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Mycotoxins in Food and Feeds: Human Health and Animal Nutrition

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A special issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651). This special issue belongs to the section "Mycotoxins".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 May 2026 | Viewed by 20482

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Maria Agustina Pavicich

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Guest Editor

Centre of Excellence in Mycotoxicology and Public Health, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
Interests: mycotoxins; food safety; risk assessment; mass spectrometry; hyperspectral imaging

Dr. Andrea Patriarca

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Guest Editor

Magan Centre of Applied Mycology, Cranfield University, College Rd, Wharley End, Bedford MK43 0AL, UK
Interests: food mycology; mycotoxins; fruits and vegetables; cereals; food safety; fungal secondary metabolites

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Mycotoxins are a prevalent challenge in food safety and animal nutrition, representing a significant threat to global health and agricultural sustainability. These naturally occurring toxins, produced by fungi, contaminate a wide range of crops, with implications that extend across the entire food chain from farm to fork. The diverse chemical structures and biological activities of mycotoxins present varied risks, demanding innovative approaches to the detection, mitigation, and understanding of their impact on human and animal health.

This Special Issue, titled “Mycotoxins in Food and Feeds: Human Health and Animal Nutrition”, will provide a platform for groundbreaking research and reviews addressing the multifaceted challenges posed by mycotoxins. We encourage contributions that explore cutting-edge advancements in detection technologies, risk assessment, and control strategies, as well as studies elucidating the nutritional and toxicological consequences in animals and humans. Additionally, we welcome research that delves into the global implications of mycotoxin contamination, innovative approaches to detoxification, and the intersection of policy, science, and industry.

Join us in advancing the frontiers of mycotoxin research. Through this Special Issue, we will inspire impactful solutions, foster interdisciplinary collaboration, and catalyze progress toward safeguarding the health of both humans and animals.

Dr. Maria Agustina Pavicich
Dr. Andrea Patriarca
Guest Editors

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Keywords

mycotoxins
food safety
feed safety
animal nutrition
toxin detection
fungal infection
human health
risk assessment
toxicology
agricultural sustainability

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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14 pages, 1079 KB

Open AccessArticle

Untargeted LC-HRMS Metabolomics for the Detection of Alternaria-Infected Apples Under Retail and Storage Conditions

by María Agustina Pavicich, Claudia Giménez-Campillo, José Diana Di Mavungu, Sarah De Saeger and Andrea Patriarca

Toxins 2026, 18(4), 159; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18040159 - 27 Mar 2026

Viewed by 533

Abstract

Apples are highly susceptible to fungal infections, particularly by Alternaria species, which can lead to fruit deterioration and mycotoxin contamination during storage. This study aimed to evaluate the potential of untargeted liquid chromatography–high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) as a control-oriented strategy to detect Alternaria-infected apples under retail and long-term storage conditions. Healthy Red Delicious apples were artificially inoculated with three Alternaria tenuissima strains on the fruit surface or core and incubated at 25 °C or 4 °C. Extracts were analysed by UPLC-HRMS in both positive and negative electrospray ionisation modes, followed by multivariate chemometric analysis. Principal component analysis and partial least squares discriminant analysis consistently discriminated infected from non-infected apples, independent of strain, infection site, or incubation temperature. Feature selection based on variable importance values significantly improved model robustness and predictive performance. The metabolomic profiles also enabled discrimination according to Alternaria strain, infection site, storage temperature, and selected combinations of these factors. The results demonstrate that LC-HRMS-based untargeted metabolomics could provide a statistically robust framework for detecting Alternaria tenuissima infection in apples under the studied conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Food and Feeds: Human Health and Animal Nutrition)

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13 pages, 786 KB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Validation of an LC-MS/MS Method for the Determination of Alternaria Mycotoxins in Hepatic Tissue

by María García-Nicolás, Alicia Navarro-Botia, Natalia Arroyo-Manzanares and Pilar Viñas

Toxins 2026, 18(2), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18020077 - 2 Feb 2026

