Extensive Variation in Thermal Responses and Toxin Content Among 40 Strains of the Cold-Water Diatom Pseudo-nitzschia seriata
Probing Bacterial Interactions with the Schistosoma mansoni-Killing Toxin Biomphalysin via Atomic Force Microscopy and Single Molecule Force Spectroscopy
Dual Proteomics Strategies to Dissect and Quantify the Components of Nine Medically Important African Snake Venoms
Induction of Shiga Toxins in STEC by Mitomycin C

Journal Description

Toxins

Toxins is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal which provides an advanced forum for studies related to toxinology and all kinds of toxins (biotoxins) from animals, microbes and plants. Toxins is published monthly online by MDPI. The French Society on Toxinology (SFET), International Society for Mycotoxicology (ISM), Japanese Society of Mycotoxicology (JSMYCO) and European Uremic Toxins (EUTox) Work Group are affiliated with Toxins and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), PubMed, MEDLINE, PMC, Embase, CAPlus / SciFinder, AGRIS, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Toxicology) / CiteScore - Q1 (Toxicology)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 18.4 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.8 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Sections: published in 6 topical sections.

Impact Factor: 4.0 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 4.5 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2072-6651

Latest Articles

17 pages, 1034 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring of Vitamin C Plasma Levels in a Reversible Model of Malabsorption Generated in Mice by Ebulin-f

by Daniel Arranz-Paraiso, M. Angeles Rojo, Cristina Martin-Sabroso, Manuel Cordoba-Diaz, Tomás Girbés, Manuel Garrosa and Damian Cordoba-Diaz

Toxins 2025, 17(7), 333; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17070333 - 30 Jun 2025

Abstract

The development of reversible animal models for the study of intestinal pathologies is essential to reduce the number of animals used in research and to better understand disease mechanisms. In this study, we present a reversible model of intestinal malabsorption through the administration of sublethal doses of ebulin-f, a ribosome-inactivating protein, and validate its usefulness by monitoring vitamin C absorption. The scientific community increasingly recognizes the importance of rationalizing experimental designs, optimizing treatment protocols, and minimizing the use of animals in research models. Thus, new methodologies are needed to minimize invasive sampling and to develop reversible animal models that recover physiologically post-study. Such models are essential for in vivo studies of human pathologies. Sublethal doses of ebulin-f (2.5 mg/kg) administered intraperitoneally to female Swiss CD1 mice (n = 6 per group) can cause reversible intestinal alterations in the small intestine, which offer the possibility of having a valuable reversible study model of malabsorption for the investigation of this syndrome. To verify whether nutrient absorption is altered, we used vitamin C as a traceable nutrient that can be quantified in the blood. Peripheral blood samples were collected through the retro-orbital area at 30, 80, 120, 180, and 1440 min post-administration, treated with DTT and MPA, and analyzed using a validated UV/Vis–HPLC method to indirectly determine vitamin C absorption by enterocytes. Pharmacokinetic analysis revealed significantly increased vitamin C absorption on days 1 and 3 post-treatment (AUC values of 3.65 × 10⁴ and 7.10 × 10⁴, respectively) compared to control (0.94 × 10⁴), with partial recovery by day 22 (3.27 × 10⁴). Blood concentration profiles indicate that intestinal damage peaks at day 3, followed by significant regeneration by day 22, establishing this as a viable reversible model for inflammatory bowel disease research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ribosome-Inactivating Proteins: From Plant Toxins to Drug Applications)

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16 pages, 5492 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tityus serrulatus Scorpion Venom-Induced Nociceptive Responses Depend on TRPV1, Immune Cells, and Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines

by Camila R. Ferraz, Marília F. Manchope, Mariana M. Bertozzi, Telma Saraiva-Santos, Ketlem C. Andrade, Anelise Franciosi, Tiago H. Zaninelli, Julia Bagatim-Souza, Sergio M. Borghi, Denise M. Cândido, Thiago M. Cunha, Rubia Casagrande, Fábio H. Kwasniewski and Waldiceu A. Verri

Toxins 2025, 17(7), 332; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17070332 - 30 Jun 2025

