Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins: Challenges and Emerging Threats

A special issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651). This special issue belongs to the section "Mycotoxins".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 January 2027 | Viewed by 6060

Special Issue Editors


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Guest Editor
Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, Večna pot 121, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Interests: genetic toxicology; advanced in vitro 3D cell models; natural toxins; environmental pollutants; toxicogenomics; com-bined exposures
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Guest Editor
Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, Večna pot 121, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Interests: in vitro 3D cell models; anthropogenic environmental contaminants; genotoxicity; safety risk assessment

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, Večna pot 121, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Interests: genotoxicology; in vitro; emerging pollutants; ecotoxicology; safety evaluation

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Mycotoxins are among the most significant chemical food contaminants, posing a serious threat to public health. It is estimated that 4.5 to 5 billion people worldwide are chronically exposed to mycotoxin-contaminated food. The global occurrence and diversity of mycotoxins are increasing, partly due to climate change. Their presence in food is therefore an open challenge for food safety and poses a serious risk to human and animal health. While regulatory limits exist for certain well-known mycotoxins, many so-called “emerging mycotoxins” remain unregulated despite their frequent detection in agricultural products. For many of these toxins, toxicological data are lacking, particularly concerning chronic exposure to low doses through contaminated food over a significant part of the human lifespan. In addition, humans are typically exposed daily to complex mixtures of mycotoxins, and their combined toxicological effects are still poorly understood and need to be studied more systematically.

This Special Issue aims at addressing these knowledge gaps by presenting new data on the toxicity and underlying molecular mechanisms of action of emerging mycotoxins and their mixtures, contributing to a more relevant human health risk assessment. Since it is practically impossible to completely avoid mycotoxin ingestion from food, it is crucial to characterize and assess the risks associated with dietary exposure. This knowledge will be essential for developing strategies to mitigate health risks to humans and animals, while also raising public awareness of mycotoxins in food and their potential to induce adverse health effects.

We welcome original research articles and reviews in areas including, but not limited to, the following:

  • Toxicity evaluation of emerging mycotoxins and their mixtures, both in vitro and in vivo;
  • Mechanistic studies of emerging mycotoxins on biological systems;
  • Novel analytical methods for mycotoxin detection;
  • Occurrence and levels of mycotoxins in agricultural products and food;
  • Dietary exposure to mycotoxins and health risk assessment.

We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Dr. Bojana Žegura
Dr. Katja Kološa
Dr. Matjaž Novak
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • emerging mycotoxins
  • risk assessment
  • toxicity
  • analytical methods
  • combined effects
  • food contamination
  • mechanism of action

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Published Papers (3 papers)

