Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins: Challenges and Emerging Threats

A Special Issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651) belonging to the section "Mycotoxins".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 January 2027 | Viewed by 8920

Editors


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Guest Editor
Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, Večna pot 121, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Interests: genetic toxicology; advanced in vitro 3D cell models; natural toxins; environmental pollutants; toxicogenomics; com-bined exposures
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Guest Editor
Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, Večna pot 121, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Interests: in vitro 3D cell models; anthropogenic environmental contaminants; genotoxicity; safety risk assessment

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, Večna pot 121, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Interests: genotoxicology; in vitro; emerging pollutants; ecotoxicology; safety evaluation

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Mycotoxins are among the most significant chemical food contaminants, posing a serious threat to public health. It is estimated that 4.5 to 5 billion people worldwide are chronically exposed to mycotoxin-contaminated food. The global occurrence and diversity of mycotoxins are increasing, partly due to climate change. Their presence in food is therefore an open challenge for food safety and poses a serious risk to human and animal health. While regulatory limits exist for certain well-known mycotoxins, many so-called “emerging mycotoxins” remain unregulated despite their frequent detection in agricultural products. For many of these toxins, toxicological data are lacking, particularly concerning chronic exposure to low doses through contaminated food over a significant part of the human lifespan. In addition, humans are typically exposed daily to complex mixtures of mycotoxins, and their combined toxicological effects are still poorly understood and need to be studied more systematically.

This Special Issue aims at addressing these knowledge gaps by presenting new data on the toxicity and underlying molecular mechanisms of action of emerging mycotoxins and their mixtures, contributing to a more relevant human health risk assessment. Since it is practically impossible to completely avoid mycotoxin ingestion from food, it is crucial to characterize and assess the risks associated with dietary exposure. This knowledge will be essential for developing strategies to mitigate health risks to humans and animals, while also raising public awareness of mycotoxins in food and their potential to induce adverse health effects.

We welcome original research articles and reviews in areas including, but not limited to, the following:

  • Toxicity evaluation of emerging mycotoxins and their mixtures, both in vitro and in vivo;
  • Mechanistic studies of emerging mycotoxins on biological systems;
  • Novel analytical methods for mycotoxin detection;
  • Occurrence and levels of mycotoxins in agricultural products and food;
  • Dietary exposure to mycotoxins and health risk assessment.

We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Dr. Bojana Žegura
Dr. Katja Kološa
Dr. Matjaž Novak
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • emerging mycotoxins
  • risk assessment
  • toxicity
  • analytical methods
  • combined effects
  • food contamination
  • mechanism of action

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Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