Abstract

For centuries, researchers have been fascinated by the composition of scorpion venom and its local and systemic effects on humans. During a sting, scorpions inject peptides and proteins that can affect immune cells and neurons. While the immune and nervous systems have been studied independently in the context of scorpion stings, here we reveal part of the mechanism by which Tityus serrulatus venom induces hyperalgesia in mice. Through behavioral, immune, imaging assays, and mice genetics, we demonstrate evidence of neuroimmune crosstalk during scorpion stings. Tityus serrulatus venom induced mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia in a dose-dependent manner, as well as overt pain-like behavior. The venom directly activated dorsal root ganglia neurons and increased the recruitment of macrophages and neutrophils, releasing pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-1β. Blocking TRPV1⁺ neurons, TNF-α, IL-1β, and NFκB reduced the mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia, overt pain-like behavior, and the migration of macrophages and neutrophils induced by Tityus serrulatus venom. Collectively, Tityus serrulatus venom targets primary afferent nociceptive TRPV1⁺ neurons to induce hyperalgesia through the recruitment of macrophages and neutrophils and the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Animal Venoms)

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27 pages, 2201 KiB

Open AccessReview

Toxicity, Mitigation, and Chemical Analysis of Aflatoxins and Other Toxic Metabolites Produced by Aspergillus: A Comprehensive Review

by Habtamu Fekadu Gemede

Toxins 2025, 17(7), 331; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17070331 - 30 Jun 2025

Abstract

Aflatoxins, toxic secondary metabolites produced primarily by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, pose significant risks to food safety, public health, and global trade. These mycotoxins contaminate staple crops such as maize and peanuts, particularly in warm and humid regions, leading to economic losses and severe health effects, including hepatocellular carcinoma, immune suppression, and growth impairment. In addition to aflatoxins, Aspergillus species produce other toxic metabolites such as ochratoxin A, sterigmatocystin, and cyclopiazonic acid, which are associated with nephrotoxic, carcinogenic, and neurotoxic effects, respectively. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of aflatoxin toxicity, mitigation strategies, and chemical detection methods. The toxicity of aflatoxins is discussed in relation to their biochemical mechanisms, carcinogenicity, and synergistic effects with other mycotoxins. Various mitigation approaches, including pre-harvest biocontrol, post-harvest storage management, and novel detoxification methods such as enzymatic degradation and nanotechnology-based interventions, are evaluated. Furthermore, advances in aflatoxin detection, including chromatographic, immunoassay, and biosensor-based methods, are explored to improve regulatory compliance and food safety monitoring. This review underscores the need for integrated management strategies and global collaboration to reduce aflatoxin contamination and its associated health and economic burdens. Future research directions should focus on genetic engineering for resistant crop varieties, climate adaptation strategies, and improved risk assessment models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity, Mitigation and Chemical Analysis of Aflatoxins and Other Toxic Metabolites Produced by Aspergillus)

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14 pages, 368 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Long-Term Effectiveness of Onabotulinum Toxin-A in a Combined Total Endoscopic Management of Pediatric Vesicoureteral Reflux in Neurogenic Bladder Dysfunction

by Claudio Paratore, Chiara Pellegrino, Noemi Deanesi, Rebecca Pulvirenti, Maria Luisa Capitanucci and Giovanni Mosiello

Toxins 2025, 17(7), 330; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17070330 - 29 Jun 2025

Abstract

Vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) management in children with neurogenic bladder dysfunction (NBD) remains a clinical challenge. Total endoscopic management (TEM), combining intradetrusor Onabotulinum Toxin-A (BTX-A) and subureteric dextranomer/hyaluronic acid (Deflux^(R)) injection, offers a minimally invasive alternative. The aim of this retrospective study is to evaluate the long-term effectiveness of TEM. Inclusion criteria: symptomatic II–V grade VUR (also I in bilateral VUR) in NBD children with follow-up ≥12 months. Nineteen patients were enrolled, 24 ureters (grade I–II: 2, grade III–V: 22); 5 patients (20.8%) had bilateral VUR. Mean age at surgery: 7.6 years (1.3–17). No complications were reported. TEM was effective in 11 patients (57.9%), 3/11 requiring a second TEM treatment. VUR resolution appeared in 14 ureters (58.3%), downgrading in 6 (42.9%), persistence in 4 (28.6%). Among non-responders’ patients (8/19, 42.1%), five (26.3%) required bladder augmentation (one combined with ureteral reimplantation), one (5.3%) underwent reimplantation, and two (10.5%) continued conservative management. At bladder biopsy, 11 patients (57.9%) had chronic inflammation, 8 (42.1%) showed fibrosis; no difference in success rate was recorded. All responders required repeated BTX-A injections. Mean follow-up: 3.2 years (range 1–4.7). In selected patients, TEM appears to be a safe and effective strategy, potentially delaying or avoiding major reconstructive surgery. Full article

