
Abstract
The fungal infestation of crops can cause major economic losses. Toxins produced by the causative fungi (mycotoxins) represent a potential safety hazard to people and livestock consuming them. One such mycotoxin is deoxynivalenol (DON, also known as vomitoxin), a trichothecene associated with Fusarium [...] Read more.
The fungal infestation of crops can cause major economic losses. Toxins produced by the causative fungi (mycotoxins) represent a potential safety hazard to people and livestock consuming them. One such mycotoxin is deoxynivalenol (DON, also known as vomitoxin), a trichothecene associated with Fusarium Head Blight of wheat. DON is commonly found in cereal crops worldwide. A group of trichothecene mycotoxins closely related to DON, the NX toxins, have been reported to occur in the northeastern United States and southern Canada. While many commercial immunoassays are available to detect DON, there are no rapid screening assays for the NX toxins. We describe the development and isolation of three monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) specific towards two NX toxins: NX-2 and NX-3. The mAbs did not recognize DON or several other closely related trichothecenes. One of the mAbs was selected for development of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for NX-2 and NX-3 in wheat. The dynamic ranges for the assay were 7.7 to 127 μg/kg for NX-2 and 59 μg/kg to 1540 μg/kg for NX-3 in wheat. Recoveries from spiked wheat averaged 84.4% for NX-2 and 99.3% for NX-3, with RSDs of 10.4% and 11.3%, respectively (n = 24). The results suggest that this assay can be used to screen for NX toxins in wheat at levels relevant to human food and animal feed safety. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Contamination, Detection and Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins)
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