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16 pages, 490 KB  
Article
Fusarium Mycotoxins Are Frequently Detected in Oat Grains and Oat Foods and T-2, HT-2 and HT-2-Glucoside Are Highly Bioaccessible in Oat Porridge
by Margaret-Jane Gordon, Noshin Daud, Louise Cantlay and Silvia W. Gratz
Toxins 2026, 18(7), 295; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18070295 - 7 Jul 2026
Viewed by 531
Abstract
The presence of Fusarium mycotoxins is an intractable problem in cereal production, with T-2 and HT-2 posing a particular issue in oats. This study assesses the prevalence of Fusarium mycotoxins in unprocessed and de-hulled oats and oat food products and quantifies the bioaccessibility [...] Read more.
The presence of Fusarium mycotoxins is an intractable problem in cereal production, with T-2 and HT-2 posing a particular issue in oats. This study assesses the prevalence of Fusarium mycotoxins in unprocessed and de-hulled oats and oat food products and quantifies the bioaccessibility of T-2, HT-2 and HT-2-glucoside from oat porridge in vitro. Twenty unprocessed food oat samples were de-hulled and mycotoxins quantified in unprocessed grains, hulls and groats using LC-MS/MS. Seventy-seven oat food products (40 porridge samples, 10 granola and muesli samples, 11 oat biscuits, 11 oatcakes, 5 infant cereals) were analysed for mycotoxins. Two oat porridge samples were tested for bioaccessibility using Infogest 2.0 method followed by faecal microbiota incubations. T-2/HT-2 and their glucosides were the most prevalent mycotoxins in unprocessed food oats (85–100%). DON was also highly prevalent (70%) while DON-glucoside, NIV, ZEN and their glucoside were less frequently detected. Reduction of 89–100% was achieved by de-hulling oats for most mycotoxins except DON-glucoside (77% reduction). Oat food samples were also frequently contaminated with T-2+HT-2 (prevalence porridge 90%, granola and muesli 40%, oat biscuits 36%, oatcakes 73%) while no mycotoxins were detectable in infant cereal foods. Upon in vitro digestion, 73–82% of free and glucosylated T-2/HT-2 were readily bioaccessible, underlining their importance for human dietary exposure. The study highlights that T-2/HT-2 contamination is prevalent in oats and carry-over into food products cannot be completely avoided, potentially leading to mycotoxin exposure in oat food consumers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins: Challenges and Emerging Threats)
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27 pages, 3283 KB  
Article
Fungal Contamination of Dairy Feed and Major Mycotoxin Transfer: A Risk Evaluation for Animal Exposure and Health
by Ioana Poroșnicu, Luminița-Iuliana Ailincăi, Mădălina Alexandra Davidescu and Mihai Mareș
Toxins 2026, 18(1), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18010042 - 13 Jan 2026
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1664
Abstract
This study was focused on the assessment of fungal occurrence, mycotoxin dynamics, aflatoxin carry-over, and associated biochemical responses in dairy cattle. Moisture emerged as the dominant factor for fungal communities, promoting the co-proliferation of fungal genera adapted to high water activity conditions (a [...] Read more.
This study was focused on the assessment of fungal occurrence, mycotoxin dynamics, aflatoxin carry-over, and associated biochemical responses in dairy cattle. Moisture emerged as the dominant factor for fungal communities, promoting the co-proliferation of fungal genera adapted to high water activity conditions (aw > 0.90) and antagonism against xerotolerant and xerophilic species. Aspergillus spp. dominated dry substrates (aw < 0.75), Fusarium spp. showed strong positive associations with high-moisture matrices (aw > 0.90), and Penicillium spp. exhibited intermediate, substrate-dependent behavior. Mycotoxin levels fluctuated non-linearly, independently of fungal counts: ochratoxin A (OTA) concentrations in corn silage increased from approximately 12 μg/kg at the onset of the ensiling period to >240 μg/kg at silo opening, indicating dynamic mycotoxin accumulation during storage, while zearalenone (ZEA) oscillated from 40 to 170 µg/kg. Despite the variation in total aflatoxins (AFLA-T) across feed matrices, aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in milk remained low (0.0020–0.0093 μg/kg), confirming limited carry-over. Serum biochemical parameters—alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), total bilirubin (BIL-T), total protein (PROT-T)—remained within physiological limits, yet multivariate analyses revealed metabolic modulation linked to aflatoxin exposure. AFM1 explained >7% of the variance in serum biochemical profiles according to PERMANOVA (p = 0.002), showed significant MANOVA effect (Pillai = 0.198), and displayed a significant canonical association (p < 10−13). Linear discriminant analysis further separated Normal vs. Borderline hepatic profiles, indicating subclinical physiological adaptation to chronic low-dose exposure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins: Challenges and Emerging Threats)
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16 pages, 1305 KB  
Article
Occurrence and Levels of Emerging Alternaria Mycotoxins Detected in Spices and Herbs Marketed in Italy
by Katia Gialluisi, Maria Giovanna Nicoletti, Nada El Darra, Michele Solfrizzo and Lucia Gambacorta
Toxins 2025, 17(11), 552; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17110552 - 5 Nov 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2003
Abstract
Emerging Alternaria mycotoxins tenuazonic acid (TeA), alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), altenuene (ALT) and tentoxin (TEN) were detected in samples of spices and herbs. A total of 92 samples purchased in Italian markets were analyzed by using a UPLC-MS/MS method. TeA was [...] Read more.
Emerging Alternaria mycotoxins tenuazonic acid (TeA), alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), altenuene (ALT) and tentoxin (TEN) were detected in samples of spices and herbs. A total of 92 samples purchased in Italian markets were analyzed by using a UPLC-MS/MS method. TeA was the predominant mycotoxin with the highest percentage of positive samples (53%), followed by AME, AOH and TEN with overall means of 801.5, 2.4, 6.2 and 10.8 µg/kg, respectively. All samples were negative to ALT. The spices with higher levels of mycotoxins were flax seeds, paprika, red chili and licorice; regarding herbs, they were basil, sage and oregano. While TeA was found to be the most abundant mycotoxin equally in Italian and Lebanese samples, AOH and AME showed significantly lower levels in Italian samples, as Lebanese samples contained concentrations up to 14 times higher. Considering the mean levels of TeA in samples, the daily consumption of >8.7 g of flax seeds, >9.3 g of paprika and >5.8 g of red chili will exceed the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) of TeA, which is 1500 ng/kg bw for a day. The high percentage of positive samples and the high levels of some mycotoxins observed demonstrate the susceptibility of spices and herbs to Alternaria mycotoxin contamination. These results provide an overview of emerging Alternaria mycotoxins in spices and herbs marketed in Italy and represent a valuable starting point to assess human exposure and support future studies aimed at establishing safe limits to protect human health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins: Challenges and Emerging Threats)
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Review