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18 pages, 2349 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparing Computational Peritoneal Dialysis Models in Pigs and Patients

by Sangita Swapnasrita, Joost C. de Vries, Joanna Stachowska-Piętka, Carl M Öberg, Karin G. F. Gerritsen and Aurélie M. F. Carlier

Toxins 2025, 17(7), 329; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17070329 - 28 Jun 2025

Abstract

Computational models of peritoneal dialysis (PD) are increasingly useful for optimizing treatment in patients with kidney disease requiring dialysis (KDRD). However, although several mathematical models have been developed in the past few decades, a direct comparison of the models’ accuracy with respect to predicting in vivo data is needed to further create robust personalized models. Here, we used a dataset obtained in a previous in vivo experimental model of PD in pigs (23 sessions of 4 h 2 L dwells in four pigs) and humans (20 sessions in 20 patients) to compare six computational models of PD: the Graff model (UGM), the three-pore model (TPM), the Garred model (GM), and the Waniewski model (WM), as well as two variations of these (UGM-18, SWM). We conducted this comparison to predict the dialysate concentrations of key uremic toxins and electrolytes (four in humans) throughout a 4 h dwell. The model predictions can provide insight into inter-individual differences in ultrafiltration, which are critical for tailoring PD regimens in KDRD. While TPM offered improved physiological reality, its computational cost suggests a trade-off between model complexity and clinical applicability for real-time or portable kidney support systems. In future applications, such models could provide adaptive PD regimens for tailored care based on patient-specific toxin kinetics and fluid dynamics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Contemporary and Emerging Modalities of Kidney Assistance Therapy for Patients with Kidney Dysfunction Requiring Dialysis)

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20 pages, 3412 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Snake Venom Metalloproteinases from Puff Adder and Saw-Scaled Viper Venoms Cause Cytotoxic Effects in Human Keratinocytes

by Keirah E. Bartlett, Adam Westhorpe, Mark C. Wilkinson and Nicholas R. Casewell

Toxins 2025, 17(7), 328; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17070328 - 28 Jun 2025

Abstract

Snakebite envenoming is a neglected tropical disease that causes substantial mortality and morbidity globally. The puff adder (Bitis arietans) and saw-scaled viper (Echis romani) have cytotoxic venoms that cause permanent injury via dermonecrosis around the bite site. Identifying the cytotoxic toxins within these venoms will allow for the development of targeted treatments to prevent snakebite morbidity. In this study, venoms from both species were fractionated using gel filtration chromatography, and a combination of cytotoxicity approaches, SDS-PAGE gel electrophoresis, and enzymatic assays were applied to identify the venom cytotoxins in the resulting fractions. Our results indicate that snake venom metalloproteinase (SVMP) toxins are responsible for causing cytotoxic effects across both venoms. The PI subclass of SVMPs is likely the main driver of cytotoxicity following envenoming by B. arietans, while the structurally distinct PIII subclass of SVMPs is mostly responsible for conveying this effect in E. romani venom. Identifying distinct SVMPs as cytotoxicity-causing toxins in these two African viper venoms will facilitate the future design and development of novel therapeutics targeting these medically important venoms, which in turn could help to mitigate the severe life- and limb-threatening consequences of tropical snakebites. Full article

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21 pages, 1391 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Botulinum Neurotoxin A-Induced Muscle Morphology Changes in Children with Cerebral Palsy: A One-Year Follow-Up Study

by Charlotte Lambrechts, Nathalie De Beukelaer, Ines Vandekerckhove, Ineke Verreydt, Anke Andries, Francesco Cenni, Ghislaine Gayan-Ramirez, Kaat Desloovere and Anja Van Campenhout

Toxins 2025, 17(7), 327; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17070327 - 27 Jun 2025