Viewed by 591

Abstract

The presence of Alternaria mycotoxins in hepatic tissue of both human and animal origin remains unexplored. This work describes the development of an analytical method based on salt-assisted liquid–liquid extraction (SALLE) and ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QTOF-MS) for the determination of six main Alternaria mycotoxins and related metabolites. Sample treatment was fully optimized, including sample mass, extraction solvent, and volume and sodium chloride mass. The method was validated, achieving calibration curve R² values above 0.99 and limits of detection between 0.01 and 1.46 µg kg⁻¹. Moreover, satisfactory trueness (apparent recoveries between 84% to 111%) and precision (RSD values below 10%) were achieved, complying with EU requirements. Matrix effects in terms of signal suppression/enhancement varied between 53% for TeA and 78% for AME. Applied to real liver samples (20 human and 20 animal), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME) was found in pig liver, while alternariol (AOH) and tentoxin (TEN) were found in human forensic liver tissues. No other Alternaria mycotoxin metabolites were detected. This methodology is the first validated approach for determining Alternaria mycotoxins in liver tissue. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Food and Feeds: Human Health and Animal Nutrition)

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18 pages, 2539 KB

Open AccessArticle

Squeeze-Excitation Attention-Guided 3D Inception ResNet for Aflatoxin B1 Classification in Almonds Using Hyperspectral Imaging

by Md. Ahasan Kabir, Ivan Lee and Sang-Heon Lee

Toxins 2026, 18(2), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18020076 - 2 Feb 2026

Viewed by 665

Abstract

Almonds are a highly valued nut due to their rich protein and nutritional content. However, they are vulnerable to aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) contamination in warm and humid environments. Consumption of AFB1-contaminated almonds can pose serious health risks, including kidney damage, and may lead to significant economic losses. Consequently, a rapid and non-destructive detection method is essential to ensure food safety by identifying and removing contaminated almonds from the supply chain. Hyperspectral imaging (HSI) and 3D deep learning provide a non-destructive, efficient alternative to current AFB1 detection methods. This study presents an attention-guided Inception ResNet 3D Network (AGIR-3DNet) for fast and precise detection of AFB1 contamination in almonds utilizing HSI. The proposed model integrates multi-scale feature extraction, residual learning, and attention mechanisms to enhance spatial-spectral feature representation, enabling more precise classification. The proposed 3D model was rigorously tested, and its performance was compared against 3D Inception and various conventional machine learning models. Compared to conventional machine learning models and deep learning architectures, AGIR-3DNet outperformed and achieved superior validation accuracy of 93.30%, an F1-score (harmonic mean of precision and recall) of 0.94, and an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) value of 0.98. Furthermore, the model enhances processing efficiency, making it faster and more suitable for real-time industrial applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Food and Feeds: Human Health and Animal Nutrition)

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20 pages, 2182 KB

Open AccessArticle

Nixtamalization of Maize to Reduce Mycotoxin Exposure: A Human Biomonitoring Intervention Study in Soweto, South Africa

by Elias Maris, Palesa Ndlangamandla, Oluwasola A. Adelusi, Oluwakamisi F. Akinmoladun, Julianah O. Odukoya, Richard T. Fagbohun, Samson A. Oyeyinka, Palesa Sekhejane, Roger Pero-Gascon, Marthe De Boevre, Siska Croubels, Patrick B. Njobeh and Sarah De Saeger

Toxins 2025, 17(11), 527; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17110527 - 26 Oct 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2028

Abstract

Mycotoxin contamination is a global threat to food safety and human health, especially in regions facing food insecurity, such as Sub-Saharan Africa. This intervention study evaluates the effectiveness of nixtamalization, a traditional alkaline cooking method, in reducing mycotoxin levels in maize and corresponding urinary biomarkers of exposure. Forty adult healthy volunteers from an informal settlement in Kliptown, Soweto (South Africa), were randomly assigned to consume control maize or visibly moldy maize subjected to nixtamalization. Nixtamalization achieved a reduction in fumonisin B3 and deoxynivalenol (DON) to unquantifiable or undetectable levels in maize, while reducing fumonisin B1 (FB1), fumonisin B2, and zearalenone (ZEN) by 95%, 95%, and 89%, respectively. Aflatoxin B1 was unquantifiable before and eliminated after treatment. Biomarker analysis revealed that after consumption of either control or nixtamalized maize, urinary levels of FB1, ZEN, and its metabolites α- and β-zearalenol (α- and β-ZEL) did not show significant differences between groups (p > 0.05). DON and tenuazonic acid levels were not affected by the intervention (p > 0.05), with urinary detection frequencies remaining above 90%. These results demonstrate nixtamalization effectively lowers mycotoxin levels in maize, resulting in exposure levels comparable to control maize, and highlight human biomonitoring as a sensitive tool for evaluating food safety interventions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Food and Feeds: Human Health and Animal Nutrition)