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28 pages, 3633 KB  
Review
Aflatoxin B1, Gut Microbiota Dysbiosis, and the Intestinal Barrier: Implications for the Gut–Liver Axis and Extrahepatic Cancer Risk
by Charbel Sleilaty, Marilyn Hnein, Teddy Lattouf, Thea Gemayel, Fouad Attieh, Tia Kreidy, Kevin Sarkis, May Bark, Maha Hoteit, Alain Chebly, Marwan Ghosn, André El Khoury and Jad Chémali
Toxins 2026, 18(9), 361; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18090361 - 24 Aug 2026
Viewed by 413
Abstract
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a potent foodborne mycotoxin classified as a Group 1 human carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and is widely recognized for its causal role in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Beyond its well-established hepatotoxicity, increasing evidence indicates [...] Read more.
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a potent foodborne mycotoxin classified as a Group 1 human carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and is widely recognized for its causal role in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Beyond its well-established hepatotoxicity, increasing evidence indicates that AFB1 also disrupts intestinal homeostasis by impairing epithelial barrier integrity, reducing mucus production, altering gut microbial composition, and disturbing microbial metabolism. These changes promote increased intestinal permeability, facilitating the translocation of bacteria and microbial products and contributing to chronic inflammation through the gut–liver axis. Recent experimental studies further suggest that alterations in short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production and microbiota-dependent signaling pathways may actively mediate AFB1-induced intestinal and hepatic injury. Although direct evidence linking AFB1-induced dysbiosis to extrahepatic carcinogenesis remains limited, growing evidence indicates that persistent barrier dysfunction, microbial imbalance, and chronic inflammation may create a microenvironment favorable for tumor initiation and progression in tissues beyond the liver. This review critically summarizes current evidence regarding the effects of AFB1 on intestinal barrier function, gut microbiota dysbiosis, bacterial translocation, microbial metabolites, and the gut–liver axis while evaluating the mechanistic evidence supporting these interactions and highlighting the major knowledge gaps that should be addressed in future research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins: Challenges and Emerging Threats)
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21 pages, 385 KB  
Review
Emerging Mycotoxins in Aquaculture: Current Insights on Toxicity, Biocontrol Strategies, and Occurrence in Aquafeed and Fish
by Patrizio Lorusso, Giusy Rusco, Alessio Manfredi, Nicolaia Iaffaldano, Angela Di Pinto and Elisabetta Bonerba
Toxins 2025, 17(7), 356; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17070356 - 17 Jul 2025
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3435
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by various fungal species that can contaminate food and feed, posing significant risks to human and animal health. In aquaculture, the replacement of fishmeal with alternative protein sources has increased the risk of mycotoxin contamination, becoming a major [...] Read more.
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by various fungal species that can contaminate food and feed, posing significant risks to human and animal health. In aquaculture, the replacement of fishmeal with alternative protein sources has increased the risk of mycotoxin contamination, becoming a major challenge in fish feed production. Current data highlights that fish are exposed not only to common mycotoxins but also to emerging ones, raising concerns about human exposure through fish consumption. In this review, we draw attention to the toxicity data of key emerging mycotoxins from Fusarium (enniatins, ENNs; beauvericin, BEA) and Alternaria (alternariol monomethyl ether, AME; alternariol, AOH), their occurrence in aquafeeds and in commercially relevant fish species in Europe, and potential biocontrol approaches to prevent/mitigate contaminations. From the present review, it emerged that these mycotoxins exhibit in vitro cytotoxic properties. Their prevalence and concentrations vary widely both among aquafeeds, depending on the sample’s origin, and among fish species. Biocontrol approaches using microorganisms or natural compounds show promise as sustainable solutions to limit contamination. However, further research is essential to address data gaps and to allow for a proper risk assessment and, if necessary, the implementation of effective management measures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins: Challenges and Emerging Threats)
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