Abstract

Botulinum neurotoxin type A (BoNT-A) is widely used to reduce spasticity in children with cerebral palsy. Despite its therapeutic benefits, incomplete muscle recovery has been observed post-treatment. This study evaluated longitudinal BoNT-A effects on muscle morphology over one year in children with CP (n = 26, mean age: 5.19 years ± 3.26). Three-dimensional freehand ultrasound assessed medial gastrocnemius muscle volume (MV), muscle belly length (ML), cross-sectional area (CSA), and echo intensity (EI) at baseline and at 3, 6, and 12 months post-BoNT-A. Z-score normalization accounted for natural muscle growth. Linear mixed models analyzed muscular changes over time, and repeated-measures ANOVA compared muscle parameters to an age- and severity-matched control group (n = 26, mean age: 4.98 ± 2.15) at one-year follow-up. MV exhibited a declining trend at 3 (p = 0.005), 6 (p = 0.003), and 12 months (p = 0.007), while ML remained unchanged throughout follow-up (p = 0.95). The initially reduced CSA at 6 months (p = 0.0005) recovered at one year, and EI increased only at 3 months post-BoNT-A (p < 0.0001). At one-year follow-up, there was a trend for reduced growth rate (MV/month) (p = 0.035) in the intervention group, whereas the control group exhibited an increased muscle growth (p = 0.029). These findings suggest distinct recovery timelines for CSA and ML, which may explain the incomplete MV recovery and highlight substantial interindividual variation in recovery processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Botulinum Toxin in Neuro-Rehabilitation: Expanding Horizons in Spasticity and Beyond)

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7 pages, 232 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Aspergillus flavus and Aflatoxins (3rd Edition)

by Tanvir Ahmad, Shihua Wang and Yang Liu

Toxins 2025, 17(7), 326; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17070326 - 25 Jun 2025

Abstract

Aspergillus flavus is a saprophytic fungus commonly found in grain crops [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aspergillus flavus and Aflatoxins (3rd Edition))

14 pages, 1057 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antibacterial Activity of Jelleine-I, a Peptide Isolated from Royal Jelly of Apis mellifera, Against Colistin-Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae

by William Gustavo Lima, Rayssa Maria Rodrigues Laia, Julio Cesar Moreira Brito, Daniel Augusto Guedes Reis Michel, Rodrigo Moreira Verly, Jarbas Magalhães Resende and Maria Elena de Lima

Toxins 2025, 17(7), 325; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17070325 - 25 Jun 2025

Abstract

Klebsiella pneumoniae can acquire resistance mechanisms to colistin and present a pan-resistant phenotype. Therefore, new alternative agents are imperative to control this pathogen, and the peptide Jelleine-I stands out as a promising prototype. Here, the antibacterial activity of Jelleine-I against clinical isolates of colistin-resistant K. pneumoniae (CRKP) was investigated. Antimicrobial activity was assessed by determining the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) and time kill-curve assay. The release of 260 nm-absorbing materials (DNA/RNA) and the release of proteins were used in the lysis assay. Anti-biofilm activity was studied in microplates. In vivo activity was determined by the lethality assay using Tenebrio molitor larvae. The results show that the MIC of Jelleine-I ranged from 16 to 128 µM and the MBC was on average 128 µM. Jelleine-I at 200 µM killed all CRKP cells in suspension (10⁶ colony-forming units (CFU)/mL) after 150 min of incubation. Jelleine-I acts on the CRKP cell membrane inducing lysis. Biomass and viability of CRKP-induced biofilms are reduced after treatment with Jelleine-I, and the use of this peptide in T. molitor larvae infected with CRKP reduces lethality and improves overall larval health. In conclusion, Jelleine-I is a potential prototype for the development of new antimicrobial agents. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Animal Venoms)

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19 pages, 318 KiB

Open AccessArticle

First Total Diet Study of Aflatoxins in Singapore: Exposure Risk, High-Risk Foods, and Public Health Implications

by Ker Lew, Yu Lee Leyau, Ping Shen, Xin Li, Sherine Liew, Joachim Chua, Hui Yi Lim, Yuansheng Wu, Kern Rei Chng and Sheot Harn Chan

Toxins 2025, 17(7), 324; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17070324 - 25 Jun 2025