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Research

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27 pages, 3283 KB  
Article
Fungal Contamination of Dairy Feed and Major Mycotoxin Transfer: A Risk Evaluation for Animal Exposure and Health
by Ioana Poroșnicu, Luminița-Iuliana Ailincăi, Mădălina Alexandra Davidescu and Mihai Mareș
Toxins 2026, 18(1), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18010042 - 13 Jan 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1106
Abstract
This study was focused on the assessment of fungal occurrence, mycotoxin dynamics, aflatoxin carry-over, and associated biochemical responses in dairy cattle. Moisture emerged as the dominant factor for fungal communities, promoting the co-proliferation of fungal genera adapted to high water activity conditions (a [...] Read more.
This study was focused on the assessment of fungal occurrence, mycotoxin dynamics, aflatoxin carry-over, and associated biochemical responses in dairy cattle. Moisture emerged as the dominant factor for fungal communities, promoting the co-proliferation of fungal genera adapted to high water activity conditions (aw > 0.90) and antagonism against xerotolerant and xerophilic species. Aspergillus spp. dominated dry substrates (aw < 0.75), Fusarium spp. showed strong positive associations with high-moisture matrices (aw > 0.90), and Penicillium spp. exhibited intermediate, substrate-dependent behavior. Mycotoxin levels fluctuated non-linearly, independently of fungal counts: ochratoxin A (OTA) concentrations in corn silage increased from approximately 12 μg/kg at the onset of the ensiling period to >240 μg/kg at silo opening, indicating dynamic mycotoxin accumulation during storage, while zearalenone (ZEA) oscillated from 40 to 170 µg/kg. Despite the variation in total aflatoxins (AFLA-T) across feed matrices, aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in milk remained low (0.0020–0.0093 μg/kg), confirming limited carry-over. Serum biochemical parameters—alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), total bilirubin (BIL-T), total protein (PROT-T)—remained within physiological limits, yet multivariate analyses revealed metabolic modulation linked to aflatoxin exposure. AFM1 explained >7% of the variance in serum biochemical profiles according to PERMANOVA (p = 0.002), showed significant MANOVA effect (Pillai = 0.198), and displayed a significant canonical association (p < 10−13). Linear discriminant analysis further separated Normal vs. Borderline hepatic profiles, indicating subclinical physiological adaptation to chronic low-dose exposure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins: Challenges and Emerging Threats)
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16 pages, 1305 KB  
Article
Occurrence and Levels of Emerging Alternaria Mycotoxins Detected in Spices and Herbs Marketed in Italy
by Katia Gialluisi, Maria Giovanna Nicoletti, Nada El Darra, Michele Solfrizzo and Lucia Gambacorta
Toxins 2025, 17(11), 552; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17110552 - 5 Nov 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1767
Abstract
Emerging Alternaria mycotoxins tenuazonic acid (TeA), alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), altenuene (ALT) and tentoxin (TEN) were detected in samples of spices and herbs. A total of 92 samples purchased in Italian markets were analyzed by using a UPLC-MS/MS method. TeA was [...] Read more.
Emerging Alternaria mycotoxins tenuazonic acid (TeA), alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), altenuene (ALT) and tentoxin (TEN) were detected in samples of spices and herbs. A total of 92 samples purchased in Italian markets were analyzed by using a UPLC-MS/MS method. TeA was the predominant mycotoxin with the highest percentage of positive samples (53%), followed by AME, AOH and TEN with overall means of 801.5, 2.4, 6.2 and 10.8 µg/kg, respectively. All samples were negative to ALT. The spices with higher levels of mycotoxins were flax seeds, paprika, red chili and licorice; regarding herbs, they were basil, sage and oregano. While TeA was found to be the most abundant mycotoxin equally in Italian and Lebanese samples, AOH and AME showed significantly lower levels in Italian samples, as Lebanese samples contained concentrations up to 14 times higher. Considering the mean levels of TeA in samples, the daily consumption of >8.7 g of flax seeds, >9.3 g of paprika and >5.8 g of red chili will exceed the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) of TeA, which is 1500 ng/kg bw for a day. The high percentage of positive samples and the high levels of some mycotoxins observed demonstrate the susceptibility of spices and herbs to Alternaria mycotoxin contamination. These results provide an overview of emerging Alternaria mycotoxins in spices and herbs marketed in Italy and represent a valuable starting point to assess human exposure and support future studies aimed at establishing safe limits to protect human health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins: Challenges and Emerging Threats)
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Review

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21 pages, 385 KB  
Review
Emerging Mycotoxins in Aquaculture: Current Insights on Toxicity, Biocontrol Strategies, and Occurrence in Aquafeed and Fish
by Patrizio Lorusso, Giusy Rusco, Alessio Manfredi, Nicolaia Iaffaldano, Angela Di Pinto and Elisabetta Bonerba
Toxins 2025, 17(7), 356; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17070356 - 17 Jul 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2612
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by various fungal species that can contaminate food and feed, posing significant risks to human and animal health. In aquaculture, the replacement of fishmeal with alternative protein sources has increased the risk of mycotoxin contamination, becoming a major [...] Read more.
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by various fungal species that can contaminate food and feed, posing significant risks to human and animal health. In aquaculture, the replacement of fishmeal with alternative protein sources has increased the risk of mycotoxin contamination, becoming a major challenge in fish feed production. Current data highlights that fish are exposed not only to common mycotoxins but also to emerging ones, raising concerns about human exposure through fish consumption. In this review, we draw attention to the toxicity data of key emerging mycotoxins from Fusarium (enniatins, ENNs; beauvericin, BEA) and Alternaria (alternariol monomethyl ether, AME; alternariol, AOH), their occurrence in aquafeeds and in commercially relevant fish species in Europe, and potential biocontrol approaches to prevent/mitigate contaminations. From the present review, it emerged that these mycotoxins exhibit in vitro cytotoxic properties. Their prevalence and concentrations vary widely both among aquafeeds, depending on the sample’s origin, and among fish species. Biocontrol approaches using microorganisms or natural compounds show promise as sustainable solutions to limit contamination. However, further research is essential to address data gaps and to allow for a proper risk assessment and, if necessary, the implementation of effective management measures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins: Challenges and Emerging Threats)
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