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15 pages, 1129 KB

Open AccessArticle

Building Sub-Saharan African PBPK Populations Reveals Critical Data Gaps: A Case Study on Aflatoxin B1

by Orphélie Lootens, Marthe De Boevre, Sarah De Saeger, Jan Van Bocxlaer and An Vermeulen

Toxins 2025, 17(10), 493; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17100493 - 3 Oct 2025

Viewed by 1892

Abstract

Physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models allow to simulate the behaviour of compounds in diverse physiological populations. However, the categorization of individuals into distinct populations raises questions regarding the classification criteria. In previous research, simulations of the pharmacokinetics of the mycotoxin aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), were performed in the black South African population, using PBPK modeling. This study investigates the prevalence of clinical CYP450 phenotypes (CYP2B6, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, CYP3A4/5) across Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), to determine the feasibility of defining SSA as a single population. SSA was subdivided into Central, East, South and West Africa. The phenotype data were assigned to the different regions and a fifth SSA group was composed of all regions’ weighted means. Available data from literature only covered 7.30% of Central, 56.9% of East, 38.9% of South and 62.9% of West Africa, clearly indicating critical data gaps. A pairwise proportion test was performed between the regions on enzyme phenotype data. When achieving statistical significance (p < 0.05), a Cohen’s d-test was performed to determine the degree of the difference. Next, per region populations were built using SimCYP starting from the available SSA based SouthAfrican_Population FW_Custom population, supplemented with the phenotype data from literature. Simulations were performed using CYP probe substrates in all populations, and derived PK parameters (C_max, T_max, AUC_ss and CL) were plotted in bar charts. Significant differences between the African regions regarding CYP450 phenotype frequencies were shown for CYP2B6, CYP2C19 and CYP2D6. Limited regional data challenge the representation of SSA populations in these models. The scarce availability of in vivo data for SSA regions restricted the ability to fully validate the developed PBPK populations. However, observed literature data from specific SSA regions provided partial validation, indicating that SSA populations should ideally be modelled at a regional level rather than as a single entity. The findings, emerging from the initial AFB1-focused PBPK work, underscore the need for more extensive and region-specific data to enhance model accuracy and predictive value across SSA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Food and Feeds: Human Health and Animal Nutrition)

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14 pages, 964 KB

Open AccessArticle

Ochratoxin A and Aspergillus spp. Contamination in Brown and Polished (White) Rice from Indian Markets

by Sadaiappan Nandinidevi, Chandren Jayapradha, Dananjeyan Balachandar, Antonio F. Logrieco, Rethinasamy Velazhahan and Vaikuntavasan Paranidharan

Toxins 2025, 17(10), 474; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17100474 - 23 Sep 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1725

Abstract

Rice is one of the most important staple foods for the human population, necessitating continuous monitoring for mycotoxin risk in particular in the sub-tropical area, such as India. In the present study, a total of eighty-one samples comprising brown (n = 36) and polished (white) rice (n = 45) intended for direct human consumption were collected from markets across various districts of Tamil Nadu, India, and analysed for ochratoxin A (OTA) and fungal contamination. Aspergillus ochraceus, an ochratoxigenic fungus belonging to Aspergillus section Circumdati, exhibits optimal growth and OTA production at temperatures ranging from 25 °C to 30 °C. Among the fungal isolates, Aspergillus niger and A. ochraceus were the most prevalent, occurring in 50 out of 81 samples (62%). A. ochraceus demonstrated a significantly higher OTA-producing capacity compared to A. niger, with an OTA concentration range of 12.3–196.8 µg/kg and 0.2–2.8 µg/kg. Chemical analysis of fifty fungal-contaminated market rice samples revealed that 76% (38/50) were contaminated with OTA. Further, detectable levels of OTA were observed in 83% of brown rice and 69% of polished rice samples, with the highest frequency falling within the range of 1–<3 µg/kg. However, none of the tested rice samples exceeded the acceptable OTA threshold set by the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) (20 µg/kg), with all concentrations falling below the national regulatory limit. This study represents further insight into OTA exposure in rice, with greater concern regarding brown rice than white rice, and emphasizes the necessity of implementing sound and safe storage practices, effective management strategies, and continuous monitoring programs to prevent OTA contamination throughout the Indian rice supply chain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Food and Feeds: Human Health and Animal Nutrition)