Abstract

Dietary exposure of Singapore population to foodborne and natural toxins was estimated through Total Diet Study (TDS) approach. Among the common mycotoxins and plant toxins studied, such as aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, and fumonisins, aflatoxins were identified with food safety concerns. Aflatoxin occurrence was determined in 642 commonly consumed foods, with a detection rate of 4%, and a mean concentration of 0.01–0.07 µg/kg. Dietary exposure and risk assessment of aflatoxins for the general population revealed a mean estimated daily intake (EDI) of 0.0002–0.002 ng/kg bw/day, a margin of exposure (MOE) of 2819–7101, cancer risk of 0.002–0.004 additional cases per 100,000 person per year, and a hazard quotient (HQ) of 0.19–0.20. Despite the low overall estimated exposure risk for the general population, elevated exposure was observed among the eaters-only group, with the highest upper-bound (UB) exposure reaching 3.4 ng/kg bw/day for high consumers (95th percentile) of satay sauce, a popular Asian delicacy. The corresponding cancer risk of 0.23 additional cases per 100,000 individuals, or 14 additional cases annually, contributes to an estimation of 1% of the 1442 liver cancer cases reported in Singapore in 2022. These findings highlight the importance of continuous monitoring and call for appropriate mitigation strategies for further reduction in aflatoxin exposure in the Singapore population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Contamination, Detection and Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins)

38 pages, 660 KiB

Open AccessReview

Toxic Shock Syndrome Toxin-1 (TSST-1) in Staphylococcus aureus: Prevalence, Molecular Mechanisms, and Public Health Implications

by Rahima Touaitia, Nasir Adam Ibrahim, Eman Abdullah Almuqri, Nosiba S. Basher, Takfarinas Idres and Abdelaziz Touati

Toxins 2025, 17(7), 323; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17070323 - 24 Jun 2025

Abstract

Staphylococcus aureus is a significant pathogen responsible for various infections, with its production of toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 (TSST-1) being a central factor in the pathogenesis of toxic shock syndrome (TSS). This study investigates the prevalence, molecular mechanisms, and public health implications of TSST-1-producing S. aureus. This study reviews methods for detecting TSST-1, focusing on PCR-based molecular techniques and immunological methods like ELISA, as well as the challenges in accurately diagnosing TSST-1 due to antibiotic resistance and strain variability. The findings reveal that TSST-1 is widely distributed across clinical, foodborne, and zoonotic sources, with significant prevalence in both healthcare and agricultural settings. This study also discusses the regulatory networks controlling TSST-1 production, including the agr system and other environmental cues like glucose, iron, and pH levels, which influence toxin expression. The results underline the need for improved surveillance and diagnostic approaches, as well as the development of targeted therapies to mitigate the impact of TSST-1 in both hospital and community settings. The conclusions highlight the importance of understanding TSST-1’s molecular mechanisms for developing effective public health strategies to control its spread. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Staphylococcus aureus Toxins：Presence and Detection in Human, Animals and Food)

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13 pages, 745 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Validation of a Methodology for the Quantification of DON in Feces and Feedstuffs by UPLC as Possible Strategy to Evaluate the Detoxifying Efficacy of a Mycotoxin Adsorbent In Vivo

by Bo Yang, Hui Deng, Yiwei Jia, Dong Li, Rudeng Chen, Ruiqing Chen, Jing Zhang, Yan Zhong, Lingxian Yi, Fuhao Wang, Hongjie Cui and Daojin Yu

Toxins 2025, 17(7), 322; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17070322 - 24 Jun 2025

Abstract

The study aimed to provide a possible strategy to evaluate the detoxifying efficacy of mycotoxin adsorbents in vivo by analyzing deoxynivalenol (DON) concentration in feces. Fifteen pigs were randomly assigned to five groups (groups A–E, 3 replicates/group). The pigs in each group were fed twice a day for 10 d with 500 g of designed diets (group A, commercial feedstuffs; group B, DON-contaminated (mildewed) feedstuffs; groups C, D, E, mildewed feedstuffs containing 0.2% adsorbent 1, 2, and 3, respectively). For each pig, 2-g fecal samples were collected pre-feeding and analyzed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography. Nondetectable or low concentrations of DON (<1.38 μg/g) were found in fecal samples from groups A and B. High concentrations of DON (>20 μg/g) were detected in six out of twenty fecal batches from pigs in group C. Moderate concentrations of DON (5.54–6.50 μg/g) were detected in one out of twenty fecal batches from pigs in group D and two out of twenty in group E. Based on the predefined evaluation criteria, higher DON concentration and frequency in feces indicate better adsorbent efficacy. Notably, Absorbent 1 demonstrated a more pronounced detoxification efficacy in vivo compared to the other two absorbents. Full article

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22 pages, 2551 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Unraveling the Toxicity of a Non-Microcystin-Producing Strain (CCIBt3106) of Microcystis aeruginosa: Ecotoxicological Effects on Aquatic Invertebrates

by Éryka Costa Almeida, Fernanda Rios Jacinavicius, Rhuana Valdetário Médice, Rafaella Bizo Menezes, Larissa Souza Passos, Dominique Anderson, Jaewon Yoon, Elaine Dias Faria, Camila Manoel Crnkovic, Ana Lúcia Fonseca, Theodore Henry and Ernani Pinto

Toxins 2025, 17(7), 321; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17070321 - 24 Jun 2025

Abstract

Cyanobacterial blooms are becoming increasingly frequent and intense worldwide, often dominated by Microcystis aeruginosa, a species capable of producing a wide array of bioactive metabolites beyond microcystins. This study evaluates the ecotoxicological potential of a non-microcystin-producing strain, M. aeruginosa CCIBt3106, using acute immobilization assays with three microcrustacean species: Daphnia similis, Artemia salina, and Parhyale hawaiensis. Biomass was extracted using solvents of varying polarity, and selected extracts (aqueous and 50% methanol) were further fractionated and analyzed via high-resolution liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (HR-LC-MS/MS). Significant toxicity was observed in D. similis and P. hawaiensis, with EC₅₀ values ranging from 660 to 940 µg mL⁻¹. Metabolomic profiling revealed the presence of chemically diverse metabolite classes, including peptides, polyketides, and fatty acyls, with putative annotations linked to known bioactivities. These findings demonstrate that cyanobacterial strains lacking microcystins can still produce complex metabolite mixtures capable of inducing species-specific toxic effects under environmentally relevant exposure levels. Overall, the results highlight the need to expand ecotoxicological assessments and monitoring frameworks to include non-microcystin cyanobacterial metabolites and strains in water quality management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Unraveling the Environmental Threat of Harmful Algae Blooms (HABs): Causes and Impacts)

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12 pages, 222 KiB

Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Melaram et al. Microcystin Contamination and Toxicity: Implications for Agriculture and Public Health. Toxins 2022, 14, 350

by Rajesh Melaram, Amanda R. Newton and Jennifer Chafin

Toxins 2025, 17(7), 320; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17070320 - 24 Jun 2025

Abstract

The authors wish to make the following corrections to their paper [...] Full article

38 pages, 1456 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Comprehensive Review of Detection Methods for Staphylococcus aureus and Its Enterotoxins in Food: From Traditional to Emerging Technologies

by Assia Mairi, Nasir Adam Ibrahim, Takfarinas Idres and Abdelaziz Touati

Toxins 2025, 17(7), 319; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17070319 - 23 Jun 2025

Abstract

Staphylococcus aureus is a leading cause of foodborne intoxication globally, driven by its heat-stable enterotoxins (SEs), which pose significant public health risks. This review critically evaluates modern and traditional methodologies for detecting S. aureus and its enterotoxins in food matrices, emphasizing their principles, applications, and limitations. The review includes a dedicated section on sample preparation and pretreatment methods for diverse food substrates, addressing a critical gap in practical applications. Immunological techniques, including ELISA and lateral flow assays, offer rapid on-site screening but face matrix interference and variable sensitivity challenges. Molecular methods, such as PCR and isothermal amplification, provide high specificity and speed for bacterial and toxin gene detection but cannot confirm functional toxin production. Sequencing-based approaches (e.g., WGS and MLST) deliver unparalleled genetic resolution for outbreak tracing but require advanced infrastructure. Emerging biosensor technologies leverage nanomaterials and biorecognition elements for ultra-sensitive real-time detection, although scalability and matrix effects remain hurdles. Mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) ensures rapid species identification but depends on pre-isolated colonies. Traditional microbiological methods, while foundational, lack the precision and speed of molecular alternatives. The review underscores the necessity of context-driven method selection, balancing speed, sensitivity, and resource availability. Innovations in multiplexing, automation, AI-based methods, and integration of complementary techniques are highlighted as pivotal for advancing food safety surveillance. Standardized validation protocols and improved reporting of performance metrics are urgently needed to enhance cross-method comparability and reliability in outbreak settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Staphylococcus aureus Toxins：Presence and Detection in Human, Animals and Food)