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21 pages, 1623 KB

Open AccessArticle

Derivation of Human Toxicokinetic Parameters and Chemical-Specific Adjustment Factor of Citrinin Through a Human Intervention Trial and Hierarchical Bayesian Population Modeling

by Lia Visintin, Camilla Martino, Sarah De Saeger, Eugenio Alladio, Marthe De Boevre and Weihsueh A. Chiu

Toxins 2025, 17(8), 382; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17080382 - 31 Jul 2025

Viewed by 1326

Abstract

Background: Citrinin (CIT) is a mycotoxin produced by various fungi contaminating stored cereals and fruits. While biomonitoring and food occurrence data indicate widespread exposure, its public health risks remain unclear due to the lack of human toxicokinetic (TK) data. Methods: A UHPLC-MS/MS method was validated for CIT quantification in capillary blood (VAMS Mitra^® tips), feces, and urine obtaining LLOQs ≤ 0.05 ng/mL. A human TK study was conducted following a single oral bolus of 200 ng/kg bw CIT. Individual capillary blood (VAMS Mitra^® tips), feces, and urine samples were collected for 48 h after exposure. Samples were analyzed to determine CIT’s TK profile. Results: TK modeling was performed using a multi-compartmental structure with a hierarchical Bayesian population approach, allowing robust parameter estimation despite the lack of standards for CIT metabolites. Conclusions: The derived TK parameters align with preliminary human data and significantly advance CIT exposure assessment via biomonitoring. A human inter-individual toxicokinetic variability (HK_AF) of 1.92 was calculated based on the derived AUC, indicating that EFSA’s current default uncertainty factor for TK variability is adequately protective for at least 95% of the population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Food and Feeds: Human Health and Animal Nutrition)

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Review

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21 pages, 1231 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Detection of Mycotoxins in Cereal Grains and Nuts Using Machine Learning Integrated Hyperspectral Imaging: A Review

by Md. Ahasan Kabir, Ivan Lee, Chandra B. Singh, Gayatri Mishra, Brajesh Kumar Panda and Sang-Heon Lee

Toxins 2025, 17(5), 219; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17050219 - 27 Apr 2025

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 6607

Abstract

Cereal grains and nuts are the world’s most produced food and the economic backbone of many countries. Food safety in these commodities is crucial, as they are highly susceptible to mold growth and mycotoxin contamination in warm, humid environments. This review explores hyperspectral imaging (HSI) integrated with machine learning (ML) algorithms as a promising approach for detecting and quantifying mycotoxins in cereal grains and nuts. This study aims to (1) critically evaluate current non-destructive techniques for processing these foods and the applications of ML in identifying mycotoxins through HSI, and (2) highlight challenges and potential future research directions to enhance the reliability and efficiency of these detection systems. The ML algorithms showed effectiveness in classifying and quantifying mycotoxins in grains and nuts, with HSI systems increasingly adopted in industrial settings. Mycotoxins exhibit heightened sensitivity to specific spectral bands within HSI, facilitating accurate detection. Additionally, selecting only relevant spectral features reduces ML model complexity and enhances reliability in the detection process. This review contributes to a deeper understanding of the integration of HSI and ML for food safety applications in cereal grains and nuts. By identifying current challenges and future research directions, it provides valuable insights for advancing non-destructive mycotoxin detection methods in the food industry using HSI. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Food and Feeds: Human Health and Animal Nutrition)

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Other

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25 pages, 1538 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Effect of Ochratoxin A (OTA) on the Immune System: A Systematic Review

by Yusif Mubarik, Shadrach Tetteh Boyetey, Anastasia Rosebud Aikins and Mohamed Mutocheluh

Toxins 2025, 17(5), 256; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17050256 - 20 May 2025

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3986

Abstract

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin with different adverse health effects. The authors conducted a systematic review to evaluate the effects of OTA on the immune system, with more emphasis on its effects on immune system organs, innate and adaptive immunity and related signaling pathways. Studies have demonstrated that exposure to OTA disrupts the functions of immune system organs, resulting in weight loss, histological lesions and a decrease in antibody-secreting cells. There is evidence that OTA impairs epithelial barrier integrity and macrophage function and induces elevated secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines. In adaptive immunity, OTA regulates T-cell differentiation, particularly Th1 and Th17 subsets, and adversely impacts humoral immunity, ultimately leading to immune suppression. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Food and Feeds: Human Health and Animal Nutrition)

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