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10 pages, 1267 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Oral Exposure to Chlorella sorokiniana Detoxifies Deoxynivalenol, Ochratoxin A, and Fumonisin B1 In Vitro and In Vivo

by Hiroki Yamaguchi, Mana Ando, Chiharu Ohira, Tensei Magami, Mao Kaneki, Kazutoshi Sugita, Taro Ogawa, Ayaka Nakashima and Tomoki Fukuyama

Toxins 2025, 17(7), 318; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17070318 - 23 Jun 2025

Abstract

Mycotoxins are synthesized by various fungal species and are known to exert toxic effects on vertebrates and other animals, even at low concentrations. However, the current countermeasure for mycotoxin contamination is random inspection of samples prior to shipment. In this study, we focused on Chlorella sorokiniana (CS) from Ishigaki Island, Japan, and examined its ability to detoxify deoxynivalenol (DON), ochratoxin A (OTA), and fumonisin B1 (FB1) in vitro and in vivo. The binding of CS to DON, OTA, and FB1 was evaluated in vitro. The detoxification of CS was demonstrated by monitoring its concentrations in the plasma and urine samples of male ICR mice. Plasma and urine samples were collected 30 min, 2 h, and 24 h after an oral administration of 5 mg/kg mycotoxins and/or 500 mg/kg CS. CS bound to more than 80% and 40% of DON and OTA, respectively, whereas the binding of CS to FB1 was less than 10%. The concentrations of DON and OTA in plasma and urine samples were substantially reduced by CS co-administration, whereas CS did not affect FB1 absorption. The co-administration of CS substantially inhibited the systemic absorption of DON and OTA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mycotoxins)

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20 pages, 2427 KiB

Open AccessReview

Procedural Pain Management in Patients with Cerebral Palsy Undergoing Botulinum Toxin Injection: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

by Silvia Faccioli, Alessandro Ehsani, Shaniko Kaleci, Giulia Tonini, Ilaria Tagliani, Mario Vetrano and Silvia Sassi

Toxins 2025, 17(7), 317; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17070317 - 22 Jun 2025

Abstract

Background: The aim of this systematic review is to investigate effectiveness and safety of sedation–analgesia techniques in controlling pain during botulinum injections in patients with cerebral palsy (CP). Methods: The Pubmed, Cinahl, and Scopus databases were searched. Inclusion criteria were as follows: cerebral palsy; any type of outcome measure regarding pain and side effects assessment; any type of studies; and English language. RoB2 and Robins-I were applied to assess the risk of bias. Tables and forest plots synthetized the findings. Results: Seventeen reports were included; most regarded pain control, and ten investigated side effects. Three were RCTs, three were controlled, and twelve were observational studies. Several techniques were used, often in combination, such as non-pharmacological approaches (clown care or virtual reality); topical anesthesia with Emla^®®, vapocoolant spray, or ice; and light-to-deep sedation with inhaled nitrous oxide, intranasal fentanyl, rectal, enteral, or intravenous midazolam, or intravenous ketamine or propofol. Vomiting and oxygen desaturation were uncommon complications. Conversely, the pooled incidence of other minor side effects was 6.39% (95% CI: 1.47–14.42%) under the random-effects model, with considerable heterogeneity. Conclusions: All the techniques are safe, if administered in an appropriate setting. Deep sedation is more effective in pain control but requires an anesthetist. A combined individualized approach is preferrable. PROSPERO CRD42025639999. Full article

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16 pages, 1025 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comprehensive Analysis of Mycotoxins in Green Coffee Food Supplements: Method Development, Occurrence, and Health Risk Assessment

by Laura Carbonell-Rozas, Octavian Augustin Mihalache, Renato Bruni and Chiara Dall’Asta

Toxins 2025, 17(7), 316; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17070316 - 21 Jun 2025

Abstract

This study investigates the presence of mycotoxins in green coffee-based dietary supplements to ensure their safety, given the potential risks of contamination and the growing interest in them among consumers. A sample treatment based on a salting-out assisted liquid–liquid extraction (SALLE) followed by one-step solid-phase extraction (SPE) was selected for the extraction and clean-up of 15 mycotoxins followed by ultra-high performance chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry detection (UHPLC-MS/MS). The target mycotoxins included aflatoxins (AFG1, AFG2, AFB1, AFB2), Alternaria toxins (AOH, AME, TEN), ochratoxin A (OTA), fumonisins (FB1, FB2), zearalenone (ZEN), trichothecenes (T-2, HT-2), enniatin B1 (ENNB1), and beauvericin (BEA). The proposed method was successfully characterized, obtaining high recoveries, a satisfactory precision, and low detection limits. Subsequently, the method was applied for the analysis of 16 commercial food supplements. The analysis revealed the presence of mycotoxins in all samples investigated with Fusarium mycotoxins as the most prevalent. The dietary exposure and risk characterization revealed a low level of risk, except for AFs where chronic exposure in adults may lead to potential health concerns. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Mycotoxin Determination: From Risk Assessment to Global Management Strategies)

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13 pages, 404 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Occurrence of Aflatoxin M₁ in Milk Consumed in Tirana, Albania, and Health Risk Assessment in Different Population Groups

by Andrin Tahiri, Josif Risto, Lorena Mato, Alma Cani and Dritan Topi

Toxins 2025, 17(7), 315; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17070315 - 21 Jun 2025

Abstract

This study evaluated the prevalence of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in milk marketed in Tirana, Albania, along with dietary exposure and associated potential health risks. The World Health Organization has categorized Albania in cluster G02 of GEMS/FOOD, highlighting that milk is a staple in the Albanian diet, which points to a possible health risk. A total of 141 milk samples, comprising both Ultra-High Temperature (UHT) and pasteurized types, were collected from local markets in Tirana and analyzed from March 2023 to February 2024. The determination of AFM1 levels was carried out using High-Pressure Liquid Chromatography with a Fluorescence Detector (HPLC-FLD), a precise and dependable technique for identifying and measuring aflatoxins in food products. Aflatoxin M1 was found in 62.4% of the milk samples, with 26.2% surpassing the European Union’s maximum residue levels (MRL). The mean AFM1 concentrations were 58.8 ± 95.8 ng/kg, reaching a maximum level of 399.0 ng/kg. The Estimated Daily Intake (EDI) for various groups—toddlers, children, adolescents, and adults—was determined to be 2.161, 1.297, 0.519, and 0.370 ng/kg of body weight per day, respectively. The Hazard Index (HI), derived from the AFM1 exposure for four population groups, was 10.81 (toddlers), 6.48 (children), 2.59 (adolescents), and 1.85 (adults). The Margin of Exposure (MoE) was 1.85, 3.08, 7.71, and 10.81, respectively. The incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) per 100,000 people in the four groups was 0.034, 0.021, 0.008, and 0.006, respectively. The study is the first comprehensive evaluation of AFM1 prevalence, highlighting the potential risks associated with milk consumption, as milk is a dietary staple in Albanian households. It addresses a critical public health concern regarding aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) contamination in milk consumed in Tirana, Albania, by highlighting the need for ongoing monitoring, regulatory measures, and educational outreach to enhance food safety and safeguard public health in Albania, as well as in other regions facing similar concerns. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mycotoxins)

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16 pages, 482 KiB

Open AccessReview

Uses of Botulinum Toxin in Headache and Facial Pain Disorders: An Update

by Pedro Augusto Sampaio Rocha-Filho, Moises Dominguez, Christopher L. Robinson and Sait Ashina

Toxins 2025, 17(7), 314; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17070314 - 21 Jun 2025

Abstract

Botulinum toxin is a neurotoxin that is used in the treatments for several medical conditions, such as dystonia, spasticity, hemifacial spasm, overactive bladder, and hyperhidrosis. This toxin can potentially treat several pain disorders through botulinum toxin’s ability to inhibit the release of pro-nociceptive neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft and its possible action on the central nervous system. This narrative review addresses the use of botulinum toxin in treating primary and secondary headaches and facial pain disorders. The highest level of evidence supporting its use varies among the headache and facial pain disorders: chronic migraine (multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled studies), trigeminal neuralgia (double-blind, placebo-controlled studies), post-traumatic headache (double-blind, placebo-controlled study), cluster headache (open-label clinical trials), nummular headache (open-label clinical trial), headache attributed to craniocervical dystonia (prospective cohort study), new daily persistent headache (retrospective cohort study), hemicrania continua, and SUNCT and SUNA (case reports). The site of toxin application and the doses used vary among the studies and depending on headache type. Botulinum toxin has been shown to be safe in different studies, with generally mild adverse reactions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Toxins)

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